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There are two distinct claims being made here: 1. that Huh? is universal, and 2. that Huh? is a word. | 1clean |
In support of the first claim, we show that the similarities in form and function of an interjection with the specific function of repair initiation are very much greater across languages than chance coincidence would admit. | 1clean |
In support of the second claim, we show that Huh? meets the criteria of a word in the sense of being a conventional lexical sign which must be learnt. | 1clean |
Thus, in contrast to what has been presumed for interjections in general [7], [8] and for huh? in particular [9], [10], we find that this item is linguistic in nature rather than being a mere grunt or non-lexical sound. | 1clean |
We show that the form is locally calibrated in ways that show it fitting within different language systems. | 1clean |
Finally, we address the question of why all languages should have such a word and why its form should be so similar across languages. | 1clean |
We observe that this item fulfils a crucial need shared by all languages – the efficient signalling of problems of hearing and understanding – and we propose that its form is constrained by selective pressures in a conversational environment that is essentially the same in all languages. | 1clean |
After speaker G makes a statement, speaker E utters the interjection huh?. | 1clean |
Extracts 2 and 3 show structurally identical sequences in two other languages: Siwu, a Kwa language spoken in Ghana, and Lao, a Tai-Kadai language spoken in Laos. | 1clean |
These examples show that it is possible to identify the same conversational structure in unrelated languages. | 1clean |
Essentially, this method gives us a natural control over conversational data, making possible systematic comparison across languages [12], [13]. | 1clean |
Sequences of other-initiated repair have been identified in every spoken language investigated so far [14], [15], and as the examples show, the interjection in the pivotal turn can be remarkably similar. | 1clean |
This leads to the question driving our study: | 1clean |
By compiling data from published literature we found that in thirty-one languages around the world, the interjection for other-initiated repair appears to be strongly similar (Figure 1). | 1clean |
Therefore we collected data from recordings of naturally occurring informal conversations in a sample of 10 languages from 5 continents, varying fundamentally in terms of phonology, word structure, and grammar (languages 1–10 in Figure 1). | 1clean |
For optimal comparability, we studied the exact same conversational environment across languages: that of other-initiated repair (OIR), in which one participant produces a turn at talk, the other then signals some trouble with this turn, and finally the first produces a next turn which aims to solve the trouble, usuall... | 1clean |
Such alternative (and probably derived) uses provide insight in possible paths of semantic change, but we exclude them here to make sure we are comparing like with like. | 1clean |
We hypothesized that the children, who were over the age of six at the time of collection, would have adult-like SI interpretations. | 1clean |
We expected that the use of a training session and then the format of the question would guide participants towards evaluating pragmatic felicity over providing truth value judgments, and would result in adult-like interpretations. | 1clean |
Further, we posited that if our initial hypothesis was not supported, and in fact there was some non-adult-like performance, that there would be significant variability among the conditions, with cardinal numbers having the highest performance and some the weakest. | 1clean |
It serves as a reminder of the work that needs to be completed for the cross-linguistic study of SI in particular and acquisition more generally. | 1clean |
Future studies need to include more participants and more items to increase power. | 1clean |
Related cross-cultural studies have resulted in insufficient statistical power, but interesting trends (e.g., Nedwick, 2014). | 1clean |
Previous studies in this region of sub-Saharan Africa have found evidence of cultural differences in testing behavior (Hein, Reich, Marks, Thuma, & Grigorenko, 2016). | 1clean |
More specifically, they answered “yes” that the puppet described the pictures well. | 1clean |
Albeit limited, these results provide valuable insight into SI interpretation by Chitonga-speaking children and demonstrate that pragmatic inference acquisition likely follows the order identified in previous research, but appears to be completed at a later age in this language. | 1clean |
In fact, someone ’s productivity, particularly at night, depends on the presence of a good lighting and it seems that it is a daily necessity. | 1clean |
Lighting takes a large part on the consumption of household electrical energy particularly in the Philippines. | 1clean |
There are different type of lighting bulbs used at home can affect the overall lighting consumption. | 1clean |
In response to the said problem, this project study gives solution to the problem of the society concerning environment, health and safety as well energy conservation, by developing a segmented compact light-emitting diode (SCLED) bulb from busted CFL that are efficient, economical, and does not contain toxic chemicals... | 1clean |
Based on the results of the 2011 Household Energy Consumption Survey (HECS), electricity remains as the most common source of energy used by households particularly in the Philippines. | 1clean |
About 87 percent of 21.0 million households used electricity from March to August 2011. | 1clean |
As of 2016, the demand for electricity in the residential is leading among the different sectors. | 1clean |
Now that the world is in the age where lighting seems to be a daily necessity, typical homes as shown in figure 1, consume nearly 27 percent of the energy used today: making lighting as the major source of electricity consumption. | 1clean |
Lighting plays a large part on the consumption of household electrical energy; it consumes about 18% of the total generated electricity of total energy consumption in residential sectors as shown in figure 2 [2]. | 1clean |
