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Frigga
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William Wallace
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William Wallace ( 127023 August 1305) was a Scottish knight who fought the King of England (Edward I) in the Middle Ages. He was born in c. 1270, and was hanged by the English on 23 August 1305 and had died on the same day. Scotland had been claimed by Edward, and Wallace refused allegiance to Edward.
Origins.
Wallace was probably born around 1270-1272. Little is known about his birth or childhood. Exactly where and when Wallace was born is not very clear. Some people say he was born about 1272, but a book printed in the 16th century called "History of William Wallace and Scottish Affairs" says he was born in 1276. Tradition says he was born in Elderslie, near Paisley in Renfrewshire. There are links with Ayrshire as well, and it is not clear whether Wallace first fought the English in Ayrshire or Lanark. Tradition sees Wallace as a being a 'commoner', or normal person. Robert the Bruce, who also fought the English, was seen as being more noble. But this is not strictly true because Wallace's family were minor nobles.
The struggle.
King Edward offered Scotland a deal which allowed them to have a Scottish king so long as King Edward was still in charge. This required the Scottish nobles to kneel, and swear allegiance to his sovereignty. Wallace refused, and led the resistance which followed. A series of battles were fought:
Capture and execution.
Wallace evaded capture by the English until 5 August 1305 when John de Menteith, a Scottish knight loyal to Edward, turned Wallace over to English soldiers at Robroyston near Glasgow. Wallace was taken to London at Westminster Hall, where he was tried for treason. He replied to the charge, "I could not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject". Wallace was however found guilty.
After the trial, on 23 August 1305, Wallace was taken from the hall, stripped naked and dragged through the city at the heels of a horse to the Elms at Smithfield. He was hanged, drawn and quartered–the most terrible execution in English law. It meant he was strangled by hanging but released while he was still alive, his body cut open, and his bowels burnt before him. Then he was beheaded, and his body cut into four parts. His preserved head (dipped in tar) was placed on a pike atop London Bridge. It was later joined by the heads of the brothers John and Simon Fraser, who had been colleagues of Wallace. Wallace's limbs were displayed, separately, in Newcastle upon Tyne, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Stirling, and Aberdeen.
Notes.
A book called "The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie" was written by a minstrel named Blind Harry in the 15th century. The book is written more like a story than a true version of his life, and has led to much of the legends around William Wallace. The film Braveheart is based on the novel.
A plaque stands in a wall of St Bartholomew's Hospital near the site of Wallace's execution at Smithfield. In 2002 William Wallace was ranked as number 48 of the "100 Greatest Britons" in an extensive UK poll conducted by the BBC.
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Middle ages
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Æsir
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The Æsir (Old Norse: singular "ǫ́ss" or "áss"; feminine "ásynja", plural "ásynjur") are the main group or tribe of deities in Norse mythology. Including Odin, Frigg, Thor, and Baldr, the Æsir reside in the realm of Asgard, at the top of Yggdrasil's highest branch.
Alongside the Æsir is a second family of gods, known as the Vanir, who joined with the Æsir to form a single, unified pantheon after the devastating war between the two tribes of deities. The Vanir were native to Vanaheimr, the god Njörðr and his children, Freyr and Freyja chief among them. The Æsir gods were usually connected with power and war, and the Vanir were associated with fertility and nature.
Norse mythology.
The things that happened between the Æsir and the Vanir are an interesting part of Norse mythology. While other cultures have had "elder" and "younger" generations of gods, as with the Titans and the Olympians of ancient Greece, the Æsir and Vanir were portrayed as contemporaries. The two tribes fought battles, concluded treaties, and exchanged hostages. Freyr and Freyja were said to be hostages. Some believe that events that occurred between the Æsir and Vanir were a reflection of events common between different Norse clans at the time.
The Æsir did not grow old and instead remaining young by eating the apples of Iðunn. While they did not age, they could be killed. It was said that most of them woulld die at Ragnarök.
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Braveheart
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Braveheart is an American historical movie war drama movie starring Mel Gibson and Sophie Marceau. It is loosely based around the life of 13th century Scottish warrior William Wallace, who fought against the English when they occupied Scotland.
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Semiconductor
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A semiconductor is a material that in some cases will conduct electricity but not in others. Good electrical conductors, like copper or silver, easily allow electricity to flow through them. Materials that block the flow of electricity, like rubber or plastic, are called insulators. Insulators are often used to protect people from electric shock. As the name implies, a semiconductor does not conduct as well as a conductor. Silicon is the most used semiconductor, but gallium arsenide is also used.
By the addition of different atoms into the crystal lattice (grid) of the semiconductor it changes its conductivity by making n-type and p-type semiconductors. Silicon is the most important commercial semiconductor, though many others are used. They can be made into transistors, which are small amplifiers. Transistors are used in computers, mobile phones, digital audio players and many other electronic devices.
Like other solids, the electrons in semiconductors can have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of energy levels) between the energy of the ground state, corresponding to electrons tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and the free electron energy, which is the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material.
History.
Semiconductors were being studied in laboratories as early as the 1830s. In 1833 Michael Faraday was experimenting with silver sulfide. He discovered that as the material was heated it conducted electricity better. This was the opposite of how copper acted. When copper is heated it conducts less electricity. A number of other early experimenters discovered other properties of semiconductors. In 1947 at Bell Labs in New Jersey, the transistor was invented. This led to the development of integrated circuits, which power almost all electronic devices today.
Doping.
Doping is the process of adding a small impurity to a pure semiconductor to change its electrical properties. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductors are called extrinsic. A semiconductor doped to such high levels that it acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor is referred to as degenerate. Most semiconductors are made out of silicon crystals. Pure silicon has little use but doped silicon is the basis for most semiconductors. Silicon Valley was named for the large number of semiconductor startup companies that were located there.
Semiconductors today.
Today, semiconductors are used far and wide. Semiconductors can be found in nearly every electronic device. Desktop computers, the Internet, tablet devices, smartphones all would not be possible without semiconductors.
Semiconductors can be made into very precise switches with a small amount of voltage. The voltage that the semiconductor doesn’t need can be sent to other electrical components in the device. Semiconductors can also be made very tiny and many of them can fit into a rather small circuit. Since they can be made so small, electrical devices today can be made thin and lightweight without compromising processing power.
Some of the dominating companies in the semiconductor business are Intel Corporation, Samsung Electronics, TSMC, Qualcomm and Micron Technology.
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Curium
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Curium is a synthetic chemical element in the periodic table that has the atomic number 96. It has the chemical symbol Cm and it is a radioactive metal. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the actinides. Curium is a transuranic element. It is a radioactive element that does not exist in nature. Curium has a silver color and it is made by bombarding a plutonium target with alpha particles (helium ions). Curium was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre.
Uses.
Curium is used currently in rovers and space machinery.
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Lanark
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Lanark is a town in South Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is close to Carluke and Biggar. Lanark is approximately 40 miles from Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. William Wallace once lived there. There is a statue of Wallace on the town church. A plaque remembers where he "first drew sword to free his native land" in 1296, when he killed Heselrig, the English sheriff of Lanark. This event forms the start of the Mel Gibson film, "Braveheart".
Lanark is also notable for its annual Lanimer celebrations, where local children on coloured floats parade through the streets along with marching pipe bands. A Lanimer Queen is elected from the children, and crowned in a ceremony at the foot of the High Street. A Lord Cornet is chosen from local businessmen, and acts as escort for the Queen for the events of Lanimer Week.
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Robert I of Scotland
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Robert I of Scotland (11 July 1274 – 7 June 1329) was King of Scotland from 1306 to 1329. He is better known as Robert the Bruce, or simply The Bruce. He is famous for beating the English army at the Battle of Bannockburn near Stirling in 1314.
Early life.
Roberto the Bruce was born at Turnberry Castle kaka on 11 July 1274. He was the oldest son of the sixth Robert Bruce and Marjorie, the Countess of Carrick.
Robert the Bruce's family originally came from France. They were from a place called Brus in Normandy, which is in the northern part of France. An ancestor also named Robert de Brus came to England with William the Conqueror in 1066. Another Robert de Brus came to Scotland with David I of Scotland and his family became powerful lords.
In 1286, King Alexander III of Scotland died. His granddaughter was supposed to become Queen of Scotland, but she died too. In 1292 the Bruce family and another family called the Balliols (BAY-lee-ols) asked King Edward I of England to decide who would become the new king. King Edward chose John Balliol.
In 1292 Robert's family decided that he should be the head of all the Bruces in Scotland. In 1297, King Edward I of England wanted Scotland go to war against France. Many Scottish leaders said no and against the English king. Robert joined this rebellion. Edward won most of the battles against the Scottish rebels. Finally Robert ended up doing what Edward wanted.
King of Scots.
In 1306, Robert the Bruce met a man called John Comyn III (KOHM-in) in a church. John Comyn also wanted to be King of Scotland. They had an argument and Robert killed John. Soon after, Robert went to Scone (skoon), and the Scottish lords brought out the royal clothes that they had hidden from the English. Then Robert was crowned King of Scots.
Robert the Bruce then fought a lot of battles to make Scotland free instead of always doing what the English king wanted. He fought King Edward I, and then his son, King Edward II. In 1314, Robert the Bruce's army defeated Edward II's army at the Battle of Bannockburn.
In 1315, Robert the Bruce sent his army to Ireland. At that time the English were in control of Ireland. Robert fought with them and made his brother, Edward Bruce, High King of Ireland in 1316. The Scottish army did not treat the Irish people well, and they were forced to leave after Edward Bruce was killed in 1318.
Legacy.
On June 7th, 1329, Robert the Bruce died. After a life of fighting he had wanted to redeem himself by joining the Crusades. Realizing he could not accomplish this he sent his trusted friend Sir James Douglas to take his heart in a small silver box on crusade. James Douglas took the heart and with several knights left on their journey to honor Robert's request. But in fighting in Spain Sir James was killed and the heart was returned to Scotland. the Bruce's body is buried in Dunfermline Abbey, while his heart is buried in Melrose Abbey.
Robert did not want any fighting over his kingdom after he died. He provided for his brother Edward Bruce to follow him as king. But after Edward died in 1318 Robert's heir became his son David who became king as David II of Scotland. Following David, Robert's grandson Robert II Stewart by his daughter Marjorie was heir to the throne king as Robert II of Scotland. He left behind him a well-ordered kingdom.
Family.
In 1295 Robert married Isabella of Mar, daughter of Donald, 6th Earl of Mar. Together they had a daughter:
<br>
In 1302 Robert married his second wife Elizabeth de Burgh. She was the daughter of Richard de Burgh, Earl of Ulster Together they had:
<br>
Robert also had several illegitimate children.
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Geelong
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Geelong is the second biggest city in the state of Victoria, Australia. It has a large port and 190,000 people living in its area. Geelong at Corio Bay, which is 75 kilometres south-west
Melbourne.
The city is a near many famous tourist attractions, for example the Great Ocean Road, the Shipwreck Coast and the Bellarine Peninsula. Geelong also has the second oldest Australian rules football club in the world, the Geelong Football Club, also called "The Cats".
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Monty Python's Life of Brian
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Monty Python's Life of Brian is a 1979 comedy movie by Monty Python. It is about the life of Brian Cohen (Graham Chapman), a young man born on the same night and the same neighbourhood as Jesus Christ. People mistake Brian for the Messiah.
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Foundry
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A foundry is a place where molten (melted) metals are poured into casts, to make metal things of a certain shape. Aluminum and cast iron are most commonly cast in foundries, but other metals, like bronze, can be cast as well. During casting, parts of different sizes and shapes can be made. Foundries also scrap used metals and recast them into more useful forms.
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Call of Duty
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Call of Duty is a series of first-person shooter video games.
