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Hole
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A hole is an empty space in a solid object, which can be flat.
It can also mean other things:
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Spyware
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Spyware is a category of software for computers. Spyware is malware that collects some data, usually without the computer users' knowledge. Very often, this data is then sent over the internet to someone else. Very often, this is used for marketing. Spyware can also be used to steal data from computers. One kind is a keylogger which can see whatever you are typing. Keyloggers can steal important information like passwords that you type.
The best protection is to get a program that protects against spyware. However, many websites that claim to have them are actually spyware, not something to protect against it. This method of installing spyware is called a Trojan horse which looks like a normal program, but when it runs, it collects information to use against you. Spyware tracks your computer and uses some of the things on it. This includes your files, your downloads, and usernames/passwords for websites and programs. With this, the trojan operator can log into your accounts.
There are spyware applications that are designed to enable users to spy on themselves rather than others. This is called myware. The term myware has mainly been applied to software applications in three areas: social networking, marketing and time tracking.
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Vector space
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A vector space is a collection of mathematical objects called vectors, along with some operations you can do on them. Two operations are defined in a vector space: addition of two vectors and multiplication of a vector with a scalar. These operations can change the size of a vector and the direction it points to. The most important thing to understand is that after you do the addition or multiplication, the result is still in the vector space; you have not changed the vector in a way that makes it not a vector anymore. A vector space is often represented using symbols such as formula_1, formula_2 and formula_3.
More formally, a vector space is a special combination of a group and a field. The elements of the group are called vectors, and the elements of the field are called scalars. Vector spaces are important in an area of mathematics called linear algebra, an area which deals with linear functions (functions of straight lines, not curves).
A vector can be represented graphically with an arrow that has a tail and a head. To add two vectors, you place the end of one vector at the head of the other one (see figure). The sum is the vector that goes from the tail of the first vector to the head of the second.
"Scalar multiplication" means that one vector is made bigger or smaller (it is "scaled"). Scalars are just numbers: if you multiply a vector by 2, you make it twice as long. If you multiply it by 1/2, you make it half as long.
The "vectors" don't have to be vectors in the sense of things that have magnitude and direction. For example, they could be functions, matrices or simply numbers. If they obey the axioms of a vector space (a list of properties a vector space needs to satisfy), you can think of them as vectors and the theorems of linear algebra will still apply to them.
There are some combinations of vectors that are special. A minimum set of vectors that—through some combination of addition and multiplication—can reach any point in the vector space is called a basis (of that vector space). It is true that every vector space has a basis. It is also true that all bases of any one vector space have the same number of vectors in them. This is called the dimension theorem. We can then define the dimension of a vector space to be the size of its basis.
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Basis (linear algebra)
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In linear algebra, a basis is a set of vectors in a given vector space with certain properties:
The plural of basis is bases. For any vector space formula_1, any basis of formula_1 will have the same number of vectors. This number is called the dimension of formula_1.
Example.
formula_4 is a basis of formula_5 as a vector space over formula_6.
Any element of formula_5 can be written as a linear combination of the above basis. Let formula_8 be any element of formula_5 and let formula_10. Since formula_11 and formula_12 are elements of formula_6, then we can write formula_14. So formula_8 can be written as a linear combination of the elements in formula_16.
Also, this process would not be possible for any vector formula_8 if an element was removed from formula_16. So formula_16 is a basis for formula_5.
The basis formula_16 is not unique; there are infinitely many bases for formula_5. Another example of a basis would be formula_23.
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Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war (short form: POW) is a non-combatant who has been captured or surrendered by the forces of the enemy, during an armed conflict. In past centuries, prisoners had no rights. They were usually killed or forced to be slaves. Nowadays prisoners of war have rights that are stated in the Geneva Conventions and other laws of war.
Rights.
The Third Geneva Convention gives prisoners of war many different rights. Here are some examples:
If they are very sick or hurt, prisoners of war have the right to be let go. After a war ends, all prisoners must be let go quickly.
Prisoners of war also have the right NOT to:
Not every prisoner gets these rights.
Not all people who are caught while fighting wars are "prisoners of war." The Third Geneva Convention has a strict definition of what a prisoner of war is. For example, it says that to be "prisoners of war," soldiers must:
According to the Geneva Conventions, if soldiers do not meet these requirements, they are not "prisoners of war." They are "unlawful combatants" (which means "people who fight in ways that are against the law). This means they do NOT have the rights that are listed in the Geneva Conventions.
This caused controversy in the early 21st century. For example, in June 2002, the United States was fighting the War in Afghanistan. The Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld, announced that the people the U.S. had captured were "unlawful combatants [who] do not have any rights under the Geneva Convention[s]." The U.S. said these people were unlawful combatants, not prisoners of war, because:
The U.S. brought some of these people to a prison in Guantánamo Bay. Because they were enemy combatants, the inmates at Guantánamo did not get the rights that the Geneva Conventions give to prisoners of war.
War crimes against prisoners of war.
When a country, or a group of people, does not give prisoners of war their rights, they are committing a war crime. However, punishing those war crimes has not always been easy.
Punishing crimes.
The Geneva Convention lists the rights that prisoners of war have. However, there is nothing in the Geneva Convention that says how people should be punished when they do not give prisoners of war these rights.
In the past, when a country broke the Geneva Convention by not giving prisoners of war their rights, many different things might happen. For example, after World War II ended, the countries that won the war set up military tribunals called the Nuremberg Trials and the Tokyo Trials. At these trials, military leaders from Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan were tried for crimes against prisoners of war (and many other things). Many of them were convicted and sentenced to death or to life in prison.
However, at other times, crimes against prisoners of war might be tried in the same country where the crimes happened. This might happen before or after the war ended. Sometimes crimes against prisoners of war were not punished at all.
The International Criminal Court.
In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was created to look into war crimes around the world, and punish people for them, if possible.
The ICC has a long list of crimes that are defined as war crimes. Some war crimes against prisoners of war are:
If a country, or a group of people, commit a war crime against prisoners of war, the ICC can put them on trial and punish them if they are found guilty.
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Jackson's chameleon
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Jackson's chameleon ("Trioceros jacksonii"), also known as the horned chameleon, Jackson's horned chameleon, or Kikuyu three-horned chameleon, is a species of chameleon found in the forests of Kenya and Tanzania. They have been introduced to the United States and Hawaii.
Characteristics.
Males.
Males are easily recognized, they have two horns above their eyes and one horn on their nose. If males are kept together in a cage, they get stressed, and eventually die.
Females.
Females do not have horns, or if they do they are very small. Their biggest size is 15 inches. This species gives birth to live young with a gestation period of about 5-10 months.
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Resuscitation
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Resuscitation is a thing to do in a medical emergency. It is first aid which is given to a person who is unconscious, and where breathing or pulse can not be detected. It is done to make oxygen continue to reach the heart and the brain. That way, a doctor may be able to restart the heart, possibly without damaging the brain.
The most common cause for a stopping heart is a heart attack.
What to do.
The person helping must:
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Aubergine
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The aubergine (also called eggplant or brinjal) is a plant. It is actually a fruit, but it is used like a vegetable. The plant is in the nightshade family of plants. It is related to the potato and tomato. Originally, it comes from India and Sri Lanka. The Latin/French term aubergine comes from the historical city of Vergina (Βεργίνα) in Greece. The aubergine eggplant is estimated to have been brought to Greece around 325 BC after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. Discovering this new vegetable during his conquest, Alexander the Great wanted to bring it back to his country on his return. After his death, members of his army brought aubergine seeds with them to Greece and specifically to the city of Vergina (Βεργίνα). The Latin/French term aubergine (au·ber·gine) (\ˈō-bər-ˌzhēn\) is estimated around 1505 AD and is coined to Franco-Catalan gastronomist Sergius Rosario Silvestri, co-traveller and close friend to Amerigo Vespucci. Upon arrival to the historical site of Vergina (Βεργινα) and wanting to try the local delicacies, Silvestri came across the plant of aubergine. Not knowing its name, he referred to it as aubergine (au Bergine or au Vergine) which in French means "at Vergina" or "found at Vergina".
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Eggplant
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Coral Sea Islands
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The Coral Sea Islands (or Coral Sea Islands Territory) is a group of islands on the Great Barrier Reef, in the country of Australia. Some islands have automatic weather stations or lighthouses on them. Willis Island is the only island where people live; four people there run a weather station. They are in the Coral Sea, northeast of Queensland.
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Coral Sea Islands Territory
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Unconscious
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Pernambuco
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Pernambuco is a state of Brazil. The capital city of the state is Recife. About 8 million people live in Pernambuco with 1.5 million of those living in Recife. The economy is largely based on agriculture, its main exports are sugar cane and manioc. It has a mainly tropical climate.
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Manioc
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Manioc (or Cassava, or Yuca, especially in Latin America) is a shrub. It belongs to the Spurge family of plants and it grows in tropical climates. It is cultivated for its edible root. The manioc must be cooked properly to detoxify it before it is eaten as it contains cyanide, and can be used in dumplings, soups, stews and gravies.
Manioc is a plant grown for its big white root. The root is an important food source for people in many tropical countries. Such countries are like Africa, South America and Asia. It is a tall, shrubby plant that grows to about 4-6 meters tall. It has large green leaves. The root of the plant is long and white. It is usually about 15 centimeters wide.
The root of the manioc plant is rich in carbohydrates. It also contains other important nutrients, such as vitamin C and iron. 100 grams of manioc root contains around 130 calories, 30 grams of carbohydrates, 2 grams of fiber, 1.6 gram of protein, and negligible amount of fat.
