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Social responses to the idea of evolution
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Evolution was an idea debated before Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species". In very broad terms, this idea says that species change over time. Even today, some people still talk about the concept of evolution and what it means to them, to their philosophy and their religion. Sometimes these people also talk about the social implications of evolution. This debate is mostly about the meaning of evolution to human life, or about human nature, not about how evolution works.
Debates about the fact of evolution.
Some people believe in "guided evolution" or "theistic evolution". They say that evolution is real, but it is being guided it some way.
There are many different concepts of "theistic evolution". Many creationists believe that the creation myth found in their religion goes against the idea of evolution. As Darwin found out early on, the most controversial part of the evolutionary thought is its implications for human origins.
In some countries, especially in the United States, there is tension between people who accept the idea of evolution and those who reject it. The debate is mostly about if the ideas in evolution should be taught in schools, and in what way.
Other fields, like cosmology and earth science also do not match with the original writings of many religious texts. These ideas were once also fiercely opposed. Death for heresy was threatened to those who wrote against the idea that the Earth was the centre of the universe. Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition for teaching that the Earth moved around the Sun (and other ideas).
Evolutionary biology is opposed much more from religious believers than other groups or organizations.
The Roman Catholic Church now has a neutral position with regards to evolution. Pope Pius XII stated in his encyclical "Humani Generis" published in the 1950s:
Pope John Paul II updated this position in 1996. He said that Evolution was "more than a hypothesis":
The Anglican Communion also does not oppose the scientific account of evolution.
Using evolution for other purposes.
Many of those who accepted evolution were not much interested in biology. They were interested in using the theory to support their own ideas on society.
Racism.
In the Bible, for instance, after Noah's Ark landed, there is a passage that describes how Noah got drunk while naked and Ham laughed at him. Noah cursed Ham, which somehow became part of a justification for racism and slavery.
Later, people also tried to use evolution to support racism. Evolution itself is not about racism. However, people wanting to justify racism claimed that black people were inferior. They said that because evolution shows that, in nature, "better" animals tend to survive, leading to evolution of improved animals, they had the right to oppress the "weaker". They believed they were clearly "better", but that would need evidence. There is no agreed evidence that any race of humans is better than any other race.
Eugenics.
The idea of eugenics was rather different. Two things had been noticed as far back as the 18th century. One was the great success of farmers in breeding cattle and crop plants. They did this by selecting which animals or plants would produce the next generation (artificial selection). The other observation was that lower class people had more children than upper-class people. If (and it's a big if) the higher classes were there on "merit", then their lack of children was the exact reverse of what should be happening. Faster breeding in the lower classes would lead to the society getting worse.
The idea to improve the human species by selective breeding is called eugenics. The name was proposed by Francis Galton, a bright scientist who meant to do good. Today, Galton is remembered for many things he did in statistics and psychology. He was the first to use regression analysis to see how different things that depend on one another influence one another. He used fingerprints in forensic science. He is seen as the father of experimental psychology, together with Wilhelm Wundt. He developed the bean machine to show probability distributions, among other things.
Galton's ideas were meant to do good. He said that the human gene pool should be improved by selective breeding policies. This would mean that those who were considered "good stock" would receive a reward if they reproduced. However, other people added to this, and said those considered "bad stock" would need to undergo compulsory sterilization, prenatal testing and birth control; and they might even have to be killed.
The problem with Galton's idea is how to decide which features to select. There's so many different skills people could have, you could not agree who was "good stock" and who was "bad stock". There was rather more agreement on who should "not" be breeding. Several countries passed laws for the compulsory sterilisation of unwelcome groups. Most of these laws were passed during between 1900 and 1940. After World War II, disgust at what the Nazis had done lowered public support for forced eugenics.
Social Darwinism.
Another example of using wrong ideas about evolution to support bad things is "Social Darwinism". Social Darwinism is a term given to the ideas of the 19th century British social philosopher Herbert Spencer. Spencer had ideas about "survival of the fittest", which he applied to commerce and human societies as a whole.
Other people used these ideas to claim that social differences, racism, and imperialism were justified. Today, most scientists and philosophers say that the theory of evolution should not be used to support such ideas. They also say that it is difficult to find data that can support them.
Controversy.
Certain people oppose the idea of evolution. They disagree with it for a number of reasons. Most often these reasons are influenced by their religious beliefs. Their beliefs are usually called creationism or intelligent design.
Despite this, evolution is one of the most successful theories in science. People have found it to be useful for different kinds of research. None of the other proposals explain things, such as fossil records, as well. So, for almost all scientists, evolution is not in doubt.
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Palembang
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Palembang is a city in Indonesia. It is in the south of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. As of mid-2019, 1,662,893 people live there. It is the capital of the province of South Sumatra.
History.
The city was the capital of the old, Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya that included a large part of Malaysia and Indonesia. After a 1025 raid by the Chola Empire of southern India it became less important. Srivijaya's capital moved north to Jambi. Palembang is also the home of Parameswara, the ruler of Malacca (a state in Malaysia) who started the most important empire in Malaysian history.
The Battle of Palembang was fought near the city during the Second World War between February 13-February 15 1942. Japanese forces captured the airport and nearby oil refinery after a short but bloody battle.
Economy.
Palembang's economy has grown after it became a venue for National Sporting Event in 2004. . Palembang was also one of hosts of the 2007 AFC Asian Cup.
The city is served by Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Airport which has many flights to many cities in Indonesia and also to Singapore and Malaysia.
This city is famous in Indonesia for its "Pempek" fish cakes.
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The West Wing
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The West Wing is an American television drama created by Aaron Sorkin that was originally shown from September 22, 1999 to May 14, 2006. The series is set in the West Wing of the White House—where the Oval Office and offices of presidential staff are—during the fictional presidency of Josiah Bartlet (played by Martin Sheen).
It first aired on NBC in 1999, and has been shown on many networks in several other countries. The series ended its seven years on television on May 14, 2006.
The show received positive reviews from critics, political science teachers, and former White House workers. In total, "The West Wing" won three Golden Globe Awards and 27 Emmy Awards, including the award for Outstanding Drama Series, which it won four times in a row from 2000 through 2003. The show's ratings were lower in later years, series creator Aaron Sorkin (who wrote or co-wrote 85 of the first 88 episodes) left the show after the fourth season. It was still popular with viewers who have a high-income.
Crew.
The series was created by Aaron Sorkin. Sorkin served as executive producer for the first episode with director Thomas Schlamme and John Wells. Kristin Harms and Llewellyn Wells were producers for the first episode. Michael Hissrich acted as a co-producer.
The first season proper saw the return of all of the pilot production team along with the addition of Ron Osborn and Jeff Reno as consulting producers and Rick Cleveland as a second co-producer with Robert W. Glass as an associate producer. Glass left the production team after only five episodes. Osborn and Reno departed after nine episodes. Paul Redford served as a story editor throughout the first season. Lawrence O'Donnell, Jr. worked as executive story editor for the second half of the season.
With the second season Kevin Falls became a co-executive producer. Cleveland left the production team and Redford and O'Donnell were promoted to co-producer. Peter Parnell, and Patrick Caddell became co-producers and Julie Herlocker and Mindy Kanaskie became associate producers. O'Donnell was promoted again to producer five episodes into the season and Hissrich joined him twelve episodes into the season.
The third season saw the departure of Parnell, Caddell, and Herlocker and the temporary absence of O'Donnell. Director Christopher Misiano became a supervising producer and Patrick Ward came aboard as an associate producer. Redford was promoted to producer. With the thirteenth episode of the third season director Alex Graves became an additional supervising producer and Eli Attie joined the writing staff as a story editor.
The fourth season marked the temporary departure of Hissrich. Misiano and Graves became co-executive producers alongside Falls. Attie was promoted to executive story editor and Debora Cahn became a staff writer. The fourteenth episode of the season saw Redford promoted to supervising producer and Kanaskie, Ward and Attie promoted to co-producers.
The fifth season saw the departure of both Sorkin and Schlamme as executive producers. Schlamme remained attached to the series as an executive consultant. John Wells remained the sole executive producer and showrunner. Co-executive producer Kevin Falls also left the show. O'Donnell rejoined the production team as a consulting producer. Wells also added Carol Flint, Alexa Junge, Peter Noah and John Sacret Young as consulting producers. Andrew Stearn came aboard as a producer and Attie was promoted to producer. Cahn became story editor and Josh Singer replaced her as staff writer. With the tenth episode Flint, Junge, Noah and Sacret Young became supervising producers.
With the sixth season Misiano and Graves were promoted to executive producers. Redford and Junge left the production team and Dylan K. Massin became a co-producer. Cahn was promoted to executive story editor and Singer replaced her as story editor. Lauren Schmidt filled the staff writer role. The fourth episode saw the departure of original crew member Llewellyn Wells. Debora Cahn was promoted to co-producer with the fourteenth episode.
The seventh season saw Noah and O'Donnell promoted again, this time becoming additional executive producers. Attie became a supervising producer. Hissrich returned to his role as producer for the final season.
Cast.
"The West Wing" employed a broad ensemble cast to portray the many positions involved in the daily work of the federal government. The President, the First Lady, and the President's senior staff and advisors form the core cast. Many secondary characters, appearing intermittently, complement storylines that generally revolve around this core group.
Each of the main actors made about $75,000 an episode, with Sheen's most recently confirmed salary being $300,000. Rob Lowe also had a six-figure salary, reported to be $100,000, because his character originally was supposed to have a more central role. Disparities in cast salaries led to very public contract disputes, particularly by Janney, Schiff, Spencer, and Whitford. During contract negotiations in 2001, the four were threatened with breach of contract suits by Warner Bros. However, by banding together, they were able to persuade the studio to more than double their salaries. Two years later, the four again demanded a doubling of their salaries, a few months after Warner Bros. had signed new licensing deals with NBC and Bravo.
John Spencer, who played Leo McGarry, died from a heart attack on December 16, 2005 — about a year after his character experienced a nearly fatal heart attack on the show. A brief memorial message from Martin Sheen ran before "Running Mates", the first new episode that aired after Spencer's death. The loss of Spencer's character was addressed by the series beginning with the episode "Election Day", which aired on April 2, 2006.
Different performers had been originally considered for many of the roles. Bradley Whitford states in an interview on the Season 1 DVD that he was originally cast as Sam, though the character of Josh was the role Whitford had wanted and for which he had auditioned. In addition, Josh's character had been written specifically for him by Aaron Sorkin. In the same interview, Janel Moloney states that she had originally auditioned for the role of C.J., and that the role she eventually received, Donna, was not meant to be a recurring character. Other actors who were seriously considered included Alan Alda and Sidney Poitier for the President, Judd Hirsch for Leo, Eugene Levy for Toby, and CCH Pounder for C.J.
Plot.
"The West Wing", like many serial dramas, stretches storylines over several episodes or entire seasons. In addition to these larger storylines, each episode also contains smaller arcs which usually begin and end within an episode.
Most episodes follow President Bartlet and his staff through particular legislative or political issues. Plots can range from behind-closed-doors negotiating with Congress ("Five Votes Down") to personal issues like sex ("Pilot", "Take out the Trash Day") and personal drug use (a major plotline throughout the first and second seasons). The typical episode loosely follows the president and his staff through their day, generally following several plots connected by some idea or theme. A large, fully connected set of the White House allows the producers to create shots with very few cuts and long, continuous master shots of staff members walking and talking through the hallways. These "walk and talks" became a trademark of the show. The final two seasons presented a narrative change, with the focus of the show divided between plots in the West Wing with President Bartlet and his remaining senior staffers and plots revolving around the rest of the main cast on the campaign trail for the 2006 election.
Development.
The series developed following the success of 1995 theatrical film "The American President", for which Aaron Sorkin wrote the screenplay, and Martin Sheen played the White House Chief of Staff. Sorkin used some of the same research he had done for "The American President" a suggestion from a friend to create "The West Wing".
According to the DVD commentary, Sorkin intended to center the show on Sam Seaborn and the other senior staff with the president in an unseen or a secondary role. However, Bartlet's screen time gradually increased, and his role expanded as the series progressed. Positive critical and public reaction to Sheen's performance raised his character's profile, decreasing Lowe's perceived significance. In addition, according to Sorkin, the storylines began to focus less on Sam and more on Josh Lyman, the deputy chief of staff. This shift is one of the reasons for Lowe's eventual departure from the show in the fourth season.