The first 6 games are about World War II, but the series began branching out beginning with "Modern Warfare". The series now spans World War II, the Cold War, the present, the near future, and the far future. The "Modern Warfare" series takes place in present times and is developed by Infinity Ward. Infinity Ward also created "." The "Black Ops" series takes place in the secret missions of the Cold War and in the future, and is developed by Treyarch. The majority of the games have been developed by Infinity Ward and Treyarch, with studio Sledgehammer Games developing ,and . Many smaller studios have also assisted with development duties.
The "Call of Duty" games are on the Gamecube, Xbox, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Xbox Series X, Xbox Series S, PC, Nintendo Wii, Wii U, and the Nintendo DS. The first four games are rated Teen, and each game released after that is rated Mature for blood, violence and strong language.
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Elementary particle
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In physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle that is not made of other particles.
An elementary particle can be one of two groups: a fermion or a boson. Fermions are the building blocks of matter and have mass, while bosons behave as force carriers for relations between fermion and some of them have no mass. The Standard Model is the most accepted way to explain how particles behave, and the forces that affect them. According to this model, the elementary particles are further grouped into quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons, with the Higgs boson having a special status as a non-gauge boson.
Of the particles that make up an atom, only the electron is an elementary particle. Protons and neutrons are each made of 3 quarks, which makes them composite particles, particles that are made of other particles. The quarks are bound together by the gluons. The nucleus has boson pion fields responsible for the strong nuclear force binding protons and neutrons against the electrostatic repulsion between protons. Such virtual pions are composed of quark antiquark pairs again held together by gluons.
There are three basic properties that describe an elementary particle: ’mass’, ’charge’, and ’spin’. Each property is assigned a number value. For mass and charge the number can be zero. For example, a photon has zero mass and a neutrino has zero charge. These properties always stay the same for an elementary particle.
Mass and charge are properties we see in everyday life, because gravity and electricity affect things that humans see and touch. But spin affects only the world of subatomic particles, so it cannot be directly observed.
Fermions.
Fermions (named after the scientist Enrico Fermi) have a spin number of ½, and are either quarks or leptons. There are 12 different types of fermions (not including antimatter). Each type is called a "flavor". The flavors are:
Six of the 12 fermions are thought to last forever: up and down quarks, the electron, and the three kinds of neutrinos (which constantly switch flavor). The other fermions "decay". That is, they break down into other particles a fraction of a second after they are created. Fermi-Dirac statistics is a theory that describes how collections of fermions behave.
Bosons.
Bosons, named after the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose. Bosonic particles have spin 1 (integral spin). Although most bosons are made of more than one particle, there are two kinds of elementary bosons:
The photon and the gluons have no charge, and are the only elementary particles that have a mass of 0 for certain. The photon is the only boson that does not decay. Bose-Einstein statistics is a theory that describes how collections of bosons behave. Unlike fermions, it is possible to have more than one boson in the same space at the same time.
The Standard Model includes all of the elementary particles described above. All these particles have been observed in the laboratory.
The Standard Model does not talk about gravity. If gravity works like the three other fundamental forces, then gravity is carried by the hypothetical boson called the graviton. The graviton has yet to be found, so it is not included in the table above.
The first fermion to be discovered, and the one we know the most about, is the electron. The first boson to be discovered, and also the one we know the most about, is the photon. The theory that most accurately explains how the electron, photon, electromagnetism, and electromagnetic radiation all work together is called quantum electrodynamics.
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Seamonkey
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Seamonkey may mean:
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Zatch Bell
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Spin (physics)
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In physics, spin is the constant rotation of an object.
For large visible objects like the Earth, spin is the angular momentum of the turning of the Earth around its axis. This tells the amount of rotation that it has. Angular momentum changes with the mass and shape of the object, and with how fast it is turning.
Spin in quantum theory.
Experiments such as the Stern-Gerlach experiment have shown that sub-atomic particles, such as electrons, seem to have a north pole and a south pole much like magnets do. Scientists once thought that this was caused by the particle spinning on its axis like a planet.
Later, it was shown that the electron would have to be spinning faster than the speed of light to do this. This is why scientists no longer believe that the electron is actually spinning like a planet. Scientists do, however, continue to refer to the magnetic properties of particles as "spin".
Spin, whatever it is, seems to follow some of the laws of angular momentum, but not all of them. A "spinning" electron (or any other sub-atomic particle with spin) can only have certain values of angular momentum. Electrons can also align themselves against a magnetic field in ways that would be impossible in the everyday world.
Spin is considered a fundamental property of any particle.
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Bendigo, Victoria
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Bendigo is a city in central Victoria, Australia. There are about 86,000 people in Bendigo. It is the fourth biggest city in Victoria after Melbourne, Geelong and Ballarat. The city area is and has the towns Bendigo, Marong, Lockwood, Lockwood South, Ravenswood, Sebastian, Elmore, Heathcote, Maiden Gully, Lake Eppalock, Axedale, Goornong, Raywood and Huntly, all together, there are 100,000 people living there.
Strathfieldsaye.
Strathfieldsaye is a small suburb in Bendigo. It takes its name from Stratfield Saye House, which was awarded to the Duke of Wellington after his defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. In the 2011 census, Strathfieldsaye had a population of 4,648.
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Ballarat
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Ballarat is a city in central Victoria, Australia. Nearly 90,200 people live there, which makes it the third biggest city in Victoria, after Melbourne and Geelong. It is also the biggest city that is not on the coast in Victoria. It is about north-west of Melbourne. The city area covers about .
History.
Indigenous Australians.
Tribes of Australian Aboriginals, the Wathaurang and the Borneghurk, used to rest here, and called it "Balla-arat" meaning "Resting - Place"
The first people from Europe came to Ballarat in 1837 to be sheep farmers. They took over large areas of land, with some farms more than . By 1840 there were more than 20 farms with thousands of sheep in the Ballarat area. The city area was a farm owned by William Cross Yuille and Henry Anderson who arrived in 1838.
Gold rush.
Gold was found at Ballarat in late August 1851, by James Regan and John Dunlop and within three weeks there were nearly 1000 people digging in the area looking for gold. In two days the Cavanagh brothers dug up of gold from a hole less than two metres deep. This area is now called "Golden Point". Within a year there were 20,000 people living in Ballarat. With so many people coming to look for gold, the town soon became bigger. The Post Office opened on November 1, 1851.
Ballarat is famous as the site for an uprising, or rebellion. This is known as the Eureka Stockade or the Eureka Rebellion, which took place on 3 December 1854. About 30 miners were killed. This is an important moment in Australian history. The site now has a museum, called the Eureka Centre, with displays about the rebellion. The rebel miners flag, the Eureka Flag can be seen at the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery.
Big city.
Gold mining made Ballarat a rich town, and it was made a city in 1871. The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong-Ballarat line in 1862, and a direct line to Melbourne finished in December 1889.
The money made from gold mining can still be seen in size of many public buildings, the large parks, wide streets, the grand style of shops and hotels, and large houses built for the wealthy residents. From the 1880s to the start of the 20th century the city changed from a gold rush town to a large industrial city. Factories that made equipment for mining slowly changed into engineering and manufacturing businesses. The Victorian Railways built the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917.
During 1901, the Duke of Cornwall and York, later King George V, opened the first Commonwealth Parliament in Melbourne. While in Victoria, the Duke and Duchess made several journeys by train, on 13 May they went from Melbourne to Ballarat via Geelong, returning to Melbourne via Bacchus Marsh. Ballarat's airport was opened in 1930.
World War II.
In 1940 the Federal Government took over the airport as an air base for the Empire Air Training Scheme. During WWII the base was a RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons. During the war the airport was made much bigger, with three sealed runways. Two of these were over 2,000 metres (6,550 ft) long and 45 metres (150 ft) wide. The aerodrome remained the RAAF School of Radio until 1961 when it was returned to normal use. The City of Ballarat now runs the airport which is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register for its social and historic importance.
After the war.
After World War II, Ballarat grew to the northwest. To ease the housing shortage a large estate was built by the Housing Commission of Victoria on the old Ballarat Common This area is now called Wendouree West. From 1951 to 1962, 750 houses were built, with another 300 added in the 1970s. This was matched by private housing built in Wendouree.
In the 1980s the areas of growth have been in the south and west of the city, as well as new building in the inner areas of the city. Through the 20th century Ballarat continued to grow at a steady rate. New public buildings have been built including the hospital, the library, the law courts and the police station complex. Ballarat is home to many schools, including Damascus College.
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Rosa parks
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Heimdall
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Heimdall (or Heimdallr) is one of the gods in Northern mythology. He is the guardian of the Bifröst Bridge. He was the son of nine different mothers and was called the "White God".
Heimdall is the guardian of the gods. He will blow a horn, called the "Gjallarhorn", if Asgard is in danger. His senses are so good that he can hear the grass grow and he can see to the end of the world. Heimdall could hear a leaf fall. He does not need any sleep at all.
Heimdall was said to be the last of the gods to die at Ragnarok when he and Loki would kill one another.
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Tantalum
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Tantalum is a chemical element. Tantalum was named tantalium. It has the chemical symbol Ta. It has the atomic number 73. It is a rare metal. It is hard and blue-gray. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals.
Tantalum does not easily corrode. It is found in the mineral tantalite.
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Hafnium
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Hafnium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Hf. It has the atomic number 72. It is a metal. It is silver gray. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. The chemistry of hafnium is similar to zirconium.
Hafnium is found in zirconium minerals. Separating hafnium from zirconium is important for their use in nuclear power plants. The two metals are very similar, so it is difficult to separate them.
Hafnium is used in tungsten alloys in filaments and electrodes. It is also used as a neutron absorber in control rods in nuclear power plants.
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Lutetium
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Lutetium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Lu. It has the atomic number 71. It is a metal and a rare earth element. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Lutetium can also be grouped with the lanthanides because it is near the lanthanides in the Periodic Table. Its physical properties are like the lanthanides.
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Anaheim Ducks
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The Anaheim Ducks are an ice hockey team from Anaheim, California. They are in the National Hockey League (NHL). The Ducks changed the name on June 22, 2006. They used to be the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The name comes from the Disney movie "The Mighty Ducks".
History.
The team was created in 1991 and started playing in the 1993 season. The Ducks were originally owned by The Walt Disney Company. In 2005, Disney sold the Ducks to Susan and Henry Samueli
They are in the Western Conference's Pacific Division. They play their home games at Honda Center, in Anaheim, California. Their team colors are black, gold, and orange. Dallas Eakins is the team's head coach. Ryan Getzlaf is the captain of the team.
To date, they have won one Stanley Cup. It was in the 2006-2007 season. The Anaheim Ducks won the conference championship in the 2002-03 season and 2006-2007 season. They have won 6 Pacific division titles.
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Móði and Magni
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Magni and Móði (Old Norse: "strength" and "bravery") are a pair of minor deities in Norse mythology. They are sons of the god Thor, said to be embodiments of their father's traits. While Magni is born to Thor by the jötunn Járnsaxa (a lover of Thor), the name of Móði's mother is unknown.
Other than his part after Ragnarök, little is known about Móði. Magni however, is featured prominently in the myth of Thor's battle with the giant Hrungnir.
Thor hit the giant Hrungnir in the head with his hammer, Mjölnir, shattering Hrungnir's skull. The giant then fell dead, as his leg landed on Thor's neck, pinning the god to the ground. The other Æsir tried to lift Hrungnir's leg off of Thor, but were unsuccessful. Thor's son, Magni, who was only three days old at the time, then came to his father and lifted Hrungnir's leg off of Thor all by himself. In his gratitude, Thor gifted his son Hrungnir's horse, Gullfaxi (Old Norse: "Gold-mane"). Odin himself was upset that Thor gave the horse to "the son of a giantess" and not to Odin, Thor's own father.