To eat the root, it must be cleaned, peeled, and sometimes grated. It can be cooked in different ways, like fry, boil, or bake. It is used to make different foods like cakes, bread, and fufu.
Manioc is also used to make flour and other food products. The flour is gluten-free. The it can be used for baking and making different dishes. It is commonly used to thicken sauces and soups. Tapioca the popular ingredient in many dishes also made with manioc.
People eat leaves of manioc as a vegetable. People also used the young shoots in salads or cooked as a green.
However, it is important to note that it contains a toxic chemical called linamarin. It needs to be removed before eating. This is done by grating, soaking and cooking the root. If it's not done well, it can make sick.
In some places, people make a drink from the root called "cassava beer". Also, it is used as food for animals, and its leaves as forage.
Manioc can be grown with little care and few things, making it a good crop for small farmers. It can also be grown on the same land for a few years in a row.
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Cassava
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Yuca
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Life cycle
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Life cycle means the stages a living thing goes through during its life.
In some cases the process is slow, and the changes are gradual. Humans have various stages of growth during their lives, such as zygote, embryo, child and adult. The change from a child to an adult is slow and continuous. In many societies it is marked by ceremonies at puberty.
In most insects the transition is sharp and well-defined: egg > larva > pupa > imago (adult).
Different generations have different forms.
In some animals, the parent generation looks different from the child. The most common case is that there are two different forms. One form will have sexual reproduction, the others might not reproduce, or might reproduce asexually.
Some plants and a few other organisms have a system called "alternation of generations" which is not quite the same because one form is haploid and the other is dipoid.
Parasites.
Parasites are organisms that benefit from harming other organisms. The organism they profit from is usually called host. Many parasites have complex life cycles, where they need different hosts for different stages of their development. As an example, the cycle egg > snail host > mammal host is common for parasites of herbivorous mammals. Malaria is caused by single-celled parasites. These parasites go through two stages in their development. One stage is in the blood of mosquitoes, the other in the blood of humans.
Cnidaria.
Examples of this can also be found in the Cnidaria. These animals live in the sea or in freshwater and the structure of most is relatively simple. Some live as single animals, others form colonies. In a colony, many animals live together. Often, each animal in a colony is specialized, and needs the other animals of the colony to survive.
Complete cycle.
A well-known example where different generations have different forms is the jellyfish. It has two:
In a complete cycle, the offspring of a medusa will develop into a polyp, and the offspring of a polyp will be a medusa.
Incomplete cycle and variations.
Sometimes the cycle is modified or incomplete. Anthozoa is a group of the Cnidaria which contains sea anemones and corals. In the anthozoa, there is only a polyp stage, and no medusa stage.
The box jellyfish form another small group in the Cnidaria. In the box jellyfish, the polyp transforms into the medusa. In some cases, only part of the polyp transforms, the part that is left regenerates to form a new polyp. People have also talked about the box jellyfish because many of them produce poison that is very effective, and that can be dangerous to humans.
In the stalked jellyfish, there is only one form, which has been interpreted as a sessile medusa.
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Yucca
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Yucca is a family of shrubs and trees, related to the agaves. There are between 40 and 50 different kinds of Yucca. All come from the hot and dry places in North and Central America, as well as the Caribbean.
They have a very special way of pollination. There is an animal, the Yucca moth, which does the pollination. It also lays its eggs in the plant. The larvae will eat some of the seeds, but not all of them.
In many parts of the world, yuccas are grown as ornamental flowers.
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Pepperoncini
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Herb
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Herbs are plants that are grown either as a food (usually as a condiment), or because they have some use in treating diseases (or making them better), or for spiritual reasons (for example, their smell). Some herbs may act as an aphrodisiac.
The word herb comes from the Latin word "herba", meaning grass, green stalks, or blades. Botanists use the word to mean any plant with soft, succulent tissues. But many people use the word to mean only herbs with some economic value.
Herbs are small plants that have a fleshy or juicy stem when they are young. The stems of some herbs develop hard, woody tissue when they grow old.
Most herbs are perennials. This means that the top of each plant die each growing season, but the roots remain alive and produce new plants year after year.
Some herbs are annuals. They live for only one growing season and must be raised from seed each year.
Uses.
The leaves, stems, or seeds of herbs can be used fresh, or they can be dried for later use. Dried herbs can be pounded to a fine powder, placed in airtight containers, and then stored.
Some herbs are used in cooking to flavor foods. Others give scents to perfumes. Still others are used for medicines. Some herbs, such as balm and sage, are valued for their leaves. Saffron is picked for its buds and flowers. Fennel seeds are valuable in relishes and seasoning. Vanilla fruit pods yield vanilla flavoring. Ginseng is valued for its aromatic roots.
Growing herbs.
People often grow herbs in their gardens. Some people grow herb gardens for the patterned beds that they can create with these plants. Many other gardeners grow herbs for the flavor that the fresh or dried plants add to food.
Herb seeds and seedlings are inexpensive, and the plants grow easily. People who do not have enough outdoor space for herb beds can grow most kinds of herbs in containers.
Many kinds of herbs can also be grown indoors. The plants grow well with little care. Gardeners plant herbs in good soil that has been well-cultivated. They choose a sunny spot near a window.
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Herbs
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Podcasting
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Podcasting is a way to share information as digital audio files. People often subscribe, download, and share podcasts using a computer and listen to them on an MP3 player.
Many podcasts are similar to broadcast radio news or discussion programs. Some use other formats such as a continuing story, comedy show, lecture, or audiobook.
As of 7 August 2022, there are at least 2,864,367 podcasts and 135,736,875 episodes.
Podcasts can be produced by individuals, organizations, or companies, covering a wide range of topics from entertainment to education and news.
Different types.
Podcasts can be found for almost any topic. Radio programs, do-it-yourself projects, special interest groups, religious sermons, comedy sketches, cartoons, and just about anything else can be found. A podcast can be found using a podcast search engine. Once a podcast is found, it can be subscribed to, like a magazine or newspaper, and streamed or downloaded. Podcasting services are used to stream or download podcasts and listen to them.
Podcasting has become so popular that many people who write for magazines or report news on television have also been putting out their own podcasts. Anyone can start a podcast and share their knowledge with the world with the help of different platforms that are currently available online.
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Alexander Fleming
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Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. His father Hugh, died at 59 when Alexander was only seven. He is best known for discovering the antibiotic substance penicillin in 1928. He shared Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 for this discovery with Howard Walter Florey and Ernst Boris Chain. His accidental finding of penicillin in the year 1928 marked the start of today's antibiotics.
Fleming was a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War I. He saw many soldiers die of infection after being wounded, and after the war did research in bacteriology. After accidentally finding penicillin he studied ways to use it.
Fleming died of a heart attack in London. He was buried in St. Paul's cathedral.
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Litter box
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A litter box (sometimes called a sand box, a litter tray or a litter pan) is a place for cats and some other pets to use as a toilet. Litter boxes usually need to be cleaned regularly. Cats, for example, wish to have their box cleaned every two to three days. Some cats create litterboxes in places like playgrounds and sandpits. Litterboxes usually produce bad smells, which can be avoided by special litter. Many people buy a special kind of clay to fill the box, for this reason.
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Playground
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A playground is an area used by children to play in. They usually have equipment such as slides, swings and seesaws for children to play on. They are usually outside, but sometimes they are in a building. Having a playground can enhance your macadam surface and improve your kid’s time in the playground.
The equipment may be made of metal, wood or plastic. The ground beneath the equipment will not be hard in case a child falls. It may be a rubber floor, or there may be woodchips or sand.
Playgrounds give children a place for physical exercise. This helps them get and keep physical fitness and be strong and healthy. Daily exercise reduces the risks of obesity.
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Woodstock Festival
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The Woodstock Music and Art Festival was a rock music festival at 's 600 acre (2.4 km²) dairy farm in the town of Bethel, New York from 15 to 18 August 1969. It might be the most famous rock concert and festival ever held. For many, it showed the counterculture of the 1960s and the "hippie era".
Many of the most famous musicians at the time showed up during the rainy weekend, as can be seen in a 1970 movie, "Woodstock". Joni Mitchell's song "Woodstock", about the event, also became a major hit song for Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. In recent years, a number of attempts were made to recreate it, but the original Woodstock festival of 1969 has proven to be legendary.
The festival was called "Woodstock", because the investment group that backed the concert was called "Woodstock Ventures." It was originally planned for Saugerties, and then the Town of Wallkill, in Orange County (not to be confused with the Hamlet of Wallkill, in Ulster county). People in the Town of Wallkill, meaning those on the Town Board, quickly passed a law that required a permit to hold any gathering for over 5,000 people. A permit was applied for, but it was denied because the portable toilets proposed were considered to be inadequate. A Sullivan County farmer named Max Yasgur heard about the festival and the problems and offered his farm in the Town of Bethel. He was paid $10,000 for the three days.
Although all the municipalities were told there would be no more than 50,000, the organizers thought they would get as many as 150,000, and by best counts, there were more than three times that number over the three days. Most did not pay to get in, and the festival lost money as a result. The roads to the concert were jammed with traffic. People left their cars and walked for miles to get to the concert area. The weekend was rainy and overcrowded, and fans shared food, alcoholic drinks, and drugs. Some people who lived there, including those at nearby Camp Ma-Ho-Ge, gave blankets and food to some concert-goers.
