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54421	9250285	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54421	Requiem	A Requiem (or Requiem Mass) is a Eucharist service in the Roman Catholic Church to pray for the repose of the soul of someone who has died. There are special words for a Requiem Mass. They are in Latin. The best-known part of the Requiem Mass starts with the words “Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine” (“Give them eternal rest, O Lord”). This is why it is called a “Requiem”. Many composers throughout the centuries have composed music to these words. The word “Requiem” can mean a piece of music which sets the words of the Requiem Mass. Celebration of the Eucharist to pray for people who have died goes back at least as far as the 2nd century. In the Middle Ages the words of the Requiem Mass were sung to Gregorian chant. In the Renaissance church music was generally polyphonic. This sort of music, which has several voices weaving in and out of one another, is the kind of music used at the time for requiems. The composer Johannes Ockeghem is an example of a composer who wrote such music. Polyphonic settings of the Requiem Mass continued during the Baroque period (17th and early 18th centuries), even though other musical forms (e.g. opera) had developed a much more modern style. The most famous Requiem from the 18th century is the one by Mozart. Many musicians think it was one of the greatest pieces of music ever written. It was left unfinished when Mozart died. In the 19th century many composers wrote Requiems. Most of these were written for performance at concerts, not for church services, but they still used the Latin words of the Roman Catholic Requiem Mass. Luigi Cherubini wrote a Requiem in C minor for the annual remembering of the execution of Louis XVI. He wrote another Requiem in D minor, which he wrote for himself. It was performed at his own funeral. Giuseppe Verdi wrote a very exciting "Messa da Requiem" (1874) which sounds very operatic. Verdi rearranged some of the text (words) of the traditional Requiem Mass. Bruckner, Saint-Saëns and Dvořák all wrote requiems. Brahms wrote a work which he called "Ein Deutsches Requiem" ("A German Requiem"). It is unusual because, instead of setting the traditional Latin words, he took some words from the German translation of the Bible. In 1888 Gabriel Fauré wrote a Requiem which uses an orchestra without violins except for a solo violin in the movement called “Sanctus”. In 1900 he made some changes and added an important baritone solo. In the 20th century many composers continued to write Requiems. The most famous one is Britten’s "War Requiem" (1961). Secular Anglican non Roman The message of this work is that war is cruel and pointless. Britten uses the Latin words of the Requiem Mass, but also some English poems by Wilfred Owen who was killed in the First World War. The baritone and tenor soloists who sing these English words represent the German and the English soldiers. The work was written for Coventry Cathedral which had been rebuilt after the old cathedral had been totally destroyed in World War II. Different parts of a Requiem. Older Requiems. For example, Mozart's Requiem follows this. In his requiem, the Lux aeterna (written by someone else) is the same as the Introitus, with different words. Some musical examples: Newer Requiems. This sequence was fixed by the Council of Trent in the 16th century. It was slightly modified in the Second Vatican Council.
54422	3650	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54422	Dvořák
54423	3650	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54423	Dvorak
54427	1011873	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54427	Middle C
54428	6692	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54428	Mary Magdelene
54441	1552726	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54441	Principality	A principality (sometimes also called princedom) is a country or territory which is ruled by a sovereign prince or princess. Principalities were common in the Middle Ages. Principalities tend to have quite a small territory. Current principalities. There are currently three countries which are principalities: Andorra, Monaco and Liechtenstein. Sub-national principalities. Many states of the Holy Roman Empire were small principalities with their own royal families. In modern Europe, there are some cases where the heir to the throne of a country holds the title "Prince of...", followed by the name of a significant region of the country. This mostly has some historical meaning. Micronations. Some states claim to be principalities but are not recognised by other countries: Sealand (a Sea Fort off the English coast), Seborga (a small town in Italy), the Principality of Hutt River in Australia and the Principality of Minerva in the Pacific. These states are examples of micronations. Colonialism. Sometimes the word is also used to mean dependent territories in Africa, Asia and India, pre-Columbian America and Oceania. For these, the word princely states is generally preferred, especially if they came under the authority of a European colonial power.
54444	1150185	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54444	Vlad the Impaler	Vlad III, commonly known as Vlad the Impaler ( ) or Vlad Dracula (; ; November 14311476/77), was Prince of Wallachia three times between 1448 and his death in 1476/77. He is often considered one of the most important rulers in Wallachian history and a national hero of Romania. In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of his cruelty. These legends gave Bram Stoker the idea for his main character in the popular "Dracula" novel. Historical background. Wallachia was placed between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The Turks were fighting against the Kingdom of Hungary led by John Hunyadi and this made Wallachia a battle ground between Turks and Hungarians. The rulers of Wallachia were chosen by the Romanian aristocrats, called boyars. The ruler was often from a noble house, sometimes an illegitimate prince born outside of marriage. The country rulers were struggling with each other, and this was resulting in instability, family disputes and murders. Biography. Family background. Vlad the Impaler was born in 1431. His father was Vlad II Dracul. His mother is unknown. Vlad II was married to princess Cneajna of Moldavia. He had several mistresses. Vlad III was raised by Cneajna with the help of her household. He had two brothers, Mircea born c. 1430 and Radu born 1435. He also had a half-brother, Vlad the Monk born around 1425-1430. Vlad II went to the court of Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund of Luxemburg as a young man. Sigismund was supporting Vlad II for the throne of Wallachia, and made Vlad II knight 1431 of the Order of the Dragon ("Societas Draconis" in Latin). The oldest brother, probably named Mircea, was sent by Vlad II to fight the war against the Turks in 1444. This war called the Battle of Varna was lost. Mircea and his father died in 1447. Vlad's half-brother. Vlad the Monk was waiting in Transylvania for a chance to rule Wallachia. Vlad the Monk was a monk until he became prince of Wallachia in 1482. Radu, known as Radu III the Fair or Radu the Handsome, the youngest brother, was also Vlad’s most important rival as he continuously tried to replace Vlad on the throne. Marriage. From his first marriage, Vlad the Impaler (or Vlad III) had a son, later prince of Wallachia, as Mihnea the bad. His first wife, whose name we do not know, died during the war 1462. Vlad III the Impaler was fighting against the Turks. The legend says that the Turkish army surrounded Vlad's castle, the Poienari Castle, led by his brother Radu the Handsome. Vlad's wife threw herself off the tower into the Argeş River below the castle. According to legend she remarked that she "would rather have her body be eaten by the fish of the Argeş than be captured by the Turks." Vlad had another two sons with his second wife Ilona Szilágyi a fraternal cousin of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. Some historians strongly believe they may have also had a daughter named Maria Zaleska (Princess Zaleska). Early years. Vlad was very likely born in the city of Sighişoara in Transylvania, then a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, during the winter of 1431. Sighişoara was a military fortress at that time. He was born as the second son to his father Vlad Dracul. He had an older brother, Mircea, and a younger brother, Radu the Handsome. Although his native country was Wallachia, the family lived in exile in Transylvania because his father had been chased away by pro-Ottoman boyars. A hostage of the Ottoman Empire. Vlad's father was pressured by the (Turkish) Ottoman sultan. He gave a promise to be the vassal of the Sultan and gave up his two younger sons as hostages so that he would keep his promise. Vlad suffered much at the hands of the Ottomans, and was locked up in an underground prison; however, his younger brother, Radu, caught the eye of the sultan's son. Radu was released and converted to Islam, and he was allowed into the Ottoman royal court. These years had a great influence on Vlad. They shaped Vlad's character. He was often whipped and beaten by the Turks for being stubborn and rude. He developed a well-known hatred for Radu and for Mehmed, who would later become the sultan. Short reign and exile. Vlad's father and Vlad's older brother, Mircea, were dead at this point. The Turks invaded Wallachia and the Sultan put Vlad III on the throne as his puppet ruler. His rule at this time was short; Hunyadi invaded Wallachia and chased him away the same year. Vlad fled to Moldavia and was put under the protection of his uncle, Bogdan II. War. Bogdan was assassinated. Vlad took a chance and fled to Hungary. Impressed by Vlad's knowledge of the Ottoman Empire, Hunyadi pardoned him and took him in as an adviser. Later, Hunyadi made him the Kingdom of Hungary's candidate for the throne of Wallachia. In 1456, Hungary invaded Serbia to chase away the Turks, and at the same time Vlad III invaded Wallachia. Both invasions were successful. Hunyadi suddenly died of the plague. Vlad became prince of Wallachia. Main reign (1456–62). Vlad was spending most of his time at the court of the city of Târgovişte. He made laws, met foreign ambassadors, judged in trials. He reinforced some castles and probably enjoyed hunting with his friends. The constant state of war since the death of his grandfather, Mircea the Elder, in 1418, led to increased crime levels and less agricultural production. Trade had almost disappeared in Wallachia. Vlad tried to solve these problems with severe methods. He needed an economically stable country. Vlad wanted to eliminate all threats to his power, mainly the rival nobility groups, such as the boyars. This was done mainly by killing them and reducing the their economic role. The Wallachian nobility had connections with the Saxon merchants. The Saxons lived in the free towns of Transylvania, making trade flourish. Vlad cut their towns trade privileges with Wallachia, and started war against them. Vlad gave key positions in the Prince’s Council to people of lower rank who were loyal to him. Vlad preferred to knight men from the free peasants. Vlad III was always on guard against the his cousins the rival Dăneşti clan. Some of his attacks into Transylvania may have been efforts to kill or capture Dăneşti princes. Several members of the Dăneşti clan died at Vlad's hands. Rumors say that thousands of citizens of the free towns that sheltered his rivals were impaled by Vlad. One captured Dăneşti prince was forced to read his own funeral speech while he kneeled at an open grave before his execution. Personal crusade. There was a war between the Ottoman Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom. Following family traditions, Vlad decided to side with the Hungarians. To the end of the 1450s there was once again talk about a war against the Turks, in which the king of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus would play the main role. Knowing this, Vlad stopped paying money to the Ottomans in 1459, and at around 1460, he made a new alliance with Corvinus. The Turks did not like this and tried to remove him from power but they failed. Mehmed II tried to trick Dracula into being captured with Hamza, bey of Nicopolis and Katabolinos with a hidden force of soldiers; Dracula captured them with a larger force and had them all impaled. In the winter of 1461 Vlad attacked and devastated the area between Serbia and the Black Sea; He informed Matthias Corvinus about the military action in a letter on 11 February 1462. He stated that more than "23,884 Turks and Bulgarians" had been killed at his order during the campaign. In response to this, the Sultan Mehmed II headed towards Wallachia with an army of 60,000 men in the spring of 1462. With his army of 20,000-30,000 men Vlad was not able to stop the Turks from entering Wallachia. The Turks occupied the capital Târgovişte (June 4, 1462) and chased Vlad away. Vlad was hiding and made small attacks on the Turks. On the night of June 16 Vlad and some of his men entered the main Turkish camp, wearing Turkish clothing, and attempted to kill Mehmed. It was reported that an invading Ottoman army turned back when they saw thousands of rotting corpses impaled on the banks of the river Danube. In 1462, Mehmed II returned to Constantinople after being sickened by the sight of 20,000 impaled corpses outside of Vlad's capital of Târgovişte. Later the Turkish army retired and left Vlad’s brother, Radu the Handsome, as the new ruler prince. Radu the Handsome gathered support from the nobility and Vlad fled to Hungary. In August 1462 Radu made a deal with the Hungarian Crown. In captivity. Vlad was living in exile because he was afraid of the boyars of Wallachia. Vlad escaped to Hungary but he was put in prison there. The exact time of Vlad's captivity is not known for sure. Apparently his imprisonment was not too dangerous. He was able to gradually win his way back into the favor of King Matthias. He was able to meet and marry a member of the royal family (the cousin of King Matthias). However, some do not believe that it was likely to happen that a prisoner was permitted to marry into the royal family. He had two sons with his new wife. Vlad also became a member of the Roman Catholic Church. Diplomatic letters and writings from Buda during this time show that Vlad's actual period of imprisonment was short. The openly pro-Turkish policy of Vlad's brother, Radu was probably a cause in Vlad's good treatment while in prison. It is interesting to note that the Russian texts, normally very favorable to Vlad Ţepeş. The years before his final release in 1474 (when he began making plans for the reconquest of Wallachia), Vlad lived with his new wife in a house in the Hungarian capital. His sons were about ten years old when he reconquered Wallachia in 1476. Return to Wallachia and death. Around 1475 Vlad and Stefan Báthory of Transylvania invaded Wallachia with a mixed force of Transylvanians, some dissatisfied Wallachian boyars, and Moldavians sent by Prince Stephen III of Moldavia, Vlad's cousin. Vlad's brother, Radu the Handsome, died a couple of years earlier and had been replaced on the Wallachian throne by another Turkish candidate, Prince Basarab the Elder, a member of the Dăneşti clan. When Vlad's army arrived, Prince Basarabs army fled, some to the Turks, others in the mountains. After placing Vlad Ţepeş on the throne, Stephen Báthory and his forces returned to Transylvania, leaving Vlad in a very weak position. Vlad had little time to get support before a large Turkish