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Modi and Magni
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Bifrost Bridge
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Bifrost
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AEsir
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Aesir
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Kerosene
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Kerosene or paraffin oil is a colourless flammable liquid, usually used for fuel. Kerosene is made by fractional distillation of petroleum. It may be used as fuel for lamps, in some kinds of cooking stoves and heaters, and there are even kerosene refrigerators. Kerosene is mainly used in the fuel for jet engines. The most common consumer use for kerosene in Canada and the US is lighting camp lamps. Kerosene is used as cooking fuel in some places, such as South Asia. Kerosene is also used to store sodium and other alkali metals.
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Brass instrument
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A brass instrument is a musical instrument that you play by blowing through a mouthpiece to change the pitch, or note.
Brass players use their breath to produce sound. Instead of blowing into a reed, they vibrate their lips by buzzing them against a metal cup-shaped mouthpiece. The mouthpiece helps to amplify the buzzing, which creates the sound. Most brass instruments have valves attached to their long pipes; the valves look like buttons. Pressing on the valves makes them open and close different parts of the pipe.
With brass instruments, the sound starts at the lips.
Their mouthpieces just help your lips buzz. It does not matter if the instrument is really made of brass, as long as it works that way.
It is not important what the instrument is made of. Some brass instruments are really made of wood, but are still called brass instruments, like the serpent. Other instruments are made of brass but do not work like this, like the saxophone. They are not called brass instruments, because they don't work that way.
There are also parts of the instrument that change the resonance and thus the pitch, like slides or valves.
A brass band is a group of brass instruments and drums that play music together. They are often used to play for parades and processions because the players can march and play at the same time. Brass bands were very popular in England. Many factories and coal mines had their own bands. The workers would play in the bands after work. One famous band is the Grimethorpe Colliery Band.
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Crystallization
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Crystallization is the way that atoms link up in a regular structure. The structure is held together by chemical bonds or connected groups. Crystallization can be from a melt or from a solution, and can be natural or artificial. Rarely, crystal can form directly from a gas. Faster crystallization makes smaller size crystals as in basalt, and slower can make bigger crystals, as in granite.
Crystallization occurs in two major steps. The first is "nucleation". This is the appearance of a crystalline phase from a super-cooled liquid or a supersaturated solvent. The second step is "crystal growth", where more atoms link up with the crystal structure. This means the (crystal) particles get bigger; this leads to a crystal state. Loose particles form layers at the crystal's surface and lodge themselves into open pores, cracks, etc.
Artificial crystallization is a technique to get solid crystals from a homogeneous solution. For crystallization to occur the solution should be supersaturated. Put simply, the solution should contain more solute molecules than it would under ordinary conditions. This can be achieved by various methods—solvent evaporation, cooling, and chemical reaction.
To make things clear we can use a simple example. We take a bowl of water to which we add sugar crystals. We keep adding sugar to it until we reach a stage when no more crystals can be dissolved. This solution is now a saturated one. It is interesting to note that we can dissolve more crystals to this particular saturated solution by heating it. Solubility of solutes increases with increase in temperature, but there are exceptional cases. This increase in temperature causes more sugar crystals to dissolve (so forming a supersaturated solution). When the temperature of the solution cools down, the solubility goes down, i.e. not as much sugar can be dissolved, so the extra sugar crystallizes out. This process is one of the simplest supersaturation techniques.
'Drowning' is the addition of a non-solvent in the solution that decreases the solubility of the solid. Alternatively, chemical reactions can also be used to decrease the solubility of the solid in the solvent, thus working towards supersaturation.
Crystallization can be divided into stages primary nucleation is the first. It is the growth of a new crystal. In turn this causes secondary nucleation – the final stage if removal of the crystals is not an issue. Secondary nucleation needs existing crystals to continue crystal growth. In our sugar example, we had got such nuclei when the 'excess' sugar had just about crystallized out. Secondary nucleation is the main stage in crystallization for this is what causes the 'mass production' of crystals. Crystals start to form when the liquid starts to cool and harden.
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Pearl Harbour Incident
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Stir frying
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Stir frying is a when food is cooked in a Wok (a traditional Asian pan for cooking). This method usually makes food cook faster.
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Iridium (element)
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Ragnarok Online
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Ragnarok Online is a 2002 massively multiplayer online role-playing game developed and published by Gravity. The game is based on the manhwa "Ragnarok" by Lee Myung-jin.
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Cairns
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Cairns () is a city in Queensland, Australia. 120.000 people live there. Cairns is about 1720 km (1,069 miles) north of Brisbane and about 2500km (1,553 miles) from Sydney by road. It is built on the shores of Trinity Bay.
Cairns is an important travel destination for tourists because it has a games arcade at Cairns Central, Public toilets, Zoos, Casinos, Various Takeaway shops, Pubs, Nightclubs, Movie theatres and Beaches, it is warm all year round and is near many attractions. The Great Barrier Reef is only one-and-a-half hours away by boat. The Daintree National Park and Cape Tribulation, about 130km north of Cairns, are popular areas for experiencing a tropical rainforest. It is also a starting point for people wanting to see Cooktown, Cape York Peninsula, and the Atherton Tableland.
History.
Captain James Cook named Trinity Bay when he arrived there in his ship HM Bark Endeavour on Trinity Sunday, 1770. The first Europeans to settle arrived in 1876 when gold was found near Cairns. It was named after the Governor of Queensland, Sir William Cairns.
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Arabian Sea
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The Arabian Sea is the northwest part of the Indian Ocean. To its west are the Guardafui Channel, Somali Sea and the Arabian Peninsula. To its east is the Indian Peninsula. It covers around . The Arabian Sea is one of the warmest seas.
Limits.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows:
Border and Basin countries.
The countries into which the Arabian Sea drains include:
Other names.
Other names for the sea include:
The Arabian Sea, historically and geographically, has been referred to by different names by Turks, Persians, Arabs,Indians and scholars of Geography and cartography in medieval Islam, European geographers and travelers, including the Ministry of Iran.
In Indian folklore, it is referred to as Darya, Sindhu Sagar, and Arab Samudra.
Arab sailors and nomads used to call this sea by different names, including the green sea, Bahre Fars, the ocean sea, the Hindu sea, the Makran Sea, the sea of Oman, among them the Zakariya al-Qazwini, Al-Masudi , Ibn Hawqal and (Hafiz-i Abru) They wrote: “The green sea and Indian sea and Persian sea are all one sea and in this sea there are strange creatures. Ibn Khordadbeh, Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi, Muhammad al-Idrisi, Istakhri, Mahmud al-Kashgari, Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad, and Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi had mentioned the sea as Persian sea and Bahr e Fars.
Some medieval maps, including the map by Vincenzo Maria, Coronelli, 1693 had mentioned the Persian sea and also Macran. Cornelius Le Brun's Year 1718 Map. On this map, the name of the Oman Sea is recorded as "Gulf of Hormuz". Map of Iran in the 16th century by Abraham Ortelius in which the name of the Persian Sea and the Indian Sea appear. Iran, had in the past, been called persian sea, but now like Turkey, it is called Oman sea together with the gulf of Oman Encyclopædia Iranica also call it Oman sea.
Maps with historical names.
Many atlases had published old maps of Asia and Indian ocean such as Atlas of The Arabian Peninsula in Old European Maps.Paris, 424pp. contains 253 maps.10 maps have used persian Sea (for the body of water which is now called Arabian sea)the maps in pages: -141-226-323-322-331-345-347-363-355• such as the hours shape map of Bunting H.S.Q34/24CM Hanover,1620.
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Base (chemistry)
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A base is a substance that can accept a hydrogen ion (H+) from another substance. A chemical can accept a proton if it has a negative charge, or if the molecule has an electronegative atom like oxygen, nitrogen, or chlorine that is rich in electrons. Like acids, some bases are strong and others are weak. The weak bases are less likely to accept protons, while the strong bases quickly take protons in solution or from other molecules.
An acid is a base's "chemical opposite". An acid is a substance that will donate a hydrogen atom to the base.
Bases have a pH greater than 7.0. Weak bases generally have a pH value of 79 while strong bases have a pH value of 9–14.
How bases work.
Bases react with acids. This reaction makes a weaker acid and weaker base, called the conjugates.
In water, strong bases make hydroxide ions. The hydroxide takes a hydrogen ion from an acid. This makes a water molecule, which is neutral (it is the same as the solvent). The other parts of the acid and the counterion from the base are attracted together to make neutral salts. Because adding the base to the acid makes its pH more neutral, this is called neutralization.
Weak bases react without making hydroxide. For example, ammonia () is a weak base that dissolves in water but does not react. When a strong acid like hydrochloric acid is added, it gives a hydrogen ion to the ammonia molecule, making ammonia's conjugate acid, the ammonium ion . The ammonium solution will stay slightly acidic unless a stronger base is added, which will change it back into ammonia.
Characteristics.
Bases have these characteristics:
Some common household products are bases. For example, caustic soda and drain cleaner are made from sodium hydroxide, a strong base. Ammonia or an ammonia-based cleaner such as window and glass cleaner, is basic. These stronger bases may cause a skin irritation. Other bases, like cooking ingredients sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or cream of tartar are basic, but these are not harmful and suitable for cooking.
Gloves should always be worn when handling bases. If skin irritation is encountered, the affected area should be rinsed thoroughly with cold water. If that does not stop the problem, contact medical help as soon as possible.
Strong bases.
A strong base is a base that completely converts to hydroxide ions, , in water. Most strong bases are hydroxide salts, which dissolve in water rather than reacting with it.
Sodium hydroxide is the most commonly used strong base, but all salts of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals and the hydroxide ion are strong bases:
These are sometimes listed as the "only" strong bases, following the Arrhenius acid-base theory, but this is inaccurate in general. Because of the leveling effect, stronger bases than the hydroxide ion will react with water to produce hydroxide and their conjugate acid. For example, the strong base sodium methoxide reacts to make sodium hydroxide and methanol in water:
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Ytterbium
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Ytterbium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Yb. It has the atomic number 70 which means it has 70 protons in an atom. It is part of a group of chemical elements in the periodic table named the Lanthanides. Ytterbium, along with yttrium, terbium, and erbium, is one of the four elements to be named after the town of Ytterby in Sweden, all of which are rare earth elements. It is soft and silver in color.
Ytterbium is found in minerals named gadolinite, monazite, and xenotime. In nature it is found as a mix of seven stable isotopes. Ytterbium is used in some steels and is also used to make lasers.
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Ununtrium
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Heart transplant
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A heart transplant is a type of surgery where someone's damaged or failing heart is removed and replaced with a healthier donor heart, likely to be from someone who passed just a few hours before the surgery. it is required that two or more healthcare providers declare the donor brain-dead.
It is otherwise known as an 'open heart procedure', taking several hours to accomplish. The first heart transplant on a human was done by Christiaan Barnard on Louis Washkansky, a 54-year-old with both diabetes and incurable heart disease at the time. This procedure was carried out on Sunday 3rd December 1967.
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Joan Baez
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Joan Chandos Baez (born January 9, 1941) is an American folk singer and activist. Baez is known for her very individual vocal style. She is a soprano with a three-octave vocal range. Many of her songs talk about social issues.
She is best known for her 1970s hits "Diamonds & Rust" and "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down". She is also known for "Sweet Sir Galahad" and "Joe Hill." She sang these songs at the 1969 Woodstock festival and the songs became famous. She is also a well known singer due to her relationship with Bob Dylan and her love for activism in areas such as nonviolence, civil and human rights and the environment.
Music.
Baez has performed for over 65 years, since the release of her eponymous album. She has released over thirty albums. She has recorded songs in over eight languages. Baez is known primarily as a folksinger, but she sings many kinds of music, including rock, pop, country, and gospel. Baez is famous for covering other artists' songs with her own unique style. She sang songs by The Beatles, Jackson Browne, Paul Simon, The Rolling Stones, Stevie Wonder and many others.
Activism.
Baez protests against social and environmental problems. She did not support the Vietnam War. She did not want people to pay taxes that paid for the Vietnam War. Baez did not want men going to fight in the war. She did not perform in places where people of color were treated differently. In addition, Baez helped found the Resource Center for Nonviolence. The Resource Center for Nonviolence is an organization whose goal is to make social change without violence.