After two days of rain, there was deep mud in many places. There was almost no water for washing, and not enough toilets. Many of the concert-goers had brought small tents to sleep in; some of these turned into piles of cloth and mud. Even though this may not have been the most comfortable place, the crowd kept up kindness and good cheer among themselves. As the half-million people in the audience became aware of this, a warm feeling of friendship spread to everyone.
Some of the music stars of Woodstock were The Who and Jimi Hendrix. Because of arguments about getting paid, The Who did not play on the stage until about 4:00 in the morning. One part of The Who's show was the song "See Me, Feel Me", when the sun rose just as lead singer Roger Daltrey started to sing the chorus. When The Who was still playing, Abbie Hoffman jumped on the stage stopping the show, and tried to stir up the crowd with political slogans, but he was knocked off the stage by the guitar of the band's leader, Pete Townshend, to the delight of the audience. At the end of The Who's set, Townshend slammed his guitar into the stage and threw it into the crowd. This helped set up The Who as super-stars, and caused their album "Tommy" to sell multi-platinum.
Jimi Hendrix had a big show with the songs he played, including a new version of "The Star Spangled Banner". The song caused some disagreements, because the Vietnam War was going on, and the sounds that Hendrix made with his guitar were like the sounds of the violence of the war. Fans remember these two acts as some of the greatest in rock history, although both The Who and Hendrix thought of their performances as not the best.
Woodstock was put on by Michael Lang, Artie Kornfeld, John Roberts and Joel Rosenman. Roberts was the financer, backed by a trust fund; his friend Rosenman, a graduate of Yale Law, was an amateur guitarist. Their friends were Kornfeld, vice-president at Capitol Records, and Michael Lang. Lang was a light-hearted hippie who had owned a head shop, and hoped to build a studio in the Woodstock area to serve singers such as Bob Dylan and Janis Joplin, who had homes nearby. When Lang and Kornfeld told the idea to Rosenman and Roberts, Rosenman got the idea of a rock concert with the same musicians. They picked the slogan "Three Days of Peace and Music". They hired artist Arnold Skolnick to design the artwork for the poster with the bird. It wasn't until years later, after the release of the 3-LP album and the documentary-like movie that the original investors began to recoup their investment.
In 1997, the concert place and 1,400 surrounding acres were bought by Alan Gerry, and have become the Bethel Woods Center for the Arts. It opened on July 1, 2006 with the New York Philharmonic playing. On August 13, 2006, Crosby Stills Nash & Young amazed 16,000 fans at the new Center—exactly 37 years after they played at Woodstock.
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Phishing
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Phishing is a way that people get sensitive information such as usernames or passwords. It is a method of social engineering. Very often, phishing is done by electronic mail. This mail looks as if it comes from a bank or other trusted company. It usually says that because of some change in the system, the users need to re-enter their usernames/passwords to confirm their identity. The emails usually have a link to a page that looks like that of the real bank.
Phishing allows criminals to get access to bank accounts or other accounts. Types of accounts that are often accessed include shopping, auction or gaming accounts. It can also be used for identity theft.
Most forms of phishing have not had much change over the lifetime of the Internet. During this time, some phishing tactics have gotten much more sophisticated. For example, many phishing techniques via e-mail involve spoofing the email address and creating emails that look just like emails sent from the real company. Not all phishing attempts do this, however.
Phishing can also be done over text using instant messaging apps such as Facebook Messenger or WhatsApp. It can even be done using snail mail. If someone gets a text from an unknown number that tells them to visit a specific website for any reason, it might be a phishing link.
Filter evasion.
Some people who do this started using images of text to make it harder for anti-phishing filters to see it. This can work because the filters look for words often used in phishing emails/messages. However, better filters have been invented that can still read the text using OCR (optical character recognition).
Some anti-phishing filters can even read cursive, hand-written, upside-down, distorted (for example, wavy or stretched) text, as well as writing on colored backgrounds.
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Edward Heath
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Sir Edward Richard George Heath (9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005), often known as Ted Heath, was a British Conservative politician. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1970 until 1974. Heath was also the leader of the Conservative Party from 1965 until 1975.
Heath was educated at Balliol College, Oxford.
In 1937, as a student when he was travelling in Nuremberg, Heath met three of Adolf Hitler's top Nazi leaders Hermann Goering, Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler. He described Himmler as the most evil man he had ever met. Heath also travelled to Barcelona in Spain in 1938 at the time of the Spanish Civil War. In 1939, Heath went again to Germany, and returned to Britain before the outbreak of World War II.
Heath was a lifelong bachelor. He never married. His sexual orientation was a matter of dispute during his lifetime, and since. There were rumours that he was gay. Heath never spoke about his sexuality.
He was also a classical organist and conductor and a sailor.
In August 2015, ten years after his death, it was claimed that five police forces were investigating Heath about allegations of child sexual abuse. Writing in "The Independent", Heath's biographer John Campbell said: "If he had any inclinations that way he would have repressed them; he was too self-controlled and self-contained to do anything that would have risked his career".
Early life.
Edward Heath was from a working class family, the son of a carpenter and a maid. He was the first of two important post-World War II prime ministers to come from the lower ranks of society (the other being Margaret Thatcher). Heath went to a grammar school in Ramsgate, and won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. Heath was a talented musician, and won the college's organ scholarship in his first term. This enabled him to stay at the university for a fourth year. He eventually graduated with in philosophy, politics and economics (PPE) in 1939.
Heath served in the army in WWII, starting as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. In 1944 he took part in the Normandy Landings. Heath was eventually demobilised (left the army) as a lieutenant-colonel in 1947.
After a spell in the Civil Service, Heath won a seat as Member of Parliament (MP) for Bexley in the February 1950 general election.
Political career.
Heath's early appointments were as a whip in the Conservative Party in the House of Commons. He rose to be Chief Whip and Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury from 1955 to 1959. Harold Macmillan appointed him Minister of Labour, a Cabinet post, in 1959.
In 1960 Macmillan gave Heath responsibility for negotiating the UK's first attempt to join the European Economic Community (as the European Union was then called). After extensive negotiations, the British entry was vetoed by the French President, Charles de Gaulle.
From 1965 to 1970 Heath was Leader of the Opposition when the Labour Party were in power. Then he was elected Prime Minister in the General Election of 1970.
During his premiership the UK government passed through parliament some quite radical changes.
Currency and metrication.
Since Anglo-Saxon times, the currency of England (and so later the UK) was based on the pound sterling, at a rate of 240 pence to £1. On 15 February 1971, known as Decimal Day, the United Kingdom and Ireland decimalised their currencies.
This change had many consequences, but it was eventually accepted by most people. It was an expensive change. Not only was the whole of the currency in circulation changed, but many mechanical gadgets also had to be changed. Every cash register in the country, every commercial machine which took coins, every public notices of monetary charges, and so on.
The other change, which happened at roughly the same time, was metrication of the old imperial system of weights and measures. This idea dated to before Heath, and was continued after him by the next Labour government. It was never fully completed. Speed limits are still in miles per hour, and measurements of length are still in traditional yards, feet and inches, with metric as an alternative. Once again, the changes were hugely expensive. It meant an almost complete retooling in the machine tool industry.
It was mainly done because joining the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973 obliged the United Kingdom to take into its law all EEC directives. These included the use of a prescribed SI-based set of units for many purposes within five years. However, metric measures are not much used in everyday life in the UK.
Joining Europe.
Heath took the United Kingdom into Europe with the European Communities Act 1972 in October.
Once de Gaulle had left office, Heath was determined to get the UK into the (then) European Economic Community. The EEC economy had also slowed down and British membership was seen as a way to revitalise it. After a 12-hour talk between Heath and French President Georges Pompidou Britain's third application succeeded.
End of his premiership.
Heath failed to control the power of the unions. Two miners' strikes damaged the economy. The 1974 strike caused much of the country's industry to work a three-day week to conserve energy. That was enough for the electorate to put the government out of office. The loss of the 1974 general election ended Heath's career at the top. The Conservative Party replaced him with Margaret Thatcher.
Other interests.
Heath never married. He had been expected to marry childhood friend Kay Raven, who reportedly tired of waiting and married an RAF officer whom she met on holiday in 1950. In a four-sentence paragraph of his memoirs, Heath claimed that he had been too busy establishing a career after the war and had "perhaps ... taken too much for granted". In a 1998 TV interview with Michael Cockerell, Heath admitted that he had kept her photograph in his flat for many years afterwards.
His interest in music kept him on friendly terms with a number of female musicians including Moura Lympany. Lympany had thought Heath would marry her, but when asked about the most intimate thing he had done, replied, "He put his arm around my shoulder." Bernard Levin wrote at the time in "The Observer", forgetting two other prime ministers who were bachelors with no known romantic interests, that the UK had to wait until the emergence of the permissive society for a prime minister who was a virgin. In later life, according to his official biographer Philip Ziegler, Heath was "apt to relapse into morose silence or completely ignore the woman next to him and talk across her to the nearest man".
John Campbell, who published a biography of Heath in 1993, devoted four pages to a discussion of the evidence concerning Heath's sexuality. Whilst acknowledging that Heath was often assumed by the public to be gay, not least because it is "nowadays ... whispered of any bachelor" he found "no positive evidence" that this was so "except for the faintest unsubstantiated rumour". Campbell concluded that the most significant aspect of Heath's sexuality was his complete repression of it.