For the first four seasons, Sorkin wrote almost every episode of the series, occasionally reusing plot elements, episode titles, character names, and actors from his previous work, "Sports Night", a sitcom in which he began to develop his signature dialogue style of rhythmic, snappy, and intellectual banter. Fellow executive producer and director Thomas Schlamme championed the "walk and talk," a continuous shot tracking in front of the characters as they walk from one place to another that became part of "The West Wing"'s signature visual style. Sorkin's hectic writing schedule often led to cost overruns and schedule slips, and he opted to leave the show after the fourth season, following increasing personal problems, including an arrest for possession of illegal drugs. Thomas Schlamme also left the show after the fourth season. John Wells, the remaining executive producer, took the helm after their departure.
The show aired its series finale on Sunday, May 14, 2006. It had suffered a significant ratings fall after being placed in the same timeslot as ABC's Top 20 hit "", and CBS' Top 30 hit "Cold Case".
Critical reactions.
"The West Wing" offers a rare glimpse into the inner workings of the White House, and the show's legitimacy, political slant, and film merits have generated considerable discussion.
Realism.
"The West Wing" is not completely accurate in its portrayal of the actual West Wing; however, former White House staffers agree that the show "captures the feel [of the West Wing], shorn of a thousand undramatic details."
Former White House Press Secretary Dee Dee Myers as well as expert pollster Patrick Caddell served as consultants for the show from the beginning, helping writers and actors depict the West Wing accurately. Other former White House staffers, such as Peggy Noonan and Gene Sperling, have served as consultants for brief periods.
A documentary special in the third season compared the show's depiction of the West Wing to the real thing. Many former West Wing denizens applauded the show's depiction of the West Wing, including advisor David Gergen, Press Secretary Dee Dee Myers, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Chief of Staff Leon Panetta, Deputy Chief of Staff Karl Rove, and former Presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Bill Clinton.
While critics often praised "The West Wing" for its writing, others faulted the show as unrealistically optimistic. A large part of this criticism came from the perceived naiveté of the characters. Television critic Heather Havrilesky asked "What rock did these morally pure creatures crawl out from under and, more important, how do you go from innocent millipede to White House staffer without becoming soiled or disillusioned by the dirty realities of politics along the way?"
Social impact.
Despite acclaim for the veracity of the series, Sorkin believed, "our responsibility is to captivate you for however long we've asked for your attention." Former White House aide Matthew Miller noted that Sorkin "captivates viewers by making the human side of politics more real than life — or at least more real than the picture we get from the news." Miller also noted that by portraying politicians with empathy, the show created a "subversive competitor" to the cynical views of politics in media. In the essay ""The West Wing" and the West Wing", author Myron Levine agreed, stating that the series "presents an essentially positive view of public service and a healthy corrective to anti-Washington stereotypes and public cynicism."
Dr. Staci L. Beavers, associate professor of political science at California State University, San Marcos, wrote a short essay, "The West Wing as a Pedagogical Tool", concerning the viability of "The West Wing" as a teaching tool. She concluded, "While the series’ purpose is for-profit entertainment, "The West Wing" presents great pedagogical potential." "The West Wing", in her opinion, gave greater depth to the political process usually espoused only in stilted talking points on shows like "Face the Nation" and "Meet the Press". However, the merits of a particular argument may be obscured by the viewer's opinion of the character. Beavers also noted that characters with opposing viewpoints were often set up to be "bad people" in the viewer's eyes. These characters were assigned undesirable characteristics having nothing to do with their political opinions, such as being romantically involved with a main character's love interest. In Beavers's opinion, a critical analysis of the show's political views can present a worthwhile learning experience to the viewer.
One of the stranger impacts of the show occurred on January 31, 2006, when "The West Wing" was said to have played a hand in defeating Tony Blair's government in the British House of Commons, during the so called ""West Wing" Plot". The plan was allegedly hatched after a Conservative Member of Parliament watched the episode, "A Good Day", in which Democrats block a bill aimed at limiting stem cell research, by hiding in an office until the Republican Speaker calls the vote.
"The Left Wing".
"The West Wing" was sometimes called "The Left Wing" by detractors because of its portrayal of an ideal liberal administration and its alleged demonization of conservatives. Chris Lehmann, senior editor of Washington Post Bookworld, characterized the show as a revisionist look at the Clinton presidency: an attempt to solidify the Clinton legacy and to make America forget the Whitewater and Lewinsky scandals. On the other hand, some Republicans have admired the show since its inception, before even the departure of Sorkin and the show's resulting shift toward the center. In his 2001 article "Real Liberals versus the "West Wing"", Mackubin Thomas Owens wrote,
Journalist Matthew Miller wrote, "although the show indeed has a liberal bias on issues, it presents a truer, more human picture of the people behind the headlines than most of today's Washington journalists."
Filming techniques and reactions.
In its first season, "The West Wing" attracted critical attention in the television community with a record nine Emmy wins. The show has been praised for its high production values and repeatedly recognized for its cinematic achievements. With a budget of $6 million per episode, many consider each week's show to be a small feature film. However, many in the television community believe that the true genius of the show was Sorkin's rapid-fire and witty scripts.
"The West Wing" is noted for developing the "walk-and-talk"—long Steadicam tracking shots showing characters walking down hallways while involved in long conversations. In a typical "walk-and-talk" shot, the camera leads two characters down a hallway as they speak to each other. One of these characters generally breaks off and the remaining character is then joined by another character, who initiates another conversation as they continue walking. These "walk-and-talks" create a dynamic feel for what would otherwise be long expository dialogue, and have become a staple for dialogue-intensive television show scenes.
Awards.
In its first year, "The West Wing" received nine Emmys, a record for most won by a series in a single season. The show also received the Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003, tying "Hill Street Blues" and "L.A. Law" for most won in this category. Each of its seven seasons was nominated for the award. "The West Wing" ranks 8th all-time in number of Emmy Awards won by a show.
The show shares the Emmy Award record for most acting nominations by regular cast members for a single show in one year. (Both "Hill Street Blues" and "L.A. Law" also hold that record). For the 2001–2002 season nine cast members were nominated for Emmys. Allison Janney, John Spencer and Stockard Channing each won an Emmy (for Lead Actress, Supporting Actor and Supporting Actress). The others nominated were Martin Sheen (for Lead Actor), Richard Schiff, Dule Hill and Bradley Whitford (for Supporting Actor), and Janel Moloney and Mary-Louise Parker (for Supporting Actress). In that same year, Mark Harmon, Tim Matheson and Ron Silver were each nominated in the Guest Actor category (but none won the award). This gave the show an Emmy Award record for most acting nominations total (including guest performer category) in a single year, with 12 acting nominations.
Twenty Emmys were awarded to writers, actors, and crew members. Allison Janney is the record holder for most wins by a cast member, with a total of four Emmys.
In addition to its Emmys, the show won two Screen Actors Guild (SAG) Awards, in 2000 and 2001, for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. Martin Sheen is the only cast member to have won a Golden Globe, and he and Allison Janney are the only cast members to win a SAG award (for best actor and best actress). In both 1999 and 2000, "The West Wing" was awarded the Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting.
This table shows award wins by cast members:
W.G. "Snuffy" Walden received an Emmy Award for Main Title Theme Music in 2000 for "The West Wing Opening Theme".
Many cast members have been Emmy-nominated for their work on "The West Wing" but have not won, including Martin Sheen—who was nominated each year for all seven seasons of the series without receiving the award—as well as Janel Moloney, who was nominated twice, and Dulé Hill, Rob Lowe, and Mary-Louise Parker, who were all nominated once. Matthew Perry, Oliver Platt, Ron Silver, Tim Matheson, and Mark Harmon have also received Emmy nominations for guest starring on the show.
Exploration of real world issues.
"The West Wing" often features extensive discussion of current or recent political issues. After the real-world election of Republican President George W. Bush in 2000, many wondered whether the liberal show could retain its relevance and topicality. However, by exploring many of the same issues facing the Bush administration from a Democratic point of view, the show continued to appeal to a broad audience of both Democrats and Republicans.
In its second season episode "The Midterms", President Bartlet admonishes fictional radio host Dr. Jenna Jacobs for her views regarding homosexuality at a private gathering at the White House. Dr. Jacobs is a caricature of radio personality Dr. Laura Schlessinger, who strongly disapproves of homosexuality. Many of the president's biblical references in his comments to Dr. Jacobs appear to have come from an open letter to Dr. Schlessinger, circulated online in early May 2000.
The Bartlet administration experiences a scandal during the second and third seasons that has been compared to the Monica Lewinsky affair. President Bartlet was diagnosed with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS) in 1992. The scandal centers around President Bartlet's nondisclosure of his illness to the electorate during the election. He is investigated by an opposition Congress for defrauding the public and eventually accepts Congressional censure. Multiple sclerosis advocacy groups have praised the show for its accurate portrayal of the symptoms of MS and stressing that it is not fatal. The National MS Society commented:
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the start of the third season was postponed for a week, as were most American television premieres that year. A script for a special episode was quickly written and began filming on September 21. The episode "Isaac and Ishmael" aired on October 3 and addresses the sobering reality of terrorism in America and the wider world, albeit with no specific reference to September 11. While "Isaac and Ishmael" received mixed critical reviews, it illustrated the show's flexibility in addressing current events. The cast of the show state during the opening of the episode that it is not part of "The West Wing" continuity.
While the September 11 attacks do not occur in "The West Wing" continuity, the country does enter into a variation of the War on Terrorism. The war begins during the show's third season, when a plot to blow up the Golden Gate Bridge was uncovered; in response, the President orders the assassination of terrorist leader Abdul ibn Shareef. This storyline draws similarities to the real-world U.S. invasion of Afghanistan as well as U.S. relations with Saudi Arabia, as it brings the Middle East to the forefront of U.S. foreign relations and elevated terrorism as a serious threat in "The West Wing" universe. In Seasons 3, 4 and 5, the fictional Bahji terror group seems to act as a fictional stand-in for the real world Al Qaeda, but in Seasons 6 and 7, characters mention Al Qaeda itself as a threat, despite no clearly stated history of Al Qaeda terror attacks in "The West Wing" continuity (although Nancy McNally does refer to Osama Bin Laden as a potential threat at the beginning of Season 2.)
In the middle of the fourth season, Bartlet's White House is confronted with the genocide in the fictional African country of Equatorial Kundu which was compared to the Rwandan Genocide of 1994. The result was new foreign policy doctrine for Bartlet Administration and military intervention to stop the violence, which came after much hesitation and reluctance to call the conflict a genocide. In reality, the Clinton Administration didn't intervene in Rwanda, making series events look like a moral imperative.
In the sixth and seventh seasons, "The West Wing" explores a leak of top-secret information by a senior staffer at the White House. This leak has been compared to the events surrounding the Valerie Plame affair. In the storyline, the International Space Station is damaged and can no longer produce oxygen for the astronauts to breathe. With no other methods of rescue available, the president is reminded of the existence of a top-secret military space shuttle. Following the president's inaction, the shuttle story is leaked to a White House reporter, Greg Brock (analogous to Judith Miller), who prints the story in "The New York Times". Brock will not reveal his source and goes to jail for failing to do so, as did Miller. In order to stop the investigation, in which authorities suspect Chief of Staff C.J. Cregg, Toby Ziegler admits leaking the information, and the President is forced to dismiss him. In comparison, the Plame affair resulted in the arrest and conviction of Lewis Libby, the vice president's chief of staff. However, Libby was convicted of perjury in testimony to a grand jury. No one was convicted for "blowing the cover" of Plame. (Richard Armitage, an official in the Bush State Department, acknowledged leaking information about Plame to reporters but was never charged with a crime.) Libby's two and a half year prison sentence was later commuted by President Bush, though the other facet of his sentence ($250,000 fine) stands until Libby's appeals were to be considered.
Other issues explored in "The West Wing" include:
"The West Wing" universe.
Domestic.
All contemporary domestic government officials in "The West Wing" universe have been fictional. President Bartlet has made three appointments to the fictional Supreme Court and maintains a full cabinet, although the names and terms of all members have not been revealed. Some cabinet members, such as the Secretary of Defense, appear more often than others. Many other government officials, such as mayors, governors, judges, representatives, and senators, have been mentioned and seen as well.
Fictional locations inside the United States have been created to loosely represent certain places:
San Andreo.
San Andreo is a fictional California city. It is near San Diego. It has 42,000 people. The San Andreo Nuclear Generating Station is there.
A near meltdown at the nuclear plant becomes the focus of an October surprise for Republican nominee Senator Arnold Vinick during the 2006 presidential election, due to Vinick's strong pro-nuclear stance and revelations of his active lobbying for the construction of the plant. This was seen to be a key factor in Vinick's narrow defeat in the election by Democratic nominee Congressman Matt Santos.