army entered Wallachia to put back Prince Basarab on the throne. Vlad's cruelties over the years made the boyars to believe that they had a better chance to survive under Prince Basarab. Even the peasants, tired of the cruelty of Vlad, abandoned him. Vlad had to meet the Turks with the small forces at his disposal, which were made up of less than four thousand men. There are several variants of Vlad III the Impaler's death. Some sources say he was killed in battle against the Turks near Bucharest in December 1476. Others say he was killed by disloyal Wallachian boyars in the war against the Turks, or during a hunt. Others believe Vlad was killed in the war, surrounded by the bodies of his loyal Moldavian bodyguards. Still other reports claim that Vlad was accidentally killed by one of his own men. Vlad's body was decapitated by the Turks and his head was sent to Istanbul preserved in honey. The sultan had it displayed on a stake as proof that "Kazıklı Bey" was dead. Vlad was buried in the Monastery of Snagov. First buried near the Alter; later reburied in a tomb near the entrance while the Alter tomb was filled with animial bones. In 1930's both tombs were excavated. The remains found near the entrance were in a Bucharest Museum but have since been lost Legacy. Tales and legends about Vlad stayed a part of folklore among the Romanian peasants. By constant retelling they have become confused and created an ideal picture of a big national hero. Among the Romanian peasants, Vlad Ţepeş was sometimes remembered as a prince who defended his country. But sometimes he is remembered as a very cruel and often capricious ruler. There are several events that are common to all tales. One tale is about foreign ambassadors whom Vlad Ţepeş was meeting at Târgovişte. All versions agree that Vlad, in response to some real or imagined insult, (perhaps because they refused to remove the hats in Vlad's presence), had their hats nailed to their heads. His famous portrait was rediscovered in the late 1800s, in the gallery of horrors at Innsbruck's Ambras Castle. A good description of Vlad Dracula survives, courtesy of Nicholas of Modrussa, who wrote: "He was not very tall, but very stocky and strong, with a cruel and terrible appearance, a long straight nose, distended nostrils, a thin and reddish face in which the large wide-open green eyes were enframed by bushy black eyebrows, which made them appear threatening. His face and chin were shaven but for a moustache. The swollen temples increased the bulk of his head. A bull's neck supported the head, from which black curly locks were falling to his wide-shouldered person." Cruelty. Vlad III Ţepeş has been described as very cruel. The old Romanian word for dragon is Dracul, which in modern Romanian means "devil". In Old Romanian, it means "dragon". Dracul was the name given to his father, Vlad II, by other members of the Order of the Dragon. Impalement was Ţepeş's preferred method of torture and execution. His method of torture was a horse attached to each of the victim's legs while sharpened stake was forced into the body. Vlad often had the stakes arranged in patterns. The most common pattern was a ring outside of a city that was his target. The height of the spear indicated the rank of the victim. The corpses were often left there for months. One tale says 10,000 were impaled in the Transylvanian city of Sibiu (where Vlad the Impaler had once lived) in 1460. Another tale says that on Saint Bartholomew's Day (in August), Vlad the Impaler had 30,000 people of the free Transylvanian city of Braşov impaled. One of the most famous woodcuts of the period shows Vlad the Impaler feasting amongst a forest of stakes outside Braşov, while a nearby executioner cuts apart other victims. Impalement was not his only method of torture. Other methods include nails in heads, cutting off limbs, strangulation, burning, cutting off noses and ears, mutilation of sexual organs (especially in the case of women), scalping, skinning, exposure to the elements or to animals, and boiling alive. His victims included women, children, peasants, great lords, ambassadors from foreign powers and merchants. However, the vast majority of his European victims came from the merchants and boyars of Transylvania and Wallachia. Most of the merchants there were German-speaking Saxons who were seen as bad people because they were not Romanian. He saw the boyars as people who were not loyal (Vlad's own father and older brother were murdered by boyars). The following are the most common legends of Vlad: Anecdotal evidence. Much of the information we have about Vlad III Ţepeş comes from texts published in the Holy Roman Empire in German texts from 1488 and books written in Russian. These were entertainment in a society where the printing press was new. The texts were reprinted over the thirty years following Vlad's death. The German texts said Vlad Ţepeş was a person who terrorized the land and killed innocents. The Russian texts said his actions were justified, because Vlad helped them. The texts agree on some details. According to the texts, he was particularly cruel against women and wanted his people to work hard. Merchants who cheated their customers were likely to be killed because of that. The vampire legend. The fictional vampire in the novel "Dracula" by Bram Stoker was inspired by the legends of this Wallachian prince. The cruel person of the Impaler was a suitable character for Stoker's purposes possibly combined with Oscar Wilde, a poet whom dated Stoker's wife and was outed as homosexual near the making of Stoker's famous novel. The events of Vlad's life happened in a region of the world that was still medieval in Stoker's time. Although there were vampire tales originating elsewhere, the vampire, as he became known in Europe, largely originated in Southern Slavic and Greek folklore. The vampire tale is virtually absent in Romanian culture. Vampirism became part of the popular culture in Europe beginning in the late 17th century. Philosophers in the West began to study the phenomenon. It was during this period that Dom Augustine Calmet wrote a famous text on vampirism in Hungary. It was also during this period that authors and playwrights first began to explore the vampire legend. Stoker's novel was a work in a long series of works that were inspired by the reports coming from the Balkans.
54445	111904	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54445	Vlad Tepes
54446	1551545	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54446	Fertile Crescent	The Fertile Crescent is a historical region in the Middle East that includes the Levant, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. These countries on a map together have a shape that is similar to a crescent, so archaeologist James Henry Breasted spoke of the "Fertile Crescent" because he wanted to show the similarities of the cultures of this region in ancient times. All these lands are watered by important rivers: Nile, Jordan, Euphrates and Tigris. Together they cover some 400-500,000 square kilometers, and the region extends from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea around the north of the Syrian Desert and through the Jazirah and Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf. These areas are in present-day Egypt, Israel, West Bank, Gaza strip, Lebanon, Cyprus and parts of Jordan, Syria, Iraq, south-eastern Turkey and south-western Iran. The population of the Nile River basin is about 70 million, the Jordan River basin about 20 million, and the Tigris and Euphrates basins about 30 million, giving the present-day Fertile Crescent a total population of around 120 million, or at least a quarter of the population of the Middle East. The Fertile Crescent has a very long record of past human activity.
54447	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54447	Crescent	In art and symbolism, a crescent is generally the shape produced when a circular disk has a segment of another circle removed from its edge, so that what remains is a shape enclosed by two circular arcs of different diameters which intersect at two points (usually in such a manner that the enclosed shape does not include the center of the original circle). The crescent was long used as the symbol of Byzantium. Now it is the main symbol for the religion Islam.
54448	293183	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54448	Crescent (disambiguation)	Crescent is a shape, form or symbol. Crescent may also refer to:
54449	10427786	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54449	Levant	Levant is a term in geography that refers to an area in the Middle East. It includes the historic areas of Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, and the Hatay Province (located in modern-day Turkey). The Levant is bounded by the Taurus Mountains to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the west, the northern Arabian Desert to the south and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. The word "Levant" entered the English language in the 16th century, together with the first English merchant adventurers in the region. English ships appeared in the Mediterranean in the 1570s and the English merchant company signed its agreement ("capitulations") with the Grand Turk in 1579 (Braudel). Today, the word "Levant" is usually used by archaeologists and historians who are talking about the prehistory and the ancient and medieval history of the region, as when discussing the Crusades. The term is also used sometimes to refer to modern or contemporary events, peoples, states, or parts of states in the same region, such as Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Cyprus, and the Hatay Province.
54450	293183	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54450	Levant (disambiguation)	Levant may be:
54459	1675070	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54459	Jordan River	The Jordan River ( ', ') is a river in Southwest Asia that flows through the Great Rift Valley into the Dead Sea. Many people think it is one of the world's most sacred rivers. It is long. Its tributaries are: The four rivers join to form the Jordan in northern Palestine, near kibbutz Sede Nehemya. The Jordan drops quickly in a 75 kilometer run to Lake Hula, which is a little below sea level in the Galilee sea. Then it drops much more in about 25 kilometers to the Sea of Galilee. The last section has less gradient, and the river begins to twist before it enters the Dead Sea, which is about 400 meters below sea level and has no outlet. Two major tributaries enter this last section from the east: the Yarmouk River and Jabbok River. In 1964, Israel began operating a dam that takes water from the Sea of Galilee, a major Jordan River water provider, to the national water carrier. Also in 1964 Jordan built a channel that takes water from the Yarmouk River, a main tributary of the Jordan River. This caused great damage to the ecosystem. Syria has also built reservoirs that catch the Yarmouk's waters. In modern times, 70% to 90% of the waters is used for human purposes and the flow is much smaller. Because of this, and the high evaporation rate of the Dead Sea, the sea is shrinking. All the shallow waters of the southern end of the sea have been drained in modern times, and are now salt flats. The water from the Jordan is a very important resource to the dry lands of the area. It is a source of conflict between Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Palestine. In the Bible. In the Hebrew Bible, the Jordan is referred to as the source of fertility to a large plain ("Kikkar ha-Yarden"), called "the garden of God" (Genesis 13:10). There is no regular description of the Jordan in the Bible. The New Testament states that John the Baptist baptized Jesus in the Jordan (Matt. 3:13). Symbolic importance. The Jordan is a frequent symbol in folk, gospel, and spiritual music, or in poetic or literary works. Because the Israelites made a difficult journey from slavery in Egypt to freedom in "The Promised Land", the Jordan can be a symbol of freedom. The actual crossing is the final step of the journey, which is then complete. Also, the Jordan can mean death itself, with the crossing from life into Paradise or Heaven.
54460	111904	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54460	Jordan River (disambiguation)	Jordan River could mean: Asia: Australia: Canada: England: New Zealand: United States:
54461	10436523	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54461	History of Islam	The History of Islam began in Makkah when Muhammad was given the revelation of the Quran by the angel Jibril in the 7th century. Muslim history and the historical development of Islam has affected political, economic, and military trends both inside and outside the Muslim world. As with Christianity, the concept of an "Islamic world" is useful when one looks at different periods of human history. Early Muslim history. After Muhammad died, the Arab Muslim leadership was assumed by Abu Bakr. He was followed by Umar, Uthman ibn Affan, Ali, and Mu'awiya I, who established the Umayyad Caliphate. Under these caliphs, Islam became one of the most important religions in the world. Under Umar, more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire was conquered by the Arab Muslims. Umar also started the Muslim calendar. The Arab Islamic empire reached its largest geographical extent under the Umayyad Caliphate. Islamic civil wars. The First "Fitna". The first civil war in Islam, also known as the "First Fitna" broke out in Islam during the rule of the fourth caliph Ali and lasted throughout his caliphate. The third caliph Uthman ibn Affan had been murdered by rebel Muslim groups who had political motives. After Ali took over, the most important problem he faced was that of punishing those responsible for murder. However many people felt that before accepting the position of the caliph, Ali should have focused his attention on finding and punishing the murderers. A group of people led by Muhammad's wife Aisha, her brothers in law Talhah and Zubair ibn al-Awam refused to recognize Ali's caliphate. They instead raised an army which met Ali's army at Basra in Iraq, originally for the purposes of negotiations. In the night, some fighting broke out, probably out of confusion or due to rebel groups who were involved in the infamous murder. This led to the "Battle of Bassorah" (also known as "Battle of the Camel") in which Ali's party emerged victorious. Aisha was escorted back to Medina honorably after the battle by Ali. This battle however did not entirely finish the tension in the Muslim empire. Ali was soon challenged by Muawiyah, the governor of the Muslim provinces of Syria. He too raised the issue of punishing Uthman's murderers and refused to acknowledge Ali as caliph until the issue had been solved. Muawiyah was a kinsman of Uthman and his army pledged to bring to justice the murderers and those who sheltered them. This reference to people who are sheltering the murderers was towards Ali and his followers. Accordingly, the two groups met and fought a battle, called the "Battle of Siffin". This battle ended in a draw and so both groups decided on arbitration which also did not lead to any concrete decision. Another group of Muslims, "The Kharijites" who had previously been with Ali, meanwhile rejected him because they felt that he was not following true Islam and conducting business over the caliphate as if it were his own property. In the following years Ali's governors could not prevent his losing provinces to Muawiyah who increased his strength by further expanding his army. Ali had shifted the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Kufa in 656. He was killed by a Kharijite assassin in Kufa in 661.