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Kalmar Union
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The Kalmar Union was a royal personal union consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and various other provinces and areas. At that time, Norway included Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Jan Mayen, Shetland, and Orkney. Parts of Finland belonged to Sweden. The union was started in 1397 when Eric of Pomerania was crowned in the town of Kalmar in Sweden. The union ended on 6 June 1523 when Sweden left the union by Gustav I.
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Tomorrow Never Knows (Mr. Children song)
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Francisco Goya
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Bay of Plenty
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The Bay of Plenty is a region in New Zealand. It was first called the Bay of Plenty by Captain James Cook in November 1769. The Māori name for the bay is "Te Moana-a-Toi" ("the sea of Toi").
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Plotter
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A plotter is a kind of printer for computers. Plotters use vector graphics. Usually they are used to print to paper which is very large in size. Plotters print things using special, colored pens. There is one called the drum plotter. They are often used in warehouses. They are generally used for making flex or maps.
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Dot matrix printing
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Dot-matrix printers are printers for computers. A dot matrix printer creates characters by striking pins against ink ribbons. The print head moves back and forth on the paper like a typewriter and prints the image. Each pin makes a dot, and combinations of dots form characters and pictures. This is much like a typewriter. Each character is made from a matrix of dots. These were used a lot in the 1970s to the 1990s. Today, dot matrix printers are not used by many people anymore. Most people use inkjet printers or laser printers now. They are still in use where forms (with multiple copies) need to be filled out. It is not advisable for office uses as it is an impact printer (make noise as the job is getting done). It prints information on continuous paper.
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Vercingetorix
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Vercingetorix ( in Gaulish) born c.82 BC, died 46 BC. was a chieftain of the Gallic tribe of the Arverni.
He led the Gauls in 52 BC against the Roman army in Gaul led by Julius Caesar. Vercingetorix's name in Gaulish means "over-king of the marching men"; the "marching men" would now be called "infantry".
Vercingetorix was probably one of the first to unite some tribes of Gaul against a common enemy. This was the last major uprising of the peoples of Gaul against the Roman invaders.
After the celebration of Caesar's triumph was over, Vercingetorix was executed.
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Philippe Noiret
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Philippe Noiret (1 October 1930, in Lille, France – 23 November 2006 in Paris) was a well-known French actor. He is probably best known for his role in Cinema Paradiso, and for playing Pablo Neruda in the film Il Postino. He died on November 23, 2006 of cancer.
Selected works.
Film
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Eva Peron
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Monica Bellucci
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Monica Bellucci (born 30 September 1964) is an italian fashion model and actress. She was born in Città di Castello, Umbria. Bellucci started modelling at 16. She is the daughter of Maria Gustinelli, a painter, and Luigi Bellucci, who owned a trucking company. She used to be a fashion model. She speaks Italian, French, and English fluently and has acted in each of these languages, as well as Aramaic. She is currently considered as an Italian sex symbol.
Bellucci was married to Vincent Cassel and has a daughter named Deva (born 12 September 2004). She has been in a relationship with American director Tim Burton since 2022.
In 2004, while pregnant with her daughter, Bellucci posed nude for the Italian "Vanity Fair" Magazine in protest against Italian laws that allow only married couples to use in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) and that prevent the use of donor sperm.
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Simpsons
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800 BC
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Play (disambiguation)
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Heart transplantation
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Aik
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Murrayfield Stadium
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Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh is the home of the Scottish national rugby team. It was first built in 1925. In 1995, the stadium was renovated. It has seats for 67,144 people. It held the record for the most people at a rugby union match. 104,000 people watched Scotland play Wales in 1975.
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List of football clubs in Sweden
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This is a list of football clubs in Sweden.
Alphabetically.
Å Ä Ö
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Allmänna Idrottsklubben
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AIK (which stands for Allmänna Idrottsklubben), is a sports club from Sweden. It is one of the biggest and one of the oldest in the country. It was founded in 1891. The name means "Common" (or "Public") "Sports Club". It has departments for many different sports including football, ice hockey, bandy, golf, table tennis, bowling, and handball.
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Neighbor
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Network Ten
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Network Ten is one of three major television networks in Australia. It started broadcasting television in 1965, when they were called Independent Television Network.
Shows.
Shows that Network Ten buy from other countries and broadcast in Australia include:
Shows made in Australia for Network Ten include:
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Seven Network
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Seven Network is one of three major television networks in Australia. It started broadcasting in 1956. In recent years, it has grown into a diversified media company. Seven Network's main shareholder is Kerry Stokes.
Seven Network's studio headquarters are in a converted warehouse at Jones Bay Wharf in Pyrmont, Sydney. Its headquarters for its news department are in Martin Place, Sydney. Seven's major production facilities are at Epping in Sydney's northern suburbs. Seven Network are planning to move their production facilities to a specially built site at the Australian Technology Park in Redfern.
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Accounting
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Accounting or accountancy is the job of sharing financial information about a business to managers and shareholders or owners. Accounting is often called the "language of business". Accountants are people who do accounting, and also carry out the auditing or checking of a company's books and records. In Britain, this auditing is often carried out by a qualified person called a "chartered accountant". In the United States, the professional designation is Certified Public Accountant or "CPA".
When accountants do accounting work, they write in the books of account (ledgers) that belong to a company. Every time money is spent or earned, it is written in the ledger. The information in the ledger is used to prepare the company accounts monthly, quarterly (every three months) and annually (every year). The accounts show what money the company has taken in over time and what it has spent money on. It also shows if the business made a profit in the year (if it made more money than it spent), who owes the company money, who the company owes money to, and any big expensive items the company has bought which they expect to use for many years. Lenders, managers, investors, tax authorities (the people who collect taxes for the government) and other decision-makers look at these accounts. Managers and investors look at the ledger and make decisions about how to spend money in the future. Lenders like banks look at the accounts before they lend money to the company. Tax authorities look at them to check that the company is paying the correct amount of taxes.
Where the word comes from.
The word "accountant" originally comes from the Latin word "computare" – "to reckon, count, number", via French. "Accomptant" was the original spelling and pronunciation of the word "accountant". However, over time, people began to drop the "p" in the word "accomptant". Over time, the word changed both in the way it was said and spelled to how it is today.
Accounting theory.
The basic accounting equation is assets=liabilities+equity.
History.
Early history.
Accountancy is very old. It started when humans first started to farm and form towns and cities. People who thought about economics (keeping track of money and valuable things) thought of a way to write down the size and values of crops.
Token accounting in ancient Mesopotamia.
The earliest accounting records were found among the ruins of ancient Babylon, Assyria and Sumeria, which are more than 7,000 years old. The people of that time relied on primitive accounting methods to record the growth of crops and herds. Because there is a natural season for farming and herding, it is easy to count and determine if a surplus had been gained after the crops had been harvested or the young animals weaned.
The invention of a form of bookkeeping using clay tokens represented a huge cognitive leap for mankind.
In the twelfth-century A.D., the Arab writer, Ibn Taymiyyah, wrote a book called "Hisba". This book has details about accounting systems that were used by Muslims before the mid-seventh century A.D. Muslim accounting was influenced (changed) by Romans and Persians. In his book, Ibn Taymiyyah gives details of a complex governmental accounting system.
Accounting in the Roman Empire.
The "Res Gestae Divi Augusti" (Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus") is a remarkable account to the Roman people of the Emperor Augustus' stewardship. It listed and quantified his public expenditure. This included distributions to the people, grants of land or money to army veterans, subsidies to the "aerarium" (treasury), building of temples, religious offerings, and expenditures on theatrical shows and gladiatorial games. It was not an account of state revenue and expenditure, but was to show Augustus' generosity. The significance of the "Res Gestae Divi Augusti" lies in the fact that it illustrates that the executive authority had access to detailed financial information, covering a period of some forty years, which was still retrievable after the event. The scope of the accounting information at the emperor's disposal suggests that its purpose encompassed planning and decision-making.
The Roman historians Suetonius and Cassius Dio record that in 23 BC, Augustus prepared a "rationarium" (account) which listed public revenues, the amounts of cash in the "aerarium" (treasury), in the provincial "fisci" (tax officials), and in the hands of the "publicani" (public contractors); and that it included the names of the freedmen and slaves from whom a detailed account could be obtained. Tacitus' says that it was written out by Augustus himself.
Records of cash, commodities, and transactions were kept by military personnel of the Roman army. An account of small cash sums received over a few days at the fort of Vindolanda circa 110 CE shows that the fort could calculate revenues in cash on a daily basis, perhaps from sales of surplus supplies or goods manufactured in the camp, items given to slaves such as "cervesa" (beer) and "clavi caligares" (nails for boots), as well as things bought by individual soldiers. The basic needs of the fort were met by a mixture of direct production, purchase and requisition; in one letter, a request for money to buy 5,000 "modii" (measures) of "braces" (a cereal used in brewing) shows that the fort bought provisions for a lot of people.
The Heroninos Archive is the name given to a huge collection of papyrus documents, mostly letters, but also including a fair number of accounts, which come from Roman Egypt in 3rd century CE. Most of the documents relate to the running of a large, private estate named after Heroninos because he was "phrontistes" (Koine Greek: manager) of the estate which had a complex and standardised system of accounting which was followed by all its local farm managers. Each administrator on each sub-division of the estate drew up his own little accounts, for the day-to-day running of the estate, payment of the workforce, production of crops, the sale of produce, the use of animals, and general expenditure on the staff. This information was then summarized as pieces of papyrus scroll into one big yearly account for each particular sub—division of the estate. Entries were arranged by sector, with cash expenses and gains from all the different sectors. Accounts of this kind gave the owner the opportunity to take better economic decisions because the information was purposefully selected and arranged.
Luca Pacioli and modern accountancy.
Luca Pacioli (1445–1517), also known as Friar Luca dal Borgo, is said to be the "Father" of accountancy. He wrote a textbook in Latin called "Summa de arithmetica, geometrica, proportioni et proportionalita" ("Summa on arithmetic, geometry, proportions and proportionality", Venice 1494). This textbook was used in the abbaco schools in northern Italy. Sons of merchants and craftsmen were taught in these schools. This textbook was written about math. It has the first printed description of how merchants from Venice kept their accounts. Merchants from Venice used a system called the double-entry bookkeeping system. Double-entry bookkeeping is where there is a debit and credit entry for every transaction.
Pacioli wrote down this system. He did not invent it, but he is still called the "Father of Accounting". The system he wrote had most of the accounting cycle as it is known today. He wrote about using journals and ledgers, and warned that a person should not go to sleep at night until the debits were the same as the credits. His ledger had accounts for assets (things that have value), liabilities (debts and loans that are to be paid to someone else), capital (money), income and expenses. He showed how to write year-end closing entries and suggested that a trial balance be used to prove that a ledger is balanced. His treatise (long essay) in the book is also about other topics, such as accounting ethics and cost accounting.
Post-Pacioli.
The first book written in the English language on accounting was published in London, England by John Gouge in 1543.
In 1588 John Mellis from Southwark, England wrote a short book of instructions for keeping accounts.
There was another book written in 1635 that was described as "The Merchants Mirrour, or directions for the perfect ordering and keeping of his accounts formed by way of Debitor and Creditor". This book was written by Richard Dafforne, who was an accountant. This book has many references to books about accountancy that were written much earlier. One chapter of this book is titled "Opinion of Book-keeping's Antiquity". In this chapter the author says that, according to another author, the bookkeeping he wrote about was used two-hundred years earlier in Venice. There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book. The second edition was published in 1636. The third edition was published in 1656. Another edition was published in 1684. The book is very complete in how it describes scientific accountancy. It contains a lot of detail and explanation. The science that supports accountancy was liked by many people in the seventeenth century. This is supported by the fact that there were so many editions. Since then there have been many books written about accountancy. Many authors claim to be professional accountants and teachers of accountancy. Because of this, it shows that there were professional accountants who were employed in the seventeenth century.
