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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines. OCR for page 467 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH 13 Conclusions and Recommendations: An Agenda for the Next Decade When President Roosevelt announced in 1937 that “one third of our nation are ill housed, ill clad, ill nourished,” our country was galvanized into action. Yet today, when careful population studies tell us that as many as one third of American adults will suffer a diagnosable mental disorder sometime in their life and that 20 percent have a mental disorder at any given time, there is little alarm. The Institute of Medicine's Committee on Prevention of Mental Disorders believes that strong action is warranted, and with this report it calls on the nation to mount a significant program to prevent mental disorders. Although research on the causes and treatment of mental disorders remains vitally important—and indeed major advances are leading to better lives for increasing numbers of people—much greater effort than ever before needs to be directed to prevention. Public health experience has shown that when a critical mass of knowledge regarding a specific health problem accumulates and a core group of expert researchers have been identified, the time is ripe for launching a larger, coordinated research and training endeavor. The committee believes that such a moment has arrived for the field of mental health. Opportunities now exist to effectively exploit existing knowledge to launch a promising research agenda on the prevention of mental disorders. Therefore the committee strongly recommends that an enhanced research agenda to prevent mental disorders be initiated and supported across all relevant federal agencies, including, but not limited to, the Departments of Health and Human Services, Education, Justice, Labor, Defense, and OCR for page 468 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH Housing and Urban Development, as well as state governments, universities, and private foundations. This agenda should facilitate development in three major areas: Building the infrastructure to coordinate research and service programs and to train and support new investigators. Expanding the knowledge base for preventive interventions. Conducting well-evaluated preventive interventions. As previously stated, the committee's recommendations for funding of rigorous preventive intervention research are based on its best estimates of current efforts and its judgment of needed resources to create a robust federal research agenda. The committee finds the need for prevention of mental disorders so great and the current opportunities for success so abundant that it recommends an increased investment across all federal agencies over the next five years (1995 through 1999) to facilitate the development of these three major areas of the research agenda. It recommends increased support of $50.5 million per year for the next two years, $53 million in year three, and $61 million per year in years four and five. These are modest increases considering the magnitude of the problem of mental illness in this country, and Congress may decide that an even greater investment is warranted. Funding for the second five years should be recommended by a new coordinating body, such as a national scientific council on the prevention of mental disorders. The amount appropriated in year six should be no less than the amount of support in FY 1999. On the basis of positive results in the first five years, a considerably larger investment could be warranted during the second five years. The three major areas to be developed are recommended in conjunction with use of the definitions of interventions for mental disorders and of prevention research developed in this report. The term prevention is reserved for only those interventions that occur before the initial onset of a disorder. These preventive interventions can be further classified into universal, selective, and indicated types. The term prevention research refers only to preventive intervention research and is distinct from research that builds a broad scientific base for preventive interventions. BUILDING AN ENHANCED INFRASTRUCTURE FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH Preventive intervention research for mental disorders cannot thrive without providing for its infrastructure. Two areas are particularly important for moving ahead—coordination and research training. OCR for page 469 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH The Coordination Role and Structure Coordination among federal agencies is needed for four reasons: (1) variation in the application of definitions has made it virtually impossible to assess the current activities and expenditures in preventive intervention research; (2) duplication of research activities and the lack of piggybacking of smaller projects onto larger ones contribute to waste of dollars and time, and, at the same time, gaps in research go undetected; (3) agencies conduct research or provide interventions for mental disorders (including addictions), educational disabilities, criminal behavior, and physical disorders as though these were separate conditions, whereas, more often than not, coexisting disorders or problems occur; and (4) agencies have different strengths; for example, some are better at applying rigorous research methodologies to intervention programs, whereas others are better at reaching out into communities and forging alliances. In arriving at its recommendations about coordination, the committee reviewed various alternatives. The decisions to be made include (1) how best to coordinate the various relevant activities, (2) where the coordination function should reside within the federal government, and (3) staffing and funding issues. The structure and function of the coordination mechanism are inextricably intertwined, so decisions 1 and 2 above cannot be readily separated. Staff and funding should be attached to the coordination mechanism wherever it is