54463	10229480	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54463	History of Christianity	The history of Christianity starts with Jesus and his twelve apostles (his students and followers). Christianity is based on the birth, life, death, resurrection and teachings of Jesus. Christianity began in the 1st century CE, after Jesus died and was said to be resurrected. Starting as a small group of Jewish people in Judea, it spread quickly throughout the Roman Empire. Even though the followers of Christianity were persecuted at first, Christianity later became the state religion. In the Middle Ages it spread into Northern Europe and Russia. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded throughout the world; it is currently the largest religion in the world. Because of schisms and theological disputes, Christianity split into four main branches: the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, Oriental Orthodoxy, and Protestant churches. Most of the first Christians were ethnically Jewish or Jewish converts. A question arose about non-Jewish converts: did they have to "become Jewish" before becoming Christian? St. Peter decided that they did not, and the matter was further addressed with the Council of Jerusalem. The doctrines of the apostles brought early Christianity into conflict with some Jewish religious authorities. This eventually led to expulsion from the synagogues and the martyrdom of Saint Stephen and James the Great. Thus, Christianity got an identity distinct from Judaism. The name "Christian" (Greek ) was first used for the disciples in Antioch, as recorded in (Acts 11:26). Worship of Jesus Christ. Early Christians' beliefs are described in the Gospels and New Testament Epistles. The very earliest reports about apostles' beliefs come from early Christian creeds, hymns, and reports about the Passion, the empty tomb, and appearances of Jesus after his Resurrection. Some evidence suggests they were written by the Jerusalem Church within a few years of Jesus's crucifixion. Jewish continuity. Christianity kept many practices from Jewish tradition. It taught that the Jewish scriptures were sacred. It used the Septuagint translation of the Torah (the first five books of the Old Testament) and the Hebrew Prophets and Writings (the rest of the Old Testament books). Christianity then added other texts as the New Testament. Christians said Jesus was the God of Israel, who had taken human form. The Old Testament had prophesied about the coming of a Messiah. Christians viewed Jesus as that Messiah (Christ). Christianity continued many Judaic practices: liturgical worship, including the use of incense, an altar, a set of scriptural readings adapted from synagogue practice, use of sacred music in hymns and prayer, and a religious calendar, as well as other typical features: an exclusively male priesthood, and ascetic practices (fasting etc.). Post-Apostolic Church. The time when most of the apostles had died and their jobs as leaders of the Christian communities in the cities had been taken over by bishops, is called post-apostolic period. It includes the time of persecutions until Christian worship was legalized under Constantine the Great. The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" (Greek ) is from this period. The term was used by Ignatius of Antioch "c." 107. Persecutions. Early Christians were subject to various persecutions. This meant even death. Early martyrs included Stephen () and James, son of Zebedee (). Persecutions in larger scale by the authorities of the Roman Empire began with the year 64, when the Emperor Nero blamed them for the great Fire of Rome as the Roman historian Tacitus reported. According to Church tradition, it was under Nero's persecution that the saints Peter and Paul became martyrs in Rome. Several of the New Testament writings mention persecutions and very difficult times. For 250 years there were times when Christians suffered from persecutions, because they refused to worship the Roman emperor. That was seen as treason and punished by execution. But the Christian religion continued to spread throughout the Mediterranean region. In the late fourth century they became the dominant religious force of the Roman Empire. Christianity legalized. The first to legalize Christianity was the Armenian king Trdat the Third, who announced it the official religion in Armenia in the year 301. Galerius issued an edict permitting the practice of the Christian religion in April of 311. In 313 Constantine I and Licinius announced toleration of Christianity in the Edict of Milan. Constantine became the first Christian emperor; he had learnt about Christianity from his mother, Helena. By 391, under the reign of Theodosius I, Christianity had become the state religion of Rome. When Christianity was legalized the Church used the same provinces for administration as the imperial government and called them dioceses. The Bishop of Rome claimed to be the highest amongst all others and chose the title pope. During this era, there were several Ecumenical Councils. These were mostly concerned with Christological disputes. The First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism and produced the Nicene Creed to define the faith. The Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorianism and affirmed the Blessed Virgin Mary to be Theotokos ("God-bearer" or "Mother of God"). Perhaps the most important was the Council of Chalcedon that affirmed that Christ had two natures, fully God and fully man, at the same time. That meant that Monophysitism was condemned. Church of the Early Middle Ages (476 – 800). The Church in the Early Middle Ages saw a "transformation of the Roman world" rather than a "fall of the Roman Empire". With the Muslim invasions of the seventh century, the Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) areas of Christianity began to take on distinctive shapes, and the Bishops of Rome were more interested in barbarian kings than in the Byzantine Emperors. This led to the coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" by Pope Leo III in Rome on Christmas Day, 800. Early Medieval Papacy. The city of Rome was affected very much by warfare in Italy during the Early Middle Ages. Emperor Justinian I conquered the Italian kingdom of the Ostrogoths. He made Ravenna, Italy a territory with its own governor, but imperial influence was often limited. After the invasion of the Lombards, Rome had to take care of itself. Thus the popes, out of necessity, found themselves feeding the city with grain from papal estates, negotiating treaties, paying protection money to Lombard warlords, and, failing that, hiring soldiers to defend the city. Eventually, the failure of the Empire to send aid resulted in the popes turning for support from other sources, most especially the Franks. Church of the High Middle Ages (800 – 1499). The High Middle Ages is the period from the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 to the close of the fifteenth century, which saw the fall of Constantinople (1453), the end of the Hundred Years' War (1453), the discovery of the New World (1492), and thereafter the Protestant Reformation (1515). Investiture Controversy. The "Investiture Controversy", also known as the "lay investiture controversy", was the most important conflict between secular and religious powers in medieval Europe. It began as a dispute in the 11th century between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII. The question was who would control appointments of bishops (investiture). The end of lay investiture meant an important loss of royal power, and a loss for ambitious noblemen, for the benefit of Church reform as the pope intended. Bishops collected revenues from estates attached to their bishopric. Noblemen who held lands (fiefdoms) hereditarily passed those lands on within their family. However, a king had more control of lands under the domain of his bishops. Kings would give bishoprics to powerful friends. If a king left a bishopric vacant, he got the money until a bishop was appointed, when he was supposed to repay the earnings. This seldom happened. The Church wanted to end this lay investiture because of the vacant sees simony and other problems. Thus, the Investiture Contest was part of the Church's attempt to reform the episcopate and get better bishops. Pope Gregory VII issued the "Dictatus Papae", which said only the pope may make, break, or move bishops to other sees. The Emperor rejected this. With excommunication and a revolt by his dukes, Henry apologized and was forgiven, though the conflict continued. A similar controversy happened in England between King Henry I and St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury. The English dispute was resolved by a deal in 1107, where the king gave up making bishops but did require an oath of fealty. The later Concordat of Worms ("Pactum Calixtinum") resolved the Imperial investiture controversy with a similar compromise. Crusades. The Crusades were a military conflicts conducted by Christian knights for the defense of Christians and for the expansion of Christian domains. Generally, the crusades refer to the campaigns in the Holy Land against Muslim forces sponsored by the Papacy. There were other crusades against Islamic forces in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily, as well as the campaigns of Teutonic knights against pagan strongholds in Eastern Europe, and (to a much lesser extent) crusades against Catharism or other Christian heresies. The Holy Land had been part of the Roman Empire, and thus Byzantine Empire, until the Islamic conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries. Thereafter, Christians had generally been permitted to visit the sacred places in the Holy Land until 1071, when the Seljuk Turks closed Christian pilgrimages and assailed the Byzantines, defeating them at the Battle of Manzikert. Emperor Alexius I asked for aid from Pope Urban II (1088-1099) for help against Islamic aggression. Instead of sending money, Urban II called upon the knights of Christendom in a speech made at the Council of Clermont on 27 November 1095, combining the idea of pilgrimage to the Holy Land with that of waging a holy war against infidels. East-West Schism. The East-West Schism, or Great Schism, separated the Church into Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) branches, i.e. Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. It was the first major division since certain groups in the East rejected the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon (see Oriental Orthodoxy), and was far more significant. Though normally dated to 1054, the East-West Schism was the result of an long time of disagreement between Latin and Greek Christendom over papal primacy and certain doctrinal matters like the "filioque". Bad feelings were intensified by cultural and linguistic differences. The schism became "official" in 1054 when the Pope's legates notified Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople that he had been excommunicated. A few days later, he excommunicated the legates. Attempts at reconciliation were made in 1274 in Lyon and in 1439 in Basel, but in each case the eastern hierarchs who agreed to the unions were repudiated by the Orthodox as a whole. However, reconciliation was achieved between the West and what are now called the "Eastern Rite Catholic Churches". More recently, in 1965 the mutual excommunications were rescinded by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople, though schism remains. Both groups are descended from the Early Church, both acknowledge the apostolic succession of each other's bishops, and the validity of each other's sacraments. Though both acknowledge the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, Eastern Orthodoxy understands this as a primacy of honor with limited or no ecclesiastical authority in other dioceses. Western Schism. The Western Schism, or Papal Schism, was a prolonged period of crisis in Latin Christendom from 1378 to 1416, when there were two or more claimants to the See of Rome and thus it was difficult to discern who the true Pope was. The conflict was political, rather than doctrinal, in nature. Church and the Italian Renaissance (1399 – 1599). The Renaissance was a period of great cultural change and achievement, marked in Italy by a classical orientation and an increase of wealth through mercantile trade. The City of Rome, the Papacy, and the Papal States were all affected by the Renaissance. On the one hand, it was a time of great artistic patronage and architectural magnificence, where the Church patroned such artists as Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Bramante, Raphael, Fra Angelico, Donatello, and da Vinci. On the other hand, wealthy Italian families often secured episcopal offices, including the papacy, for their own members, some of whom were known for immorality, such as Alexander VI and Sixtus IV. Protestant Reformation (1521 – 1579). In the early 16th century, movements were begun by two theologians, Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, that aimed to reform the Church. Unlike earlier reformers they considered the root of corruptions to be doctrinal (rather than simply a matter of moral weakness or lack of ecclesiastical discipline) and thus they aimed to change contemporary doctrines to fit their idea of the "true gospel". The Protestant Reformation is so called because the movement's leaders "protested" against the ecclesiastical hierarchy and the pope, essentially electing to institute their reforms separately from it. The term "Protestant", however, was not originally used by these leaders; instead, they called themselves "evangelical", emphasizing the "return to the true gospel (Greek: "euangelion")". The beginning of the Protestant Reformation is generally identified with Martin Luther and the posting of the 95 Theses in 1517 in Wittenburg, Germany. Early protest was against corruptions such as simony, episcopal vacancies, and the sale of indulgences. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura and sola fide. The three most important traditions to emerge directly from the Protestant Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist, Presbyterian, etc.), and Anglican traditions, though the latter group identifies as both "Reformed" and "Catholic", and some subgroups reject the classification as "Protestant". The Protestant Reformation may be divided into two distinct but basically simultaneous movements, the Magisterial Reformation and the Radical Reformation. The Magisterial Reformation involved the alliance of certain theological teachers (Latin: "magistri") such as Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, Cranmer, etc. with secular magistrates who cooperated in the reformation of Christendom. Radical Reformers, besides forming communities outside state sanction, often employed more extreme doctrinal change, such as the rejection of tenants of the Councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon. Often the division between magisterial and radical reformers was as or more violent than the general Catholic and Protestant hostilities. The Protestant Reformation spread almost entirely within the confines of Northern Europe, but did not take hold in certain northern areas such as Ireland and parts of Germany. By far the magisterial reformers were more successful and their changes more widespread than the radical reformers. The Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation is known as the Counter Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, which resulted in a reassertion of traditional doctrines and the emergence of new religious orders aimed at both moral reform and new missionary activity. The Counter Reformation reconverted approximately 33% of Northern Europe to Catholicism and initiated missions in South and Central America, Africa, Asia, and even China and Japan. Protestant expansion outside of Europe occurred on a smaller scale through colonization of North America and areas of Africa. Martin Luther. Martin Luther was an Augustinian friar and professor at the University of Wittenberg. In 1517, he published a list of 95 Theses, or points to be debated, concerning the illicitness of selling indulgences. Luther had a particular disdain for Aristotelian philosophy, and as he began developing his own theology, he increasingly came into conflict with other scholars. Soon, Luther began to develop his theology of justification, or how one is "made right" (righteous) in the eyes of God. In Catholic theology, one is made righteous by a progressive infusion of grace accepted through faith and cooperated with through good works. Luther's doctrine of justification was different. He said justification meant "the declaring of one to be righteous", where God imputes the merits of Christ upon one who remains without inherent merit. In this process, good works are more of an unessential byproduct that contribute nothing to one's own state of righteousness. Conflict between Luther and leading theologians lead to his gradual rejection of authority of the Church hierarchy. In 1520, he was condemned for heresy by the papal bull "Exsurge Domine", which he burned at Wittenburg along with books of canon law. John Calvin. John Calvin was a French cleric and doctor of law turned Protestant reformer in the second generation of the Reformation. He was well known for publishing the "Institutes of the Christian Religion", in 1536 (later revised), and became a leader of the Reformed church in Geneva, which became an "unofficial capital" of Reformed Christianity in the second half of the sixteenth century. He had great authority in the city and over the city council, such that he has (rather ignominiously) been called a "Protestant pope". Calvin established an eldership together with a "consistory", where pastors and the elders established matters of religious discipline for the Genevan population. Calvin's theology is best known for his doctrine of (double) predestination, which held that God had, from all eternity, providentially foreordained who would be saved (the elect) and likewise who would be damned (the reprobate). Predestination was not the dominant idea in Calvin's works, but it would seemingly become so for many of his Reformed successors. English Reformation. Unlike other reform movements, the English Reformation began by royal influence. Henry VIII considered himself a thoroughly Catholic King, and in 1521 he defended the papacy against Luther in a book he commissioned entitled, "The Defense of the Seven Sacraments", for which Pope Leo X awarded him the title "Fidei Defensor" (Defender of the Faith). However, the king came into conflict with the papacy when he wished to annul his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, for which he needed papal sanction. Catherine, among many other noble relations, was the aunt of Emperor Charles V, the papacy's most significant secular supporter. The ensuing dispute eventually lead to a break from Rome and the declaration of the King of England as head of the English (Anglican) Church. England then experienced a period of frenetic and eclectic reforms, some more radical and others more traditional, under monarchs such as Edward VI and Elizabeth I, and Archbishops of Canterbury such as Thomas Cranmer and William Laud. What emerged was a state church that considered itself both "Reformed" and "Catholic" but not "Roman" (and hesitated from the title "Protestant"), and other "unofficial" more radical movements such as the Puritans. Counter-Reformation. The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was the response of the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation. The essence of the Counter-Reformation was a renewed conviction in traditional practices and the upholding of Catholic doctrine as the source of ecclesiastic and moral reform, and the answer to halting the spread of Protestantism. Thus it experienced the founding of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, the establishment of seminaries for the proper training of priests, renewed worldwide missionary activity, and the development of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. The entire process was spearheaded by the Council of Trent, which clarified and reasserted doctrine, issued dogmatic definitions, and produced the "Roman Catechism". Though Ireland, Spain, France, and elsewhere featured significantly in the Counter-Reformation, its heart was Italy and the various popes of the time, who established the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum" (the list of prohibited books) and the Roman Inquisition, a system of juridical tribunals that prosecuted heresy and related offences. The Papacy of St. Pius V (1566-1572) was known not only for its focus on halting heresy and worldly abuses within the Church, but also for its focus on improving popular piety in a determined effort to stem the appeal of Protestantism. Pius began his pontificate by giving large alms to the poor, charity, and hospitals, and the pontiff was known for consoling the poor and sick, and supporting missionaries. The activities of these pontiffs coincided with a rediscovery of the ancient Christian catacombs in Rome. As Diarmaid MacCulloch stated, "Just as these ancient martyrs were revealed once more, Catholics were beginning to be martyred afresh, both in mission fields overseas and in the struggle to win back Protestant northern Europe: the catacombs proved to be an inspiration for many to action and to heroism." Great Awakenings. The First Great Awakening was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants in the American colonies "c". 