Types of accounting.
A financial audit is where an internal audit and an external audit are done. For an external audit, an independent (unrelated) auditor takes a look at financial statements and accounting records. By looking at these records, the auditor can find out if these records are true, fair and follow Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), or International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). "Internal audit" tries to get information for management usage, and is done by employees.
Research.
Accounting research is research in the effects of economic events on the process of accounting, the effects of reported information on economic events, and the roles of accounting in organizations and society. It encompasses a broad range of research areas including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing and taxation.
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Des Lynam
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Desmond Michael Lynam (born 17 September 1942) is an Irish television and radio presenter. He was born in Ennis, County Clare, Republic of Ireland. He was best known for presenting the BBC's sport coverage such as "Grandstand".
Lynam also presented "Countdown" on Channel 4 from 2005 to 2006. He was replaced by Des O'Connor.
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Carbonate
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A carbonate is a chemical compound that has the carbonate ion, . This ion is made of carbon and oxygen. The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid, an organic compound containing the carbonate group C(=O)(O–)2 of carbon and oxygen. They have a valency of 1.
When added to an acid, a carbonate will produce carbon dioxide, water and a chemical salt. Sedimentary rocks containing calcite and other carbonates are plentiful in the earth.
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Mercali intensity scale
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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
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Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek (24 October 1632 – 30 August 1723; last name pronounced 'Layvenhook') was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He is best known for his work to improve the microscope.
Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to see and describe single celled organisms, which he originally referred to as "animalcules", and which we now refer to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in small blood vessels. Van Leeuwenhoek did not write books, but sent letters to the Royal Society in London. The letters were published in the Royal Society's journal "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society".
In his youth van Leeuwenhoek was apprenticed to a draper. Later, a civil service position allowed him to give time to his hobby: grinding lenses and using them to study tiny objects. His simple microscopes were skillfully ground, powerful single lenses capable of high image quality. He looked at protozoa in rainwater, pond water and well water. He also looked at bacteria in the human mouth and intestine. In 1677, he first described the spermatozoa of insects, dogs, and humans.
His observations laid the foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology. He was the first to see bacteria, protists, spermatozoa, the cell vacuole, blood corpuscles, capillaries, and the structure of muscles and nerves.
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Anton van leeuwenhoek
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Thonius Philips van Leeuwenhoek
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Barbie
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Barbie is an American fashion doll best known as a toy doll. Starting as just a doll, Barbie became a brand. It is most common in the United States. It is named after a girl named Barbara, who was the toy maker's daughter. Though the brand is most famous for the doll, other merchandise has been created with the Barbie name such as games, movies, videos, clothing, accessories, and books. The clothes and fashion accessories allow girls a taste of high fashion.
Throughout the decades, Barbie has reflected and encouraged feminine growth in the workplace in the United States. She has been a miniature model of women worldwide. The doll has been criticized for causing self-image complexes, yet other companies continue to produce similar dolls. "The Barbie doll is the biggest selling toy in the history of proprietary toy manufacturing." On average, 173,000 dolls are sold by Mattel each day.
Origin.
Ruth Handler was the creator of Barbie. Her parents were Polish Jewish immigrants. She was the tenth child. Her husband, Elliot Handler was the founder of Mattel in 1945, which is the largest toy company in the world. She originally wanted to name the doll "Barbara", after her daughter, or "Babs" after her daughter's nickname. However, both those names were copyrighted.
Late 1950s.
Barbie was first released on March 9, 1959 at a toy fair in New York after seven years of battling disagreements. At the time, Mattel was the third largest toy company in the United States. Ruth's display of Barbie was housed at the New Yorker Hotel in a hotel room, since so many businesses brought their toys to put on display. She had to halt the projected production that she assumed she would acquire in business orders at the fair. It was a disappointing day for Ruth and Barbie. In March 1959, Barbie debuted as a teen fashion model on television with more positive response leading the way for the dolls popularity rise.
A blonde Barbie from this decade in mint condition has an appraisal price listing of five thousand-$5,250. The brunette Barbie that was made at the same time is worth $1,000 more than the blonde.
The 1960s.
In the 1960s Barbie's friends joined the line up of fashion dolls. Ken was her boyfriend and came to be in 1962. The Ken doll got his name from Ruth's son. Midge was her friend who was a redhead meeting the toy marketplace in 1963, a year after Ken. Allen was Ken's friend. Skipper was her little sister that was produced in 1964. Tutti and Todd were her twin siblings were introduced in 1966. Francie was her adult cousin. In 1967, Francie was changed into the first black Barbie doll causing consumers to believe it reflected the support of interracial marriages. Since this was during Civil Rights' time, she was not very successful. Twelve months later Mattel introduced Christie, the second black Barbie, who was much more accepted. Cara and Julia were also produced as Barbie's black friends. The roles of Barbie evolved as equality for women's rights progressed. The doll started in the 1960s portraying stereotypical female positions like teacher, stewardess, nurse, etc. A series of novels were also written introducing Barbie and her birthplace in the 60's. Bendable legs and swivel hips were introduced on Barbie in 1965. Jack Ryan created them.
Hairstyles of the Barbie's in the 1960s were typically the classic bubble-cut hairstyle of the era taken from the First Lady of the early 60's Jackie Kennedy. The Barbie that is worth the most from this decade according to "Schroeder's Collectible Toys" is Color Magic Barbie made in 1967. Her hair and costume changes color. If it is complete with its cardboard box, it is worth $4,000.
The 1970's.
Children could purchase the new bendable Barbie's at a discounted rate if they wanted to trade in the old style in the 1970s. Christie's black boyfriend, Brad was introduced in 1970.
Barbie's facial features were changed in 1971 from eyes cutting from the side and smile without teeth to eyes forward and a wide smile exposing teeth. This change occurred to keep current with the times representing a "forward-thinking peace-and-love generation."
The first doctor Barbie appeared in 1973. Cara's boyfriend Brad reached the toy market in 1975. The flip hairstyle was a popular way for Barbie's hair to be styled in the 70's. The Sears' exclusive Dramatic New Living Skipper Very Best Velvet Barbie made in 1970-71 has the highest list price for the decade in "Schroeder's Collectible Toys" at $1,500.00.
The 1980's.
Hispanic and black Barbies were no longer featured as friends of Barbie's in the 1980s. They had reached the Barbie title in their own right. Magic Curl Barbie made its debut in 1982 feauting both black and white races. The first Asian doll produced representing Hong Kong in 1981 came from a mold with a rounder face and almond shaped eyes. A Japanese Barbie hit the market in 1985 as one of the first other nationalities offered with the collection of International Dolls of the World Barbies following its release. Barbie was made into a pilot in 1989. The doll could be viewed as opening the door for female acceptance in otherwise male dominant careers paving the way with astronaut Barbie debuting eighteen years prior to Sally Ride's first female in space endeavor. The 1980s also began the Holiday Barbie collection. The first one was produced in 1988 and its listed value is $325, which is $700 less than what it was worth in the 1990s.
The 1990's.
Shani, Asha, and Nichelle were produced to offer greater skin tone and facial feature selection to represent blacks more accurately in 1991.A hit single produced by the band Aqua entitled "Barbie Girl" climbed charts worldwide in 1997. Also in 1997, Puerto Rican Barbie debuted. Barbie's body measurements changed in 1998 due to consumer demand. Her breasts and hips were reduced and waist was widened. Race car driving NASCAR Barbie hit toy store shelves in 1998 and 1999 foreshadowing the first female race car driver Danica Patrick. Barbie was flashy and wore bright colors in the 90's. 1994's Barbie Snow Princess worth $1100 is the highest listed of the decade in "Schroeder's Collectible Toys".
The New Millennium.
Ruth had died, and could not dip Barbie's hand and footprints in her concrete slab on Hollywood Boulevard in 2002. Instead, Barbara, her daughter for whom the doll was named, did the honors inducting the doll to superstar status. In 2006 a movie, "The Tribe" used Barbie to connect with being Jewish in America. In 2008, Barbie was transformed into a representation of African culture for the hundredth anniversary of the first African American sorority Alpha Kappa Alpha. 2009 brought about changes to the black Barbie adding fuller lips and altered facial features at the request of consumer complaints. Tricelle was given more textured and curlier hair. Chataine Barbie made in 2003 is worth $425 according to "Schroeder's".
Margot Robbie starred in the Barbie Movie in 2023.
Self Image.
Some people believe Barbie gives girls a wrong idea of what they will look like when they grow up. They think the introduction of the doll was wrong because it made young girls believe they had to become skinny to be just like Barbie. As in earlier dolls, her head is disproportionately large. Unlike those, her breasts are large and her waist disproportionately small. Unlike many dolls, she has feet, but they are disproportionately small. If her doll size proportions were converted into life size body measurements (breast size, waist size, hip size) only 1 in 100,000 women would match them, at least without plastic surgery. Someone shaped like Barbie would suffer back problems due to her breast size. She would be unable to support her weight on her tiny feet and could not walk.
The doll has been blamed for eating disorders, such as anorexia and bulimia. She is not supposed to be taken as a literal interpretation of a teenage girl. Barbie was not built to give girls an inferior complex when comparing themselves to the doll. She was built to be a longer lasting alternative to the easily torn paper dolls for hours of enjoyment reinacting life scenes through a child's creativity and imagination. Barbie is a teen doll, which gives little girls a peek at what might happen in their teen life. This was thought to be bad, because Barbie has many boyfriends.
Barbie rivals.
Ruth Handler, Barbie's creator, has been blamed for taking the Barbie doll design from a doll made in Germany in 1955, the Lilli doll that was sold mainly at tobacco shops, for men. Lilli was originally a cartoon character in a tabloid newspaper in Germany created by Reinhard Beuthein in 1952. O.M. Hausser/Elastolin Company had Max Weissbrodt, a doll maker of theirs get a patent for Lilli's limb design. Ruth is rumored to have purchased a few of the dolls while in Switzerland with her family.
The Barbie doll has been in competition with other toy companies' doll designs. Ideal Toy and Novelty Company began making Tammy in 1962, American Character Doll Company challenged Barbie's sales in 1963 with Tressy, and Remco started producing the Littlechap Family in 1964. However, none had the popularity of Barbie. At the time of production, Tammy gave Barbie creators a financial scare. She was based on a movie character played by Debbie Reynolds. Instead of being surrounded with friends and boyfriends, the doll came with a mother and father, which might be why her popularity never surpassed Barbie's.
Barbie spin-offs.
Barbie is a very big trend. She has had many sisters, boyfriends, and friends. She has "dream houses" and clothes. She has many jobs from teacher to doctor to astronaut. There have been many other dolls like Barbie since Barbie was first produced. Barbie also created MyScene dolls, a spoof of Bratz. The fact is the creator of Barbie, Ruth Handler, fought sexism and overcame her domesticated gender role to accomplish her goals in the business arena as a female by producing the world-famous Barbie doll.
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Parmesan cheese
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Parmesan cheese is the name of an Italian extra-hard cheese made of raw cow's milk.
The original Parmesan cheese is more precisely called "Parmigiano-Reggiano". It is produced only in Italy, in the provinces of Parma, Reggio Emilia, Modena, Mantua (partly) and Bologna (partly). It is usually the cheese to go with Spaghetti and other typical Italian pasta, but it also has many other uses. Parmesan is a part of Italian national cuisine and it can be eaten both grated and in slivers. It is hard, sharp and dry.
Parmigiano-Reggiano is DOP / AOC. This means that the way they are made and the region in Italy they come from are strictly controlled.The brand (Parmigiano Reggiano) is protected, and only in Europe. In many parts of the world, cheese is sold as "Parmesan cheese" that has nothing to do with the true (Italian) Parmigiano Reggiano.
The original Parmesan cheese is one of the most expensive cheeses in the world.
Name.