Hartsfield's Landing.
Hartsfield's Landing is a fictional town in New Hampshire. It is stated to be a very small community of only 63 people, of whom 42 are registered voters, that votes at one minute past midnight on the day of the New Hampshire primary, hours before the rest of the state, and has accurately predicted the winner of every presidential election since William Howard Taft in 1908. It is based on the true New Hampshire communities of Hart's Location and Dixville Notch, which in real life do vote before the rest of the state during the primaries, and also loosely upon the concept of "bellwether states" in US presidential elections.
Kennison State University.
Kennison State is a fictional university in Iowa that was used as the setting of a bombing in the beginning of the fourth season.
Foreign.
While several real-world leaders exist in the show's universe, most foreign countries have fictional rulers. Real people mentioned in "The West Wing" include Muammar al-Gaddafi, Yasser Arafat, Fidel Castro, Queen Elizabeth II, King Bhumibol Adulyadej, King Carl Gustaf, Thabo Mbeki and Osama bin Laden. However, when a peace accord was worked out between Israel and the Palestinian Authority at the start of the show's sixth season, the Chairman of the Palestinian Authority was the fictional Nizar Farad, not Arafat. (By that time in the real world, Arafat was dead and a successor, Rawhi Fattuh, had been elected.)
Entire countries are invented as composite pictures that epitomize many of the problems that plague real nations in certain areas of the world:
Qumar.
Qumar, a fictional oil-rich, terrorist-sponsoring Middle Eastern state, is repeatedly a source of trouble for the Bartlet administration. According to maps on the show, Qumar is in southern Iran, directly across the important Strait of Hormuz. After the September 11 attacks, it became the main venue for the show's terrorism subplots.
Jabal Nafusah (also the name of a real-life Libyan city) seems to be the largest city and the capital, according to maps shown of the country. Qumar is an absolute monarchy, ruled by a sultan and his family. The country is a former British protectorate. The nation was first introduced in the third season where it was mentioned as a close ally of the United States. Qumar continues on the show to be a U.S. ally, though the sultan and other officials were extremely troubled by the Bartlet administration's assassination of Defense Minister Abdul ibn Shareef, and a bombing campaign and invasion that followed Zoey Bartlet's abduction by Qumari extremists (ostensibly in retaliation for Shareef's murder). As a result of the air strikes, gas pipelines were damaged, leading to economic troubles for the country and its European allies.
During the final season episode "The Cold", a situation room map shows the Persian Gulf clearly, but omits Qumar.
Equatorial Kundu.
Equatorial Kundu is a fictional African nation blighted by AIDS and a civil war resembling the 1994 Rwandan genocide.
When Kundu was first mentioned in season 2, it is led by President Nimbala who is executed by the end of the episode. In January 2003 of the series' timeline ("Inauguration, Part I"), the Arkutu-run government of President Nzele (described as a "sadistic madman") begins an ethnic cleansing campaign against the Induye in Bitanga, killing 200 people. The violence soon spreads outside Bitanga and into the countryside. In President Josiah Bartlet's second inaugural address ("Inauguration Over There"), he announces the new Bartlet Doctrine for the use of force: America shall intervene whenever there are humanitarian interests at stake. With that new doctrine, Bartlet sends a brigade of the 82nd Airborne Division, the 101st Airborne Division, and a Marine Expeditionary Unit, a force of 11,000 troops in total, to Kundu ("The California 47th"). As of the episode "Twenty Five," US forces are still operating in Kundu.
In its original appearance, Kundu's location is somewhat ambiguous. President Nimbala and his aide appear to speak Setswana, a Bantu language spoken in South Africa and Botswana, which would imply a Southern African setting. The Season 4 appearance seems to more firmly place the country in West Africa, near to the Ivory Coast and Ghana. Its capital city is Bitanga, which contains a major airport, TV station and a radio station.
Presidential elections.
Fictional timeline.
In general, "The West Wing" attempts to create an alternative reality, in which there is a subtly different set of historical truths in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. In particular, the show tries to suggest that the last "real" president in its timeline is Richard Nixon, and to chart the careers of its principal players in the light of that decision. Nevertheless, there are occasions in which more contemporary presidents are implied.
However, through timeline analysis, it can be assumed that while Richard Nixon was the last President to hold a real-life presidential term, Ronald Reagan was the last real-life President. These are the Presidents and their terms in the West Wing universe:
Skewed from reality.
Fictional Presidents who served between Nixon and Bartlet include one-term Democrat D. Wire Newman (James Cromwell) and two-term Republican Owen Lassiter.
Leo McGarry is mentioned as being Labor Secretary in the administration that was in office in 1993 and 1995. In the first season, an outgoing Supreme Court Justice tells President Bartlet that he had been wanting to retire for 5 years, but waited "for a Democrat." The season four episode "Debate Camp" features a flashback to the days just before Bartlet's inauguration, as Donna Moss meets with her Republican predecessor, Jeff Johnson, who makes it clear that the outgoing Republican administration has been in office for eight years. In season six Leo says that the Republicans have been "out of power for eight years", and Republicans at their convention say "eight (years) is enough".
The passage of time on the show relative to that of the real world is somewhat ambiguous when marked by events of shorter duration (e.g., votes, campaigns). Sorkin has noted in a DVD commentary track for the second season episode "18th and Potomac" that he has tried to avoid tying "The West Wing" to a specific period of time. Despite this, real years are occasionally mentioned, usually in the context of elections and President Bartlet's two-term administration.
The show's presidential elections are held in 2002 and 2006, which are the years of the midterm elections in reality. The election timeline in "The West Wing" matches up with that of the real world until early in the sixth season, when it appears that a year is lost. For example, the filing deadline for the New Hampshire primary, which would normally fall in January 2006, appears in an episode airing in January 2005.
In an interview, John Wells stated that the series began one and a half years into Bartlet's first term and that the election to replace Bartlet was being held at the correct time.
In the season 5 episode "Access", it is mentioned that the Casey Creek crisis occurred during Bartlet's first term, and network footage of the crisis carries the date of November 2001.
1998 presidential election.
Bartlet's first campaign for president is never significantly explored in the series. Bartlet won the election with 48% of the popular vote, 48 million votes, and a 303–235 margin in the Electoral College. Bartlet faced three debates with his Republican opponent, who is assumed to be Lewis D. Eisenhower, the Vice President under Owen Lassiter and an immediate relative to former President Dwight D. Eisenhower. It is mentioned that Bartlet won the third and final debate, which was held eight days before election day in St. Louis, Missouri, and that this helped swing a close election in his favor. Josh Lyman said in the days prior to the election "Bartlet was punching brick walls" as the result seemed too close to call, before the result broke his way. Leo McGarry said the same thing in "Bartlet for America" when he said "It was eight days to go, and we were too close to call".
The campaign for the Democratic nomination is extensively addressed. In the episodes "In the Shadow of Two Gunmen" and "Bartlet for America", flashbacks are used to tell how Bartlet defeated Texas Senator John Hoynes (Tim Matheson) and Washington Senator William Wiley for the Democratic nomination. The flashbacks also reveal how Leo McGarry persuaded Bartlet, who was then governor of New Hampshire, to run for president and how Bartlet ultimately selected John Hoynes as his choice as running mate.
2002 presidential election.
"The West Wing"'s 2002 presidential election pits Bartlet and Vice President John Hoynes against Florida Governor Robert Ritchie (James Brolin) and his running mate, Jeff Heston. Bartlet faces no known opposition for renomination, though Democratic Senator Stackhouse does launch a brief independent campaign for the presidency. Ritchie, not originally expected to contend for the nomination, emerges from a field of seven other Republican candidates by appealing to the party's conservative base with simple, "homey" sound bites.
Bartlet's staff contemplates replacing Vice President John Hoynes on the ticket with Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Percy Fitzwallace (John Amos), among others. After it is clear that Ritchie will be the Republican nominee, Bartlet dismisses the idea, declaring that he wants Hoynes in the number two spot because of "four words," which he writes down and hands to his staffers to read: "Because I could die."
Throughout the season it is anticipated that the race will be close, but a stellar performance by Bartlet in the sole debate between the candidates helps give Bartlet a landslide victory in both the popular and electoral vote.
2006 presidential election.
A speed-up in "The West Wing"'s timeline, in part due to the expiration of many cast members' contracts and a desire to continue the program with lower production costs, resulted in the omission of the 2004 midterm elections and an election during the seventh season. The sixth season extensively details the Democratic and Republican primaries. The seventh season covers the lead-up to the general election, the election, and the transition to a new administration. The timeline slows down to concentrate on the general election race. The election, normally held in November, takes place across two episodes originally broadcast on April 2 and April 9, 2006.
Congressman Matt Santos (D-TX) (Jimmy Smits) is nominated on the fourth ballot at the Democratic National Convention, during the sixth season finale. Santos was planning to leave Congress before being recruited to run for the presidency by Josh Lyman. Santos polled in the low single digits in the Iowa caucus and was virtually out of the running in the New Hampshire primary before a last-ditch direct television appeal vaults him to a third-place finish with 19% of the vote. Josh Lyman, Santos's campaign manager, convinces Leo McGarry to become Santos' running mate.
Senator Arnold Vinick (R-CA) (Alan Alda) secures the Republican nomination, defeating Glen Allen Walken (John Goodman) and the Reverend Don Butler (Don S. Davis), among others. Initially, Vinick wants Butler to become his running mate. However, Butler does not want to be considered because of Vinick's stance on abortion. Instead, West Virginia Governor Ray Sullivan (Brett Cullen) is chosen as Vinick's running mate. Vinick is portrayed throughout the sixth season as virtually unbeatable because of his popularity in California, a typically Democratic state, his moderate views, and his wide crossover appeal. Vinick, however, faces difficulty with the pro-life members of his party as a pro-choice candidate, and criticism for his support of nuclear power following a serious accident at a Californian nuclear power station.
On the evening of the election, Leo McGarry suffers a massive heart attack and is pronounced dead at the hospital, with the polls still open on the West Coast. The Santos campaign releases the information immediately, while Arnold Vinick refuses to use Leo's death as a "stepstool" to the presidency. Santos emerges as the winner in his home state of Texas, while Vinick wins his home state of California. The election comes down to Nevada, where both candidates need a victory to secure the presidency. Vinick tells his staff repeatedly that he will not allow his campaign to demand a recount of the votes if Santos is declared the winner. Josh Lyman is seen giving Santos the same advice, although the Santos campaign does send a team of lawyers down to Nevada. Santos is pronounced the winner of the election, having won Nevada by 30,000 votes, with an electoral margin of 272–266.
Santos organizes his administration, choosing Josh Lyman as Chief of Staff, who in turn calls on former colleague Sam Seaborn to be Deputy Chief of Staff. In need of experienced cabinet members, Santos taps Arnold Vinick as Secretary of State, believing the senior statesman to be one of the best strategists available and respected by foreign leaders.
President Bartlet's final act as President of the United States is pardoning Toby Ziegler. The series ends with Bartlet returning to New Hampshire. Having said his goodbyes to his closest staff, former President Bartlet tells President Santos, "Make me proud, Mr. President", to which Santos responds, "I'll do my best, Mr. President."
According to executive producer Lawrence O'Donnell, Jr., the writers originally intended for Vinick to win the election. However, the death of Spencer forced him and his colleagues to consider the emotional strain that would result from having Santos lose both his running mate and the election. It was eventually decided that the last episodes would be rescripted by John Wells. Other statements from John Wells, however, have contradicted O'Donnell's claims about a previously planned Vinick victory. The script showing Santos winning was written long before the death of John Spencer. In 2008 O'Donnell stated to camera "We actually planned at the outset for Jimmy Smits to win, that was our .. just .. plan of how this was all going to work, but the Vinick character came on so strong in the show, and was so effective, it became a real contest ... and it became a real contest in the West Wing writer's room."
Similarities to 2008 U.S. presidential election.
Similarities between the fictional 2006 election and the real-life 2008 U.S. presidential election have been noted in the media: young minority Democratic candidate (Matthew Santos on the show, Barack Obama in real life) has a gruelling but successful primary campaign against a more experienced candidate (Bob Russell on the show, Hillary Clinton in real life) and chooses an experienced Washington insider as his running mate (Leo McGarry on the show, Joe Biden in real life), whereas the Republican contest is determined early in the primary season with an aging maverick senator of a Western state being the nominee (Arnold Vinick on the show, John McCain in real life), defeating an ordained minister as the closest competitor (Reverend Butler on the show, Mike Huckabee in real life), and then selecting a socially conservative running mate from a small Republican state (West Virginia Governor Ray Sullivan on the show, Alaska Governor Sarah Palin in real life).