1730-1740, emphasizing the traditional Reformed virtues of Godly preaching, rudimentary liturgy, and a deep sense of personal guilt and redemption by Christ Jesus. Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom saw it as part of a "great international Protestant upheaval" that also created Pietism in Germany, the Evangelical Revival, and Methodism in England. It centered on reviving the spirituality of established congregations, and mostly affected Congregational, Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, German Reformed, Baptist, and Methodist churches, while also spreading within the slave population. The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s), unlike the first, focused on the unchurched and sought to instill in them a deep sense of personal salvation as experienced in revival meetings. It also sparked the beginnings of Restorationist groups such as the Mormons and the Holiness movement. The Third Great Awakening began from 1857 and was most notable for taking the movement throughout the world, especially in English speaking countries. The final group to emerge from the "great awakenings" in North America was Pentecostalism, which had its roots in the Methodist, Wesleyan, and Holiness movements, and began in 1906 on Azusa Street, in Los Angeles. Pentecostalism would later lead to the Charismatic movement. Restorationism. Restorationism refers to various unaffiliated movements that considered contemporary Christianity, in all its forms, to be a deviation from the true, original Christianity, which these groups then attempted to "Reconstruct", often using the Book of Acts as a "guidebook" or sorts. Restorationism developed out of the Second Great Awakening and is historically connected to the Protestant Reformation, but differs in that Restorationists do not usually describe themselves as "reforming" a Christian church continuously existing from the time of Jesus, but as "restoring" the Church that they believe was lost at some point. The name Restoration is also used to describe the Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and the Jehovah's Witness Movement. Fascism. Fascism describes certain related political regimes in 20th century Europe, especially Nazi Germany. When the Italian government closed Catholic youth organizations, Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical "Non Abbiamo Bisogno", saying that Fascist governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position and Fascism, which placed the nation above God and fundamental human rights and dignity. He later signed agreements with the new rulers of Italy and Germany. Many Catholic priests and monastics were persecuted under the Nazi regime, such as the concentration camp victims Maximilian Kolbe and Edith Stein (Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross). Furthermore, many Catholic laypeople and clergy helped in sheltering Jews during the Holocaust, including Pope Pius XII. Various incidents, such as giving aid to downed Allied airmen, nearly caused Nazi Germany to invade the Vatican before the liberation of Rome in 1944. The relationship between Nazism and Protestantism, especially the German Lutheran Church, is complex. Though the majority of Protestant church leaders in Germany made little comment on the Nazis' growing anti-Jewish activities, some, such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer (a Lutheran pastor) were strongly opposed to the Nazis. Bonhoeffer was later found guilty in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler and executed. Fundamentalism. Fundamentalist Christianity, is a movement that arose mainly within British and American Protestantism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in reaction to modernism and certain liberal Protestant groups that denied doctrines considered fundamental to Christianity yet still called themselves "Christian". Thus, fundamentalism sought to reestablish tenants that could not be denied without relinquishing a Christian identity, the "fundamentals": the Bible as God`s word, viewed as the sole source of authority, the virgin birth of Christ, the doctrine of atonement through Jesus, the bodily resurrection of Jesus, and the imminent return of Christ. Ecumenism. Ecumenism broadly refers to movements between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue. "Ecumenism" is derived from Greek "" (oikoumene), which means "the inhabited world", but more figuratively something like "universal oneness". The movement can be distinguished into Catholic and Protestant movements, with the latter characterized by a redefined ecclesiology of "denominationalism" (which the Catholic Church, among others, rejects). Concerning the Greek Orthodox Church, steady movement was made to reconcile the East-West Schism. On 30 November 1894, Pope Leo XIII publishes the Apostolic Letter "Orientalium Dignitas" (On the Churches of the East) safeguarding the importance and continuance of the Eastern traditions for the whole Church. On 7 December 1965, a Joint Catholic-Orthodox Declaration of His Holiness Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I was issued lifting the mutual excommunications of 1054. Concerning Catholic relations with Protestant communities, certain commissions were established to foster dialogue and documents have been produced aimed at identifying points of doctrinal unity, such as the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification produced with the Lutheran World Federation in 1999. Ecumenical movements within Protestantism have focused on determining a list of doctrines and practices essential to being Christian and thus extending to all groups which fulfill these basic criteria a (more or less) equal status, with perhaps one's own group still retaining a "first among equal" standing. This process involved a redefinition of the idea of "the Church" from traditional theology. This ecclesiology, known as denominationalism, contends that each group (which fulfills the essential criteria of "being Christian") is a sub-group of a greater "Christian Church", itself a purely abstract concept with no direct representation, i.e. no group, or "denomination", claims to be "the Church". Obviously, this ecclesiology it at variance with other groups that indeed consider themselves to be "the Church". But moreover, because the "essential criteria" generally consist of belief in the holy Trinity, it has resulted in strife between these Protestant ecumenical movements and non-Trinitarian groups such as Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and Jehovah's Witnesses, which are not often not regarded as Christian by these ecumenical groups. Other websites. The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity: The following link provides quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:
54465	314538	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54465	Timeline of Christianity	This timeline is to show the history of Christianity from the beginning to the present. Question marks on dates mean that dates are not exact. Calendar. Western culture and Christian churches use the Gregorian calendar. Pope Gregory XIII created it in 1582 to replace the less precise Julian Calendar. The Gregorian calendar is still used today almost everywhere in the world (except for calculating the holy days of other religions). The Gregorian calendar uses Jesus's birth as a central point. It measures dates based on how far away they are from Jesus's birth. Any year that took place before Jesus's birth is written with the initials BC (before Christ) at the end. Any year that happened after Jesus's birth is written with the initials AD. (This stands for "anno Domini," which means "in the year of our lord" in medieval Latin.) Nowadays these are often written BCE ("before the Common Era") and CE ("Common Era"). The first year in "anno Domini" is "year one". There is no year zero. When the Gregorian calendar was calculated, the scholars tried to work out exactly when the birth of Jesus happened. The exact date is not certain, but most agree that it was between 6 BC and 4 BC. Era of Jesus. This list tells only about the things that happened in the part of the world where Jesus was born. This region is now called Israel and Palestine. In the time of Jesus, it was under the rule of the Romans. Jesus began his ministry after his baptism by John and during the rule of Pilate, preaching: "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near" (). While the historicity of the gospel accounts is questioned to some extent by most critical scholars and non-Christians, the traditional view states the following chronology for his ministry: Temptation, Sermon on the Mount, Appointment of the Twelve, Miracles, Temple Money Changers, Last Supper, Arrest, Trial, Passion, Crucifixion on Good Friday (, ), Nisan 14th (, , Gospel of Peter) or Nisan 15th (Synoptic Gospels), (7 Apr 30, 3 Apr 33, 30 Mar 36, possible Fri-14-Nisan dates – Meier), entombment by Pharisees Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus of the Sanhedrin, Resurrection by God on Easter Sunday, appearances to Paul of Tarsus (), Simon Peter (), Mary Magdalene (, ), and others, Great Commission, Ascension, Second Coming Prophecy to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment, and establishment of the Kingdom of God and the Messianic Age. See also Chronology of Jesus. Era of the Apostles. Shortly after the Crucifixion of Jesus (Nisan 14 or 15), the Jerusalem church was founded as the first Christian church with about 120 Jews and Jewish proselytes (), followed by Pentecost, the Ananias and Sapphira incident, Pharisee Gamaliel's defense of the Apostles (), the stoning of Saint Stephen (see also Persecution of Christians) and the subsequent dispersal of the church () which led to the baptism of Simon Magus in Samaria (), and also an Ethiopian eunuch (). Paul's conversion to "Apostle to the Gentiles" is first recorded in (, cf. ). Peter baptized the Centurion Cornelius, who is traditionally considered the first Gentile convert to Christianity (). The Antioch church was founded. It was there that the term Christian was first used (). Saint James was executed by Agrippa I (ruled 39–44) during a Passover (Nisan 15) (). Era of the Seven Ecumenical Councils. Constantine called the First Council of Nicaea in 325 to unify Christology, also called the first great Christian council by Jerome, the first ecumenical, decreed the Original Nicene Creed, but rejected by Nontrinitarianism such as Arius, Theonas, Secundus, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Theognis who were excommunicated, also addressed Easter controversy and passed 20 Canon laws.
54472	966595	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54472	Armorial of districts in Rhineland-Palatinate	List of coats of arms of the 24 districts and the 12 urban districts in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
54475	353898	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54475	Schism (religion)	The word schism ('sɪzəm or ), from the Greek σχίσμα, "skhísma" (from σχίζω, "skhízō", "to tear, to split"), means a division or a split, usually in an organization or a movement. A schismatic is a person who creates schism in an organization or who is a member of a splinter group. "Schismatic" as an adjective means belonging to a schism or schisms, or to those ideas, policies, etc. that are thought to lead towards schism. Use within Christianity. The words "schism" and "schismatic" have found perhaps their heaviest usage in the history of Christianity, to speak of splits within a church. Within Christianity the word "schism" may refer to: Though it is very important to note the difference between schism and heresy. Heresy is to reject or doubt the beliefs of the Church after having been baptised. Schism means that the opposing parties have a disagreement within the establishment. Both groups have to accept that they are in schism. In the canon law of the Catholic Church, an act of schism, apostasy or heresy brings the penalty of excommunication. Use within Islam. There are divisions between Sunni, Shia, and Kharijite Islam in CE 632 regarding the rightful successor to the prophet Muhammad. In 661 and 680 there were divisions regarding the rightful claimant to the Caliphate. Use within Buddhism. In Buddhism, the first schism was set up by Devadatta, during Buddha's life. After Buddha's passing away, the early Buddhist schools developed various schisms. In the old texts, 18 or 20 early schools are mentioned. Later, there were the Mahayana and Vajrayana movements, which can be regarded as being schismatic in origin. There are now perhaps thousands of different Buddhist sects. Use within Jainism. The first schism in Jainism happened around the fourth century BCE, leading to rise of two major sects, Digambara and Svetambara, which were later subdivided in further sub-sects. Use within Judaism. Throughout the Jewish history, Judaism survived many schisms. Today, major Jewish denominations are Orthodox Judaism and non-Orthodox: Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist.
54477	1161309	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54477	Proselyte	Proselyte, from Greek "/proselytos", is used in the Septuagint for "stranger", i.e. a newcomer to Israel; a sojourner in the land, and in the New Testament (Strong's G4339 ) for a convert to Judaism from Paganism. It is a translation of the Hebrew word "/ger" (Strong's H1616 ). Two kinds of proselyte in Judaism. There are two kinds of proselyte: A righteous proselyte was a Gentile who had converted to Judaism, was bound to all the doctrines and precepts of the Jewish economy, and was considered a full member of the Jewish people. A gate proselyte was a "resident alien" who lived in the Land of Israel and followed some of the customs. Proselytes in early Christianity. The "religious proselytes" spoken of in Early Christian writings were righteous proselytes, as distinguished from gate proselytes.
54481	487619	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54481	Twelve Apostles	The Twelve Apostles, (somebody sent forth/sent out) were men who, according to the Synoptic Gospels and Christian tradition, were chosen from among the disciples (students) of Jesus Christ for a mission. Judaism had an office known as apostle (שליח)". The Gospel of Mark states that Jesus Christ initially sent out these twelve in pairs, to towns in Galilee. Twelve Apostles of Jesus. According to the list occurring in each of the Synoptic Gospels (, , ), the Twelve chosen by Jesus near the beginning of his ministry, those whom "also He named Apostles", were It should also be noted that while the "Twelve Apostles" refer to the twelve who followed Jesus during his lifetime (and later Matthias in place of Judas Iscariot), Paul (formerly Saul of Tarsus) can be considered as another apostle. Notably, he begins many of his epistles with "Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus", or some variant. The original twelve were apostles sent out to the Jews, whereas Paul has the unique role of being the apostle to the gentiles after Christ's resurrection and ascent. The identity of the other apostle of the twelve, traditionally called St. Jude, varies between the Synoptic Gospels and also between ancient manuscripts of each gospel: The Gospel of John, unlike the Synoptic Gospels, does not offer a formal list of apostles, but does refer to the "Twelve" in , , and . The following nine apostles are identified by name: The individual that the Gospel of John names as Nathanael is traditionally identified as the same person that the Synoptic Gospels call Bartholomew, and most would agree that the "sons of Zebedee" is likely to be a reference to James and John, while "Judas (not Iscariot)" probably refers to Thaddaeus, also known as St. Jude. Noticeably missing from the Gospel of John are James, son of Alphaeus, Matthew, and Simon the Canaanite/Zealot.
54483	314538	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54483	Oriental Orthodoxy	Oriental Orthodoxy is a group of six Eastern Christian Churches that accept only the first three ecumenical councils (the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople and the Council of Ephesus). They reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon. Those Churches are also called Old Oriental Churches. Oriental Orthodox Churches are different from the churches that call themselves "Eastern Orthodoxy". Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Coptic Orthodox Church. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (based in Egypt) is the spiritual leader of all the Oriental Orthodox Churches. This is because the Pope of Alexandria (the head of the Coptic Orthodox Church) is also given the title of Patriarch of all Africa on the Holy See of St. Mark the Apostle. This spiritual leadership isn't like the relationship between the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Patriarch of Constantinople. It does not give any special rights to the Church of Alexandria. But the position is an honor and a sign of respect. Other Churches. In addition to the Coptic Orthodox Church, these are five other Oriental Orthodox Churches: History. The schism (division) between the Great Church Orthodox, Catholic, and Oriental Orthodox Churches happened in the 5th century after the Council of Chalcedon.
54489	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54489	Dogma	A dogma is something that should not be disputed or doubted. Most often, this means the basic beliefs and doctrines of a religion. What a majority of followers of an ideology or any kind of organization believe in can also be a dogma. In the context of religion, the term has a neutral meaning. Outside of religion for most people the term means something negative, because it accepts only a particular point of view. If someone disputes a religious dogma, they can be accused of heresy. In Christianity, the Resurrection of Jesus is a basic dogma.