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Litter trays
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One Magic Christmas
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One Magic Christmas is a 1985 Christmas movie released by Walt Disney Pictures, starring Harry Dean Stanton and Mary Steenburgen. The other cast is Gany Basaraba, Elisabeth Harnois, Arthur Hill, Wayne Robson, Elias Koteas, Michelle Meyrink, Sarah Polley.
The genre of this movie is family, drama, fantasy movie. The director is Phillip Borsos.
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Wojtyła
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Ugly Duckling
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41882
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10495
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41882
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HBP
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41883
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1498485
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41883
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Kidney failure
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Kidney failure (also called renal failure) is a term used to describe when a person's kidneys stop working (functioning) properly, or fail. Kidney failure can be divided into two categories: chronic renal failure, and acute renal failure.
Chronic renal failure.
Chronic renal failure develops slowly, and there are not many noticeable symptoms at first. Chronic kidney disease causes tropinin levels (tropinin T only, in chronic kidney disease) to rise and elevation is less marked.
Chronic renal failure can be a sign of other diseases, like IgA nephritis, glomerulonephritis, chronic pyelonephritis, and urinary retention.
Chronic renal failure will eventually develop into end-stage renal failure if it is left untreated. End-stage renal failure can only be treated with dialysis or a kidney transplant.
Acute renal failure.
Acute renal failure develops in a short time, and symptoms are more noticeable. Signs and symptoms include:
The cause of acute renal failure needs to be found quickly. Dialysis is often needed to prevent permanent damage to the body while the cause is being found.
Acute-on-chronic renal failure.
It is possible to have acute renal failure on top of chronic renal failure. This is called "acute-on-chronic renal failure."
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Renal failure
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Foxtrot (disambiguation)
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Foxtrot has several meanings.
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Raoult's law
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Raoult's law states that the vapour pressure of a binary solution containing a non-volatile solute is directly related to the mole fraction of solvent (i.e. volatile) in the solution.
Also, it states that the vapour pressure of each component in a binary solution containing volatile components is directly related to its respective mole fraction in the solution.
Relative going-down of vapour pressure is equal to mole fraction of non volatile and non-electrolytic solute. This is known as Raoult's law.
P-P(INITIAL)/P(INITIAL)=n(SOLUTE)/n(SOLVENT)
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Syonan-to
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Nippon-go
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E2
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41900
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1633172
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41900
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Overdose
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An overdose is when someone takes too much of a certain drug. This may be done voluntarily (as an attempt of suicide) or involuntarily (accidentally). The drug may be a drug taken to treat some medical condition, or it may be a drug taken for recreation. Overdoses are considered to be poisoning, usually. They may lead to death, depending on the drug used.
What to do with people who had an overdose.
If someone is thought to have had an overdose it is important to get them to a doctor, or hospital. It can be very hard to see what kind of drug was taken. Therefore, it can be hard for the doctor to find an antidote to give. For this reason, a packet (even if it is empty) of the drug should be taken.
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1541887
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Kargil War
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The Kargil War also known as the Kargil conflict, was a war fought between Indian armed forces and Pakistan Army in 1999. Pakistani regiments involved in the Kargil War were Northern Light Infantry, Sind regiment, Azad Kashmir regiment, Baloch Regiment, Gilgit Scouts, Chitral Scouts, Bajaur Scouts, troops from Special Service Group, Regiment of Artillery. The Pakistan Army also used artillery support from Pakistan Occupied Kashmir.
Beginning.
It took place between May and July 1999 in the Kargil district of Kashmir and along the Line of Control, starting on 3rd of may 1999. The cause of the war was a series of events that worsened the already existing Indo-Pakistani relations. India had violated agreements concerning the Kashmir conflict before. In Jammu and Kashmir, the Line of Control resulting from the cease-fire of December 17, 1971, shall be respected by both sides without prejudice to the recognized position of either side. Both sides refrain from the threat of use of force in violation of this Line."" India's move into Siachen in 1984 was a flagrant violation of this agreement. It had breached the agreement of LOC by perpetuating aggression in Neelum Valley as well and finally in Kargil. To put a stop to India's actions, the Pakistan army went on, although without proper coordination with its government. Pakistan clearly did not win the war militarily as well as politically and diplomatically. However, confusions still remain to this day as to who won the war but based on military action alone it was a decisive victory for India as India successfully regained most of the intruded territory and was also successful in pushing back both Pakistani and Pakistani based militants back on the other side of LoC. Pakistani soldiers and Pakistan backed militants got into areas on the Indian side of the Line of Control to occupy military posts vacated in the winter. India responded by launching a military and diplomatic offensive to drive out the Pakistani forces. The Indian Army launched a number of patrols to the area to estimate the extent of the infiltration. The Indian Army recaptured majority of the positions on the Indian side of the LOC within two months of the conflict according to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian control while Pakistan lost all control over the Kargil area due to orders to withdraw from the Kargil area. Fearing large-scale increase in seriousness in the military conflict, the international community, led by the United States, increased diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to withdraw forces from remaining Indian territory." The Pakistani casualties in the war were around 400 while the Indian casualties during the conflict stood at more than 587 soldiers.""
End.
Pakistan lost the Kargil War. The conflict officially came to an end on July 26, with India regaining its earlier hold on Kargil.
The Kargil war is one of the most recent examples of high-altitude warfare in mountainous terrain.
Losses.
According to the neutral claims Pakistan suffered from 400 casualties and India suffered from 600 killed and 1,800 wounded as well as 2 aircraft destroyed and 1 helicopter.
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Estate
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Estate could mean:
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Shock (circulatory)
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A person is in shock when blood is not sufficient to bring oxygen to the brain. The shock is progressive and can be deadly if it is not quickly made well.
The normal first aid action is the "Trendelenburg position", the person is lying face upward, with legs lifted. The blood is forced to flow to the brain.
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680
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Hip Hop
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Hillel Sloavk
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David Lloyd George
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David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was the British Prime Minister during the last half of the First World War. He was Prime Minister for six years, between 1916 and 1922.
Early life.
Lloyd George was born in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, Lancashire, England to Welsh parents. His father, who died before he was two years old, was a teacher and a farmer. When Lloyd George was young, he lived with his mother and his brother. When he was 21, he became a lawyer and opened an office in the back of his brother's house.
Political career.
Lloyd George's law practice was a success. Shortly after opening it, Lloyd George became interested in politics. He began working with the Liberal Party. He was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) on 13 April 1890. Lloyd George would serve as an MP until 1945. In the House of Commons, Lloyd George worked to promote Welsh issues, fought against the Boer War and campaigned for education reform.
In 1905, Lloyd George was selected to become a cabinet minister. He served as President of the Board of Trade (1905–1908) and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908–1915). After the First World War started, he held the positions of Minister of Munitions (1915) and War Secretary (1916).
By the end of 1916, the war was going badly for the British. Lloyd George gathered together a coalition (a type of political team) of Liberal and Conservative MPs to form a new government. On 5 December 1916, Prime Minister Herbert Asquith resigned, and Lloyd George took his place. Lloyd George's government introduced conscription (forcing men to join the armed forces) and rationing (placing limits on the amount of goods that people can buy) by the end of the war.
After the war, Lloyd George represented Britain at the Paris Peace Conference and helped create the Irish Free State. By 1922, Lloyd George's coalition was breaking apart. In October 1922, the Conservative Party, led by Andrew Bonar Law, won the election. Lloyd George remained an MP, however, until 1945.
In 1945, he was given the titles Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor and Viscount Gwynedd. He was to take a seat in the House of Lords, but he died before he could do so.
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Big Ben
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Big Ben is the nickname of a bell that hangs in the clock tower at the northern end of the Houses of Parliament in Westminster, London, England. Officially, the tower itself is called Elizabeth Tower. It was previously known as just the Clock Tower, but was renamed in September 2012 as a tribute to the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. However, most people, including those that live in London, call the tower "Big Ben" because it is very large.
Designed by Edmund Beckett Denison, the clock took 13 years to build and it was completed in 1859. It has worked continuously since then except for a few months in 1976 when it broke down and had to be fixed.
Big Ben is one of England’s best-known landmarks. Some believe it got its name from Sir Benjamin Hall. The Elizabeth Tower which it is located in has become one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and is often in the establishing shot of films set in London.
In August 2017, repair work commenced on the clock, which was intended to take four years. However, Big Ben did not resume regular service until November 2022. For the safety of those doing the repair work, Big Ben no longer rang out every hour during construction. It was still heard on special occasions, such as the New Year and Remembrance Day.
Description.
The Elizabeth Tower is over high and the turret clock mechanism that drives the clock alone weighs about 5 tons (5.08 tonnes). The clock on it has four faces that are in diameter, making it one of the largest in the world for a clock that chimes and strikes every hour. The figures on the clock face are about long and the minute spaces are long. There are, however, clocks with much bigger faces that Big Ben. One of these is the Abraj Al Bait, a hotel in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Its faces are more than ten times bigger than Big Ben.
The bell known as Big Ben weighs 13 tons and is the biggest of the five bells in the Elizabeth Tower. Big Ben only sounds at the top of every hour, and at that time it rings once for every hour (for example, it rings three times at 3 o'clock). The other four bells in the tower are smaller and play a short melody every 15 minutes. This melody, which is broadcasted live on BBC Radio 4 at 6 pm and midnight every day, can be heard in many other clocks around the world and is called the Westminster Chimes.
The bells are struck by hammers that are connected to the clock mechanism, which is powered by large weights that are wound three times a week. It does not use any electricity except for winding and to light the faces so that the clock could be seen when it is dark.