located. Four alternatives were considered regarding where the coordination function should reside. Although the committee does express a preference for coordination at the highest possible level, it believes that establishing a successful coordination mechanism across federal departments is more important than the details of where it is housed. Initially, the committee considered the model of putting a coordination role in one agency, such as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) or the National Institutes of Health's (NIH) Office of Disease Prevention. Locating the coordination role in a single agency is a natural way to keep coordination close to the science, because the personnel in NIMH or the director's office at NIH are likely to be more closely connected to the scientific network than those higher in the government. Although single agencies have mediated coordination among other parts of the same department and even among branches of different executive departments in the past, the breadth and extent of the need for multiagency collaboration in this case make a single agency lead seem unrealistic. One possible exception is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which has a public health mandate for OCR for page 470 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH prevention activities and considerable experience in working collaboratively with federal, state, and local agencies. Coordination from an office within one department that serves as an umbrella over several relevant agencies is a second alternative. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health within the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) already contains an Office for Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. This office could be charged with forming a subcommittee or task group to focus specifically on the coordination of research aimed at preventing mental disorders and substance abuse. These preventive efforts share many features with other disorders already subject to coordination within this office, but the involvement of the criminal justice system, the educational system, child and spousal protective services, civilian and military family support services, and other nonmedical services necessarily encompasses activities in an even broader array of federal agencies. Many of these services are housed in entirely separate cabinet departments. The committee thus believes that coordination at the departmental level is preferable to coordination by a single agency (with the possible exception of CDC), but the nature of the problem may well necessitate a higher-level coordination mechanism. As a third alternative, the committee considered models developed within Congress, such as the Physician Payment Review Commission (PPRC) and the Prospective Payment Assessment Commission (PROPAC), for which appointments are made by an independent body—the Office of Technology Assessment. The question regarding these models is how well they would work in the prevention field, where many of the activities center on coordination of ongoing programs conducted within the executive branch. As a fourth alternative, the committee considered other successful models—the ongoing White House Conferences, various presidential commissions, and the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) —within the White House. OSTP was originally created by President Eisenhower to focus national attention on science; after being disbanded, it was reestablished by President Ford upon the recommendation of the National Academy of Sciences (1974). This model has three components: (1) an office having coordinating responsibility regarding national science policy, (2) an individual who serves as the President's science advisor, and (3) a council with expertise in a broad range of scientific matters. The advantages of having a coordination structure under the White House are that it is at a natural level for coordinating activities of different cabinet departments and that it places a premium on interagency cooperation, which the committee believes is an essential element. OCR for page 471 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH The committee thus leans toward the establishment of an overarching federal council, operated out of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy or another coordinating office within the Executive Office of the President, to coordinate preventive intervention research. It recognizes that research and services related to the prevention of mental disorders have high relevance to the many other agendas and priorities of Congress and the President. These include the lack of high-quality education, deteriorating cities, drug problems, the lack of housing, poverty, and the lack of universal health care. Mental disorders contribute to these problems and vice versa; therefore the ultimate solutions must be broad in scope. Adequate staffing and resources are essential to successful coordination of prevention research regardless of where it is located in the federal government. Moreover, the quality of leadership and extent of commitment among agencies are often far more important than the precise location of a coordination office. Leadership and commitment cannot be fully controlled, no matter how careful the plans may be. The competence of the particular individuals chosen to lead the effort and the politics of the day often determine whether interagency coordination is truly successful or merely an effort that consumes staff time and wastes increasingly scarce federal dollars. Despite these caveats, the committee nonetheless believes that a coordinating committee at the highest possible level with adequate staffing is necessary to weave together disparate federal activities in many different departments. The committee strongly recommends that a mechanism be created to coordinate research and services on prevention of mental disorders across the federal departments. One model for accomplishing this would be the establishment of a national scientific