Writer Eli Attie called David Axelrod to talk about Obama after Obama's 2004 Democratic National Convention speech and says that he "drew inspiration from [Obama] in drawing [the Santos] character," while actor Jimmy Smits says that Obama "was one of the people that I looked to draw upon." Writer and producer Lawrence O'Donnell says that he partly modeled Vinick after McCain. Obama's Chief of Staff, Rahm Emanuel, is said to be the basis of the Josh Lyman character, who became Santos' Chief of Staff.
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Servite College
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Servite College is a high school in Perth, Western Australia. It is in the suburb of Tuart Hill. The school is Roman Catholic and teaches both boys and girls.
History.
Members of the Servite Order came to Australia in late 1951 and by 1958 had established St. Philip’s Regional High School for Boys in Tuart Hill. In 1968, the name was changed to Servite College. In 1973, it became the first co-educational Catholic secondary school in Western Australia.
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Key West
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Afonso I of Portugal
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Alphonse I or Alphonzo I (in Portuguese Afonso I) (25 July 1109 - 6 December 1185) was the first king of Portugal. He is best known by his prince name Afonso Henriques.
Afonso Henriques was the son of Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal and Teresa of León.
He became King on 25 July 1139, after winning the Battle of Ourique. He doubled the area of Portugal with the "Reconquista" and was nicknamed "the Conqueror" (Port. "o Conquistador"). He died on 6 December 1185 in Coimbra.
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Amália Rodrigues
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Amália da Piedade Rebordão Rodrigues, known just by Amália Rodrigues (July 23, 1920 – October 6, 1999) was a Portuguese singer and actress. She was called the "Rainha do Fado" ("Queen of Fado") and she was very important in making the fado popular all over the world. Her younger sister, Celeste, was also a popular singer. She was born in Lisbon.
Rodrigues died of a heart attack on October 6, 1999 in Lisbon, aged 79.
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Clark Kent
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Ted Kaufman
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Edward E. "Ted" Kaufman (born March 15, 1939) is an American politician. He was a U.S. Senator from Delaware. He used to work for Joe Biden when Biden was a Senator. Kaufman replaced Biden as Senator when Biden became Vice President of the United States in 2009.
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Orrin Hatch
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Orrin Grant Hatch (March 22, 1934 – April 23, 2022) was an American politician and lawyer. He was a U.S. Senator from Utah from 1977 until 2019. He was a Republican and a Mormon. After the Republicans won control of the Senate in the 2014 elections, Hatch became President pro tempore on January 6, 2015.
Hatch ran for President of the United States in 2000, but he dropped out of the race after losing the first primary election. He was seen as a possible candidate for the United States Supreme Court. On January 2, 2018, Hatch announced his retirement from the Senate after low approval ratings.
Early life.
Hatch was born in Homestead, Pennsylvania on March 22, 1934 to Jesse Hatch and Helen Frances. He was raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Hatch studied at Brigham Young University and at the University of Pittsburgh. He worked as an attorney in Pittsburgh and in Utah.
United States senator (1977–2019).
In 1976, in his first run for public office, Hatch was elected to the United States Senate. He defeated Democrat Frank Moss, who had been a Senator for three terms, or 18 years. During the campaign, Hatch said that Moss had been in the Senate too long. He joked, "What do you call a Senator who's served in office for 18 years? You call him home." Hatch argued that many Senators, including Moss, had lost touch with the people who voted for them. Hatch himself held office for 42 years.
In 1995 Hatch was the leading figure behind the Senate's anti-terrorism bill. This bill was passed in response to the Oklahoma City Bombing. As a senior member of the Senate Select Intelligence Committee, Hatch was also important in the 2008 extension of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. He said, "This bipartisan bill will help defeat terrorism and keep America safe. No, the legislation is not perfect, but it ensures that the increased expansion of the judiciary into foreign intelligence gathering doesn’t unnecessarily hamper our intelligence community.”
Hatch has been a longtime advocate of amending the United States Constitution to require that total spending of the federal government for any fiscal year not exceed total receipts. He proposed the DREAM Act, which would provide a pathway to citizenship for the children of undocumented immigrants, who were children when their parents came to the United States.
Senator Hatch co-sponsored the Restoring the 10th Amendment Act (S. 4020 111th Congress), which would strengthen state rights under the 10th Amendment. The bill would provide special standing for state officials in challenging proposed regulations.
In 2018, Hatch announced that he would retire after seven terms in the Senate.
Supreme Court.
Hatch has long expressed interest in serving on the U.S. Supreme Court, but due to his age decided not to express any interest anymore. It was reported that he was on Ronald Reagan's short list of candidates to succeed Lewis F. Powell, Jr. on the United States Supreme Court, but was passed over at least in part because of the Ineligibility Clause. Despite that, he vocally supported Robert Bork, who was chosen instead.
2000 presidential campaign.
In 2000, Hatch made a failed bid for the Republican presidential nomination, losing to then-Texas Governor George W. Bush. During the first Republican debate, Hatch made web usability a campaign issue, a first for a presidential candidate. He claimed his website was more user-friendly than Bush's. At least one web usability expert agreed.
Personal life.
Hatch married Elaine Hansen on August 28, 1957. They had six children.
Hatch was a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Hatch served as a member of the board of directors of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
In November 2018, Hatch received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Donald Trump.
Hatch played the piano, violin and organ. Hatch had written songs for many. He co-authored "Everything And More", sung by Billy Gilman. Hatch earned over $10,000 as an LDS music recording artist while he was senator.
Hatch died on April 23, 2022 in Salt Lake City, Utah from problems caused by a stroke. He was 88 years old.
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List of United States Senate committees
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Much of the work of the United States Senate is done in committees, or groups of about 15 Senators. Each committee deals with a certain subject, such as farming or roads. In general, most laws start in a committee before they are voted on by the Senate. Also, when the Senate wants to ask the President or another important person questions, they usually do it in a committee.
Standing committees.
, there are 88 subsidiary bodies of the US Senate: 16 standing committees with 67 subcommittees, and five non-standing committees.
Non-standing committees.
There are five non-standing, select, or special committees. They are similar to standing committees.
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Johnny Rozsa
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Johnny Rozsa is a well known New York photographer. Rozsa was born and raised in Nairobi, and is of Jewish descent. He arrived in London in the 1960s and, after college, ran a vintage shop in Covent Garden. Here he met fashion editors, models, actors, and photographers on a daily basis.
Rozsa photographed famous people including Hugh Grant, Halle Berry, Janet Jackson, Nicholas Cage, John Malkovich and Natasha Richardson.
Rozsa published a book in 2009 called "Untouched", which included many of his photographs.
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Lichen
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Lichens are a symbiosis of at least two quite different organisms. The partnership always involves a fungus, which lives with one or more partners which can do photosynthesis. The photobiont partner may be a green alga and/or a cyanobacterium.p5,6,13
The algae or bacteria live inside the fungus, and exchange nutrients with it. The lichen is different in shape and mode of life from any of the partners. It is a distinct form of life. Botanists did not know this until about 1875.
There are more than 2,000 species in Britain and Ireland alone, many of which are found in temperate rainforests.
Classification.
Lichens pose a problem for biological classification, because the three types of organism concerned come from three different kingdoms. After long debate, lichen are now classified as fungi, under the genus and species of the host fungus.p47–48 This allows specimens to be put into boxes and labelled. By having specific names, researchers know what they are working on: that is one of the basic functions of taxonomy. The system still has its problems. In those fungi which may associate either with an alga, or with a cyanobacterium, the resulting forms (called "photomorphs") may look quite different, yet are now referred to by the same name.p13
20% (one in five) of fungal species live in lichens. Lichen fungi belong to several different groups of fungi. Most common (over 40%) are Ascomycetes, which produce spores in a sac-shaped container, the "ascus". Only a few types of alga occur within lichens; these algae also have their own names. Algae may be sometimes the dominant partner in so-called 'jelly lichens', "Collema" and "Leptogium", but this is rare. More usually, the algae are the green alga "Trebouxia". Other species are the orange "Trentepohli", and the cyanobacterium "Nostoc".p9–10
Their life habit.
The life habit of lichens is to stick closely onto surfaces.
Lichens can occur anywhere on land, and some can live in aquatic environments. The nearest rock, wall or roof probably has lichen on it. Often the lichen is mat-like, and clings to the surface. Some are like little bushes: see the photos. Lichens are famous for not needing a regular supply of water; their metabolism can go into suspension, and later revive. When growing on mineral surfaces, some lichens slowly break down the substrate, and extract tiny amounts of mineral nutrient. Fungi form the main part of the thallus (body), with the photobiont contributing 20% or less.p17 The photobiont is usually on the inside of the thallus.
Lichen thalli may grow together and fuse, and this may happen between different species and genera.p23 These are called 'mechanical hybrids'. They get noticed when the two forms are differently colored.
Survival.
Lichen do survive extreme conditions. They are found in some of the most extreme places on Earth – the frozen north, hot deserts, rocky coasts. They are common as epiphytes on leaves and branches in rain forests and temperate woods. They can live on bare rock, walls and gravestones, and on exposed soil surfaces.p19 There are about 200 different kinds of lichens in Antarctica. In the Horlick Mountains, at 86 degrees south, there are six different kinds of lichen. In the Himalayas, they grow at altitudes up to 18,000 feet (~5500m).p216
The European Space Agency discovered that lichen can survive unprotected in space. Two species of lichen were sealed in a capsule and launched on a Russian Soyuz rocket. Once in orbit the capsules were opened. Two species of lichen were exposed to the vacuum of space, to cosmic radiation and huge swings of temperature. After 15 days the lichens were retrieved and were found to be in full health: no damage was found.
Rain forests.
There are a huge number of lichen species in rainforests, far outnumbering flowering plants. The lichen are mostly epiphytes, living on trees. A single site in Costa Rica yielded about 300 species of lichen on leaves, in the understory of the rain forest; a single fallen "Elaeocarpus" tree in New Guinea held 173 species; the evergreen laurel "Ocotea atirrensis" was found with 50–80 lichen species on a "single leaf".p60–61
Mutual benefits.
When partnerships are very close, it is difficult to assign benefits to either partner. Their success is as a pair (or trio). Sometimes the partners can exist as separate organisms: certainly their close relatives can. Probably most of the algae and all of the cyanobacteria can survive on their own, though in more restricted habitats. The details vary according to the specific species or strains involved. The man who first realised the nature of lichen, Simon Schwedener, thought of the partnership as one of controlled parasitism. Obviously, the photobiont provides photosynthetic products: carbohydrates as sugar alcohols (green algae) or glucose (cyanobacteria). The bacteria also convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonium ions (NH4+) which the fungus can use in amino acids for proteins.p26
The alga certainly benefits from a supply of water (which the fungus is good at storing). There is also general mechanical protection. Algae get protection from ultraviolet light, which in some environments is quite significant. Probably, algae get access to the minute amounts of minerals, which the fungus gets from the substrate or from dust settling on the thallus. Algal cells are sometimes destroyed in the course of nutrient exchange, though the algal cells divide and replace them. Above all, the partnership is a resounding success, and gets to places where few plants can survive.
Reproduction.
Many lichens reproduce without sex (asexual reproduction). They make small groups of algal cells surrounded by fungal filaments. These "soridia" can be blown by wind. Some lichens just break up into fragments when they dry. Wind carries the pieces, which grow when moisture returns. Also, lichen fungi can reproduce sexually by forming fruiting bodies containing spores. These fruiting bodies are usually perennial, and may be long-lasting: some in the Swiss Alps have lived for over 50 years. After dispersal by wind, such fungal spores must meet with an algal partner to form a lichen.p19–22
History on Earth.
The fossil record for lichen dates back 400 million years for certain, and the signs are that earlier forms existed 600 million years ago. They must have been one of the earliest life-forms on land. It is thought, from the number of fungal and algal species involved, that the symbiosis must have taken place many times between different species.p46
It has been suggested that some or all of the Ediacaran biota might be lichen. The proposal has been received with some skepticism.
Lichenometry.
Lichenometry is a method of dating exposed rock by using the growth of lichen. It uses an estimate of how long the lichen's radius or width grows over time.
Other uses.
Many lichen are sensitive to changes around them. For this reason, they are used by scientists to show changes in the environment, such as air pollution, ozone depletion, and metal contamination. Lichens have also been used to make dyes, perfumes, and herbal medicines.
Some lichen produce natural antibiotics that kill bacteria. Humans have used these compounds as natural antibiotics. Extracts from many "Usnea" species were used to treat wounds in Russia in the mid-twentieth century.