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Strontium
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Strontium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Sr. It has the atomic number 38. It is a metal. The color of the metal is silver-white or yellow-silver. The metal is soft, and highly reactive chemically.
In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkaline earth metals. Strontium has a high chemical reactivity. The metal turns yellow when exposed to air. Strontium has properties similar to those of its two vertical neighbors in the periodic table, calcium and barium.
It is found naturally in the minerals celestite and strontianite. The 90Sr isotope is present in radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28.9 years.
Strontium forms salts which make a red flame when they burn. They are used in flares for signalling the position of survivors or shipwrecks and to make the red color in fireworks.
It is named after the village of Strontian, Scotland.
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Alkaline earth metal
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The alkaline earth metals are the second group of metals on the periodic table. They are related to the Alkali metals, but they do not react as much because they need more energy to remove their two electrons, so they do not have to be stored in petrol.As ions they have a charge of +2a. The alkaline earth metals are mostly silver colored, soft metals, which react readily with "halogens" and water to form salts, though not as rapidly as some of the alkali metals, to form" alkaline hydroxides". Many "prokatates and hantates" can be found in the crust of these metals
The alkaline earth metals are: Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), and radium (Ra).
Beryllium is very brittle metal that is used in gemstones.
Magnesium is used in making steel alloys.
Calcium can be used in dairy products like milk.
Strontium is used for making glass for TVs and to make fireworks red.
Barium is used in fireworks to turn them green.
Radium is a very radioactive metal used in glowing watches.
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41934
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314522
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41934
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Dag Hammarskjöld
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Dag Hammarskjold (Swedish: Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjöld) (29 July 1905 – 18 September 1961) was a Swedish diplomat and the second Secretary-General of the United Nations. He served as Secretary-General from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in what is now Zambia, on 18 September 1961. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize after his death in 1961.
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My Belarusy
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"My Biełarusy" (, meaning "We Belarusians") is the national anthem of Belarus. The song's music, which was composed by Nieścier Sakałowski, is the same as that of the anthem used when the country was part of the former Soviet Union. The words of the song were written by Michaś Klimković and Uładzimir Karyzna. This song became the country's national anthem in 2002.
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41942
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Yorkshire pudding
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Yorkshire pudding is a British food, a baked pudding made from a batter of eggs, flour, and milk or water. It is usually served with roast meat and vegetables.
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41947
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4172
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Extraterrestrial life
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Extraterrestrial life is life that is not from the planet Earth. It is also called alien life or just extraterrestrials or aliens. The word Terra in Latin refers to our planet - Earth. Thus, extraterrestrial life refers to the life forms not originating on or from the planet Earth.
It is reasonable to say that planets rather like ours exist, and that life might evolve there also. So far, none has been found, though it is possible that life once existed on Mars. It is not a new idea. Some philosophers have speculated on the existence of other planets like ours, with the idea that what happened here could also happen there. One thing we do know is that many other star systems have exoplanets.
Searches like SETI have been made for signals from extraterrestrial life-forms. No clear signals from outer space have been detected yet.
In fiction.
Alien life is commonly seen in Science fiction and some Fantasy. Aliens in fiction are frequently shown as looking a lot like humans, but some authors have created much stranger aliens. H.P. Lovecraft, Kurt Vonnegut, and H.G. Wells all wrote about aliens that look very different than humans.
In religion.
Some religions believe in aliens and may treat them like divine beings in other religions. Examples are Raëlism, Scientology and the Heaven's Gate cult, who killed themselves because they thought it would allow their souls to go to an alien spaceship.
In pseudoscience.
Some people think that UFOs are alien spacecraft, or claim to have seen alien life on Earth. They may even claim they were kidnapped by aliens, who are often said to have big black eyes and grey skin. There is no good evidence for these claims and most scientists consider them Pseudoscience or Urban legends.
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Extraterrestrial being
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Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry
|
Christian Apologetics Research Ministry (CARM) is a religious organization that was created in 1995 by Matt Slick. It is an internet apologetics ministry. It writes things against what he considers cults. On the CARM website there is a chat room and internet forum. This lets people to talk to other people about things related to CARM and its teachings. On the CARM website there is a theology and apologetics school that is online. There is a cost to join the school. Matt Slick also has the website The Calvinist Corner.
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41953
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CARM
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41956
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1665638
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Loo
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41958
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41958
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Gothic
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41960
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3317
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41960
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Etcetra
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41961
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9557869
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41961
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Companies
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41971
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40158
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Autistic
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41974
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3317
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Mum
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41981
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966595
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41981
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American University of Beirut
|
The American University of Beirut (AUB; ) is the first American university to be built in Beirut, Lebanon. Its old name was the Syrian Protestant College, and it was built in the year 1866. The name was changed to American University of Beirut on November 18, 1920.
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41983
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70336
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41983
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Caliph
|
A caliph is a Muslim monarch who claims to be a successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the founder of the Muslim Arab rule in the 7th century. Their rule is called a caliphate. Some Caliphs were appointed by a Shura council.
Some of the early leaders of the Muslim community following Muhammad's (570–632) death called themselves "Khalifat Allah", meaning "representative of God". But the other title of "Khalifat rasul Allah", meaning the successor to the prophet of God, became the common title. Some academics write the term as "Khalīf".
Caliphs were often also called "Amīr al-Mu'minīn" (), "leader of the Muslims". This title has since been shortened to "emir". It is also found as a personal name in some countries.
After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was used by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, as well as by other dynasties in Southern Pakistan, Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves sultans or emirs, and the caliph himself often had very little real authority. The title was not used after the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman caliphate in 1924.
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42001
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8754683
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42001
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Bensheim
|
Bensheim is a city in Hesse, Germany. It is at the edge of the Odenwald and near to the river Rhine. It had 39,642 inhabitants in 2005 and is the biggest city of the Bergstraße district.
Industry.
Economically it is in an area where wine grapes are grown. Many small businesses in the areas such as electronics, software development or services can be found.
The city has also factories/offices of Sirona former known as Siemens, Tyco International, Akzo Nobel , Suzuki and SAP SI .
Bensheim-Auerbach - Fürstenlager State Park.
The ”Fürstenlager” near Bensheim-Auerbach are simple buildings built like a village around the Good Well in the middle of a landscaped park. Its owners sought the peace of a rural idyll far removed from the court.
Neighbouring communities and areas.
To the West, Bensheim borders Lorsch and Einhausen; to the North Zwingenberg; to the East Lautertal; and to the South Heppenheim.
It is also known for its good traffic connections to other nearby cities. In the North Darmstadt and Frankfurt am Main; in the East Worms; and in the South Heidelberg, Mannheim and Ludwigshafen are all within an hour's drive.
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1039498
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False prophet
|
A false prophet is a person who claims to be a true prophet but really is not. A false prophet is also someone who uses prophecy to do evil. The term is also used outside religion to describe someone who zealously promotes a theory considered by the speaker as false.
Christianity.
In Christianity, false prophets are thought of as being inspired by Satan, or the Devil. False prophets are the opposite of prophets. False prophets try to deceive people and bring them away from god. They use false information to lead people away from god. There are many false prophets in the Bible.
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Paul Dirac
|
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, OM (August 8, 1902 in Bristol – October 20, 1984 in Tallahassee) was an English physicist.
Dirac's father came from the French-speaking part of Switzerland.
Dirac worked out a formulation of quantum mechanics, which includes Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics and Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics in 1926. In 1928 he found the Dirac equation and he found out that spin in quantum mechanics is an effect of relativity. The Dirac equation allowed Dirac to predict the existence of antimatter, which is the opposite of matter.
In 1933 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Dirac was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics chair at Cambridge University from 1932 until his retirement in 1969. He was Professor of Physics at Florida State University from 1972 until his death in 1984.
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Emperor of Japan
|
The Emperor of Japan is the head of state of Japan, The monarch is the symbol of the Japanese nation and the unity of its people.
In the Japanese constitutional monarchy, the emperor does not have any political power. In world politics, he is the only current emperor.
The current emperor is his Majesty emperor Naruhito. He has been on the Chrysanthemum Throne since his father Akihito abdicated in 2019.
The amount of power belonging to the emperor of Japan has changed a lot throughout Japanese history. The Emperor of Japan has sometimes been a cleric with mostly symbolic powers and sometimes an actual ruler. Some believe that the emperor is descended from gods.
Since the mid-1800s, the Imperial Palace has been located on the former site of Edo Castle （江戸城）in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier emperors lived in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries.
Origin.
The earliest monarch listed as an emperor who is believed by historians to have existed in history was Emperor Ojin.
The imperial dynasty that rules Japan today began as a local kingship in Central Japan in the 500s. It slowly increased its power over its neighbors. This led to a more centralized state made up of almost all of the central areas of what is now Japan. The remote areas were outside its borders.
Current role of Emperor.
The emperor's role is defined in Chapter I of the 1947 Constitution of Japan.
The emperor of Japan has no reserve powers.
While the emperor does serve as head of state, many people question if the emperor is a true monarch in a political sense. Efforts in the 1950s by conservative powers to change the constitution to actually name the emperor as head of state were rejected. Regardless, the emperor does do all the diplomatic functions of a head of state and is recognized as one by foreign powers.
Succession of Emperor.
Succession is now controlled by laws passed by the Japanese Diet. The current law does not let females take the throne. A change to this law was considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to a son.