The use of correct and appropriate type of light bulb improves the efficiency of energy usage. | 1clean |
There are three general types of lighting that are widely used in the household nowadays: the (light-emitting diode) LED bulb, (compact fluorescent light) CFL bulb and the incandescent bulb. | 1clean |
Unfortunately, most of the time, people in the residential end up choosing a lamp based on it is price rather than its efficiency and this cause us to pay for our lighting more than necessary. | 1clean |
This UV radiation interacts with the chemicals on the inside of the bulb to generate light. | 1clean |
In response to the aforementioned situation where the three types of lights are compared by their efficiency and effectiveness as light sources, the proponents conducted this study. | 1clean |
Since the CFLs are the most commonly used light bulbs in the residential and has a great compatibility to LED in terms of design and materials, the proponents conducted a study about innovating and recycling CFL into a more efficient and environment friendly LED light bulb. | 1clean |
In this article, we propose the definition of specific mutation operators for testing Geographic Information Systems. | 1clean |
We describe the process for applying the operators and generating mutants, and present a case study where these mutation operators are applied to two real-world applications. | 1clean |
In the state of the art, we have found mutation operators, both general purpose and specific to different technologies, languages and paradigms [2–9]. | 1clean |
In this article, we propose mutation operators specific to the domain of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) applications. | 1clean |
These operators reproduce programming errors that are litely to occur during the development of this type of applications. | 1clean |
In addition, we present the implementation of these operators and as proof of concept we apply these operators to two real-world GIS applications and we generate the mutants. | 1clean |
As a previous step to designing the mutation operators, we analyzed the main technologies used specifically in the development of GIS, and we identified typical errors a programmer can introduce during the development. | 1clean |
In order to apply these operators to a SUT, we rely on Java reflection and aspect-oriented programming. | 1clean |
Reflection allows us to obtain the list of classes and methods of the SUT, so the user can decide the methods to wish the operators will be applied. | 1clean |
Later, we capture information about the methods of the SUT to be mutated, together with the information of the mutation operators that were already defined. | 1clean |
From these data, we generate the mutation operator, in the form of on aspect, which will then be possible to interweave with the SUT which generates a mutant of the SUT. | 1clean |
Next, we describe the definition of two operators and two cases of application on real-world GIS applications. | 1clean |
It exchanges the coordinate system of a geometry, so it does not match the coordinate system that is being used in the user interface. | 1clean |
It simulates the error of not checking that the coordinate system is correct. | 1clean |
This application allows registering places of interest for the user. | 1clean |
It introduces errors in the processing of geometries, manipulating the result of the operations that carry out the verification of different topological restrictions between geometries, such as intersects, covers or overlap. | 1clean |
In this application, the result of the operation between two polygons has been affected. | 1clean |
This error causes the incorrect display of the resulting geometry that should be drawn in the user interface after the operation applied to the two initial geometries (Figure 2). | 1clean |
We have defined new operators specific to the GIS domain and a way to apply them to a SUT. | 1clean |
In addition, we have tested the operators defined in two GIS applications. | 1clean |
As future work, we intend to extend this approach to other domains, as well as to use the developed operators for the automatic improvement of sets of test cases. | 1clean |
When using the same materials and procedures as a previous study, replication studies serve to test the reliability of the previous study ’s findings. | 1clean |
When altering specific methodological or participant characteristics of a previous study, they serve to test generalizability of the earlier findings under different conditions. | 1clean |
Beyond these calls, efforts to actively promote and facilitate replication studies have also emerged. | 1clean |
The Open Science Framework (https://osf.io), also established in 2011, provides a web infrastructure to facilitate collaboration and has been used for large replication efforts in psychology (e.g., Open Science Collaboration, 2015), which continue to make waves in academia (Laws, 2016; Lindsay, 2015; Martin & Clarke, 2... | 1clean |
In some fields, a flourishing metascience, that is, the scientific study of science (see Munafò et al., 2017), has included syntheses assessing the quantity and nature of replication efforts, for example, in education (Makel & Plucker, 2014 and in psychology (Makel et al., 2012). | 1clean |
The severe concerns underpinning the alleged crisis have several dimensions relating to: (a) the (small) amount of published replication research; (b) the (poor) quality of replication research; and (c) the (lack of) reproducibility, which refers to the extent to which findings can (not) be reproduced in replication at... | 1clean |
These concerns speak to the very core of science, raising fundamental questions about the validity and reliability of our work. | 1clean |
Indeed, some commentators have called replication the “gold standard” of research evidence (Jasny, Chin, Chong, & Vignieri, 2011, p. 1225) and a “linchpin of the scientific process” (Let ’s replicate, 2006, p. 330). | 1clean |
However, a perceived lack of prestige, excitement, and originality of replication plagues L2 research (Porte, 2012), as it does other disciplines (Berez-Kroeker et al., 2017; Branco, Cohen, Vossen, Ide, & Calzolari, 2017; Chambers, 2017; Schmidt, 2009), and these perceptions are thought to have caused, at least in part... | 1clean |