The map lichen "Rhizocarpon geographicum" grows extremely slowly, and can reach an age of over 1000 years. It may be used for dating: the diameter of the largest lichen of a species on a rock surface shows the time that the rock has been exposed.
Lichen are the main winter food for reindeer. The deer can get at shrubby lichen under the snow. In summer they have much more choice of food. Some lichen are eaten by humans. A kind of lichen, which is called "Iwatake" in Japanese and "Seogi" in Korean, is collected from cliffs, and used in various Korean and Japanese foods. Lichen have a high level of acid. Care must be taken, as there are at least two kinds of lichen that are toxic.
The bacterial or algal partners produce pigments that absorb sunlight in photosynthesis. There are reports dating back almost 2000 years of purple and red colours being extracted from lichens. Lichens of the family Roccellaceae are commonly called 'orchella weed' . They have been important in history, because they could supply orcein, a dye. "Rocella tinctoria" is the source of the pH indicator litmus. Orcein is got by boiling the lichen, and litmus is produced by adding ammonia and air. Orcein is also used as a food dye, with the E number E121.
Today, dyes based on lichens have largely been replaced by synthetic ones.
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Circle of Fifths
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Transposing Instrument
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Turkmenia
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History of the Earth
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The history of the Earth describes the most important events and stages in the development of the planet Earth from its formation to the present day.
The age of the Earth is about 4.56 billion years. Nearly all branches of science have helped us understand the main events of the Earth's past. There has been constant geological change and biological evolution. The geological time scale (GTS), as defined by international convention, shows the large span of time from the beginning of the Earth to the present.
The Earth is about one-third the age of the universe. Earth formed as part of the birth of the Solar System. What eventually became the solar system started as a large, rotating cloud of dust and gas. The Sun was composed of hydrogen and some helium. All the heavier elements were produced by stars long gone. They were picked up by the Sun on its travels in the Milky Way galaxy.
The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago during the Eoarchean era. There are microbial mat fossils, such as stromatolites, found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia.
Other work may push this estimate back even further. The origin of life on Earth was at least 3.77 billion years ago, possibly as early as 4.41 billion years ago.
Hadean.
Origin.
The formation of Earth occurred as part of the formation of the Solar System. It started as a large rotating cloud of dust and gas. This cloud, the solar nebula, was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements produced in supernovas. Then, about 4.68 billion years ago, the solar nebula began to contract, rotate and gain angular momentum. This may have been triggered by a star in the region exploding as a supernova, and sending a shock wave through the solar nebula.
As the cloud rotated, it became a flat disc perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Most of the mass concentrated in the middle and began to heat up. Meanwhile, the rest of the disc began to break up into rings, with gravity causing matter to condense around dust particles. Small fragments collided to become larger fragments, including one collection about from the center: this would become the Earth. As the Sun condensed and heated, nuclear fusion started, and the solar wind cleared out most of the material in the disc which had not yet condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce accretion disks around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield planets.
Moon.
The Earth's relatively large natural satellite is the Moon. During the Apollo program, rocks from the Moon's surface were brought to Earth. Radiometric dating of these rocks has shown the Moon to be 4527 ± 10 million years old, about 30 to 55 million years younger than other bodies in the solar system. New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48±0.02 Ga (billion years ago), or 70–110 mya after the start of the Solar System. Another notable feature is the relatively low density of the Moon, which must mean it does not have a large metallic core, like all other terrestrial bodies in the solar system.
Theories for the formation of the Moon must explain its late formation as well as the following facts. First, the Moon has a low density (3.3 times that of water, compared to 5.5 for the Earth) and a small metallic core. Second, there is virtually no water or other volatiles on the Moon. Third, the Earth and Moon have the same oxygen isotopic signature (relative abundance of the oxygen isotopes). The Moon has a bulk composition closely resembling the Earth's mantle and crust together, without the Earth's core. This has led to the giant impact hypothesis: the idea that the Moon was formed by a giant impact of the proto-Earth with another protoplanet.
The impactor, sometimes named Theia, is thought to have been a little smaller than the current planet Mars. Theia finally collided with Earth about 4.533 Ga.
Models reveal that when an impactor this size struck the proto-Earth at a low angle and relatively low speed (), much material from the mantles (and proto-crusts) of the proto-Earth and the impactor was ejected into space, where much of it stayed in orbit around the Earth. This material would eventually form the Moon. However, the metallic cores of the impactor would have sunk through the Earth's mantle to fuse with the Earth's core, depleting the Moon of metallic material. The giant impact hypothesis thus explains the Moon's abnormal composition. The ejecta in orbit around the Earth could have condensed into a single body within a couple of weeks. Under the influence of its own gravity, the ejected material became a more spherical body: the Moon.
The radiometric ages show the Earth existed already for at least 10 million years before the impact, enough time to allow for differentiation of the Earth's primitive mantle and core. Then, when the impact occurred, only material from the mantle was ejected, leaving the Earth's core of heavy elements untouched.
The impact had some important consequences for the young Earth. It released an enormous amount of energy, causing both the Earth and Moon to be completely molten. Immediately after the impact, the Earth's mantle was vigorously convecting, the surface was a large magma ocean. The planet's first atmosphere must have been completely blown away by the enormous amount of energy released. The impact is also thought to have changed Earth’s axis to produce the large 23.5° axial tilt that is responsible for Earth’s seasons (a simple, ideal model of the planets’ origins would have axial tilts of 0° with no recognizable seasons). It may also have sped up Earth’s rotation.
Archean.
Archean Earth.
At the beginning of the Archean, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today, and was still twice the current level by the beginning of the Proterozoic. Thus, plates and volcanic activity were considerably more active than they are today; the Earth's crust was not only thinner than is today, but probably broken up into many more tectonic plates, with numerous hot spots, rift valleys, and transform faults. The existence of plate tectonics in this eon is disputed: it is an active area of modern research.p297-302
There were no large continents until late in the Archean; small protocontinents were the norm, prevented from coalescing into larger units by the high rate of geologic activity. These felsic protocontinents probably formed at hot spots rather than subduction zones, from a variety of sources: mafic magma melting more felsic rocks, partial melting of mafic rock, and from the metamorphic alteration of felsic sedimentary rocks.p297-301
The Archean atmosphere apparently lacked free oxygen. Temperatures appear to have been near modern levels, although astronomers think that the sun was about one-third dimmer. This suggests larger amounts of greenhouse gases than later in Earth history.
Archean geology.
When the Archean began, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times as high as it is today, and it was still twice the current level at the transition from the Archean to the Proterozoic (2,500 Ma). The extra heat was the result of a mix of remnant heat from planetary accretion, from the formation of the metallic core, and from the decay of radioactive elements.
The oldest rock formations exposed on the surface of the Earth are Archean or slightly older. Archean rocks are known from Greenland, the Canadian Shield, western Australia, and southern Africa. Although the first continents formed during this eon, rock this age makes up only 7% of the world's current cratons; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, evidence suggests that only 5-40% of the present continental crust formed during the Archean.p301
In contrast to the Proterozoic, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep-water sediments, such as greywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments, and banded iron formations. Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations: they are made of alternating high and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The high-grade rocks come from volcanic island arcs, and the low-grade metamorphic rocks come from deep-sea sediments. These sediments eroded from the island arcs and ended in a forearc basin. In short, "greenstone belts show where protocontinents were stuck together".p302-3
Archean life.
The processes that gave rise to life on Earth are not completely understood, but there is substantial evidence that life came into existence either near the end of the Hadean Eon or early in the Archean Eon.
The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite of biogenic origin found in 3.7 billion–year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. Fossils of cyanobacterial mats (stromatolites) are found throughout the Archean—becoming especially common late in the eon—while a few other probable bacterial fossils are known from chert beds.p307 In addition to bacteria, microfossils of the extremophilic archaea have also been identified.
Life in the Archean was limited to simple single-celled organisms (lacking nuclei), called prokaryotes. In addition to the domain Bacteria, microfossils of the domain Archaea have also been identified. There are no known eukaryote fossils.p306, 323 No fossil evidence yet exists for viruses. Fossilized microbes from terrestrial microbial mats show that life was already established on land 3.22 billion years ago.
Proterozoic.
The Proterozoic record.
The geologic record of the Proterozoic is much better than that for the preceding Archaean. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive, shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of these rocks are less metamorphosed than Archean-age ones, and plenty are in fact unaltered.p315 Study of these rocks show that the eon featured rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and mountain-building (orogeny) activity.p315/8; 329/32
The first known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic. One ice age began shortly after the beginning of the eon. There were at least four during the Neoproterozoic, climaxing with the "Snowball Earth" of the Varangian glaciation.p320; 325
The build-up of oxygen.
The Great Oxygenation Event was one of the most important events of the Proterozoic. Though oxygen was undoubtedly released by photosynthesis well back in Archean times, it could not build up to any significant degree until chemical sinks--unoxidized sulfur and iron—had been filled; until roughly 2.3 billion years ago, oxygen was probably only 1 to 2% of its current level.(Stanley, 323) Banded iron formations, which provide most of the world's iron ore, were also a prominent chemical sink; most accumulation ceased after 1.9 billion years ago, either due to an increase in oxygen or a more thorough mixing of the oceanic water column.p324
Red beds, which are coloured by haematite, indicate an increase in atmospheric oxygen after 2 billion years ago; they are not found in older rocks.(Stanley, 324) The oxygen build-up was probably due to two factors: a filling of the chemical sinks, and an increase in carbon burial, which stored organic compounds which would have otherwise been oxidized by the atmosphere.p325
Proterozoic life.
The first advanced single-celled and multi-cellular life roughly coincides with the oxygen accumulation; this may have been due to an increase in the oxidized nitrates that eukaryotes use, as opposed to cyanobacteria.(Stanley, 325) It was also during the Proterozoic that the first symbiotic relationship between mitochondria (for animals and protists) and chloroplasts (for plants) and their hosts evolved.p321-2
Eukaryotes such as acritarchs blossomed, as did cyanobacteria; in fact, stromatolites reached their greatest abundance and diversity during the Proterozoic, peaking roughly 1.2 billion years ago.321-3
Classically, the boundary between the Proterozoic and the Paleozoic was set at the base of the Cambrian period when the first fossils of animals known as trilobites appeared. In the second half of the 20th century, a number of fossil forms have been found in Proterozoic rocks, but the boundary of the Proterozoic is still fixed at the base of the Cambrian: that is 542 mya.
Phanerozoic.
Paleozoic.
The Paleozoic covers the time from the first appearance of abundant, hard-shelled fossils to the time when the continents were beginning to be dominated by large, relatively sophisticated reptiles and relatively modern plants. The Paleozoic is a time in Earth's history when complex life forms evolved, took their first breath of oxygen on dry land, and when the forerunners of all multicelular life on Earth began to diversify. There are six periods in the Paleozoic era: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.
The upper (youngest) boundary is set at a major extinction event 250 million years later, known as the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Modern practice sets the older boundary at the first appearance of a distinctive trace fossil called "Phycodes pedum".
Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Rodinia and at the end of a global ice age (Snowball Earth). Throughout the early Palaeozoic, the Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area.
At the start of the era, life was confined to bacteria, algae, sponges and a variety of somewhat enigmatic forms known collectively as the Ediacaran fauna. A large number of body plans appeared nearly simultaneously at the start of the era—a phenomenon known as the Cambrian Explosion.
There is some evidence that simple life may already have invaded the land at the start of the Palaeozoic, but substantial plants and animals did not take to the land until the Silurian and did not thrive until the Devonian. Although primitive vertebrates are known near the start of the Palaeozoic, animal forms were dominated by invertebrates until the mid-Palaeozoic. Fish populations exploded in the Devonian. During the late Palaeozoic, great forests of primitive plants thrived on land forming the great coal beds of Europe and eastern North America. By the end of the era, the first large, sophisticated reptiles and the first modern plants (conifers) had developed.
Mesozoic.
The Mesozoic covers the time when life was dominated by large sophisticated reptiles. The lower (oldest) boundary is set by the P/Tr extinction event. The upper (youngest) boundary is set at the K/T extinction event.
Geologically, the Mesozoic starts with almost all the Earth's land collected into a supercontinent called Pangaea. During the era, Pangaea split into the northern continent Laurasia and the southern continent Gondwana. Laurasia then split into North America and Eurasia. Gondwana broke up progressively into continents: South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia and Antarctica.
The Mesozoic is known as the Age of Dinosaurs. It also saw the development of early birds and mammals and, later, flowering plants (angiosperms). At the end of the Mesozoic, all the major body plans of modern life were in place, though in some cases notably the mammals the forms that existed at the end of the Cretaceous were relatively primitive.