Within the European Union, the term "Parmesan" may only be used, by law, to refer to Parmigiano-Reggiano itself, which must be made in a restricted geographic area, using stringently defined methods. In many areas outside Europe, the name "Parmesan" has become genericized: Any one of a number of hard Italian-style grating cheeses are called 'Patmesan'. After the European ruling that "parmesan" could not be used as a generic name, Kraft renamed its grated cheese "Pamesello" in Europe.
One kind of cheese, which is very similar, but produced in another region in Italy, is Grana Padano. Grana Padano is produced in Lombardy.
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Franz Liszt
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Franz Liszt (born Raiding, October 22, 1811; died Bayreuth, July 31, 1886) was a Hungarian composer and pianist. Liszt (pronounced like “list”) was one of the most influential musicians of the 19 th century. He was the greatest pianist of his time and went on lots of tours through Europe where everyone filled the concert halls to hear him. He wrote a lot of music for piano. Many of his piano pieces were harder to play than anything that had been written before. In this way he developed the technique of piano playing, setting new standards for the future. In his compositions he often used new ideas which sounded very modern in his time. He was very helpful to other composers who lived at that time, helping them to become better known by conducting their works and playing some of their orchestral pieces on the piano.
Early years.
Liszt’s father was an official who worked for Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, the same noble family who employed the composer Joseph Haydn. When he was seven his father started to teach him the piano. He was a child prodigy, and within a year or two he was already playing in concerts. He was so promising that some rich Hungarians said they would pay for his music education.
In 1821 his family moved to Vienna. He had piano lessons from Czerny and composition lessons from Salieri. He soon became famous although he was still a young boy, and he met famous musicians like Beethoven and Schubert. Beethoven is supposed to have kissed him on the forehead.
In 1823 his family moved again, this time to Paris. He wanted to go to the Conservatoire to study music but Luigi Cherubini would not let him in because he was a foreigner (i.e. not French). So he studied music theory privately with Reicha and composition with Paer. Soon he was asked to play the piano everywhere in Paris. He travelled to London. On his second visit there in 1825, he played to King George IV at Windsor.
Liszt continued to travel to other countries. After his father died he became a piano teacher in Paris. He fell in love with one of his pupils. It was the first of many love affairs he had with various women. He read a lot of books to try to educate himself properly. He met Berlioz and he liked the music of Berlioz very much. In 1831 he met the violinist Niccolò Paganini and was amazed by his virtuoso playing. Liszt was to do for the piano what Paganini had done for the violin. Both men were drawn by cartoonists as devilish characters. Both men wrote music which was incredibly hard for their instruments.
Soon Liszt met a Countess called Marie d’Agoult. He began to have an affair with her. The Countess left her husband and went to live with Liszt in Geneva. They lived together for several years and had three children. When Liszt gave away a lot of his money to help pay for a monument to Beethoven in Bonn he had to earn money by going on tours again, so the countess left him. He still saw her and the children every summer for a few years but finally they separated completely.
Later years.
Liszt spent eight years in Rome. He wrote religious music and took holy orders in the Catholic Church. His daughter Cosima, who had married a famous conductor Hans von Bülow, left her husband and lived with Richard Wagner. They had two children together. Liszt and Wagner quarreled for many years about this.
Liszt spent most of his last years travelling to and fro between three cities: Rome, Weimar and Budapest. He called this his “vie trifurquée” (three-forked life). He died in Bayreuth July 31, 1886.
His personality.
Liszt had a very strong personality which affected everyone he met. When he played the piano at concerts he was a great showman. People drew caricatures of him playing the piano with his wild mop of hair. He could be very polite and knew how to get on with the aristocracy. He could be very generous, giving both money and time to other musicians and giving praise where it was deserved. He was a powerful, unique character and one of the most important romantic composers of his day. He is known for his dazzling virtuostic piano displays best.
Compositions.
Most of Liszt’s compositions were for piano. He wrote one piano sonata. It is in B minor. Its form is very different from the sonatas of composers like Beethoven. It is a very Romantic work, but it does not tell a story like a lot of Romantic pieces do. Most of his piano works are shorter pieces that are quite free in form. He often took a theme and transformed it (changed it gradually). He wrote studies which are much more than just pieces to improve one’s piano technique. One collection is called "Transcendental Studies". In Switzerland he wrote "Années de pèlerinage" (Years of Wandering), a collection of pieces to which he gave titles later. Liszt explored all the possible sounds that the piano could make (it was still a fairly new instrument). Sometimes he made it sound like an orchestra. Some of his last piano works are much simpler to play, although the chords would have sounded very modern for his time. They are like the Impressionistic music of Debussy.
Not all Liszt’s piano pieces were original compositions: he also made arrangements or transcriptions. It seems a strange idea to us now to take someone else’s symphony and arrange it for piano. This is what Liszt often did. He took symphonies by Beethoven or songs by Schubert and changed them so that they could be played on the piano. Many people did not have the opportunity to hear concerts very often, and they certainly did not have radios or CDs, so Liszt was making these works more famous, helping them to reach a wider audience. He often made difficult transcriptions which meant that he changed the pieces and added ornamental notes, making a new piece out of an old one.
Liszt’s orchestral music is also very important. He wrote symphonic poems: pieces which tell a story or describe something. The best known one is called "Les préludes". He also wrote two piano concertos.
He wrote a lot of church music. Church music was often quite sentimental in those days, but Liszt tried to make his works help people to feel religious devotion. For composing and performing Liszt was using a variety of pianos (fortepiano). In his Portugal tour as well as in Kiev and Odessa tours, he used a Boisselot piano. This model has been recreated in the XXI century. The composer also owned an Erard piano, a Bechstein piano and Beethoven's Broadwood grand piano.
Conclusion.
In many ways Liszt was typical of the Romantic artist. He was always looking for a spiritual meaning to life. He carried a walking stick with the heads of St Francis of Assisi and Gretchen and Mephistopheles, characters from Goethe’s Faust. He was a 19th-century musician but through his thinking and his music he looked forward to the 20th century.
References.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie (1980)
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Fandom (website)
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Fandom (previously known as Wikia and before that, Wikicities) is an organization for making websites that are wikis. Wikia was started in 2004 by Jimmy Wales, who also started Wikipedia, and Angela Beesley. The name of Wikicities was changed to Wikia on March 27, 2006 to prevent other people from mistaking it for a wiki on cities, and then renamed again on October 4th, 2016 to Fandom for an unknown reason. At the time, it was called "Fandom powered by Wikia" until June 2018. Since October 2018, most of the URLs have changed from x.wikia.com to x.fandom.com.
this does not include wikis based on serious topics which instead changed to x.wikia.org.
Wikis hosted on Fandom are about something which many people will like. All content on Fandom is released under a free license, such as the GNU Free Documentation License or the Creative Commons. Anybody can change pages on wikis at Fandom, so that no single person "owns" or is "the boss" of a wiki, and so that large communities can be made. The software used is MediaWiki.
Fandom uses advertisements to generate money.
Articles on Fandom are often written in more "in-universe" style; meaning that fictional characters and plots are written as if they are real. Some projects on Fandom are more for people who are very interested in the topic.
In August 2010, they said that a new look was coming, making some people take their wikis off the service.
Fandom uses the MediaWiki software.
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Mozzarella
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Mozzarella is a kind of fresh cheese. Originally, it was Italian but now it can be found all over the world. Its made of the milk of cows or water buffalos. A cheese produced in a similar way, but with sheep's milk is common in Sardinia, Abruzzo and Lazio. It is sometimes called mozzapecora. Mozzarella made with goats milk can also be found. Its development is more recent, though. The main reason it is produced is that goats' milk is easier to digest than that of cows or buffalos.
Mozzarella is common in Italian cuisine. It can be used on pizza.
Mozzarella can be kept in the fridge for a few days, if it is covered in brine.
Mozzarella can come in different moistures.
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Limburger cheese
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Limburger cheese is a cheese made from cows' milk. Its name comes from the Duchy of Limburg, which is divided between The Netherlands, Belgium and Germany today. Limburger cheese is known for its strong smell, which is caused by the bacterium that lives in its rind. Since about the mid nineteenth century, most Limburger is produced in Germany.
In 2006 a study showing that the malaria mosquito ("Anopheles gambiae") is attracted equally to the smell of Limburger and to the smell of human feet earned the Ig Nobel Prize in the area of biology. This Cheese has now been placed in strategic locations in Africa to fight against malaria, which is spread by mosquitoes.
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Landjaeger
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MyScene
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MyScene is a type of doll created by the Mattel Toy Company. They share the product name of Barbie, but they have differences with the head shapes. The line was supposedly started as a rival to the popular Bratz dolls.
Movies.
The My Scene characters have starred in three DVD movies:
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Bora Bora
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Bora Bora is a small island in the Leeward group of the Society Islands of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean. Vaitape is the largest city on the island with 4,000 people. There is an airport on an islet where residents can fly to other islands in French Polynesia.
Bora Bora has one main road which runs around the island.
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Appalachian Mountains
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The Appalachian Mountains (French: les Appalaches) are a large group of North American mountains. They are partly in Canada but mostly in the United States. They stretch southwestward from the Island of Newfoundland, in Canada, to central Alabama, in the United States.
The individual mountains have an average height if around 3,000 ft (900 m). The highest is Mount Mitchel,l in North Carolina (6,684 ft or 2,037 m), which is also the highest point in the United States east of the Mississippi River and is the highest point in eastern North America.
The Appalachians are a barrier to east–west travel. Ridgelines and valleys run north–south, and travelers must climb them again and again. Only a few mountain passes run east–west. The Erie Canal was built through one of them. In most places, the Appalachians are the watershed between the drainage basins of the Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean.
The term Appalachia is used to refer to the mountain range and the hills and the plateau region around it. The term is often used to refer to areas in the central and the southern but not the northern Appalachian Mountains. Those areas usually include all of West Virginia and parts of the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and North Carolina and sometimes extend as far south as northern Georgia and western South Carolina, as far north as Pennsylvania, and as far west as southeastern Ohio. In 1965, the United States Congress created an Appalachian Regional Commission to include these areas and morem as far west as Mississippi.
The Appalachian Trail in the US is about 3,500 km (2,190 miles) long and goes through 14 states, from Georgia to Maine.
Geologic history.
The geologic processes that led to the formation of the Appalachian Mountains started 1.1 billion years ago. The first mountain range in the region was created when the continents of Laurentia and Amazonia collided and created a supercontinent called Rodinia. The collision of those continents caused the rocks to be folded and faulted, which created the first mountains in the region.
Over time, thesmountains were eroded by wind and water. The rocks that were eroded were deposited in the ocean, where they were eventually buried and turned into sedimentary rocks. Thesedimentary rocks were then uplifted and folded again, which created new mountains.
This process of erosion and mountain building has repeated itself many times over the past 1.1 billion years. As a result, the Appalachian Mountains are not a single continuous mountain range. Instead, they are a patchwork of different mountain ranges that have been created at different times.
The youngest rocks in the Appalachian Mountains are only about 250 million years old. The rocks were formed during the Alleghanian orogeny, which was the last major period of mountain building in the region.
The Appalachian Mountains are still being eroded. Over time, the mountains will continue to wear down, and the rocks that make up the mountains will eventually be recycled back into the Earth's crust.
In short, the geologic processes that led to the formation of the Appalachian Mountains started 1.1 billion years ago, but the mountains themselves are much younger. The rocks that make up the mountains are the result of millions of years of erosion, deposition, and mountain building.
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Raven-Symoné
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Raven-Symoné Christina Pearman (born December 10, 1985) is an American actress, comedian, model and singer. She was born in Atlanta, Georgia. She moved to Ossining, New York at age three. She played the role of "Olivia" in the last three seasons of "The Cosby Show" (1984) and Nicole Lee on "Hangin' with Mr. Cooper" (1992).