54490	293183	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54490	Dogma (disambiguation)	Dogma is belief accepted by a religion or ideology as the only correct one. Dogma could also mean:
54491	10487138	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54491	State religion	A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious group or creed officially accepted by the state. The term "state church" is used in context with Christianity, and is sometimes used for a specific national branch of Christianity. Christian countries. The following states recognize some form of Christianity as their state or official religion (by denomination): Roman Catholic. Jurisdictions which recognize Roman Catholicism as their state or official religion: Old Catholic. Jurisdictions which recognize an Old Catholic church as their state religion: Eastern Orthodox. Jurisdictions which recognize one of the Eastern Orthodox Churches as their state religion: Protestant. Reformed. Jurisdictions which recognize a Reformed church as their state religion: Islamic countries. Countries which recognize Islam as their official religion: Buddhist countries. Governments which recognize Buddhism as their official religion: Ancient state religions. Egypt and Sumer. The concept of state religions was known as long ago as the empires of Egypt and Sumer, when every city state or people had its own god or gods. Persian empire. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of the Sassanid dynasty which lasted from 226 until 651. Greek city-states. Many of the Greek city-states also had a 'god' or 'goddess' associated with that city. Roman Religion and Christianity. When in Rome, the office of "Pontifex Maximus" was reserved for the emperor, failure to worship him as a god was sometimes punished by death, as the Roman government sought to link emperor worship with loyalty to the Empire. Many Christians and Jews were persecuted, because it was against their beliefs to worship the emperor. Catholic Christianity, as opposed to Arianism and other heretical and schismatic groups, was declared to be the state religion of the Roman Empire on February 27, 380 by the decree "De Fide Catolica" of Emperor Theodosius I. Han Dynasty Confucianism and Sui Dynasty Buddhism. In China, the Han Dynasty (206 BC—220 AD) advocated Confucianism as the de facto state religion, establishing tests based on Confucian texts as an entrance requirement into government service. Established churches and former state churches in Europe. In 1967, the Albanian government made atheism the "state religion". This designation remained in effect until 1991. Finland's State Church was the Church of Sweden until 1809. In France the Concordat of 1801 made the Roman Catholic, Calvinist and Lutheran churches state-sponsored religions, as well as Judaism. In Hungary the constitutional laws of 1848 declared five established churches on equal status: the Roman Catholic, Calvinist, Lutheran, Eastern Orthodox and Unitarian Church. In 1868 the law was ratified again after the Ausgleich. In 1895 Judaism was also recognized as the sixth established church. In 1948 every distinction between the different denominations were abolished. The Church in Wales was split from the Church of England in 1920 by Welsh Church Act 1914; at the same time becoming disestablished. Former state churches in British North America. Catholic colonies. In several colonies, the establishment ceased to exist in practice at the Revolution, about 1776; this is the date of legal abolition. in 1789 the Georgia Constitution was amended as follows: "Article IV. Section 10. No person within this state shall, upon any pretense, be deprived of the inestimable privilege of worshipping God in any manner agreeable to his own conscience, nor be compelled to attend any place of worship contrary to his own faith and judgment; nor shall he ever be obliged to pay tithes, taxes, or any other rate, for the building or repairing any place of worship, or for the maintenance of any minister or ministry, contrary to what he believes to be right, or hath voluntarily engaged. To do. No one religious society shall ever be established in this state, in preference to another; nor shall any person be denied the enjoyment of any civil right merely on account of his religious principles." From 1780 Massachusetts had a system which required every man to belong to a church, and permitted each church to tax its members, and did not require that it be a Congregational church. This was objected to, as in practice establishing the Congregational Church, and was abolished in 1833. Until 1877 the New Hampshire Constitution required members of the State legislature to be of the Protestant religion. The North Carolina Constitution of 1776 disestablished the Anglican church, but until 1835 the NC Constitution allowed only Protestants to hold public office. From 1835 to 1876 it allowed allowed only Christians (including Catholics) to hold public office. Article VI, Section 8 of the current NC Constitution forbids only atheists from holding public office. Such clauses were held by the United States Supreme Court to be unenforceable in the 1961 case of Torcaso v. Watkins, when the court ruled unanimously that such clauses constituted a religious test incompatible with First and Fourteenth Amendment protections. Religious Tolerance for Catholics with an Established Church of England were policy in the former Spanish Colonies of East and West Florida while under British rule. East Florida was lost to Spain in 1781. Religious tolerance for Catholics with an established Church of England were policy in the former Spanish Colonies of East and West Florida while under British rule. East Florida was returned to Spain in 1783. State of Deseret. The State of Deseret was a provisional state of the United States, proposed in 1849 by Mormon settlers in Salt Lake City. The provisional state existed for slightly over two years.
54501	209999	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54501	Mass (disambiguation)	The term Mass is used for different concepts, in different fields of study: People. In the plural form, the masses, can mean: An adjective describing a large amount of something, as in:
54502	1566408	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54502	Mass (music)	In music the word mass is used for a piece of music, to be sung by a choir. The Roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches use this. There are two very broad kinds of masses: Those using the Ordinary are not linked to the Church calendar, they use the same pieces (and words) throughout the year. The Proper covers the parts of the mass that vary through the year. At the start, masses were sung in Latin or Greek. Examples of masses not in English include the Deutsche Messe by Franz Schubert or A German Requiem by Johannes Brahms. The usual words that are set to music are known as the Ordinary. These are the words of the service which are the same every day. The Ordinary consists of five parts: Kyrie (Lord have mercy upon us….), Gloria (Glory be to thee….), Credo (I believe in God the Father….), Sanctus (Holy, Holy, Holy….) and Agnus Dei (O Lamb of God…). The words of the mass that are not from the Ordinary are called the Proper. These are words that may change in the service from day to day. The Proper consists of the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Offertory and Communion. There are also some words which are special for particular feast days. In the Renaissance period church composers set the words of the Ordinary mass to music. This music was normally polyphonic: the different sections of the choir (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) all had musical lines which shared the melody and were of equal importance. The words of the Proper were not composed to special music. They were sung to plainchant. During the last two centuries many composers have written masses which were not meant to be sung in a church service: they are written as concert pieces. Some of them are quite long and fill a whole concert program. Some of the most famous masses are those by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Berlioz, Dvořák, Verdi, Bruckner, Fauré and Vaughan Williams.
54503	3650	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54503	Vaughan Williams
54504	10484921	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54504	Ecumenical council	An Ecumenical Council (also sometimes Oecumenical Council), or general council, is a meeting of the bishops of the Christian Church of the whole world who have come together to discuss matters of Church doctrine and practice. The word is from the Greek word "Oikouménē", which means "inhabited" and was originally another name for the territory of the Roman Empire since all of the earliest councils were called by Roman Emperors. In later times, it was used in the sense of "worldwide" or "general." List of ecumenical councils. The first seven Ecumenical Councils. The period of Christianity from the First Council of Nicaea (325) to the Second Council of Nicaea (787) is called the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils.
54507	1566408	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54507	Camille Saint-Saëns	Camille Saint-Saëns (born Paris 9 October 1835, died Algiers, 16 December 1921) was a French composer, pianist and organist. He was one of the greatest composers of his day. He composed lots of music of different kinds. Among his best works are his "Symphony no 3 (with organ) ", "Piano Concerto no 2", "Violin Concerto no 3", "Cello Concerto no 1", the opera "Samson and Delilah" and the "Danse Macabre". His most popular work, however, is the "Carnival of the Animals". Saint-Saens hated being thought of as “the composer of the "Carnival of the Animals"". He said he had only written it for a bit of fun and he did not want anyone to perform it. Today it still remains one of the most popular pieces for children. Life. Three months after Saint-Saens was born his father died. Saint-Saens was often ill with tuberculosis when he was very small and this carried on throughout his life. He was brought up by his mother and his aunt. this illness still didn't hold Saint-Saens back. at the age of two his aunt taught him the piano. When he was ten he played piano concertos by Beethoven and Mozart at a public concert, playing everything from memory. He was very good at school and was interested in lots of subjects including science and philosophy. In 1858 he published some duets for harmonium and piano and he used the money to buy a telescope. He studied music at the Paris Conservatoire and was a brilliant student, although he did not win the Prix de Rome. He soon became known as a composer, pianist and organist and he made many friends, among them Gounod, Berlioz and Rossini. Liszt thought he was the greatest organist in the world. Like Liszt, Saint-Saëns was often very kind to other composers and helped them to become known by playing and conducting their music. He was the first person to conduct Liszt’s symphonic poems in France. He himself wrote symphonic poems such as "Le Rouet d’Omphale" (1871) and "Danse Macabre" (1874). The idea of music which describes a story was quite a new idea at that time. He also helped people to like Bach whose music had been forgotten for a long time. In the 1860s his fame spread and he also did some teaching at the École Niedermeyer which educated young musicians for church music. His pupils included Faure, Messager and Gigout who all became lifelong friends. He also founded the Société Nationale de Musique which helped new music to be performed. Faure, Cesar Franck and Lalo were all members. The society gave first performances of works by Saint-Saens, Chabrier, Debussy, Dukas and Ravel and others. Saint-Saens married a 19-year-old girl. The marriage was not a success. They had two sons who died within six weeks of one another: the baby from an illness and the two-year-old from falling out of a fourth floor window. Saint-Saens blamed his wife and they eventually divorced. For many years Saint-Saens travelled all over the world as a famous musician. Eventually he became less popular in France, but in England and the United States he was still very much admired. He played for Queen Victoria and spent some time studying original manuscripts of Handel in the library of Buckingham Palace. He was awarded the title of Doctor by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge and was made a Commander of the Victorian Order because he had composed a march for the coronation of King Edward VII in 1902. He died in Algiers in 1921. His funeral was in the cathedral there, and his body was then taken back to Paris where he was given a state funeral at the church of Madeleine. His music. Saint-Saens was more famous in the concert hall than he was in the theatre. He wrote 13 operas, but only one of them is still regularly performed: "Samson et Dalila" ("Samson and Delilah"). One of the arias from this opera, "Mon cœur s’ouvre à ta voix", is especially famous. Saint-Saens wrote many concertos, symphonies, sonatas and chamber music. He often uses the style of dance music and creates a happy atmosphere by repeating certain patterns. His music is late Romantic, but based on the classical traditions rather than following the style of Wagner like many other French composers were doing at the time.
54508	3650	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54508	Ravel
54509	3650	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54509	Liszt
54510	1444326	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54510	Fly to the Sky	Fly to the Sky is a South Korean R&B duet (group of two). Its members are Korean-American Brian Joo and South Korean Fany (also known as Hwanhee; ; meaning "delight"). Since their 1999 debut single "Day by Day," they released six albums. Although they were marketed as teen idols, the duo later changed their image and style with their third album "Sea of Love" in 2002. With their later albums, the duo became known as R&B artists and are known as the first R&B duo of South Korea. Career. 1999-2001. The duo started in late 1998 by Korean record company SM Entertainment. A friend of Brian Joo signed him up for auditions with Brothers Entertainment without his knowledge. while he was going to Holy Spirit High School, a Roman Catholic school in New Jersey. As for Fany, a staff member working for the company recommended him to audition at a school festival. They first appeared on television on December 9, 1999. Their first album "Day by Day" sold over 250,000 copies. Their second album "The Promise" was released in 2001. The album hit #2 on the charts, but it quickly slipped from the charts. In the same year, they had their first concert with singer Kim Jo-Han. 2002-2004. Their third album "Sea of Love" was released while Joo was at New Jersey going to Rutgers University, so Fany performed the songs by himself. The album featured "Condition of My Heart" which was written by American singer Brian McKnight. Their fourth album, "Missing You" came out around the time when his manager died in a car crash. Fany was especially shocked by his death, because he had been in the same car with his manager just hours before the incident. "Gravity", as their fifth and last album, came out by SM Entertainment. Their contract to the company ended soon after the release. 2004-present. Fly to the Sky signed on with PFull Entertainment after their first contract ended in 2004. They wanted a smaller label that cared less about money. They recorded their sixth studio album "Transition" in January 2006. The duo started their first tour in Korea called "Fly To The Sky: 2006 The Twice Tour". Starting from Jamsil Arena in Seoul in May 2006, they had concerts in major Korean cities like Busan, Daegu, Junju, and Kwangju. When "Transition" became popular, Fly to the Sky made a special edition, which had more music videos, deleted scenes and the more songs titled "Hwan Sang (Illusion)," "Hot and Cold," and "When I Say." In 2004 and 2005, there was a rumor that they would break up. Brian denied the rumours and said that Fly to the Sky was not disbanding. He said the two had hard time getting along for first few years of their career on the show "Yah Shim Man Man," which aired on July 10. He said that he felt envy towards Fany, because he received more attention and praise than him. Brian felt that he was not given his due as Fany. Eventually he found this difficult to bear, and suggested to Fany that they pursue their separate paths. Fany responded angrily and that led to a fight that nearly led to the duo breaking up. The two were on good terms again soon after, understanding each other better. After the fight, the two decided to try to better understand each other in order to solve their problems together and to support each other. Brian's eyes were filled with tears when he was talking about the rumour. Since 2006, the duo has appeared many times in variety shows. Fany appeared on Korean television drama "Over the Rainbow" during summer of 2006, and Brian released his solo album "The Brian" in December 2006. They became more popular but some critics and fans said they were compromising their image as artists. Other websites. The websites are in Korean.