Cenozoic.
The Cenozoic is the age of mammals. During the Cenozoic, mammals diverged from a few small, simple, generalized forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and flying animals. Flowering plants and birds also evolved substantially in the Cenozoic .
Geologically, the Cenozoic is the era when continents moved into their current positions. Africa and Australasia split from Gondwana to drift north, and India collided with Southeast Asia; Antarctica moved into its current position over the South Pole; the Atlantic Ocean widened and, late in the era, South America became attached to North America.
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Earth history
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Spark
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Tomo Sugawara
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Tomo Sugawara (born 3 June 1976) is a retired Japanese football player.
Club career statistics.
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Shin Kanazawa
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Shin Kanazawa (born 9 September 1983) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Omiya Ardija.
Club career statistics.
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Donizete Oliveira
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Donizete Francisco de Oliveira (born 21 February 1968) is a former Brazilian football player. He has played for Brazil national team.
International career statistics.
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List of Braille symbols
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Harrow School
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Harrow School, often called simply "Harrow", is a secondary school for boys in Harrow in London, England. Harrow has educated boys since 1243 but was officially founded by John Lyon under a Royal Charter of Elizabeth I in 1572. Harrow is located in Harrow on the Hill, now in the London Borough of Harrow. The school has about 800 students. They live across twelve boarding houses, and all of them board full time.
Harrow is an independent fee-paying school, of the type known in Britain as "public schools". The equivalent term in the US would probably be "private schools" (see discussion at public school). The annual fees at Harrow are at present £41,775 per year, which includes board, tuition and textbooks.
The Harrow Foundation also runs an independent Grammar School in Harrow, called the John Lyon School, and several international schools. The John Lyon School is also fee-paying and academically selective.
In 2013 66% of pupils got 5 A*-C GCSE grades including English and Maths. 14.1% of students go to Cambridge or Oxford.
In 2013 a TV series called Harrow: a Very British School started. It follows boys and staff of West Acre of the West Acre boarding house for a year
Famous men who went to Harrow include Benedict Cumberbatch, eight prime ministers (seven UK and the first Prime Minister of India), Lord Byron, James Blunt, C. W. Alcock, and John Amery.
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Harrow
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Harrow can mean:
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Roger Wicker
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Roger Frederick Wicker (born July 5, 1951 in Pontotoc, Mississippi, United States) is a senior United States Senator from Mississippi. He took over Mississippi's first congressional district soon after Jamie L. Whitten's death in 1995.
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The Return of Jafar
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The Return of Jafar (also known as Aladdin: The Return of Jafar or simply Aladdin 2) is a 1994 American direct-to-video animated movie, released on VHS by Buena Vista Pictures, and the sequel to the 1992 Disney animated movie "Aladdin". The movie is about Jafar trying to get revenge on Aladdin. It is also the first direct-to-video sequel produced by Disney.
Cast.
Note: Each voice actor is credited as "With the Voice Talents of".
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Aladdin and the King of Thieves
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Aladdin and the King of Thieves (also known as Aladdin 3: The King of Thieves) is a 1996 American Disney animated movie and the second sequel to the 1992 Disney animated movie "Aladdin". The story is about Aladdin attempting to save his father. Robin Williams returned to voice the Genie after he turned down the first sequel.
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198220
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Ja, vi elsker dette landet
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"Ja, vi elsker dette landet" (, meaning "Yes, we love this country") is the national anthem of Norway. Before it became the country's anthem, it was a patriotic song written in 1859 by a Norwegian writer named Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson. His cousin Rikard Nordraak set his lyrics to music in 1863. Until 2017, it had been an unofficial anthem of Norway, alongside "Sønner av Norge" and "Norges Skaal".
Lyrics.
This song has eight verses in total. However, only the first, seventh and eighth verses (highlighted in bold) are used for the national anthem.
English version.
An English recording of the song, based on the first, seventh and eighth stanzas, was popular among Norwegian Americans sometime in the 1900s.
Controversies.
Norwegian independence.
In 1905, the Union between Sweden and Norway was broken apart after many years of Norwegian struggle for equality between the two states. The declaration of independence by Norway made Sweden really angry, bringing both of them to the brink of war. In Sweden, pro-war conservatives were opposed by the Social Democrats, whose leaders Hjalmar Branting and Zeth Höglund spoke out for a peaceful settlement with Norway. Swedish socialists sang "Ja, vi elsker dette landet" to show their support for Norway leaving the Union.
Nazi occupation.
During the Second World War, the anthem was used both by the Norwegian resistance and the Nazi collaborators. When the Nazis took control of Norway, they did not let anyone play this anthem.
Urdu translation.
In May 2006, a newspaper proposed that the national anthem be translated into Urdu, since there are a lot of Pakistani immigrants in Norway. The editor's idea was that people from other ethnic groups should be able to honour their adopted country with devotion, even if they're not fluent in Norwegian. This was, however, met with criticism. Someone even sent a bunch of hate mail to the editor, calling her a traitor and threatening her with decapitation.
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History of Earth
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Mass number
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The mass number (symbol: A) of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus. The mass number is different for each isotope of a chemical element.
We write a mass number after an element's name or as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol. For example, the most common isotope of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. We write it as carbon-12 or 12C.
Mass number is not the same as:
The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons ("N") in a given nucleus: "N "= "A "− "Z".
The mass number is not shown on the periodic table. For each element, what is shown is the "standard atomic weight" and the "atomic number".
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J. Caleb Boggs
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James Caleb Boggs (May 15, 1909 – March 26, 1993) was a Republican U.S. Senator from Delaware from 1961 to 1973. He was Governor from 1953 to 1960 and a Congressman from 1947 to 1953. He was defeated in 1972 by future President of the United States, Joe Biden. He was born in Cheswold, Delaware.
Boggs died on March 26, 1993 in Wilmington, Delaware at the age of 83.
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Answering Machine
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LazyTown
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LazyTown is a Icelandic preschool education television series teaches children to be healthy and exercise. The program was created by Magnús Scheving, an aerobics champion who also plays the character Sportacus, and it is based upon his Icelandic stage plays. The series has won multiple awards.
The show was very successful and has aired in many countries around the world.
Basis of the program.
The show features live-action characters and puppet characters in a colorful town called LazyTown. At the start of the series, the town's citizens are very lazy. The mayor's niece, Stephanie, comes to change that. An athletic superhero named Sportacus helps her. He teaches the children of the town to eat healthy food and exercise each day. However, their fun is often stopped by the town's laziest man, Robbie Rotten. He tries to make the children lazy again and tries to remove Sportacus and Stephanie from the town. Robbie's plans often fail. The show' has an educational message for viewers, and songs or dance numbers performed by the characters. Usually Stephanie is the lead singer or dancer.
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Blockland
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Blockland is a multiplayer computer game made on the Torque Game Engine, where people make things using blocks. Blockland has around 35,500 players. People could build up to 128,000 bricks on every server to keep the game running best.
In 2009, Lego were talking to Eric "Badspot" Hartman about selling Blockland. It has been talked about by "The Screen Savers" and Shack News. In 2005, when "Blockland" was in beta, "Blockland" was on an article on "Globe and Mail" in which Eric says 20,000 people downloaded "Blockland" in the ten days since it "became big". Right now, the full game costs $20.
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Tarzan II
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Tarzan II (also known as Tarzan 2 and Tarzan II: The Legend Begins) is a direct-to-video midquel to the 1999 Disney animated movie "Tarzan", released on June 14, 2005. The movie tells the story of a young Tarzan's adventure to discover who he really is. It features two new songs from Phil Collins and takes place during the song "Son of Man" from the first movie. It is the last film in the chronology of Walt Disney's version of Tarzan.
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Bengalistan
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Tactical victory
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A tactical victory happens when the winning side in a battle loses fewer troops than the other side.
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Terminal velocity
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Terminal velocity is the speed when an object falling through a fluid (usually air) is no longer getting faster.
Terminal velocity happens at the moment in time that the force of gravity, called weight, is the same as the opposite force of air resistance or friction. In other words, terminal velocity is the point at which the velocity (speed of moving of the falling object) is no longer getting greater. The gravitational force minus the force of drag (or air resistance) equals zero.
An object continues to fall steadily until air resistance becomes so great that it equals the pull of gravity and the object can fall no faster. Besides weight, terminal velocity depends on other factors such as shape and cross sectional area.
Example.
The terminal velocity of a skydiver in a belly-to-earth (i.e., face down) position is about 195 km/h (122 mph or 54 m/s). This velocity is the limit of the acceleration process. The forces on the body balance each other more and more closely as the terminal velocity is approached. In this example, a speed of 50% of terminal velocity is reached after only about 3 seconds, while it takes 8 seconds to reach 90%, 15 seconds to reach 99% and so on.
Higher speeds are achieved if the skydiver pulls in his or her limbs (see also freeflying). In this case, the terminal velocity increases to about 320 km/h (200 mph or 90 m/s), which is almost the terminal velocity of the Peregrine Falcon diving down on its prey.
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Babe (movie)
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Babe is an 1995 American movie which was made in 1995. It was nominated for seven Academy Awards including the Academy Award for Best Picture in 1996. It won the Academy Award for Visual Effects. It tells the story of a pig who learns how to look after sheep and becomes Australia's champion sheep dog. The movie stars Magda Szubanski, James Cromwell, and Zoe Burton. Some of the voices used by the animal characters were by Christine Cavanaugh and Hugo Weaving.
"Babe" was made by Kennedy Miller Productions, the producer was George Miller and the director was Chris Noonan. Noonan and Miller also wrote the story. "Babe" was released by Universal Pictures. Babe was filmed at Robertson, New South Wales.
A second movie about Babe the sheep pig was made called "".
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Swedish Empire
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The Swedish Empire was an importan power in European history between 1611 and 1718. King Gustavus Adolphus was king from 1611. Europe was full of political, religious, and military conflicts. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and the Second Northern War (1655-1660) gave Sweden opportunities to expand its influence.
In Swedish, it is called "stormaktstiden", meaning "the era of great power".
King Gustavus Adolphus made Sweden powerful. The Swedish military had a strong infantry, and he led them cleverly. Victories such as the in 1631 made Sweden strong.
Notable achievements.
During this period, Sweden advanced in science, , and trade. In Stockholm, the Swedish Academy was started in 1786, which was important for the development of the Swedish language and . The empire made possible colonization efforts, including the foundation of New Sweden in North America. The empire's control over key Baltic trade routes helped its economic prosperity. Sweden's urban centres saw the emergence of grand architecture, vibrant arts and a flourishing cultural scene.
Decline and Great Northern War.
The empire declined because of the Great Northern War (1700-1721). Sweden fought against an alliance of powers including , Denmark-Norway and the Polish-Lithuaniam Commonwealth. It lost several territories, marking the end of its imperial era.
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Mountain View, California
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Mountain View is a city in California in the San Francisco Bay Area. It is north of San Jose and south of San Francisco. It is the fourth largest city in Santa Clara County behind San Jose, Sunnyvale, and Santa Clara. It is part of Silicon Valley.
Geography.
Mountain View is located south of the San Francisco Bay and west of the Santa Cruz Mountains. It is bordered by Palo Alto to the northwest, Los Altos to the south and southwest, and Sunnyvale to the east.
Transportation.
The major highways in Mountain View are California State Route 85, California State Route 82, California State Route 237, and U.S. Route 101. California State Route 85 terminates at U.S. 101 and California State Route 237 terminates at California State Route 82. California 82 is known as the El Camino Real and follows the historic route of U.S. 101 through the San Francisco Bay Area. From Mountain View, tourists can take U.S. 101 North to get to San Francisco, U.S. 101 South to get to San Jose and Los Angeles, California 85 South to get to Los Gatos and Gilroy, California 237 East to get to Milpitas, California 82 North to get to Los Altos and Palo Alto, and California 82 South to get to Sunnyvale, Santa Clara, and San Jose.
Companies.
Companies in Mountain View include Google and Mozilla.
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Estonians
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Estonians () are a Finnic people closely related to the Finns and inhabiting, primarily, the country of Estonia. The Estonians speak a Finno-Ugric language, known as Estonian. Although Estonia is traditionally grouped as one of the Baltic countries, Estonians are linguistically and ethnically unrelated to the Baltic peoples of Latvia and Lithuania.
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Menlo Park, California
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Menlo Park is a city in California in the San Francisco Bay area. Menlo Park is on the peninsula between San Jose and San Francisco. To the south are Stanford and Palo Alto. To the north is Atherton. Menlo Park is part of San Mateo County and Silicon Valley.