Until the birth of a son to Prince Akishino on September 6, 2006, there was a potential succession problem. No male child had been born into the imperial family since Prince Akishino in 1965. Following the birth of Princess Aiko, some felt they needed to change the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005 Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi created a group of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study the problem.
On October 25, 2005 they recommended changing the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On January 20, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi made an announcement that they would change the law to allow women to ascend the throne. However, after finding out that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi decided to wait. Her son, Prince Hisahito, is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession.
Addressing and Naming.
Naming the emperors of Japan is difficult because of differences between Japan and the Western world. The Japanese use "{name} tennō" (for the past emperors) or "Kinjō Heika" (今上陛下） for the current one). Problems occur because emperors are named "{name} tennō" after their death.
Some Japanese once thought it was rude to call a person of noble rank by their given names. This belief is not commonly followed today, but still used for the imperial family. The current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to simply as "Tennō Heika" (天皇陛下, lit. "His Majesty the Emperor") or formally as Kinjō Heika (今上陛下).
In English, the recent emperors are called by their personal names.
For example, the previous emperor is usually called Hirohito in English, but after his death he was renamed "Shōwa Tennō" and is now only called by this name in Japanese. However, when he was in power, he was never called Hirohito or "Shōwa Tennō" in Japanese. Rather, he was simply called "Tennō Heika" (meaning "His Majesty the Emperor").
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Pipe (smoke)
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A pipe is a tool that people use to smoke tobacco and other drugs. Pipe smokers do not usually breathe in the smoke. They let it go into their mouths and then exhale it. Pipe smoking is not a healthy alternative to cigarette smoking.
Types of pipes.
Tobacco pipes are used to smoke tobacco. In some Middle Eastern countries, people smoke tobacco with water pipes, which cool the smoke in water. Different types of pipes are also used to smoke marijuana, hashish, and crack cocaine. Some people who smoke marijuana or hashish use a special water pipe called a bong.
Native American tobacco pipes had two parts: a stone bowl and a wooden stem. Japanese "kiseru" pipes have a metal bowl and mouth piece with a wooden stem. Arabian "midwakh" pipes may be made from different materials. European tobacco pipes have been made from clay, tree root wood, meerschaum stone or even maize cobs.
Pipes to smoke opium may have clay or metal bowls with a wooden stem. Pipes for marijuana or hashish may be metal, wood or glass. Pipes to smoke other drugs may also be made of glass.
History.
Pipes were first used by Native Americans in religious ceremonies. When the English came to North America, they tried pipe smoking and liked it. They sent tobacco back to England.
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Thomas Tallis
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Thomas Tallis (born c.1505; died Greenwich November 23 1585) was the most important English composer of his generation.
We know very little about Tallis’s youth. He may have started his career as organist at Dover and then Waltham Abbey. After the Dissolution of the monasteries he had a job at Canterbury Cathedral for a short time. He was soon made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He had a job in the royal household until his death. He worked for four monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I.
Tallis was an organist and composer. He had to write music for the royal chapels. He was given the lease of a big house in Kent and a salary of £91 12s a year (12s is 60p in modern money). That was a very good salary in those days. In 1575, Queen Elizabeth I gave Tallis and William Byrd a licence which meant they were the only people allowed to print and publish music in England (music printing was a very new invention at the time). Tallis owned a house in Greenwich where he died in 1585.
In the early 16th century church music was often very polyphonic. Voices imitated one another and sang different things at the same time. Tallis wrote church music which was much simpler. In a lot of his music the choir sing homophonic music instead of using the older polyphony. For a short time, during the reign of the Catholic Mary Tudor, polyphonic music was in fashion again. This was the time when Tallis wrote an antiphon “Gaude gloriosa Dei mater” and a mass musical setting|mass “Puer natus est nobis”. These two works are once more very complicated polyphonic works. After that his works become simpler once more, but he was always keen to try out new ideas from the continent of Europe. He wrote some very fine anthems. Many of his works are settings of Latin words, but he also made settings of English texts.
One of his works is called "Spem in Alium". The choir divide into forty parts i.e. the choir need at least 40 people to sing it, and each person sings a different line. It is possible that he wrote it for Queen Elizabeth I’s 40th birthday in 1573, but we cannot be sure.
His "Diliges Dominum" is a collection of contrapuntal exercises which includes a very famous canon often simply called “Tallis’s canon”.
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Polyphonic
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Homophony
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Homophony means music in which the voices or instruments sing or play chords (chords are when two or more notes are played together.) In homophonic music all the choir (sopranos, altos, tenors and basses) are singing the same words at the same time. There is a tune on top and the lower parts are the accompaniment. This is what happens in hymn singing. The opposite is polyphony. Polyphonic writing is more complicated: the choir sing different melodic lines at the same time (see counterpoint). The terms "homophony" (literally: "one sound") and "polyphony" (literally: "many sounds") are mostly used for choir music.
In homophonic music it is easy to hear the words that are being sung. In polyphonic music it is much harder for the listener to understand the words. Composers often used polyphony when writing music for the mass because everyone knew the words anyway. Homophonic music became more important when composers started to write operas and madrigals where a story is being told and the words must be heard clearly.
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Homophonic
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Technetium
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Technetium is a radioactive chemical element that has the chemical symbol Tc and has the atomic number 43. It is the lightest synthetic element.
Chemistry of Technetium.
The color of technetium is silvery-grey and is a crystaline metal. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. The chemistry of technetium is similar to rhenium and manganese.
The isotope 99mTc is used in nuclear medicine. It is used for many diagnostic tests. It has a short half-life. 99Tc is used as a source of beta particles without emitting gamma rays. The ion that has oxygen and technetium bonded together (TcO4-) is named the pertechnetate ion. The pertechnetate ion could be used as to prevent anodic corrosion in steel.
History.
Before the element was found, many of the properties of element 43 were predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Mendeleev noticed a gap in his periodic table and named the element in the gap eka-manganese. In 1937 the technetium isotope 97Tc was the first element to be artificially produced. This was the reason why he named it Technetium as in Greek, τεχνητος means "artificial". Most technetium made on Earth is a by-product of fission of uranium-235 in nuclear reactors. It is extracted from nuclear fuel rods. On earth, technetium occurs naturally only in uranium ores as a product of spontaneous fission. The amount of technetium in the ore is very small but has been measured. The longest half-life of Technetium is 4.2 million years (98Tc). This means that its detection in red giants in 1952 helped support the theory that stars can produce heavier elements.
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Emit
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Monastery
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Monasteries are places where monks live. Although the word "monastery" is sometimes used for a place where nuns live, nuns usually live in a convent or nunnery. The word abbey (from the Syriac/Aramaic word ': "father") is also used for a Christian monastery or convent. The monk in charge of an abbey is called an abbot; the nun in charge of an abbey is an abbess.
Several religions have a system of monasteries. Christian monasteries have a chapel for the monks to worship. Monks are not allowed to marry (celibacy). They are also not allowed to own anything. Everything they use, including their clothes, belongs to the monastery. During the Middle Ages after the Roman Empire was defeated, monasteries were some of the few places where knowledge still existed.
Some monasteries were built in places far away from where other people lived. The monks who live there live very isolated lives, growing their own food and looking after one another. Other monasteries were in or near towns. Monks do a lot of work in the community, including as teaching, medical care or telling people about God. Few monks live isolated lives nowadays.
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Windows Neptune
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Windows Neptune is a version of Microsoft Windows that was being made during 1999 and January 2000. Windows 2000 was released as an operating system for businesses and people that know how to use computers well. Windows Neptune was going to be a version of Windows 2000 that was easier for home users to use. Nobody knows if Microsoft was ever going to release Windows Neptune. After Microsoft stopped developing it, some of its features were merged with Windows 2000's and a new project, "Whistler", was formed. "Whistler" was later released as Windows XP.
Only one known confirmed version of Windows Neptune exists. which is Windows Neptune Build 5111.1. Windows Neptune Build 5111.1 exists on the Internet as an ISO image. It used to be hard to find, but now it can easily be found.
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The Society of Saint John the Evangelist
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Christian cults
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Christian cult
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Albino Luciani
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Vatican City State
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Sermons
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Alexander Lukashenko
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Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (born 30 August 1954) is the President of the country of Belarus. He has been its leader since 1994. He was the first leader of the country to be chosen by Belarus citizens.
Before becoming the leader, he belonged to the law making section of the government. He was also in the military of the Soviet Union and ran a factory that made things to help farming.
His re-election in 2020 was seen as controversial with many saying it was rigged and unfair. His re-election caused many to protest against the election results. After the contested election, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Canada, Ukraine and the United States do not recognize him as the legitimate president of Belarus.
In July 2020, he said that he had COVID-19 after telling people that to avoid the disease they should drink vodka and go to a sauna.
Alexander Lukashenko is under the sanctions of the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand
On February 25, 2024, Alexander Lukashenko announced that he was running for the 2025 presidential elections, which means that he is running for an eighth consecutive term.
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Shelf
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A shelf is a piece of furniture that is used for storing items.
It could also mean:
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Throat
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The throat is a part of the body. The throat is connected to the mouth at the top and to the stomach at the bottom. The throat is where food travels after being eaten and chewed by the teeth. Fluid drinks, such as water, also travel through the throat to the stomach and on to the rest of the body.
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Safe
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The word safe has more than one meaning.
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Jelly
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Jelly or Gelatin desert is a dessert item. It comes in different taste choices, or flavors, depending on what fruit or artificial flavor has been added. Jelly is a cold and solid food that is normally made from hot water and powder. The powder is made from gelatin and various additives.