54514	8960	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54514	Fly to the sky
54516	16695	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54516	Bram Stoker	Abraham "Bram" Stoker (8 November 1847 – 20 April 1912) was an Irish writer. He is best remembered as the author of the classical and influential vampire novel "Dracula". A vampire is a kind of monster associated with death and the Devil. Life. He was born on 8 November 1847 at 15 Marino Crescent—then as now called "The Crescent"—in Clontarf, a coastal suburb of Dublin, Ireland. His parents were Abraham Stoker (born in 1799; married Stoker's mother in 1844; died on 10 October 1876) and the feminist Charlotte Mathilda Blake Thornley (born in 1818; died in 1901). Stoker was the third of seven children. Abraham and Charlotte were members of the Church of Ireland and attended the Clontarf parish church (St. John the Baptist) with their children where both were baptised. Until he started school at the age of seven—when he made a complete, surprising recovery—Stoker was sick. During that time, Stoker wrote, "I was naturally thoughtful, and the leisure of long illness gave opportunity for many thoughts which were fruitful according to their kind in later years." After his recovery, he became a normal young man. He excelled as an athlete at Trinity College, Dublin (1864–70), from which he was graduated with honors in mathematics. He was auditor of the College Historical Society and president of the University Philosophical Society, where his first paper was on "Sensationalism in Fiction and Society". In 1876, while he was employed as a civil servant in Dublin, he wrote theater reviews for "The Dublin Mail", a newspaper partly owned by fellow horror writer J. Sheridan Le Fanu. His interest in theater led to a lifelong friendship with the English actor Henry Irving. In 1878 Stoker married Florence Balcombe, a celebrated beauty whose former suitor was Oscar Wilde. The couple moved to London, where Stoker became business manager of Irving's Lyceum Theater, a post he held for 27 years. The collaboration with Irving was very important for Stoker. Through him he became involved in London's high society, where he met, among other notables, James McNeil Whistler and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. In the course of Irving's tours he got the chance to travel around the world. They had one son, Irving Noel Stoker, who was born on 31 December 1879. Dracula. He earned his money by writing a large number of sensational novels, his most famous being the vampire tale "Dracula" which he published in 1897. Before writing "Dracula", Stoker spent eight years researching European folklore and stories of vampires. "Dracula" is an epistolary novel, written as collection of diary entries, telegrams, and letters from the characters, as well as fictional clippings from the Whitby and London newspapers. Stoker's inspiration for the story was a visit to Slains Castle near Aberdeen. The bleak spot provided an excellent backdrop for his creation. "Dracula" has been the basis for countless movies and plays. The first was "Nosferatu" directed by Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau and starring Max Schreck as Count Orlock. "Nosferatu" was produced while Florence Stoker, Bram Stoker's widow and literary executrix, was still alive. Represented by the attorneys of the British Incorporated Society of Authors, she eventually sued the filmmakers. Her chief legal complaint was that she had been neither asked for permission for the adaptation nor paid any royalty. The case dragged on for some years, with Mrs Stoker demanding the destruction of the negative and all prints of the movie. The suit was finally resolved in the widow's favour in July 1925. Some copies of the movie survived, however, and "Nosferatu" is now widely regarded as an innovative classic. The most famous movie version of "Dracula" is the 1931 production starring Bela Lugosi and which spawned several sequels that had little to do with Stoker's novel. Stoker wrote several other novels dealing with horror and supernatural themes, but none of them achieved the lasting fame or success of "Dracula". His other novels include "The Snake's Pass" (1890), "The Jewel of Seven Stars" (1903), and "The Lair of the White Worm" (1911).
54517	844779	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54517	Criss Angel	Criss Angel (born Christopher Nicholas Sarantakos, December 19, 1967) is an American illusionist, stuntperformer, and musician. He has done many illusions. Examples of these include walking on water, making an Asian elephant vanish and then reappear several episodes later, and floating between two buildings. Angel has had a television program on the American network A&E called "Criss Angel Mindfreak". The program has stunts and street magic, as well as public service announcements about scams that are popular around the United States. Angel was the guest host of the March 8, 2010 version of WWE Monday Night Raw.
54520	5738	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54520	Criss angel
54523	1618275	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54523	TVXQ	TVXQ (Tong Vfang Xien Qi) is a two-member K-pop boy band active in South Korea and Japan. Its members are U-know Yunho and Max Changmin. The group is popular in East Asian countries including Taiwan and China. They debuted in 2004 and belong to Korean record company SM Entertainment. They are known by different names. They are known as Dong Bang Shin Ki (abbreviated DBSK, 동방신기, 東方神起) in Korea and Tohoshinki in Japan. The group has released six Korean and three Japanese albums. Their fourth Korean album, "Mirotic" was released in 2008. It has sold over 550,000 copies. It is their most successful album. Before that, the 2006 album "O-Jung.Ban.Hap." continued to chart in 2007 along with the group's 2005 album "Rising Sun". Their first Japanese album "Heart, Mind, and Soul" performed modestly. It peaked at #25 on the Oricon Chart. The album sold less than 20,000 copies. Their second album "Five in the Black" did better. The third album "T" peaked at #2 and sold 30,003 copies on the first day of its release. TVXQ has an official fan club, called "cassiopeia", in Korea. There is also a big fan club in Japan. Members. Current members Past members Discography. Korean studio albums Korean extended plays Japanese studio albums Japanese compilation albums Japanese singles Awards and achievements. In 2008, TVXQ made the Guinness World Records for having the world's largest official fan club. Cassiopeia, the band's official fan club, is claimed to have more than 800,000 official members just in South Korea, more than 200,000 official members in Japan (BigEast) and more than 200,000 international fans (iCassies). They also made Guinness a second time in 2009. Aside from having the world's largest fan club, the group was also listed as the most photographed celebrities in the world. From the day of their debut to March 19, 2009, the five members are estimated to have been photographed about 500 million times in magazines, albums jackets, and commercials, etc. The total figure includes individual photos as well as group pictures.
54524	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54524	Ayumi Hamasaki	Ayumi Hamasaki ( "Hamasaki Ayumi"; born October 2, 1978) is a Japanese singer, songwriter, and former actress. She is also called Ayu by her fans, and called the "Empress of Pop" because her music is very popular in Japan. She was born and raised in Fukuoka. When she was fourteen, she moved to Tokyo and began her career as an actress in 1993. In 1998, she was signed to the label Avex Trax and released a number of singles that were successful. In 1999, she released her first studio album "A Song for XX" which was very successful and made her popular in Japan. Because she changes her appearance and artistry very often, she is popular in other parts of Asia like China, Singapore, and Taiwan. Many of her songs are used in commercials and advertisements. She often appears in some of these. Before she joined Avex Trax, she released a single and an album both called "Nothing From Nothing". But these did not become popular. Since she debuted in 1998 with "Poker Face," Hamasaki sold more than 50 records in Japan. This puts her as one of the highest ranking singers in the country. She holds many records as a female singer. These include the most number-one hits and highest sales. Personal life. Hamasaki dated Tomoya Nagase (a singer and actor) since her short acting career. They announced they were dating in 2001. Six years later, there were rumors that Hamasaki and Nagase were going to get married. But on July 13, 2007 Hamasaki said that they had broken up. She did not say why, but she said that they will stay as friends. In 2008, Hamasaki revealed that she had become deaf in her left ear. This was because of tinnitus or Ménière's disease. She said that she had the condition in 2006 and that problems with her ear started in 2000. Hamasaki stated that she wants to continue singing. She said that she would "not give up" on her fans and that "as a professional", she wanted to "deliver the best performance for everyone". January 1,2011, to marry a fan club site Ayumi Hamasaki 'TeamAyu' reported the fan.
54525	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54525	Love Generation	Love Generation () was a dramatic Japanese television series on Fuji Television. It first aired in Japan from October 13 1997 to December 22, 1997 every Monday. It had a very high rating of 30.8%. It features music by Cagnet. Summary. The show revolves around the relationship of the two leading characters, Katagiri Teppei and Uesugi Riko, who begin their relationship as squabbling colleagues before falling in love. Katagiri Teppei is a talented designer and very popular among women. Unfortunately, Teppei, who despises anything boring and repetitive, is forced to move to the sales department for his egocentric behavior. Throughout the series, he is forced to adapt to the new working environment, which includes cutting his precious locks of hair to create a neater and more professional image. As he struggles to adapt, he meets Uesugi Riko. While she does not like him at first, she eventually falls for him. However, Teppei runs into his highschool sweetheart Mizuhara Sanae, and discovers that his ex-girlfriend is now engaged to his brother Soichiro. Fortunately, Riko is there to console him, and this eventually blooms into a romance. Not long after, however, Sanae realizes she still has feelings for Teppei, and thus creates a love triangle. To make the matter even more complicated, Soichiro starts to have an affair with his past girlfriend. Symbols. Crystal apple. Teppei's apartment has many unusual items such as Thai artifact, a 30-year-old refrigerator, and a crystal apple. The meaning behind the apple is that there is only one true love, between Adam and Eve, that is. A crystal can be broken easily, and when one would look in it, it appears upside down. The apple is seen upside down for the 10 of the 11 episodes. At the last episode, however, the apple is no longer upside down. The apple is on the album cover of the soundtrack for "Love Generation". True love never runs smooth. The advertising poster appears over and over again. The model is holding a crystal apple, and reads "True love never runs smooth" symbolizing the relationship between Riko and Teppei, which constantly faces struggles from when they meet for the very first time to the love triangle. This advertisement is visible everywhere from the park to Teppei's 30-year-old refrigerator, as "True love never runs smooth" is the unofficial tagline of this television series.
54526	1373821	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54526	Psyche (mythology)	Psyche (pronounced: SY-kee) is a former mortal woman and goddess of the soul in Greek mythology. She is the wife of Eros (Cupid) and the mother of Hedone. Today, Psyche is known from a story called "The Golden Ass", written by Lucius Apuleius in the 2nd century. Mythology. Early life. Psyche was the youngest daughter of a Greek king and queen. She had two older sisters. She was very beautiful. Many people said she was more beautiful than Aphrodite. People started worshipping Psyche instead of Aphrodite. This made the goddess angry. As a punishment, she sent her son, Eros, to make Psyche fall in love with an ugly person. However, Eros fell in love with Psyche. He decided to save her from his mother's anger. Psyche's sisters were jealous of her beauty. They eventually married kings and left to be with their husbands. Nobody asked to marry Psyche. She was left alone. Her father decided to ask the Oracle of Delphi for help. Marriage to Eros. Apollo, spoke to Psyche's father through the Oracle. He told her father that Psyche would marry a monster that even the gods were afraid of. Apollo said to dress Psyche in funeral clothes, take her to the tallest rock in the kingdom, and leave her there. The king sadly obeyed Apollo. Psyche waited for the monster. When it did not come, she jumped from the rock. Zephyrus, the Greek lord of west wind, held her up to save her from death. He took her to Eros's palace. When Eros returned, he talked to Psyche in the dark. He said that she must not try to see him. He said that it would ruin everything if he told her his name. The first few weeks of Psyche's life in the palace were good. But soon her sisters convinced her to see what her husband looked like. Psyche sneaked into her husband's room with an oil lamp. Psyche shone the light on her husband's face. A small drop of hot oil fell onto his shoulder. That burned him and woke him up. Eros felt betrayed by his wife's actions. He left Psyche. Psyche was very unhappy after learning what she had done. Aphrodite found her and made her do four things. Psyche was made the goddess of the soul. Psyche and Eros had a daughter, Hedone. Their daughter was the goddess of physical joy.
54549	22027	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54549	Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet	Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet (December 10, 1787 - September 10, 1851) was an American teacher and the founder of the American School for the Deaf. He founded the school in 1817. History. Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He went to Yale University. He got his bachelor's degree in 1805 and master's degree in 1808. He wanted to do many things for example, study law or study religion. In 1814, Gallaudet became a preacher. Gallaudet chose not to become a preacher when he met Alice Cogswell, the nine-year-old deaf daughter of a neighbor, Dr. Mason Cogswell. He taught her many words by writing them in the dirt. Cogswell asked Gallaudet to go to Europe to learn ways for teaching deaf people. While in Great Britain, he met Abbé Sicard, head of a school for deaf people in Paris, and two of its deaf teachers, Laurent Clerc and Jean Massieu. Sicard asked Gallaudet to go to Paris to study the school's ways of teaching the deaf. Gallaudet studied with Sicard. He learned sign language from Massieu and Clerc, who were both graduates of the school. Gallaudet asked Clerc to go back to America with him. The two men toured New England and got money to create a school for deaf students in Hartford, Connecticut which later became known as the American School for the Deaf. Young Alice was one of the first seven students in the United States.
54550	1252459	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54550	Annelid	Annelids are a phylum of invertebrate worms. They are the segmented worms, with over 17,000 known species. Well known species are earthworms and leeches. Annelids can be found in most wet environments. Some of these species are parasitic or mutualistic. This means they live together with (or inside) another organism. A mutualistic relationship is beneficial to both organisms. Their size varies from under a millimetre to about 3 metres. The largest known species is the seep tube worm ("Lamellibrachia lymnesi"), which is related to the giant tube worm. Annelids are made of one or more body segments. Each segment has one or more rings. These rings are called "annuli" (singular: 'annulus' = 'little ring'). Annelids reproduce sexually by hermaphroditic cross-fertilization. They can regenerate cut off pieces of their body, unlike sponges, which can come back together if ripped apart. They have a hydrostatic skeleton, a one-way digestion system, and bilateral symmetry. Nervous system. Annelid worms have a nervous system. The brain forms a ring round the pharynx (throat), consisting of a pair of ganglia (local control centers) above and in front of the pharynx, linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it. In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex, with visible hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain sections. The rest of the central nervous system is usually 'ladder-like', with a pair of nerve cords that run along the bottom part of the body cavity. In each segment there are paired ganglia linked by a cross-connection. From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body.