Menlo Park has various school districts. It has the schools La Entrada, Hillview, Oak Knoll, and Las Lomitas.
Meta Platforms, one of the world's largest technology companies, is based in Menlo Park. Meta Platforms owns Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, and other products. It employs 18,500 people in Menlo Park, as of 2020-2021.
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Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic
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The Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic, or Estonian SSR or ESSR, was a republic of the Soviet Union. It was administered by and subordinated to the Government of the Soviet Union.
The ESSR replaced the Republic of Estonia on 21 July 1940, after the invasion of Soviet troops on 17 June 1940. A puppet government backed by the Soviet Union, declared Estonia to be a Soviet state. The Estonian SSR was taken into the USSR on 9 August 1940. The independence of the Republic of Estonia was reestablished on 20 August 1991.
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National Film and Sound Archive
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The National Film and Sound Archive (NFSA), also known as ScreenSound Australia, is Australia’s audiovisual archive. This is where all Australia's old movies and sound recordings are kept. The NFSA is responsible for developing, saving, looking after, promoting and providing access to a national collection of movie and sound materials. The collection has works made in the late 19th century when the recorded sound and movie industries were just beginning to those made in the present day.
The NFSA started in 1935 as the National Historical Film and Speaking Record Library which was then part of the Commonwealth National Library. It became an independent statutory authority as the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia in 2008.
It is located in Canberra, Australia's capital city.
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Ice Cube
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O'Shea Jackson Sr. (born June 15, 1969), better known by his stage name Ice Cube, is an American rapper and actor. He was a member of the well-known rap group N.W.A. He is best known for popularising the gangsta rap genre with the album "Straight Outta Compton" in 1988. After leaving N.W.A in December of 1989, he began his solo work.
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West Coast hip hop
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West Coast hip hop is a style of hip hop music that originated in California in the early 1980s. It has since grown into a major force in hip hop and has developed several creative centers.
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Gangsta rap
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Gangsta rap (also called Gangster rap and reality rap) is a subgenre of hip hop that reflects the violent lifestyles of some inner-city youths. "Gangsta" is a non-rhotic pronunciation of the word "gangster". The genre was pioneered in the mid 1980s by rappers such as Eazy-E and Ice-T, and was popularized in the later part of the 1980s by groups like N.W.A. After the national attention that Ice-T and N.W.A created in the late 1980s and early 1990s, gangsta rap became the most commercially lucrative subgenre of hip hop. Many people have criticized gangsta rap for allegedly promoting illegal activities such as assault, murder, and selling illegal drugs.
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Political hip hop
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Political hip hop (also called political rap, conscious hip hop or conscious rap) is a form of hip hop music that focuses on social issues and politics. It developed during the 1980s, being inspired by 1970s political preachers such as The Last Poets and Gil Scott-Heron. Public Enemy were the first political hip hop group. Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five released the first well-known sociopolitical rap song in 1982 called "The Message", which inspired numerous rappers to address social and political subjects.
Conscious hip hop.
Conscious hip hop also called Socially Conscious hip hop or Conscious rap is sub-genre of Hip hop that focuses on social issues. It was created by music critics and fans rather that the artists themselves.
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Waltzing Matilda
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"Waltzing Matilda" is one of Australia's best known songs. The bush ballad, a country folk song, has been called "the unofficial national anthem of Australia".
The title, "Waltzing Matilda", is Australian slang for walking through the country looking for work, with one's goods in a "Matilda" (bag) carried over one's back.
The song tells the story of a traveling farm worker boiling a billy at a bush camp and capturing a sheep to eat. When the sheep's owner arrives with three policemen to arrest the worker for taking the sheep, the worker drowns himself in a small watering hole. The worker's ghost stays to haunt the site.
The words to the song were composed in 1895 by poet, Banjo Paterson. The version of "Waltzing Matilda" that we sing today was published as sheet music in 1903 as an advertising jingle for "Billy Tea". There are many stories about the song and how it was written. The song has its own museum, the Waltzing Matilda Centre in Winton, Queensland.
History.
Writing of the song.
The story of “Waltzing Matilda” began in the village of West Paisley in Scotland, 2 km south of where Glascow airport is today. In about 1804, young Scottish poet, Robert Tannahill, wrote a poem to be used as the words of a song, “Thou Bonnie Wood of Craigielea”. His musician friend, James Barr, composed some music for it. The song,” Thou Bonny Wood of Craigie Lee”, was published in 1818. In about 1891, Australian musician, Thomas Bulch, wrote a marching tune for a brass band. He called it “Craigielee”. The beginning of “Craigielee” was Barr’s “Thou Bonny Wood of Craigie Lee”. In April 1894, the local brass band played ”Craigielee” at the annual Warrnambool steeplechase meeting in southwestern Victoria.
Christina Macpherson attended the steeplechase meeting with her younger sister’s family. Christina was a gifted musician who could hear and remember tunes and play them by ear on piano. The band’s performance of “Craigielee” caught Christina’s attention. When she had a chance, she made up a tune based on her memory of the beginning of "Craigielee".
The Macphersons owned Dagworth Station, a very big and very remote sheep farm 130 km northwest of Winton in Central-West Queensland. In June 1895, Christina and her older sister, Jean, took their old father to Dagworth to visit the Macpherson brothers who ran the property. There was no piano at Dagworth. When Christina arrived, she found an autoharp with 3 or 4 chord bars which belonged to the bookkeeper, John Tait Wilson, who was on holidays. In the next 7 weeks Christina learned to play it.
In August, Christina and her brothers went to Winton for a week or so. The journey took 2 days. At the same time Banjo Paterson went to Winton to visit Sarah Riley, his fiancé of 7 years, and to see how people lived on the big, remote sheep stations. Sarah was a very good friend of Christina from their school days in Melbourne. When he arrived in Winton, Banjo attended a gathering where Christina played some music to entertain those present. The tune that Christina heard at the Warrnambool races caught Banjo’s attention. In Christina’s own words, Mr Paterson asked me what it was – I could not tell him. He said that he thought that he could write some words for the music. He then and there wrote the first verse. The rest of the words for “Waltzing Matilda” were written over the next three or four weeks in August and early September at Dagworth Station and other places. In Christina’s own words, "In a short time, everyone in the district was singing it.”
Paterson went back to Sydney in early September. Sometime later, Banjo wrote to Christina and asked her to send him a copy of the music of their song. He wanted to give it to a musical friend who thought that it would make a good bush song. This gave Christina a big problem: Christina played music by ear: she did not use sheet music. Writing down music from memory is quite hard, even for musicians who read music well. It is very hard one who plays by ear. In Christina's own words, "I am no musician but did my best". Christina could write the pitch of the notes very well but was not good at representing the length of notes. Her manuscripts have many mistakes.
Christina wrote a first draft and at least 3 full drafts of the song. She kept one, gave another to W B Bartlam who took it to Townsville. She sent a copy to Banjo in Sydney. The musical friend to whom Banjo gave his copy may have been Harry Nathan. The manuscripts helped to spread the song at the time but were then forgotten. The copy that Christina sent to Banjo was lost. The copy that Christina kept was not discovered until 1992. The Bartlams knew what their copy was and passed it down through the family but no one else believed them until Richard Magoffin contacted them in 1971.
For the first 7 years after its composition, the song spread by word of mouth and singers made changes to the words and music. The first person to publish "Waltzing Matilda" as a song was Harry Nathan on 20 December 1902. Nathan said that Banjo wrote the words and he made up the harmony and arrangement. Nathan also changed some of the words and wrote a new variation of the original tune. He arranged “Waltzing Matilda” as a military style march and gave it a rather unpleasant harmony.
Three weeks later, on 12 January 1903, Paterson sold the rights to “Waltzing Matilda” to Angus and Robertson. Very soon after Paterson sold them, the rights were purchased by tea merchant James Inglis, who wanted to use “Waltzing Matilda” as an advertising jingle for Billy Tea. Inglis did not find any of the existing "Waltzing Matilda" songs satisfactory and asked Marie Cowan, the wife of one of his managers, to try to turn it into and advertising jingle. Marie Cowan made some small changes to Nathan's tune and changed a few of the words. The policemen became "troopers" in verse 3 and the swagman cried, "You'll never take me alive." in verse 4. Cowan repeated the second line of each verse in the corresponding chorus. She gave the song a simple, brisk, harmonious accompaniment which made it very catchy. Her song, published in 1903, quickly grew in popularity and Cowan's arrangement remains the best-known version of "Waltzing Matilda".
By 1971, the manuscript that Christina gave W. B. Bartlam had been passed down to his son, J. R. Y. Bartlam who lived in Tasmania. He told the Bulletin magazine that his daughter, Barbara Roulston, had the copy and that it could be examined at her home. Dedicated “Waltzing Matilda” researcher, Richard Magoffin, heard about this. He contacted Barbara Roulston. Barbara took the manuscript to the chief archivist at the Tasmanian State Library. He verified that the manuscript was written around 1895 by Christina Macpherson. This showed, beyond reasonable doubt, the Scottish origin of “Waltzing Matilda” and that the melody of Christina and Banjo’s “Waltzing Matilda” came from the music of James Barr’s “Thou Bonny Wood of Craigie Lee”. J R Y Bartlam sent a photograph of the manuscript to Magoffin and he included the photo in each of his books.
Alternative Theories.
Christina Macpherson’s manuscript did not become well known until late in the 1900’s. Until then it was widely thought that the melody of “Waltzing Matilda” came from the English song, “The Gay Fusilier” also known as “Marching through Rochester”. It was sung to the same tune as the Nathan/Cowan “Waltzing Matilda "published in 1902/03. This song describes an event as happening in Rochester, England, in the reign of Queen Anne, 1702 to 1714. Many believed that the song was written at that time.
<poem>Verse: A gay fusilier was marching down through Rochester
Bound for the wars in the low country,
And he cried as he tramped through the drear streets of Rochester,
Who'll be a sojer for Marlboro with me?</poem>
<poem>Chorus: Who'll be a sojer, Who'll be a sojer,
Who'll be a sojer for Marlboro with me?
And he cried as he tramped through the drear streets of Rochester,
Who'll be a sojer for Marlboro with me?</poem>
There is, however, no written evidence that "The Gay Fusilier" existed before 1900. English folklore authority, Ralph Vaughan Williams, said that the existence of the song in the early 1700's was very doubtful because its language was not appropriate to that time.The song has the pattern (musical form) popular American, which suggests a much later origin.
In his 1987 book, Richard Magoffin suggested that the music of “Waltzing Matilda” may have originally come from an Irish Jig, “Go to the Devil and Shake Yourself”, which was probably composed by Irishman, John Field, and which began to appear in print about 1797. In a letter to Magoffin, the City Librarian of Dublin Library said that he thought he could detect a slight resemblance in it to “Waltzing Matilda”. This is very flimsy evidence. Instead of checking the quality of the evidence, Magoffin went on to say that it would be nice to think that the Irish have played a part in providing Australia with her song.
Until the internet arrived, it was extremely difficult for researchers to access old music. Now, with YouTube and digital collections of old music, it is a quick and simple task. An audio file of “Go to the Devil and Shake Yourself”can be heard, and the sheet music can be viewed, at the above links and numerous other websites. It is now obvious to anyone that there is not the slightest resemblance between it and “Waltzing Matilda”.
Lyrics.
There are no "official" words to "Waltzing Matilda", and slight differences can be found in the sources. This version uses the famous "You'll never catch me alive said he" variation introduced by the Billy Tea company. Paterson's original words use 'drowning', which the tea company felt was too negative.
<poem>
Once a jolly swagman camped by a billabong
Under the shade of a coolibah tree,
And he sang as he watched and waited 'til his billy boiled
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me"
Waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me"
And he sang as he watched and waited 'til his billy boiled,
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me".
Down came a jumbuck to drink at that billabong,
Up jumped the swagman and grabbed him with glee,
And he sang as he shoved that jumbuck in his tucker bag,
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me".
Waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me"
And he sang as he shoved that jumbuck in his tucker bag,
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me".
Up rode the squatter, mounted on his thoroughbred,
Down came the troopers, one, two, three,
"Where's that jolly jumbuck you've got in your tucker bag?"
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me".
Waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me"
"Where's that jolly jumbuck you've got in your tucker bag?",
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me".
Up jumped the swagman and sprang into the billabong,
"You'll never catch me alive", said he,
And his ghost may be heard as you pass by that billabong,
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me".
Waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me"
And his ghost may be heard as you pass by that billabong,
"You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me."