council on the prevention of mental disorders by Congress and/or the President. Such an overarching federal council could be operated out of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy or another coordinating office within the Executive Office of the President. This council should formulate policies regarding preventive intervention research, evaluation of prevention services, knowledge exchange, coordination of interagency research efforts, and training. Because prevention activities span different departments, the members of the council should be appointed after soliciting nominations from a wide constituency who are willing to use the definitions and rigorous methodological criteria developed in this report to foster policies that will reduce the onset of mental disorders and related problems. Members should include—as equal partners—ex-officio high-level representatives of relevant federal agencies, including but not limited to the Departments of OCR for page 472 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH Health and Human Services, Justice, Labor, Education, Defense, and Housing and Urban Development, as well as representatives from state agencies, private foundations, universities, and the public at large. A broad range of disciplines, including medicine (pediatrics, child psychiatry, psychiatry, primary care), psychology, nursing, social work, public health, sociology, and epidemiology, should be represented. The council should meet regularly to coordinate collaborative research across public and private agencies and should monitor the standards for rigorous methodological approaches to preventive intervention research. Terms on the council for nonfederal representatives should be limited. To provide ongoing executive leadership, the chair of the council should be appointed by the President. Other leadership positions could be selected from the nonfederal representatives. The council should have its own paid staff, including a coordinator with staff, who operates out of an office of prevention of mental disorders. The office should oversee and coordinate the daily operations of preventive intervention activities in all areas that are related to mental health across the federal government. The staff of the office should be responsible to the council. The council should report regularly, at least once a year, to the Congress and the President. The committee also strongly recommends that Congress encourage the establishment of offices for prevention of mental disorders at the state level. The current number of such offices is small even though the states have resources for prevention available to them through the state block grants. A mechanism to encourage the development of state offices would be a requirement attached to the block grants, and as health care reform is developed other possibilities may occur. The functions of these offices should be similar to those of the proposed national scientific council on the prevention of mental disorders. States that do establish such offices should, as a group, elect representatives to the national scientific council. Agencies must be required to identify their funded programs for the prevention of mental disorders, separately accounting for universal, selective, and indicated preventive interventions, using the definitions developed in this report. Congress should ask for separate accounting of these different kinds of preventive interventions when agencies report on the activities they support. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) should consider including prevention researchers with broad mental health perspectives on their national advisory councils. The prevention research field must produce more researchers of international stature who can serve on such advisory councils. OCR for page 473 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH Mental health reimbursement from existing health insurance should be provided for preventive interventions that have proved effective under rigorous research standards such as those described in this report. Dissemination activities should receive much higher priority than they have in the past. Agencies should disseminate results of research trials as well as evaluations of preventive intervention service programs. Funding of research trials should be continued only when investigators demonstrate a good publication record (including theoretical formulations and data from research trials). Interagency research conferences should be encouraged. A federal clearinghouse on preventive interventions in the mental health field should be considered, either as part of the council's function or as a separately funded initiative. Research Training Training is an immediate and critical need in preventive intervention research. Congress and federal agencies should immediately take steps to develop and support the training of additional researchers who can develop new preventive intervention research trials as well as evaluate the effectiveness of current service projects. This training effort should include consortiums, seminars, fellowships, and research grants to attract existing researchers into prevention research, training programs for new investigators, and expansion of the training component of the specialized prevention research centers. Research training should be focused on two groups—mid-career scientists and postdoctoral students. Training for these groups should be developed simultaneously, but the expectation is that the training efforts for these groups will produce two waves of personnel. As an immediate strategy, training opportunities with adequate stipends should be developed to attract talented mid-career scientists from related fields, such as risk research, epidemiology, treatment effectiveness research, and research on prevention of physical illnesses, who seek to make the transition to research on prevention of mental disorders. This could be done through existing fellowships and career development awards and through the development of creative