54553	2133	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54553	Annelida
54557	68157	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54557	Oligochaeta
54558	2133	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54558	Hirudinea
54559	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54559	Polychaete	Polychaetes, or bristle worms, are a class of annelid worms. They are generally found in a marine environment. There are more than 10,000 known species in this class. They are ancient animals, dating back to 518 million years ago. They are first found in the early Cambrian fossil beds of Sirius Passet in Greenland. Each of their body segments has some fleshy protrusions that stand out. These 'parapodia' have many bristles, which are made of chitin. This is different from the Oligochaeta, which are similar in form, but only have a few bristles. Common species are the lugworm, and the clam worm "Nereis" (which is sometimes also called a 'sandworm'). Description. Polychaetes are segmented worms, generally less than in length, although ranging at the extremes from to . They are often brightly coloured, and may be iridescent or even luminescent. Each segment bears a pair of paddle-like parapodia, which are used for movement. In many species, the parapodia, well supplied with blood vessels, act as the worm's primary respiratory surfaces. Bundles of bristles stick out from the parapodia. Some bristle worms have poison bristles. The bristles will break off in the skin of a predator that tries to pick up the animal and sting the predator painfully. The head, or prostomium, is relatively well developed, compared with other annelids. It is forward over the mouth, which lies on the animal's underside. The head normally includes two to four pair of eyes, although there are some blind species. These eyes are fairly simple structures, capable of distinguishing between light and dark. Some species have large eyes with lenses that may be capable of real vision. The head also includes a pair of antennae, tentacle-like palps, and a pair of pits lined with cilia, known as "nuchal organs". These latter appear to be chemoreceptors which help the worm seek out food. Ecology. Polychaetes vary in form and lifestyle. Most burrow or build tubes in the sediment, some swim among the plankton, and some live as commensals. A few are parasitic. The mobile forms tend to have well-developed sense organs and jaws, while the stationary forms lack them, but may have specialized gills or tentacles used for respiration and deposit or filter feeding, e.g., fanworms. A few groups have evolved to live in terrestrial environments, but are restricted to humid areas. Some have even evolved tubes that open inwards from the skin which work like simple lungs, absorbing oxygen from the air and allowing release of waste gases. Bristle worm diet. Most bristle worms are scavengers, but some are good predators, eating fishes and coral. Others like to eat algae. They are usually found hiding in reefs and rocky places. They crawl along the sea floor or the bottom of a tide pool, looking for something to eat.
54560	10224908	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54560	Lugworm	The lugworm ("Arenicola marina"), also known as the javierdediegoworm, is a large marine worm of the phylum Annelida. Lugworms make the coiled tubes of sand that are a familiar sight on a beach at low tide. The lugworm itself is not seen except by people who dig them up from curiosity or to use as fishing bait. The lugworm lives in a U-shaped tube in the sand, and filters out its food from the water. Arenicola marina can grow to about 5 inches long (13 cm). Its body is segmented, like that of an earthworm. It has bristles in the middle of its body. It is a polychaete. It also has well-developed blood-vessels, and gills to breathe in the water. Although the textbook example is usually "javierdediegoworm", there is a second species, "dediegujavier", which lives a similar life. It grows to about 9 inches long (23 cm)
54562	2133	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54562	Arenicola marina
54563	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54563	Alitta succinea	Alitta succinea, also known as the pile worm or clam worm, is a common polychaete worm. It is a species of ragworm or sandworm. The terms can refer to any one of a number of other species. This worm can reach up to 15 centimeters (6 inches) in length. Most specimens are smaller than this. It is brown coloured at the rear, and reddish-brown on the rest of its body. It has a head with four eyes, two sensory feelers or palps, and eight tentacles. It is a freeswimming polychaete, scavenging on the bottom of shallow marine waters. Clam worms are an important food source for bottom-feeding fish and crustaceans. They can protect themselves by secreting a mucous substance which hardens to form a sheath around them. Planktonic larvae develop, grow into adults and eventually sink to the bottom of the water.
54564	224035	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54564	Protozoa	Protozoa are microorganisms. They are single-celled heterotrophic eukaryotes, which eat bacteria and other food sources. It is an old term, and the wider term protist is generally preferred today. However, 'protozoa' is often used for convenience, especially in junior education. It is a convenient hold-all term, and most systems of taxonomy classify 'protozoa' into several different phyla. The term is problematic because modern biochemical and genetic techniques show that it includes several quite different kinds of cells. They are found only in moist or aquatic habitats. Many protozoan species are symbionts, some are parasites, and some are predators of soil bacteria and algae. About 30,000 protozoan species are known. The study of protists is called "protistology".
54566	40158	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54566	Clam worm
54567	293183	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54567	Sandworm	The name Sandworm' can refer to different species: It can also stand for huge worms in the book Dune by Frank Herbert, see Sandworm (Dune)
54568	40158	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54568	Ragworm
54570	40158	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54570	Nereis succinea
54571	40158	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54571	Bristle worm
54573	440188	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54573	Hematophagy	Hematophagy is the habit of certain animals to feed on blood. Blood is rich in proteins. Examples of animals that feed on blood are mosquitoes, vampire bats and leeches.
54574	6497	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54574	U.K
54576	1604351	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54576	Crinoidea	The crinoids are a class of echinoderms. They have two forms, the sea lilies, stalked forms attached to the sea floor, and the feather stars, which are free-living. All crinoids are marine, and live both in shallow water and in depths as great as 6000 meters. The basic echinoderm pattern of fivefold symmetry can be recognized, but most crinoids have many more than five arms. Crinoids have a mouth on the top surface that is surrounded by feeding arms. The crinoids have a long history. They were the first echinoderms to appear in the fossil record, and have kept their early structure throughout their long career. They were extremely common in the Palaeozoic, and some rocks from the Carboniferous consist almost entirely of fossil crinoids. Anatomy. Crinoids' mouths faces up towards the surface of the ocean, and the stalked forms feed on the detritus which comes down to the bottom. The mouth is surrounded by many feathery tentacles. They have a U-shaped gut, and their anus is located next to the mouth. History. The crinoids were almost wiped out by the extinction event at the end of the Palaeozoic era. Four whole classes became extinct, and the few that survived became the only living class, the Articulata. The stalked members of the class sufered from heavy predation in the Mesozoic. and now all the remaining sea lilies are in deep water, where the competition is less fierce. The feather stars have been much more successful. In 2005, a stalked crinoid was recorded pulling itself along the sea floor off the Grand Bahama Island. The recording showed a crinoid moving at much faster speeds than was thought possible. Feather stars. The free-living feather stars first appear in the Upper Triassic. They are related to starfish. As juveniles, they are attached to the sea bottom by a stalk, as their ancestors were. In the adult stage they break away from the stalk and can move about. Some can swim by undulating movements of the arms. Usually, feather stars creep about by using projections at the bottom of the crown, called cirri. They are the only crinoids in shallow water, and are all in the orderComatulidae. Their flexible arms and ability to choose their feeding grounds was undoubtedly important in their success and survival.p293 During the day, they roll into a ball. But at night, they spread out their arms to catch plankton. Feather stars arrange themselves so the fan faces the flow of the current. The posture serves to present the maximum area of food-collecting surfaces to the incoming water flow, so that more particles will settle on them. They are found mostly in shallow water.
54577	2133	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54577	Echinodermata
54578	2133	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54578	Crinoid
54579	9755060	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54579	Yorkshire Dales	The Yorkshire Dales (also known as the "Dales") is the name given to an upland area, mostly in Yorkshire, in Northern England. Most of the area falls within the Yorkshire Dales District National Park, created in 1954. The "Dales" is one of the twelve National parks of England and Wales. The area is so called because it is a collection of river valleys ("dale" comes from a Danish word for valley), and the hills in between them. The area is mainly in the historic county of Yorkshire, but today is partly in three modern counties : North Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, and Cumbria.
54591	1338660	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54591	Suwanee, Georgia	Suwanee is a city in the American state of Georgia. It is in Gwinnett County. In 2020, about 20,786 people lived in Suwanee. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it (0.7%) is water.
54592	1495229	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54592	Cumming, Georgia	Cumming is a city in Forsyth County, in the northern part of Georgia, United States. It is the county seat of Forsyth County. The city has a population of about 7,300 people. It is part of the Atlanta metropolitan area and serves as a growing suburb to the city of Atlanta. It has a total area of 18.73 square kilometers. History. Cumming was founded in the early 1830s. The city was named after Colonel William Cumming, a veteran of the War of 1812. In the 19th century, it was a small farming town. Over the years, the city grew and developed, especially after Lake Lanie was built in the 1950s. Today, it has grown as a suburban part of the Atlanta area. Geography. Cumming is located in the northern part of Georgia, about 40 miles north of Atlanta. The city covers an area of 7.23 square miles (18.7 km²). A small portion, about 0.6% of the area, is covered by water, primarily from nearby Lake Lanier. The area around Cumming is mostly rural with forests and hills. Economy. Cumming’s economy is primarily driven by retail, services, and tourism. Many people who live in Cumming work in nearby cities like Atlanta. There are several shopping centers, restaurants, and businesses in the city. Tourism is also an important part of the economy, especially because of Lake Lanier and the outdoor activities were there. Attractions. One of the biggest attractions near Cumming is Lake Lanier, it has boating, fishing, and other water activities. The lake is a popular summer destination for visitors. it also has parks, trails, and other outdoor spaces for enjoying nature. Transportation. Cumming was located near several highways, people can travel to other parts of Georgia easily. Georgia State Route 400 is the main highway that connects Cumming to Atlanta. There are not many public transportation, so most people drive their own cars to get around. Education. There are several public schools in the city, including Cumming Elementary School, Forsyth Central High School, and others. The school district is known for its high academic standards. It is one of the largest school districts in Georgia.
54593	10369414	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54593	Athens, Georgia	Athens is a town in the American state of Georgia. It is the county seat of Clarke County. The University of Georgia is in Athens.
54605	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54605	Anaerobic digestion	Anaerobic digestion is the way microorganisms break down organic matter without oxygen. This process happens naturally, but it is called anaerobic digestion when it is supported and contained. An anaerobic digester is an industrial system that supports this process. Biodegradation to treat waste is one of the main purposes. Generating biogas to provide fuel is another. It also produces soil improving material.
54612	10369416	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54612	Clarke County, Georgia	Clarke County is a county in the American state of Georgia. The county seat of Clarke County is Athens, Georgia. Clarke county was formed on December 5, 1801 and named after Revolutionary War hero Elijah Clarke. The University of Georgia is in Clarke County. At the 2020 census, Clarke county had 128,671 people.
54613	8980	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54613	Athens, GA
54616	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54616	Forsyth County, Georgia	Forsyth County is a county in the American state of Georgia. The county seat of Forsyth County is Cumming, Georgia. Forsyth County has one of the fastest growing populations of any county in the United States. The number of people grew from 98,407 to 175,511 between 2000 and 2010, and was 251,283 in 2020. The county was made in 1832 and is named after John Forsyth. The county has five main high schools including; North Forsyth, West Forsyth, Lambert High, Forsyth Central, and South Forsyth.
54617	1338660	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54617	Johns Creek, Georgia	Johns Creek is a city in the American state of Georgia. It was made a city on December 1, 2006. It is a suburb in the northeast of Atlanta. Johns Creek has about 82,000 people living in it. It is a part of Fulton County. Johns Creek is the 10th largest city in Georgia.
54618	8980	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54618	Suwanee, GA
54619	8980	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54619	Cumming, GA
54623	5738	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54623	Clarke County, GA
54624	5738	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54624	Forsyth County, GA
54626	10434023	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54626	The Black Parade	The Black Parade is the third studio album by My Chemical Romance. The album was released on October 24, 2006. The album is a concept album. The songs on this album follow the life of The Patient, a man dying of cancer. The album takes the listener into The Patient's mind, fears, regrets, and accomplishments. Much like their first two albums, "The Black Parade" offers a message of hope. "The Black Parade" is: Ray Toro, Mikey Way, Gerard Way, Frank Iero, and Bob Bryar.
54627	5738	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54627	Clarke County, Georgia, USA
54629	1604351	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54629	Biogas	Biogas is a gas produced by the digestion in an oxygen free (anaerobic digestion) or fermentation of organic matter. The organic matter can be manure, sewage, municipal waste, compost, food waste or any other biodegradable raw material. Biogas is mainly methane and carbon dioxide. Depending on where it is produced, biogas is also called: Biogas can be used as a vehicle fuel or to generate electricity. It can also be burned directly for cooking, heating, lighting, process heat and absorption refrigeration. Biogas and anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion is much used to make biogas from biodegradable waste because valuable fuel can be produced while destroying disease-causing pathogens and reducing the volume of disposed waste products. The methane in bio gas burns more cleanly than coal, and produces more energy with less emissions of carbon dioxide. The harvesting of bio gas is an important role of waste management because methane is a greenhouse gas with a greater global warming potential than carbon dioxide. The carbon in bio gas was generally recently extracted from the atmosphere by photosynthetic plants, so releasing it back into the atmosphere adds less total atmospheric carbon than the burning of fossil fuels. Biogas typical composition range. The composition of biogas varies depending on how it is made. Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced waste treatment technologies can produce biogas with 55-75%CH4.
54630	5738	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54630	Forsyth County, Georgia, USA
54632	5738	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54632	John's Creek, Georgia
54633	532461	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54633	Liturgy	A liturgy is a ceremony, according to the traditions of a particular group or event. In religion, it may mean an elaborate formal ritual (such as the Catholic Mass), or a daily activity such as the Muslim Salats. Anglican, Orthodox, Lutheran, or other groups, when using the words "the liturgy", normally mean a standardized order of events observed during a religious service, often including the Eucharist or Communion. The "open" or "waiting" worship of Quakers is an example of a non-liturgical service because there is no structured order of events.