Jelly can be added to foods like a peanut butter and jelly sandwich.
Naming and Spelling.
Depending on where you live, gelatin may be called different things. In the United States and Canada, jelly is often called 'Jell-O'. Jell-O is a brand of gelatin that has become a generic, or typical, name for gelatin desert. In Commonwealth Nations like the United Kingdom and New Zealand, almost all gelatin is called jelly. Also, it is spelled gelatine.
'Jell-O Shots'.
Sometimes, alcohol is added to jelly. You can make jello shots with almost any type of alcohol. Jello shots can be served in small glasses and can be any color depending on the other ingredients put into the Jell-O shot. The jello shot is also known as the poison rainbow.
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Biogeography
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Biogeography is the study of how species are distributed. It notes where organisms live, and why they are (or are not) found in a certain geographical area.
Biogeography teaches how animals and plants are adapted to the places they live in, and how similar places often have quite different animals and plants.
Between about 1800 to 1855, natural historians made lists of species in various regions of the world. These lists were published as tables in their books. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published the idea of evolution by natural selection. They travelled to tropical countries, and wrote about the life in those countries. They said that evolution was the key to understanding geographical distribution.
New species are usually formed by speciation an earlier species splitting into two. These species may travel to new places. but they may be stopped from travelling by mountains and seas, and by climate. This means that "two places with similar climate often have different kinds of animals and plants". For example marsupials, which live in Australia, are very different from the fauna in South America. The species on islands (Hawaii, Galapagos) may be very different to species on mainland continents.
History.
The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804–1881), Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913), and other biologists and explorers.
Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the Amazon Basin and the Malay Archipelago in the mid-19th century. Wallace and Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for the theory of evolution. Key findings, such as the sharp difference in fauna either side of the Wallace Line, can only be understood in this light. Otherwise, the field of biogeography would be a purely descriptive one.
Both Darwin and Wallace gave a great deal of attention to oceanic islands as offering examples of evolution, especially speciation. Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands and studied its fauna. Wallace spent years on the islands of S.E. Asia. This interest was revived by "The theory of island biogeography" by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson in 1967. They showed that the variation in species in a single area could be predicted if one knew the habitat area, immigration rate, and extinction rate.
It was realised that habitat fragments are like islands. They can be investigated by the same methods. This spurred the development of conservation biology.
Genome analysis allows scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as island species. It allows biologists to test theories about where the species come from.
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Biophysics
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Biophysics is a science where the laws of physics are used to study biology, the science on life and living things. Unlike biochemistry and molecular biology, sciences where macromolecules or "large" groups of molecules are studied, biophysicists study single or small groups of molecules.
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Macromolecule
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A macromolecule is a molecule with a large number of atoms. The word is usually used only when describing polymers, molecules which are made up of smaller molecules called monomers. All organic monomers are based on carbon, usually with hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. There are inorganic macromolecules based on other monomers.
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Dendrology
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Dendrology is the science of trees and other woody plants (plants that make wood) such as shrubs or lianas. The word "dendrology" comes from Greek words δένδρον meaning "tree" and λόγος meaning "study".
Botany and dendrology are not very different, since woody plants come from many different plant families. Those families can also have species that are not woody. Dendrology usually focuses on identifying woody plants that are bought and sold. It also focuses on how all the woody plants taxonomically relate to each other. Dendrologists study species that are native in the area, and species that are not native in the area.
Dendrology used to include the natural history of woody species in specific areas, but that is now under ecology. Dendrologists also help to conserve woody plants that are endangered.
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Entomology
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Entomology is the science of insects. People who study insects are called entomologists. Insects have been studied since prehistoric times, but it was not until as early as the 16th century that insects were scientifically studied.
Some entomologists study how insects are related to each other. Others study how insects live and reproduce because we do not know very much about some kinds of insects. Other entomologists study ways to keep insects away from crops that people use for food. There are billions of unknown species throughout the world and taxonomists categorize the newly found.
Entomologists meet to talk about their study of insects and to share ideas, just as all scientists do.
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Ethology
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Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour (U.S. "behavior"), and a sub-topic of zoology. Ethology overlaps, to some extent, with psychology. Psychology is a social science which studies human behaviour, but many psychologists have done experiments on learning in animals. Ethology studies animal behaviour, but many ethologists have been interested in human behaviour.
Historical development.
An American specialist on ants, William Morton Wheeler, first used the term 'ethology' in English in 1902.
The study of animal behaviour, which had been going on in an anecdotal way since Aristotle, had its roots in natural history. It became more scientific during the 19th century. The French zoologist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire was the founder of ethology in Europe, and his son Isidore produced a three-volume encyclopaedia "Histoire Naturelle Générale". In the third volume he talked about animal behaviour in almost modern terms. The entomologist J.-H Fabre (1823–1915) was a remarkable observer of natural life. His popular writing on natural history kept ethology alive in Europe.
Douglas Spalding (1841–1877) was a British biologist who was the first to notice the effect called imprinting. Instinct and imprinting were the first scientific concepts in ethology.
He was able to prove that the behaviour of chicks after hatching from the egg happened even when they had no experience, practice or even information from the senses. Therefore, the capacity was inherited.
Studies by Charles Otis Whitman, Oskar Heinroth and Julian Huxley set the tone in the 20th century. This work was mostly on bird behaviour, especially mating behaviour. The behaviour of birds played a big part in early ethology, but there was a start to studying our nearest relatives. Wolfgang Köhler's "Mentality of Apes" was a landmark in the study of primates. In 2020, Dr. Tobias Starzak and Professor Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum proposed that animals may have beliefs despite these being more difficult to determine than humans.
Nobel prizewinners.
The next generation began during the 1930s with the work of Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, and the Dutch biologist Niko Tinbergen. The three men were joint winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1973.
Lorenz is famous for his 'longitudinal' studies: he lived with the animals he researched, and made observations throughout their lives. Then he wrote about what he had discovered in long, very readable papers. He researched instinctual behaviour, which he called 'fixed action patterns' (FAPs). Lorenz popularized FAPs as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of specific stimuli (called sign stimuli or releasing stimuli). von Frisch worked on communication in honey bees: the famous 'bee dances'. Tinbergen experimented with the stimuli which trigger fixed action patterns. He found out that artificial super-stimuli could often work better than the natural stimuli.
Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines—e.g., neuroanatomy, ecology, evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.
Tinbergen's four questions.
In the 1960s Nico Tinbergen set out a framework for research on behaviour. It involved four questions and their answers.
Function (adaptation).
The only scientific explanation for an animal’s behaviour is that it is well adapted for survival and reproduction in its environment. A trait is the result of its past contribution to survival. In practice, this is simple. For instance, birds fly south in the winter to find food and warmth, and mammalian mothers nurture their young, thereby having more surviving offspring.
Evolutionary history.
Phylogeny explains why some adaptation is less than perfect. From where it is, there are always some possibilities which a particular species can never get to. This is because all stages in evolution must be viable, else extinction occurs.
Another reason is that not all traits of a species can be maximised at the same time. Increase in armour, for example, is bound to slow down movement. Teeth which are best for vegetation are much less good for meat. The final result is a set of traits, most of which are sub-optimal.
Earlier phylogenetic stages and (pre-) conditions which persist often determine the form of more modern characteristics. For instance, the vertebrate eye (including the human eye) has a blind spot, whereas octopus eyes do not. Once the vertebrate eye had evolved, the only way it could improve was to minimise the effect of the blind spot. We don't notice it ordinarily, because with binocular vision what one eye misses, the other fills in.
Development (ontogeny).
All instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions – for example to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients – without realizing that the reason people experience hunger (causation) is because it causes them to acquire nutrients (function).
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Communicate
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Henry III of England
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Henry III (1 October 1207 — 16 November 1272), also known as Henry of Winchester and nicknamed the Pious, the Wise and later the Saint. was the King of England from 1216 until his death in 1272. He was considered one of England's best kings. His long and mostly-successful 56-year reign was the longest in mediaeval English history.
Throughout his reign, England would experience peace, stability and prosperity. Henry was extremely helpful, pious, and religious. He helped the poor people in England. He upgraded Westminster Abbey and reisssued Magna Carta. However in 1258, Henry became unpopular, as the barons forced him to give up some of his power to them. In 1263, Simon de Montfort, a baron who was Henry's brother-in-law by he married one of Henry's sisters, defeated and imprisoned him and became the disputed ruler of the country. However, Henry, with the help of his son, Crown Prince Edward, managed to escape captivity, and Montfort was killed. Henry regained his powers from the barons, which made him popular again. However, in 1264, the barons rebelled against him and started the Second Barons' War. However, Henry defeated the barons again in 1267.
Henry continued to be helpful, pious and religious by continuing to help the poor. He continued to rebuild Westminster Abbey and to improve life and health care in England.
In early 1272, Henry's health started to decline, and in November of that year, he died at the age of 65. He was buried at Westminster Abbey.
Because Henry was such a religious person, he was canonised only two months after his death on 26 February 1273 by Pope Gregory X. Many historians view Henry as a weak but great king overall.
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Edward I of England
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Edward I (17 June 1237 – 7 July 1307), nicknamed the Tall, the Brave, the Lord, the Hammer and as well as Longshanks (meaning 'long legs'), was the King of England from 1272 to his death. He was the son of King Henry III of England and Queen Eleanor of Provence. He was considered one of England's best kings because of his effective rule and his braveness.
As a young man, Edward fought Simon de Montfort in defence of his father's crown. He went on a crusade, and his father died as Edward was on his way back.