Pearman is most well known as the title character Raven in the TV show "That's So Raven" and Galleria in "The Cheetah Girls" and "The Cheetah Girls 2". Pearman goes by the name Raven for most of her acting.
In August 2013 Raven-Symoné commented on legalizing gay marriage, "I was excited to hear today that more states legalized gay marriage. I, however am not currently getting married, but it is great to know I can now, should I wish to". She was dating AzMarie Livingston since 2012, and in October 2015, she announced that she had broken up with her.
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Raven Symone
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Raven Symoné
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Arabian horse
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The Arabian horse is a breed famous for beauty and stamina. It is one of the oldest horse breeds in the world. Arabian horses were bred with other archaic Arabian horses, who are their direct relatives who have not became separate breeds with enough genetic differences to add their speed, beauty, endurance, strong bones. Today, Arabian horse and archaic Arabian horse ancestors are found in every Arabian breed of riding horse in the Arabian Peninsula.
The Arabian horse was developed in the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula by the Bedouin people. People sometimes brought their horses into family tents for shelter and protection. This close relationship with humans made the Arabian horses as horses with a kind temper for people and quickness to learn friendship with people. It also was used as a war horse. This meant that it needed to be speedy and to be very alert. This blend of traits makes it necessary for people today to treat Arabian horses with kindness and respect.
Breed traits.
All Arabian horses have triangle-shaped heads, a wide forehead, big eyes, large nostrils, small muzzles (noses). Most have a concave or "dished" profile. They have a slim, arched neck, smooth hindquarters, a naturally high-carried tail. Arabians have strong bones and good feet. They are especially noted for their excellent endurance. Arabians's hair coat colors are bay, gray, chestnut, black, white, brown, roan, piebald. Arabian horses can have robicono, sabino genes. All Arabian horses have black skin under their hair coat, except under their white markings.
The Bedouins sold many Arabian horses to people from Europe. Other Arabian horses were captured in wars and taken to other countries outside of the Middle East. Today, Arabian horses are found all over the world. Arabian horse families are now labeled by where their most recent ancestors were bred, such as "Polish," "Spanish," "Crabbet" (from England), "Russian," "Egyptian", and "Domestic" (in the United States), "Weil-Marbach" in Germany. For example, an Arabian horse who is called as a "Polish Arabian" is an Arabian horse who has recent ancestors that were bred at farms in Poland, from horses, which the Polish people bought from the Bedouins in the Arabian Peninsula many centuries ago.
Uses.
Arabian horses compete in many places, including horse races, horse shows, endurance riding, show jumping, and more. They also make good pleasure, trail, working ranch horses for people who do not like competitive events. Arabian horses also are seen in movies, parades, circuses and other places where horses are used.
History.
There are many legends and myths about Arabian horses. One legend says that the prophet Muhammad selected his five finest mares (female horses), called "Al Khamsa" ("the five") to be the foundation of the Arabian breed of horses fully. An another legend says the Queen of Sheba gave an Arabian mare to King Solomon, and that is how the Arabian horse breed began historically. Yet an another story says that Yahweh created the Arabian horses from the south wind in the Arabian Peninsula, saying, "I create you all, oh Arabian horses. I give you flight without wings."
In real history, Arabian horses are one of the oldest human-developed horse breeds in the world. Pictures of "Proto-Arabian" horses that look a lot like modern Arabian horses were painted on rocks in the Arabian Peninsula as far back as 2500 BCE. The ancestors of the Bedouins had tamed horses not long after they tamed camels also. A horse skeleton was also unearthed in the Sinai peninsula in Egypt in Avaris, that was dated to 1700 BCE, and that this horse is the earliest horse in live in all of Ancient Egypt. It was brought by the Hyksos invaders who lived in Egypt. This horse had a wedge-shaped head, large eyes, a small muzzle, just like the Arabian horses that live today.
In the Arabian desert, humans were the only source of food and water for the Arabian horse. Where there was no pasture, the Bedouin fed their horses dates, a fruit of the date palms, and camels's milk. Arabian horses needed to live on very little food and water, survive a dry climate that was very hot in the day but very cold at night. Weak horses did not live and died off immediately, and the strong horses who survived the Arabian desert also then survived being ridden onto all wars. Therefore, the Arabian horse became very tough and able to live in a harsh world.
Famous Arabian horses.
Napoleon rode a gray Arabian stallion named Marengo. George Washington rode a half-Arabian named Blueskin during the American Revolution. A fictional horse, "The Black Stallion," was played by a real black Arabian stallion named Cass Ole in the movie that was based on the book by Walter Farley.
Aziziye Stud.
In 1864, the Sultan Abdulaziz, founded a new horse stud with Arabian horses and sent a commission to purchase in Bialocerkiew, the stud of Count Branicki in Poland, whose breeding have a very good reputation. The Commission purchased 92 horses, including some descendants of the 1855, stallion Indjanin imported from England.
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Earth's crust
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The Earth's crust is the Earth's hard outer layer. It is less than 1% of Earth's volume. The crust is made up of different types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The crust and the upper mantle make up the lithosphere. The lithosphere is made of tectonic plates, which move very slowly.
The crust is of two different types. One is the continental crust (under the land) and the other is the oceanic crust (under the ocean).
The temperature of the crust increases with depth because of geothermal energy. Where the crust meets the mantle the temperatures can be between 200 °C (392 °F) to 400 °C (752 °F). The crust is the coldest layer because it is exposed to the atmosphere.
Composition.
Igneous rocks make up over 90% of Earth's crust by volume.p47 This is not noticeable because they are mostly covered by sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
A single family of silicates, the feldspars, account for about half of the material in the crust (60% by weight), and quartz is a sizeable proportion of the rest. Other common minerals are mica and hornblende.
Only 8% of Earth's crust is non-silicate minerals, and this includes carbonates, sulfides, chlorides and oxides.
Formation of the crust.
Earth's mantle and crust formed about 100 million years after the formation of the planet, about 4.6 billion years ago. At first the crust was very thin, and was probably changed often as the tectonic plates shifted around a lot more than they do now. The crust would have been destroyed many times by asteroids hitting Earth, which was much more common in the Late Heavy Bombardment.
The oldest oceanic basalt crust today is only about 200 million years. Most of the continental crust is much older. The oldest continental crustal rocks on Earth are cratons between 3.7 and 4.28 billion years old. These have been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia, in the Acasta Gneiss in the Northwest Territories on the Canadian Shield, and on the Fennoscandian Shield. A few zircons at least 4.3 billion years old have been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia.
The average age of Earth's continental crust is about 2.0 billion years. Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are in cratons. Such old continental crust and the mantle below it are less dense than other places in the Earth. These are not easily destroyed when the plates shift. New continental crust was made in times of major orogeny or mountain building. This happened at the same time as the formation of the supercontinents, such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The crust formed in part by the coming together of island arcs. These were made of granite and metamorphic fold belts. They are kept together partly by the subduction of the mantle below the crust, which makes a mantle on which the crust floats.
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Food chain
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A food chain shows the feeding relationship between different organisms in a particular environment and/or habitat.
Plants are at the bottom of a food chain because they are producers that make their food from photosynthesis. Consumers are animals that eat the products of producers or other animals. The direction of arrows between the organisms shows who eats what and what gets eaten by what.
A food chain also represents a series of events and consumption in which food and energy are consumed from one organism in an ecosystem to another. Food chains show how energy is passed from the sun to producers, from producers to consumers, and from consumers to decomposes such as fungi. They also show how animals depend on other organisms for food.
In any ecosystem, many food chains overlap. Different food chains may include some of the same organisms. Several consumers may eat the same kind of plant or animal for food. When this happens, the food chain forms a food web.
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Embryology
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Embryology is the study of embryos and their development. The study of embryology starts with the fertilisation of an egg, and continues until the foetus stage. A broader term, developmental biology, covers the whole period of growth from the egg to adult life.
In mammals (and some other animals) embryos develop inside the mother, in the mother's womb. Otherwise it takes place after the egg is laid. It most animals, there are various stages between the egg and the adult animal. If the stages are well-defined the process is called metamorphosis.
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Histology
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Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals, particularly the tissues. It is a part of cytology, and an essential tool of biology and medicine.
Histology is usually done by looking at cells and tissues under a light microscope or electron microscope. The tissue has to be specially prepared beforehand.
The process.
The stages below are only described in outline. Laboratories which do histology work from schedules which are much more detailed.
Fixing.
Chemical fixatives are used to preserve tissue from decay. This preserves the structure of the cell and of sub-cellular components such as cell organelles (e.g., nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria). The most common fixative for light microscopy is formalin (4% formaldehyde in saline).
Embedding.
After fixing, the block of tissue is embedded in paraffin wax. This holds and preserves the tissue as a block.
Sectioning.
The section is cut into a series of wafer-thin slices, each of which is put on a glass microscope slide. The machine which cuts the block is a mechanical guillotine which can be set to cut at a suitable depth for the tissue in question.
Staining.
Stains are dyes, chemicals used to make cells and tissues easy to see under a microscope. There are many tissue stains, and each of them has advantages and disadvantages.
Haematoxylin and eosin (H&E).
This is the most widely used stain in biology and medicine. Haematoxylin colours cell nuclei and eosin colours cell cytoplasm.
Silver nitrate.
Camillo Golgi developed a silver nitrate stain for nerve cells. His idea was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in his famous work on the structure of brain tissue.
Modern techniques.
Electron microscopy is used often as well as light microscopy. This has its own procedures. Its advantage is that it resolves things which light cannot resolve. For example, viruses were first seen by electron microscopy..
Specialised selective stains using immunology or radioactive labelling are now routine. The advantage of using antibodies or radioactive labels is that they stick to "specific kinds of molecules".
Increasingly popular is tagging with a fluorescent stain, which shows up even if a tiny part of a cell is stained. Immunoinfluorescence is the name of this particular technique.
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Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Ann Arbor is a city in the US state of Michigan. It is the county seat of Washtenaw County. According to the 2020 United States Census, Ann Arbor was the 5th largest city in Michigan. In 2020, there were 123,851 people living there. The city is part of the Detroit Metropolitan Combined Statistial Area.
Ann Arbor was started in 1824. It is thought that the city is named after the wife, Ann, of one of the founders. The University of Michigan was moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. (Before that, the university had been in Detroit.) The city grew during the 1800s and 1900s. The only time the city did not grow was the Depression of 1873.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Ann Arbor was an important place for the Civil Rights Movement, the anti-Vietnam War movement, and for left-wing and liberal politics.
Today, Ann Arbor is home to the University of Michigan. The university is very important to the city because 30,000 people work for it. 12,000 of these workers work for the University of Michigan Health System, which are hospitals and clinics run by the university. Ann Arbor's economy is also very high-tech. High-tech companies come to the area because there are many graduates and a lot of research and development money at the university.
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Microbiology
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Microbiology - (Greek μικρός, mikrós, „tiny“, βίος, bíos, „life“ and λόγος, lógos, „science“) is a science in the composition of biology, which is occupied by the study of microorganisms (bacterium, (archaebacteria), microscopic fungi, protozoa,alga,and viruses). Microbiology studies the systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, evolution, ecological roles, and practical uses of microorganisms. Medical microbiology is also part of microbiology.
Different parts of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied sciences. Microbiology can be also classified by taxonomy, as in the cases of bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, and phycology. There is considerable overlap of the specific branches of microbiology with each other and with other disciplines. Certain aspects of these branches can extend beyond the traditional scope of microbiology
History.
In 1665, Robert Hooke saw that cork was made up of little cubes that he named cells. Later Anton van Leeuwenhoek made the important connection that cells are living things when he saw through his early microscope smallest one-celled organisms. Later Christian Ehrenberg found thatprotista or bacteria were different kinds of cells. In the late part of the 1800s Martinus Beijerinck showed that there were small particles called viruses.
Another important change in the study of microorganisms came from the discovery of DNA and RNA. This allowed using a vector to change the inside of a cell without killing it. One recent discovery that changed the study of microbiology is the discovery of transposons or jumping genes. Another one is the discovery of animal genes in the cells.