However, a systematic metascience on replication research has not yet been established in the field of L2 research, leaving a poor understanding of the actual number and nature of replication studies that have been published. | 1clean |
The current study begins to address this gap through narrative and systematic reviews. | 1clean |
The narrative review considers challenges in replication research and is largely informed by commentaries and metascience from psychology, given that the cognitive and social subdomains of psychology are highly influential in L2 research, and also from education, another key sister discipline. | 1clean |
To gain insight into these issues in the context of L2 research, the systematic review provides a synthesis of L2 studies in journal articles that self-labeled as replications. | 1clean |
Finally, we offer further discussion and 16 recommendations for future replication work that draw on our narrative and systematic reviews and on our experience of carrying out multisite (Morgan-Short et al., 2018) 1 and single site (Faretta-Stutenberg & Morgan-Short, 2011; Marsden, Williams, & Liu, 2013; McManus & Mars... | 1clean |
We start from the widely agreed premise that testing the reproducibility of findings should have an essential role in the testing and refinement of theory, at least for hypothesis-testing epistemologies that seek to ascertain generalizability and for other epistemologies in which constructs are deemed to be definable a... | 1clean |
In the past decade, with the successful launch of the soil moisture and ocean salinity (SMOS) satellite by the European Space Agency (ESA) [3], the Aquarius/SAC-D satellite [4], and the soil moisture active passive (SMAP) satellite [5,6] by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), global sea surface sa... | 1clean |
The early concept of remote sensing of SSS has been demonstrated in the late 1970s with observations by Skylab [7] and two airborne L-band radiometry experiments [8,9]. | 1clean |
At the end of 1990, two airborne microwave interferometers, the electronically scanned thinned array radiometer (ESTAR) and the scanning low-frequency microwave radiometer (SLFMR), successfully produced SSS maps in coastal areas in agreement with in-situ measurements with an accuracy of about 1 psu. | 1clean |
Thus, remote sensing of SSS requires a highly accurate retrieval model. | 1clean |
Many rough surface emission models have also been developed based on the theoretical and empirical methods. | 1clean |
As the foam effect is significant at high wind speed conditions (above a threshold of 12 m/s) due to strong wave breaking, it has been corrected by numerous models; for example, the semi-empirical models [27,28] and radiative transfer equation (RTE) based models [29,30], which were developed to estimate the foam covere... | 1clean |
For example, the TSM originally proposed to estimate brightness temperature at higher frequencies, uses the sea surface wave spectrum by multiplying a factor of 2. | 1clean |
In addition, the widely used empirical models decouple the wind effect from SSS and SST effects, which means that the surface emission is due to a perfectly flat sea surface and the wind-roughened sea surface. | 1clean |
Thus, the compatibility of these models in coastal area of China needs to be assessed and tested in order to achieve higher accuracies of SSS from the space-borne observations. | 1clean |
We have shown that the addition of an artificial tail during ontogeny can produce postural and locomotory changes in chickens, consistent with the posture and kinematics inferred for non-avian dinosaurs [5], [6], [11]. | 1clean |
The posterior displacement of the CoM produced a more vertically oriented femur during standing (femur in experimental animals was 40% more vertical than control subjects), and increased femoral retraction and decreased knee flexion during walking. | 1clean |
These results indicate a shift from the standard bird, knee-driven bipedal locomotion to a more hip-driven locomotion, typical of crocodilians (the only other extant archosaur group), mammals, and hypothetically, bipedal non-avian dinosaurs. | 1clean |
In fact, the control-weight subjects showed a more horizontally oriented femur during walking with respect to the control group, similar to that observed in Carrano and Biewener's experimental subjects [7]. | 1clean |
Therefore, we conclude that the location of the CoM can be a key factor in defining limb posture and kinematics. | 1clean |
Our data show that for a given CFL mass, femoral retraction can be greatly affected by the location of the CoM and limb postures. | 1clean |
The orientation of each limb element to the ground reaction force (GRF) indicates the relative contribution of axial and bending forces to external bone loading: a bone perpendicular to the GRF is expected experience greater bending forces than one parallel to the GRF. | 1clean |
In this framework, scaling differences in femoral geometry between non-avian theropods and birds have been suggested to be the result of postural differences between these groups [6], [23]. | 1clean |
Birds have relatively shorter, stouter femora than non-avian theropods, presumed to be associated with more horizontal orientation. | 1clean |
Experimental manipulations of femoral orientation in chickens suggest that torsional loads increase as the femur becomes more horizontal [7] supporting the idea that postural differences could be reflected in differences in limb cross-sectional geometry. | 1clean |
To test if the postural differences observed in this study produced changes in limb morphology, we measured the length and mid-shaft cross-sectional properties of the femur in all our individuals. | 1clean |
However, we found no differences in cross-sectional femoral geometry among groups. | 1clean |
Interestingly, femur length tended to be greater in the experimental group than in both the control-weight and the control group (by 4 and 7%, respectively), although not signifcant. | 1clean |
We suggest that the different outcomes are due to the distinct rearing and exercising conditions used in each study, in addition to the different artificial tails used. | 1clean |
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