"Oh, You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me."
</poem>
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Henri Toulouse-Lautrec
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198309
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Turandot (Puccini)
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198310
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Sephiroth
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198316
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314522
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198316
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Wolfgang Paul
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Wolfgang Paul (; 10 August 1913 – 7 December 1993) was a German professor awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1989.
Biography.
Paul was born on August 10 of 1913 in the German city of Lorenzkirch, Saxony. When he was young, his family moved to Munich, where his father taught pharmaceutical chemistry at the University of Munich. In 1932, he began his studies of physics at the Superior School in Munich, and soon moved to the 1934 at the headquarters of Berlin, getting his doctorate in 1939.
In 1944, he began his teaching at the University of Göttingen and 1952 was hired at the University of Bonn as director of its Institute of Experimental Physics, a position he kept until his death.
Wolfgang Paul died December 7 of 1993 at his residence in Bonn.
Scientific research.
During WWII he investigated the separation of isotopes, which is necessary to produce material to make nuclear fission for use in nuclear weapons.
He started his research into ions, developing the so-called ion trap.
For this discovery, in 1989 he was awarded half of the Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with Hans G. Dehmelt.
Between 1965 and 1967, he was appointed Director of the Division of Nuclear Physics at CERN.
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RFK
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Paul Joseph Goebbels
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Ernst Rohm
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198347
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Babe (film)
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198359
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8260618
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198359
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Rod Barajas
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Rodrigo "Rod" Richard Barajas (born September 5, 1975) is a former professional baseball player. He played in Major League Baseball for the Arizona Diamondbacks, Texas Rangers, Philadelphia Phillies, Toronto Blue Jays, New York Mets, Los Angeles Dodgers and Pittsburgh Pirates. Barajas has also played with the Mexico national baseball team.
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198360
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1338660
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198360
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Norway, Maine
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Norway is a town in Oxford County, Maine, United States. It is home to Lake Pennesseewassee, a recreation area.
Norway was once called the "Snowshoe Capital of the World" because of the many snowshoes made here.
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198364
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8519164
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198364
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Westbrook, Maine
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Westbrook is a city in the U.S. state of Maine.
Professional wrestler Scott Garland better known by his ring name, "Scotty 2 Hotty" was born in Westbrook.
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198365
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48456
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198365
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John Rocker
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John Loy Rocker (born October 17, 1974) is a retired Major League Baseball pitcher. He played for the Atlanta Braves, Cleveland Indians, Texas Rangers, and Tampa Bay Devil Rays.
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888555
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198367
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Belkin
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Belkin is a company that makes computer routers.
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198369
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86802
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198369
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Dell Curry
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Wardell Stephen "Dell" Curry (born June 25, 1964) is a retired American professional basketball player. He played at the shooting guard and the small forward positions. He went to school at Virginia Tech. He then played in the National Basketball Association from 1986 until 2002.
Curry was selected 15th overall by the Utah Jazz in the 1986 NBA Draft. He also played for the Cleveland Cavaliers, Milwaukee Bucks, Charlotte Hornets, and Toronto Raptors.
In 2004, he was added into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame.
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293183
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198371
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Franklin (disambiguation)
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Franklin most often means Benjamin Franklin, one of the people who started America. Other things it can refer to:
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198395
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22027
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198395
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Adriano Gerlin
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Adriano Gerlin da Silva (born 20 September 1974) is a former Brazilian football player.
Club career statistics.
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198396
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Andrzej Kubica
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Andrzej Kubica (born 7 July 1972) is a former Polish football player.
Club career statistics.
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48||11
25||9
13||2
129||54
45||17
329||107
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86802
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198397
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Fernando Picun
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Fernando Picun (born 14 February 1972) is a Uruguayan former professional football player. He has played for Uruguay national team.
Club career statistics.
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198401
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1045644
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198401
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Campeonato Brasileiro Série B
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Campeonato Brasileiro Série B is a football league which is second division in Brazil.
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198404
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1212209
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198404
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Bangu Atlético Clube
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Bangu A.C. is a football club which plays in Brazil.
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198405
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693482
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198405
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Esporte Clube Vitória
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Esporte Clube Vitória, usually known simply as Vitória, is a Brazilian football team from Salvador in Bahia, founded on May 13, 1899. The team plays in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série B and the Campeonato Baiano.
History.
The club was founded on May 13, 1899, by the brothers Artur and Artêmio Valente, along with seventeen other young fellows. On the start, the Vitória was a cricket club, named Club de Cricket Victoria, because all of them lived at the Vitória neighborhood, in Salvador.
In 1902, Victory started to have football as a sport, as well as athletics, swimming and rowing. Still in that year, the club changed its name to Sport Club Victória, as cricket was no longer the only sport practiced, and changed its colors to red and black at the suggestion of Mr. Cesar Godinho Spínola, who came from Rio de Janeiro, who proposed creation of the nautical section in the club.
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198406
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22027
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198406
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Rubén Olivera
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Rubén Olivera (born 4 May 1983) is an Uruguayan football player. He has played for the Uruguayan national team.
Club career statistics.
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International career statistics.
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198407
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1071738
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198407
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Mike Havenaar
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is a Japanese football player. He played for the Japan national team. His father Dido Havenaar and brother Nikki Havenaar are also footballers.
Biography.
Havenaar was born in Hiroshima on May 20, 1987. He joined J1 League club Yokohama F. Marinos in 2006. He also played for Avispa Fukuoka (2008), Sagan Tosu (2009) and Ventforet Kofu (2010-2011). At Kofu, he became a top scorer with 20 goals in 2010 J2 League and was selected Best Eleven in 2011 J1 League. In January 2012, he moved to Dutch Eredivisie club Vitesse. He played 78 matches and scored 26 goals in 3 seasons. From summer 2014, he played for Córdoba (2014), HJK Helsinki (2015) and Den Haag (2015-2017). In July 2017, he returned to Japan and joined Vissel Kobe. However he could not play many matches and moved to Vegalta Sendai in July 2018. In 2019, he moved to Thai League 1 club Bangkok United. In 2020, he returned to Japan and joined Ventforet Kofu and played 1 season.
In 2007, Havenaar was selected the Japan U-20 national team for 2007 U-20 World Cup. In 2011, he was selected the Japan national team for 2014 World Cup qualification. At this qualification, he debuted against North Korea on September 2. He also played at 2013 Confederations Cup. He played 18 games and scored 4 goals for Japan until 2016.
Statistics.
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138||51||9||3||colspan="2"|-||4||0||151||54
5||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||5||0
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351||121||17||7||22||6||8||1||398||135
!Total||18||4
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Red Bull Bragantino
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C.A. Bragantino is a football club which plays in Brazil.
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198412
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687567
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198412
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Associação Portuguesa de Desportos
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Associação Portuguesa de Desportos is a football club which plays in Brazil.
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198413
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18539
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198413
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Associação Desportiva São Caetano
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A.D. São Caetano is a football club which plays in Brazil.
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198414
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22027
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198414
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Jorginho (footballer, born 1985)
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Jorge Pereira da Silva (born 4 December 1985) is a Brazilian football player.
Club career statistics.
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Ryosuke Kijima
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Ryosuke Kijima (born 29 May 1979) is a Japanese former football player. He plays for Roasso Kumamoto. His younger brother Tetsuya is also a footballer.
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198417
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586
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198417
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Željko Milinovič
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Željko Milinovič (born 12 October 1969) is a former Slovenian football player. He has played for Slovenia national team.
Honours.
Olimpija
Maribor
LASK
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198425
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9679921
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198425
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Days of Thunder
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Days of Thunder is a 1990 American auto racing movie that was produced by Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer and was directed by Tony Scott. Days of Thunder was released on June 27, 1990 in North America. The movie received mixed reviews with a 40% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 60 out of 100 from Metacritic. The movie had two video games based on it.
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198427
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464306
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198427
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Robber
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A robber is a person who steals or takes something belonging to someone else without their consent. Robbers use force or threats to take what they want from others. A bank robber is someone who steals money from a bank. When the robber takes something, that is called a robbery. One of the most famous robbery during our day's was the Great Train Robbery which occurred in England, it was an armed robbery. Armed robbery means that the robber use a weapon such as a gun in the robbery. Many robbers have become infamous, such as Jesse James who was famous in America and Ben Hall from Australia. Australian robbers used to be called bushrangers.
The word "rob" comes from a Latin word, "deraubare". This word came from a German word "raub" which means clothes. Before clothes were made in factories and became cheap, robbers often took a person's clothes.
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198465
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440188
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198465
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1965 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1965 Atlantic hurricane season was the first hurricane season to have the bounds from June 1, 1965 to November 30, 1965. The 1965 Atlantic hurricane season did not have very many storms. A famous hurricane from this season would be Hurricane Betsy. Hurricane Betsy was the first hurricane to cause a billion dollors or more in damage, without being changed to the value of the dollar today.
Storm names.
This is a list of all the names set aside for use in the 1965 Atlantic hurricane season. The names not used are in .
Retirement.
After the season Betsy and Carol were retired. Carol was retired not because of the 1965 storm but because of the 1954 storm. Blanche and Camille were used instead of Betsy and Carol in 1969.
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198470
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1331382
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198470
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1964 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 1964 Atlantic hurricane season was the last hurricane season to last from June 15, 1964 to November 15, 1964. A tropical storm did form before June 15, however. This season was just short of normal. All hurricanes of the 1964 Atlantic hurricane season became major hurricanes (category 3+). Famous hurricanes from this season were: Hurricane Cleo, Dora, and Hilda.
Storm names.
The following names were used for named storms (tropical storms and hurricanes) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1964. A storm was named Isbell for the first time in 1964. Names that were not assigned are marked in .
Retirement.
After the season the names Cleo, Dora, and Hilda were retired. Candy, Dolly, and Hannah were used in 1968 instead of Cleo, Dora, and Hilda.
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198483
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Carnegie Hall Tower
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Carnegie Hall Tower is a 60-story skyscraper on 57th Street in New York City. The tower is 231 meters (757 ft) tall and was completed in 1991.
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198491
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Ulysses Grant
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198503
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62069
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198503
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Marshall Bruce Mathers III
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198504
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114482
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198504
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Northern Areas
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198517
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62069
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198517
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US republican party
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198522
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62069
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198522
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GTA IV
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198596
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456781
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198596
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Josep Samitier
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Josep Samitier (2 February 1902 – 4 May 1972) was a Spanish professional football player. He played for the Spain national team.
Club career statistics.
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36||24
International career statistics.
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198597
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1035196
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198597
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László Kubala
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László Kubala (10 June 1927 – 17 May 2002) was a Slovak-Hungarian-Spanish football player. He has played for Czechoslovakia national team, Hungary national team and Spain national team.
Club career statistics.
78||45
33||14
194||126
1||0
38||10
344||195
International career statistics.
!Total||6||4
!Total||3||0
!Total||19||11
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198598
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1035196
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198598
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Ricardo Zamora
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Ricardo Zamora (21 January 1901 – 15 September 1978) is a former Spanish football player. He has played for Spain national team.
Club career statistics.
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123||0
International career statistics.
!Total||46||0
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198602
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1035196
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198602
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Morgan De Sanctis
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Morgan De Sanctis (born 26 March 1977) is an Italian football player. He plays for Napoli.
Club career statistics.
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8||0
31||0
310||0
International career statistics.
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198626
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9533159
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198626
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Hips Don't Lie
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Hips Don't Lie is a 2006 Latin pop hit song by Colombian singer Shakira and Wyclef Jean. It came out in her album "Oral Fixation Vol. 2". The song has Latin style drums and Wyclef's rap. The song became Number 1 in many countries. It samples the song "Amores Como El Nuestro" by Jerry Rivera.
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198627
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440188
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198627
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She Wolf (song)
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She Wolf is a 2009 song by Shakira from her album "She Wolf". There is also a Spanish version of the song titled Loba.
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198628
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22027
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198628
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She Wolf (album)
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10043562
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198636
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Federation of Australia
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The federation of Australia was the way that the six separate British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia joined together to become one country. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, on 1 January 1901, the colonies became states of the Commonwealth of Australia.
People had been trying to get the colonies to join together in a federation of Australia during the 1850s and 1860s. In the 1890s, a number of big meetings, called conventions, were held to write a constitution for Australia. Sir Henry Parkes, Premier of New South Wales, was the main person supporting this idea. Fiji and New Zealand were going to be part of the federation but decided not to join the federation.
As soon as the Federation happened, Sir Edmund Barton was put in charge as Prime Minister of Australia until the first Australian elections were held. Barton won the election and continued to be the Prime Minister.
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