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Transposable element
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A transposable element is often called a transposon. It is a sequence of DNA that can move to new positions in the genome of a single cell. The press sometimes call them jumping genes, but it is not correct to call them 'genes'.
Transposons were first found by Barbara McClintock while working on maize in the 1930s to 1950s. She discovered transposition in maize, but it took years before her work was understood. She received a Nobel Prize for her work in 1983.
Transposition can create significant mutations and alter the cell's genome size.
Types.
Transposons are only one of several types of mobile genetic elements.
Transposons themselves are of two types according to their mechanism, which can be either "copy and paste" (class I) or "cut and paste" (class II).
Class I (Retrotransposons, aka "retroposons"):
They copy themselves in two stages, first from DNA to RNA by transcription, then from RNA back to DNA by reverse transcription. The DNA copy is then inserted into the genome in a new position. Retrotransposons behave very similarly to retroviruses, such as HIV.
Class II (DNA transposons):
By contrast, the cut-and-paste transposition mechanisms of class II transposons do not involve an RNA intermediate.
As causes of disease.
Transposons are mutagens. They can damage the genome of their host cell in different ways:
Use.
Transposons can carry accessory genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes. They can be used to put a gene into the DNA of an organism. This has been done with fruit flies ("Drosophila melanogaster") by putting the transposon into the embryo.
Evolution.
Transposons are found in many forms of life. They may have arisen independently many times, or perhaps just once and then spread to other kingdoms by horizontal gene transfer.
While some transposons may confer benefits on their hosts, most are regarded as selfish DNA parasites. In this way, they are similar to viruses. Various viruses and transposons also share features in their genome structures and biochemical abilities, leading to speculation that they share a common ancestor.
Excessive transposon activity can destroy a genome, which is lethal. Many organisms have developed mechanisms to inhibit them. Bacteria may delete transposons and viruses from their genomes; eukaryotic organisms use RNA interference (RNAi) to inhibit transposon activity.
In vertebrate animal cells nearly all the 100,000+ DNA transposons in a genome code for inactive polypeptides. In humans, all of the Class I-like transposons are inactive. The first DNA transposon used as a tool for genetic purposes, the Sleeping Beauty transposon system, was a transposon which was resurrected from a long evolutionary sleep.
Role in the immune system.
Transposons may have been co-opted by the vertebrate immune system as a means of producing antibody diversity: The V(D)J recombination system operates by a mechanism similar to that of transposons. This is a system of three genes which get rearranged in the production of vertebrate lymphocytes. The system diversely encode proteins to match antigens from bacteria, viruses, parasites, dysfunctional cells such as tumor cells, and pollens.
The final DNA sequence, and thus the sequence of the antibody, is highly variable, even when the same two V, D, or J segments are joined. This great diversity allows VDJ recombination to generate antibodies even to microbes that neither the organism nor its ancestors have ever previously encountered.
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Toowoomba
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Toowoomba (also known as 'The Garden City') is a city in South East Queensland, Australia. It is 132 km west of Brisbane, and two hours drive from the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast beaches. With a population around 135,000, Toowoomba is Australia's second largest city that is not on the coast, after Canberra.
Every year in September, Toowoomba holds its annual Flower Festival, at Queens Park. When this is taking place, the town, especially its CBD are decorated with flowers. People who live there may also open their gardens for public judging for the garden competitions. Another attraction is the parade, where one would see floats with flower themes. Many people from all over the nation visit the festival, and a popular way to arrive is on the specially operating retired steam train.
Another major event held in Toowoomba is the Easterfest. It is a large religious festival that thousands of people come to, to see many famous singers perform. Many put up tents on in Queens Park.
Toowoomba is also known for its historical buildings, such as the town hall, The Empire Theatre, and the Cobb & Co Museum. The town hall was the first in Queensland to be built for a town hall. The Empire Theatre was built as a silent movie house in 1911. A fire nearly destroyed the building, but it was built again, and reopened in 1933. Now, it is the biggest regional theatre in Australia. The Cobb & Co Museum began in the 1880s as a small mail run. It moved both mail and passengers to Brisbane and further.
Toowoomba is also home to some notable private schools, including Toowoomba Grammar School (which is a GPS school), Downlands College, and The Glenny School, none of which are 'co-educational'.
During the 2010-2011 Queensland floods, several people were drowned in their cars when water flooded the main shopping centre.
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Albury
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Albury () is a city in New South Wales, Australia. It is on the Hume Highway that runs between Sydney and Melbourne. The Murray River separates Albury from Wodonga. Albury is on the north side of the Murray River. The river is also the border between Victoria and New South Wales. It is about 550 km from the state capital Sydney, but only 312 km from the Victorian capital Melbourne. Albury is believed to have been named after Aldbury in Hertfordshire.
The Australian Aboriginal people called the area Bungambrewatha. There are a number of historical aboriginal sites including rock paintings. There are also scarred trees, where the bark has been removed to make shields and canoes. The rich river flats would have provided food for native animals, and the wetlands would have been home to large numbers of water birds.
The first Europens to arrive in the area were the explorers, Hamilton Hume and William Hovell in 1824. They made their mark in a tree on the riverbank which later became the spot where people heading south would cross the river. Crossing the river was easy in summer when the water level was low. By 1844 a ferry was built to carry people over the river all year. There were soon many farmers moving into the area with large flocks of sheep. Some of the first in Albury were William Wyse and Charles Ebden.
Albury has passenger trains to and from Sydney.
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Francisco de Goya
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Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (30 March 1746 – 30 April 1828) was a Spanish painter. He painted many portraits of the Spanish Royal Family. His most famous paintings are "Charles IV of Spain and His Family" and "The Third of May 1808". He regularly painted the famous Duchess of Alba.
Life.
Youth.
Goya was born in Fuendetodos, in the region of Aragón, Spain, in 1746. His parents were José Benito de Goya y Franque and Gracia de Lucientes y Salvador. He spent his childhood in Fuendetodos. His father's work was gilding (putting gold onto picture frames). In about 1749, the family moved to a house in the city of Zaragoza. Goya went to school at Escuelas Pias. He became best friends with Martin Zapater. Through their lives, they wrote many letters to each other. Because of these letters, historians know a lot about Goya's life. When he was 14 Goya became an apprentice to the painter José Luzán.
Goya later moved to Madrid where he studied with Anton Raphael Mengs, a painter who was popular with Spanish royalty. Goya and Mengs did not like each other, and Goya got bad marks in his examinations. Goya tried to join the Spanish Royal Academy of Fine Art in 1763 and 1766, but failed.
He then traveled to Rome. In 1771 he won second prize in a painting competition in the city of Parma. Later that year, he returned to Zaragoza. He got work painting frescos in several buildings including the dome of the Basilica of the Pillar. He studied with the painter Francisco Bayeu y Subías. His painting began to show the style which later made his famous.
Success.
Goya married Bayeu's sister, Josefa, in 1774. Francisco Bayeu was a member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Fine Art. This helped Goya to get work with the Royal Tapestry Workshop. He worked there for 5 years, and designed 42 patterns. Many of his designs were made into tapestries and used to decorate the bare stone walls of the royal palaces, such as El Escorial. The Spanish Royal family saw his works and later gave him work as a portrait painter. He also painted an altarpiece (Holy picture) for the Church of San Francisco El Grande. Because of this picture, Goya was at last made a member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Fine Art.
In 1783, the Count of Florida blanca, commissioned Goya (gave Goya the paid work) to paint his portrait. Then King Charles III of Spain and other important people wanted Goya to paint their portraits. Goya became friends with Crown Prince Don Luis, and lived in his house. From 1788, in the reign of Charles IV, Goya became even more popular.
Later life.
In the 1790s Goya became ill. It is not known exactly what his illness was. It is believed that he suffered mental breakdown. He may have had viral encephalitis or several strokes. He may have suffered from dementia. It is also thought that he may have been poisoned by lead paint. His sight, hearing, balance and mental health were all affected.
His unhappiness was also affected by the French invasion of Spain in 1808. One of his most famous paintings, "The Third of May 1808", is about the execution of Spanish men trying to defend their country.
After the defeat of the French, Goya did not get on well with King Ferdinand VII. Goya moved to a house far away from the court. He lived there with his housekeeper and her daughter, and taught painting to the girl, Rosario Weiss. Some of the walls of the house are painted with strange dark pictures, but it is not sure whether Goya did them. For two years Goya lived in France but returned to Spain where he was warmly welcomed home in 1826, He died in 1828 at the age of 82.
Works.
Court paintings.
Goya's early cartoons for the royal tapestries are merry scenes of festivals in bright colours.
Goya painted portraits of many famous people, including the Duke of Wellington. His paintings of the Royal Family of Charles IV of Spain and Ferdinand VII show them looking like very ordinary people, not like proud nobility. Queen Maria Luisa was delighted with the large portrait that he did of her family in 1800, even though a French writer Théophile Gautier said that Goya made them look "like the corner baker and his wife after they had won the lottery".
The "Majas".
Two of Goya's most famous paintings were owned by a member of the royal court, Manuel de Godoy. These two paintings are called "The Nude Maja" ("La maja desnuda") and "The Clothed Maja" ("La maja vestida"). The nude painting was thought of as very shocking. In 1813, the Inquisition said that both paintings were pornography and took them away. They were returned to Goya in 1836. Nobody knows who the woman was that posed for Goya. One idea is that she was the Duchess of Alba. She may have been Godoy's mistress. Perhaps Goya painted the figure from his imagination. There is only one earlier nude painting by a Spanish artist, Velazquez's "Venus and Cupid", (see National Gallery, London). When this painting was done, other nude figures, painted in Italy, Germany and other countries, always showed the woman as a goddess from mythology or had some other "allegorical" meaning (was a symbol of some sort). This painting is unusual because the nude figure is not meant to be a Goddess and does not seem to have any symbolic meaning. It is the very first life-sized female nude in Western Painting that is just about the beauty of the female body.
Later works.
In 1793 and 1794 Goya was recovering from his illness. During this time, he painted eleven small pictures painted on tin. These pictures are known as "Fantasy and Invention" today. They show a change in his art. From that time on, he painted dark, frightening pictures about war, violence and madness.
One painting is called "Courtyard with Lunatics". It is a scene in a mental asylum. It is about loneliness and fear. It shows how mentally ill people have trouble dealing with other people and normal life. Goya was the first artist to paint people with mental illness in a realistic way. Goya wanted to show that it was wrong to punish mentally ill people, and lock them up with criminals. There was a movement at this time to improve the life of people in asylums and prisons.
Goya made two series of prints. The first was called "Caprichos" and the second was called "The Disasters of War". The "Caprichos" series shows nightmarish scenes of the problems with Spanish society. "The Disaster of War" shows scenes of terrible violence. These were not published until more than 30 years after his death. "The Disaster of War" were made because of the war between France and Spain. One of Goya's most famous paintings is a large picture called "The Third of May 1808".(see above) It is about the executions of Spanish men that took place in 1808. This painting shows the courage of the unarmed Spanish hero. It shows the French soldiers in the firing squad acting as if they have no minds or feelings. This painting was a great inspiration to other painters such as the French painter Manet who painted a scene of the execution of the Governor of Mexico.
Goya's most frightening picture shows a giant man, eating people. It is now called "Saturn Devouring His Sons", (after Saturn the Father of the Gods in Greek mythology) but no-one knows what it really means. It is more likely a picture of the way that War destroys people. In the house that Goya owned, there are paintings on the walls known as the "Black Paintings". They show scenes with the Devil and witches. It is not sure whether Goya really painted them.
Influence.
Goya's brightly coloured tapestry cartoons influenced the French Impressionist painters such as Monet and Renoir. His portraits were an influence on Manet and Degas as well as Renoir. The "Black Paintings" influenced Expressionist painters.
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SATA
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