54636	10216288	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54636	Mass (liturgy)	Mass is the term used to describe a celebration of the Eucharist in the Western liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, the Old Catholic Churches, the Anglo-Catholic tradition of Anglicanism, and some largely High Church Lutheran regions. In Scandinavian and Baltic countries, the Lutheran Eucharistic service is also known as "the Mass". The four parts of Mass are in order Introductory Rites, Liturgy of the Word, Liturgy of the Eucharist, and Concluding Rites. Origin. The term comes from the Late-Latin word "missa" (dismissal), a word used in the concluding formula of Mass in Latin: "Ite, missa est" ("Go, it is the dismissal"). Dismissal means that someone is allowed to leave. In this case, people are being allowed to leave because Mass is finished. In another sense, it also means that people are allowed to leave to go on a mission to tell other people about Jesus and Christianity. Catholic Church. Mass is the most important ceremony and form of worship in the Catholic Church. The Eucharist is thought to be the most important part of Christian life because the blood and the body of Christ are then received in the form of bread and wine as a sacrifice. A Sunday Mass is about an hour long. On other days, it is about half an hour. A Mass can be longer or shorter depending on how many people there are taking Communion. A good Catholic is supposed to go to Mass every Sunday and on some other holy days. Even though Mass can be on other days, a Catholic is still supposed to go to one on Sunday. There are four parts in a Catholic Mass. They are in the same order all around the world but in different languages: Introductory Rites, Liturgy of the Word, Liturgy of the Eucharist, and Concluding Rites. Introductory Rites. The priest enters, and everyone does the sign of the cross. He greets everyone in the congregation. The people confess their sins together and ask the Lord for mercy. They then sing the hymn "Gloria" and the priest says a prayer called the collect. Liturgy of the Word. Some parts of the Bible are read. They are a first reading (which can be from the Old or the New Testament), a psalm, a second reading from the New Testament, and a reading from the Gospel. The priest then makes a short sermon (homily). Afterwards, the Apostles' Creed is said. Finally, some intercessory prayers can be made on behalf on another person. Liturgy of the Eucharist. During the Liturgy of the Eucharist, the bread and the wine are offered at the altar. The priest consecrates them by saying that they are the body (bread) and blood (wine) of Jesus. The Catholic Church teaches that they are then turned into the actual blood and body of Christ (transubstantiation) even though they still look, smell, and taste like bread and wine. Then, the Lord's Prayer is said. Next, people in the congregation do a sign of peace (usually a nod or handshake while saying "peace" or "peace be with you") with one another to show that they are now one family in Christ. The bread and the wine are then eaten in a process called Communion. Only baptized Catholics who are sorry for their sins are allowed to take part in Communion. After Communion, there is a prayer to give thanks to God. Concluding Rites. There may be announcements about important things that ar going on in the parish during this time. Finally, the priest blesses everyone and dismisses them. Other websites. Roman Catholic doctrine Present form of the Roman rite of the Mass Tridentine form of the Roman rite of the Mass Anglican Doctrine and practice Lutheran doctrine
54640	9846115	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54640	Woodpecker	The woodpeckers and its near relatives the piculets, wrynecks and sapsuckers are the family Picidae. They are near-passerine birds. Members of the Picidae are found worldwide, except for the parts of old Gondwana which they did not get to: Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar and Antarctica. Most species live in forests or woodland habitats. The Picidae are just one of the eight living families in the order Piciformes. DNA sequence analyses have shown they are a clade. There are about 240 species and about 35 genera in this family. Many species are threatened or endangered due to loss of habitat or habitat fragmentation. Habits. All the special features (traits) of the woodpeckers are adaptations to their mode of life. Members of the family Picidae have strong bills for drilling and drumming on trees and long sticky tongues for extracting food. The bills of piculets and wrynecks are shorter, and less strong and sharp than those of woodpeckers, but their morphology is very similar. Woodpeckers operate mainly on tree trunks, staying in place propped up by their stiff tail feathers. Piculets and wrynecks live mainly on the branches, and they lack the stiffened tail feathers. The woodpecker bill's chisel-like tip is kept sharp by the pecking action on wood. With their smaller bill size, many piculets and wrynecks will forage in decaying wood more often than woodpeckers. The long sticky tongues, which have bristles, help the birds grab and extracting insects from deep in a hole of a tree. Detailed studies published in 2004 showed that the tongue wraps around the prey before being pulled out. Preventing brain damage. Many of the foraging, breeding and signalling behaviours of woodpeckers involve drumming and hammering using the bill. To prevent brain damage from the rapid and repeated decelerations, woodpeckers have a number of adaptations which protect the brain. These include small brain size, the orientation of the brain within the skull (which spreads the area of contact between the brain and the skull) and the short duration of contact. The unequal length of the upper and lower parts of their beaks (the lower being longer), serves to steer the impact force downwards, away from the brain. Also, the woodpecker’s brain is held in a skull with uneven, spongy plates that absorb shock. Third, woodpeckers have a special hyoid bone, which reaches from their beak, loops over top of the skull to completely surround their brains. This acts to keep the brain in place. It is the movement of the brain inside the skull during impact, more than the blow itself, that causes concussions. If the brain is held in place, injury risks are greatly reduced. Other adaptations. The millisecond before contact with wood a thickened nictitating membrane closes, protecting the eye from flying debris. The nostrils are also protected; they are often slit-like and have special feathers to cover them. Woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks all have zygodactyl feet. These feet have four toes, the first and the fourth face backward, and the second and third face forward. This foot arrangement is good for grasping the limbs and trunks of trees. Members of this family can walk vertically up a tree trunk. In addition to the strong claws and feet, woodpeckers have short strong legs. This is typical of birds that regularly forage on trunks. The tails of all woodpeckers except the piculets and wrynecks are stiffened, and when the bird perches on vertical surfaces, the tail and feet work together to support it. Wrynecks. The wrynecks (genus "Jynx") are two species of small Old World woodpeckers. They are very similar to true woodpeckers, but lack the stiff tail feathers that woodpeckers use when climbing trees. They are more likely to perch on a branch rather than an upright trunk. Their bills are shorter and less dagger-like than in the true woodpeckers. Their chief prey is ants and other insects, which they find in decaying wood or almost bare soil. They re-use woodpecker holes for nesting, rather than making their own holes. The eggs are white, as with many hole nesters. These birds can turn their heads almost 180 degrees. When disturbed at the nest, they use this snake-like head twisting and hissing as a threat display. This odd behaviour led to their use in witchcraft, hence to put a "jinx" on someone.
54645	1659580	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54645	Piri Reis	Piri Reis (full name Hadji Muhiddin Piri Ibn Hadji Mehmed) (about 1465 – 1554 or 1555) was an Ottoman-Turkish admiral and cartographer born between 1465 and 1470 in Gallipoli on the Aegean coast of Turkey. Today, people remember him because of the maps he made. He made the first Ottoman map to show parts of the Americas, the Piri Reis map, in 1513. He drew a second map in 1528. Only a fragment of that map survives today. That fragment however, shows parts of North America, including Greenland. It goes from the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland in the north, to Florida,Cuba and parts of Central America in the south. Therefore, some people believe he drew a map of the Arctic about 200 years before it was discovered.
54650	5738	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54650	4 September
54654	640235	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54654	Walter Sutton	Walter Stanborough Sutton (5 April 1877 – 10 November 1916) was an American biologist and surgeon. Sutton was born in Utica, New York and raised in Russell, Kansas. He got Bachelors and Masters degres from the University of Kansas. Sutton then went to Columbia University and got his doctorate in medicine in 1907. In 1903 Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. Edmund B. Wilson (1856–1939), Sutton's teacher, and the author of one of the most famous text-books in biology, called this the "Sutton–Boveri hypothesis".
54669	7167	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54669	Dark Side of the Force
54670	1719	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54670	Droid
54673	966595	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54673	Darth Maul	Darth Maul is a fictional character from the "Star Wars" universe. The character first appeared in the movie "" in 1999. Darth Maul has also been in many books set in the time period just before the Clone Wars. Darth Maul was played by Ray Park in the movie. Darth Maul is the first known apprentice of Darth Sidious. Maul is a Sith lord who uses the Dark Side of the Force. Darth Maul has black and red tattoos covering his head and face, a crown of small horns, and evil yellow eyes. He uses a red, double bladed lightsaber as a weapon. He flies the starship "The Sith Infiltrator". History. After Nute Gunray, the viceroy of the Trade Federation, loses Queen Amidala, Darth Sidious sends Darth Maul to track her down. Darth Maul follows her to Tatooine, where he sends out probe droids to find her. As Anakin, the Queen and the Jedi Qui-Gon Jinn get ready to leave the planet, Darth Maul attacks on his speeder and Maul and Qui-Gon battle. After losing the Queen, Darth Sidious sends Darth Maul to Naboo to watch over the planet. When the Queen launches an attack, Darth Maul shows himself again. This time Qui-Gon Jinn and Obi-Wan Kenobi start to battle with him. Darth Maul kills Qui-Gon and almost pushes Obi-Wan down a pit. In the end, Obi-Wan uses Qui-Gon's lightsaber to cut Darth Maul in half. Darth Maul fell down the pit, but somehow survived, as shown when he turns up again in the 2008 animated TV series, "".
54674	22027	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54674	Probe droid	Probe droids are robots in the "Star Wars" movies. They are used for spying and finding people. Darth Maul used probe droids to find Queen Amidala and the Jedi in "The Phantom Menace". In "The Empire Strikes Back", the Imperials use the probe droids to find the Rebel base.
54675	7167	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54675	Dark Side
54676	9305692	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54676	Count Dooku	Count Dooku of Serenno (also known as Darth Tyranus) is a character from the "Star Wars" universe. Dooku is one of the major characters in "". He was played by late Christopher Lee. He is the second known student of Darth Sidious. Dooku is also the leader of the Confederacy of Independent Systems during the Clone Wars.
54677	314522	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54677	Clone Wars (Star Wars)	The Clone Wars was a period in the "Star Wars" movies. It was first mentioned in "" (1977) and was explored later in several films, books, and television series. Within the "Star Wars" franchise, the Clone Wars are a galactic war that lasted from 22 BBY to 19 BBY. The war was fought by the Galactic Republic and the Jedi Order on one side against the Confederacy of Independent Systems and the Sith on the other. Ultimately, both sides lost and the Galactic Empire was born under Sith rule. The war began during the events of ' (2002) and ended in ' (2005). In 2008, an animated film called and a were released. These focused on the events that occurred in between. Other less prominent media have explored this period as well, such as "" (an animated series from 2003 to 2005) and comic books focusing on Darth Maul. Several new Star Wars characters were created in this period that have become very popular, such as Ahsoka Tano and Asajj Ventress.
54681	8675414	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54681	Prokaryote	Prokaryotes (or "Monera") are some of the simplest living things. They are unicellular organisms and they include two major divisions of simple living beings: bacteria, and Archaea. They generally do not have a cell nucleus, nuclear membrane or cell organelles, however a small number of exceptions have been found. Prokaryotes possess genetic material in the form of a single DNA loop called a Nucleoid that floats around freely inside the cell. Bacteria include the Cyanobacteria (formerly known as blue-green algae due to their photosynthetic capacity). Some form biofilms that are somewhat like multicellular organisms. Besides a nucleus, prokaryotes lack other things eukaryotes (cells with a true nucleus) have. They reproduce without fusion of gametes. They do not have membranes. This means that there are no vacuoles, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticula or other organelles inside the cell. However, they do have ribosomes, though of a simpler kind than eukaryotes. Eukaryote cells include organelles which were once free-living prokaryotes. Taxonomy. In 1977, Carl Woese proposed dividing prokaryotes into the Bacteria and Archaea (originally Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) because of the major differences in the structure and genetics between the two groups of organisms. This arrangement of Eukaryota (also called "Eukarya"), Bacteria, and Archaea is called the three-domain system, replacing the traditional two-empire system. The Archaea include simple organisms which were first discovered in extreme environments. Most of them can survive at very high or very low temperatures. Some of them can also survive in highly salty, acidic or alkaline water. Some have been found in geysers, black smokers or oil wells. The prokaryotes may not be a monophyletic, taxonomic group of common descent, but merely a group of similar organisms. The relationships between Archaea, Eubacteria and Eukaryota are assessed differently by different scientists. The three-domain system of Carl Woese treats them as one monophyletic group.
54682	2133	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54682	Hadji Muhiddin Piri Ibn Hadji Mehmed
54686	2133	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54686	Alkaline
54687	314522	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54687	Cuttlebone	Cuttlebone is a hard brittle structure found inside cuttlefish. Like seashells, the cuttlebone is made of calcium carbonate. The cuttlebone is special as it is covered with tiny holes that the cuttlefish can fill with water or air. This allows the cuttlefish to control its ability to float or sink in water. In the past, cuttlebones were used to make polishing powder. This power was then added to toothpaste to make it look white. Today, cuttlebone is mainly used for caged birds and turtles in their habitats, so they get their calcium easily and fast.
25162	813423	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25162	Lech Kaczyński	(18 June 1949 - 10 April 2010) was the President of the Republic of Poland from 2005 until his death in a plane crash in Smolensk, Russia on 10 April 2010. Kaczyński served as Mayor of Warsaw from 2002, until the day before he became president. He was a Roman Catholic and was the identical twin brother of the Prime Minister of Poland, Jarosław Kaczyński.
25163	1539758	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25163	Argead dynasty	The Argead dynasty (, ) was an ancient Macedonian royal house. They were the founders and the ruling dynasty of the kingdom of Macedon from about 700 to 310 BCE. From about 700 BCE, the founder of the dynasty, Perdiccas I, led the people who called themselves Macedonians eastward from their home on the Haliacmon River. Aegae (today Vergina) became the capital, and by the reign of Amyntas I (6th century BCE) Macedonian power extended eastward beyond the Axius (Axiós) River to dominate the neighbouring Thracian tribes. People of the Argead royal house supposedly believed they were descended of Heracles' family. Famous kings included Philip II of Macedon (reigned 359-336 BC) who subdued Greece and famously united the defeated Greek city states as the League of Corinth with the Macedonians as Hegemon, and his son Alexander the Great (reigned 336–323 BC) who led his army along with allied armies to conquer much of the known world at the time, creating a vast Empire stretching from Macedonia and Greece, to Egypt, and the Indus River, also defeating the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The Argead family dynasty ended during the wars of the Diadochi when Alexander IV of Macedon and his mother Roxana were murdered.
25164	640235	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25164	Antipatrid dynasty	The Antipatrid dynasty was a Macedonian dynasty. It was created by Cassander in 302 BC, who was the son of Antipater. However it was not a long dynasty. It ended in 294 BC when it was taken over by the Antigonid dynasty.

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