As a ruler, he improved the laws and made the English Parliament regular and more important. He conquered Wales and subdued the Welsh by brutal policies. He was determined to control Scotland through puppet kings and barely managed to do it during his lifetime. He expelled the Jewish people from England.
Early life.
Edward I was born at Westminster in June 1237 to King Henry III of England and his wife, the French noblewoman and English Queen Eleanor of Provence. The baby was named Edward after an earlier king, Edward the Confessor, who happened to be a personal hero of his Henry As a boy, Edward had a good education and was taught in Latin and French, the most used languages in Europe at the time.
In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English province of Gascony made Henry III arrange a marriage between his 15-year-old son and the 13 year-old Eleanor, the half-sister of King Alfonso X of Castile.
Eleanor and Edward married on 1 November 1254 in Castile. As part of the marriage agreement, the young prince got grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year. Though the endowments King Henry made were sizable, they offered Edward little independence. He had received Gascony as early as 1249, but Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, as royal lieutenant, drew the income. In practice, Edward derived neither authority nor revenue from the province. The grant that he received in 1254 included most of Ireland and much land in Wales and England, including the earldom of Chester, but the king kept control over the land, particularly in Ireland and so Edward's power was limited there as well, and the king got most of the income from those lands.
Civil war.
The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War in which baronial forces led by Montfort fought against those who remained loyal to the king. The first scene of battle was the city of Gloucester, which Edward, now a young man who could participate in battles, managed to retake from the enemy. When Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby, came to the assistance of the rebels, Edward negotiated a truce with him but later broke its terms. Edward then captured Northampton from Montfort's son, also Simon. The baronial and royalist forces finally met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264. Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well and soon defeated the London contingent of Montfort's forces. Unwisely, however, he followed the scattered enemy in pursuit and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated. By the agreement known as the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as prisoners to Montfort.
Edward remained in captivity until March, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance. Meanwhile, de Montfort used his victory to set up a "de facto" government. He even summoned the Parliament of 1265, known as Montfort's Parliament.
Then, on 28 May 1265, Edward managed to escape his custodians and joined up with the Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the king's side. Montfort's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with relatively little effort. Meanwhile, Montfort had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon.
Edward managed to make a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle and moved on to cut off Montfort.
The two forces then met at the second great encounter of the Barons' War, the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265. Montfort stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat, he was killed and mutilated on the field.
The war did not end with Montfort's death, and Edward continued campaigning. At Christmas, he came to terms with the younger Simon de Montfort and his associates at the Isle of Axholme, in Lincolnshire. In March, Edward led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports. A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually-impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth. In April, it seemed as if the Earl of Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and the civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came an agreement. Edward, however, was little involved in the settlement after following the wars since his main focus was now on planning his upcoming crusade.
Crusade and accession.
Edward took the Crusader's cross in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund and cousin Henry of Almain. Among others who committed themselves to the Ninth Crusade were some of Edward's former opponents. There was great difficulty raising funds for the expedition.
Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre, but before they could do so, several disasters happened to the French forces. They were struck by an epidemic, which on 25 August took the life of King Louis himself in 1270 When Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the emir, and there was little else to do but return to Sicily. The crusade was postponed until next spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily made Charles of Anjou and Louis's successor, Philip III, decide against from any further campaigning.
Edward decided to continue alone and on 9 May 1271 finally landed at Acre. By then, the situation in the Holy Land was become fragile. Jerusalem had fallen in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Christian area. The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars and were now threatening Acre itself. An embassy to the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which helped to distract Baibar's forces.
In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but both the Mongol invasion and the attack on Qaqun failed. Things now seemed increasingly desperate. Finally, an attack by a Muslim assassin in June forced him to abandon any further campaigning. Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger that was feared to be poisoned, and he became severely weakened over the following months.
It was not until 24 September that Edward left Acre. Arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November. Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards. The political situation in England had been stable since the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king at his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had been customary. In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell. The new king embarked on an overland journey through Italy and France, where, among other things he visited the pope in ,and suppressed a rebellion in Gascony. It was only on 2 August 1274 that he returned to England, and he was crowned on 19 August.
King.
Edward's reign had two main phases. The first phase was administration of a now-peaceful country. The second phase was warfare against Wales and Scotland.
Administration.
His first concerns were to restore order and to re-establish royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father. To do so, he changed the administrators. He appointed Robert Burnell as chancellor, who held the post until his death in 1292. Edward then replaced most local officials such as the sheriffs. That was done to prepare for an inquiry, which would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers. Laws were made to define rights about ownership of land, recovery of debts, trade and local peacekeeping.
Parliament.
Edward reformed the English Parliament and made it a source for generating revenue. Edward held Parliament regularly in his reign. In 1295, a significant change occurred. For Parliament, in addition to the Lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned. Before, the Commons had been expected simply to assent (say 'yes') to decisions already made by the rulers. Now, they would meet with the full authority ("plena potestas") of their communities to give assent to decisions made in Parliament. The king now had full backing for collecting 'lay subsidies' from the entire population. Lay subsidies were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the movable property of all laymen. Historians have called it the "Model Parliament".
War in Wales.
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the main Welsh leader, refused to do homage to Edward and married Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de Montfort. In November 1276, war was declared. Initial operations were launched under the command of Mortimer, Edmund Crouchback (Edward's brother) and the Earl of Warwick. Support for Llywelyn was weak amongst the Welsh.
In July 1277, Edward invaded with a force of 15,500, 9,000 of whom were Welshmen. The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised that he had no choice but to surrender. By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd, but he was allowed to keep the title of Prince of Wales.
When war broke out again in 1282, it was entirely different. For the Welsh, the war was over national freedom and had wide support, especially after attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects. For Edward, it became a war of conquest. The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd, Llywelyn's younger brother, who was annoyed with the reward that he had received from Edward in 1277. Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially, the Welsh experienced military success. The Welsh advances ended on 11 December, however, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge. The English conquest was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury and executed as a traitor next autumn.
Further rebellions occurred in 1287 to 1288 and in 1294. In both cases, the rebellions were put down. By the 1284 law, the Statute of Rhuddlan, Wales was incorporated into England and was given an governing system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs.
English law was introduced in criminal cases though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own laws in some cases of property disputes. After 1277 and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a full-scale project of English settlement of Wales. He created new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth and Rhuddlan.
Edward started a large program of building castles to keep the Welsh under control. His castles started the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe and drre on Eastern influences. Another product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle, and four of the eight castles that Edward founded in Wales followed such a design.
In 1284, King Edward's son Edward, later Edward II. was born at Caernarfon Castle. In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales.
Wars in Scotland.
Scotland and England were at peace in the 1280s. Alexander III of Scotland and Edward had an understanding by which Alexander held land in England. Thay gave him the excuse to acknowledge Edward as his lord and left ambiguous whether or not thay applied to Scotland as well.
The heir to the throne was his infant granddaughter Margaret. Unfortunately, Alexander died in 1286, followed by Margaret in 1290. That left Scotland without a king, which started the problems.
Struggle for the crown of Scotland.
There were fourteen claimants of whom John Balliol and Robert de Brus (the grandfather of the famous Robert the Bruce) had the best cases. The competitors agreed to hand over the realm to Edward until a decision was made. John Balliol was chosen in 1292.
Edward continued to push his claim as overlord of Scotland. He interferred in some of the legal affairs of Scotland and insisted for the Scots to provid military service in his army. This caused the Scots to make an alliance with France and to attack Carlisle.
Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick in a particularly-bloody attack. At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed. Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny, the Scottish coronation stone, and brought it to Westminster. He also deposed Balliol, placed him into the Tower of London and installed Englishmen to govern the country. The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would only be temporary.
William Wallace.
Although the Scottish conflict had seemed settled in 1296, it was started again by William Wallace, who came from one of the notable families. Wallace was a warlord, rather than a politician, and soon started a rebellion. He defeated a large English force at Stirling Bridge in 1297 while Edward was in Flanders. In 1298, Edward defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk. The Scots then avoided open battle in favour of raiding England with small groups.
Edward's next move was political. In 1303, a peace agreement was made between England and France, breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance. Robert de Brus and most of the other nobles pledged allegiance to Edward. Wallace was betrayed, handed to the English and was publicly executed.
The situation changed again in 1306, when Brus murdered his rival John Comyn and had himself crowned King of Scotland by Isobel, the sister of the Earl of Buchan. Edward, in ill health, sent armies north under other commanders. Brus was beaten at the Battle of Methven in June 1306. After the battle, Edward followed with brutal suppression of the allies of Brus, which fuelled more rebellions in response. The conflict was still in progress in 1307 when Edward, now an elderly man, led his final campaign into Scotland before he died at the border city of Burgh by Sands at age 70. That led to the succession of the Prince of Wales as Edward II of England.
Issue.
Eleanor of Castile died on 28 November 1290. Unlike most other arranged marriages, it was a happy one. Edward was deeply affected by her death. He erected twelve Eleanor crosses, one at each place that her funeral cortège (procession) stopped for the night. As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry the French princess Margaret. The marriage took place in 1299.
Edward and Eleanor had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen. Of them, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one boy did so: his son and heir Edward, Prince of Wales.
Edward was concerned with his son's failure to live up to expectations and at one point exiled the prince's favourite Piers Gaveston. Edward may have known his son was bisexual but did not throw Gaveston from the castle battlements, despite what is shown in "Braveheart".
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