consortiums, seminars, and mentoring. All training should be tailored to the needs and schedules of these scientists. Such training could have a substantial impact on the number of personnel within three years if there is a simultaneous increase in the funds available for peer-reviewed research projects (RO1s). As a second strategy, training opportunities with sufficient stipends should be developed to attract talented postdoctoral-level trainees to preventive intervention research. Much more effort should be made to OCR for page 474 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH attract trainees from a wide range of disciplines, including psychiatry, pediatrics, social work, nursing, public health, epidemiology, neuroscience, anthropology, and sociology, as well as psychology, which dominates the field today. If efforts to boost doctoral training begin concurrently with mid-career training, we might expect to see the benefits of an increased pool of researchers capable of securing their own research grants by year five of a 10-year plan. The number of institutional training programs focusing on preventive intervention research should be increased from 5 to 12 over the next five years, including one at every specialized prevention research center, known at NIMH as Preventive Intervention Research Centers (PIRCs), that is productive. Training of mid-career scientists and postdoctoral students should occur within every specialized prevention research center. To ensure that this happens, funding of specialized prevention research centers should be continued only when they demonstrate good track records in the production of published research and in the training of researchers capable of procuring their own research grants. In addition to the specialized prevention research centers, research training should be supported by federal agencies, schools of public health, and schools traditionally linked to service, such as social work, education, nursing, and medicine. Support for faculty within institutional training programs should be increased. Such support should increase the capacity of the faculty, program, and university to train preventive intervention researchers. A major effort should be made to encourage the prevention research training of minorities. Support should be offered to minority mental health research centers and other centers that focus on specific populations, such as low-income groups, the elderly, and minority groups. This would add more researchers to the field, but even more importantly, they would be researchers who specialize in populations with special needs. The proposed national scientific council on the prevention of mental disorders should reevaluate the training needs for preventive intervention research after the first five years. At that point the emphasis on mid-career scientists might be able to be decreased. If so, support for predoctoral training could be increased. An emphasis on postdoctoral training should be consistently high throughout the decade. Funding Coordination and training are the two most immediate and important needs in preventive intervention research on mental disorders (see OCR for page 475 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH TABLE 13.1 Recommendations for Federal Government Support Above 1993 Level of Support (dollars in millions) 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Infrastructure Council/office/dissemination 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Training 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 Knowledge Base Research Risk and protective factor research (biological/psychosocial interaction) 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 Child epidemiological study 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 Population studies 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 Mental health promotion study 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 Prevention Research Preventive intervention research projects 20.0 20.0 20.0 25.0 25.0 Preventive intervention research centers 2.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 8.0 Total Budget 50.5 50.5 53.0 61.0 61.0 NOTE: Figures are based on 1993 dollar amounts and are not adjusted for inflation. These recommendations for support are based on the committee 's best estimates of current efforts and its judgment of needed resources to create a robust preventive intervention research agenda for mental disorders across the federal government. Table 13.1). The national scientific council on the prevention of mental disorders and the office of prevention of mental disorders should have a combined budget of $1 million per year for five years. Dissemination activities should be budgeted at $1 million per year for five years. Support for training should be budgeted at $12 million above the current level for year one, and this level of funding should be maintained for each of the next four years. In the first few years, these researchers are needed for evaluating current prevention service projects; gradually, they also will be conducting original preventive intervention research projects. Stipends for mid-career scientists should be in the $60,000 to $120,000 range, plus travel expenses. Stipends for postdoctoral trainees should be in the $30,000 to $60,000 range, plus travel expenses. EXPANDING THE KNOWLEDGE BASE The committee believes, based on the review of literature for this report, that a viable research agenda for prevention of mental disorders rests on a firm stratum of health research in other fields. This knowledge base includes basic and applied research in the core sciences that is aimed at the causes and prevention of mental disorders. Included in this OCR for page 476 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH knowledge base are neurosciences, genetics, epidemiology, psychiatry, behavioral sciences (including developmental psychopathology), and risk research. It also includes evidence and lessons from other fields of research, such as prevention of physical illness and treatment of mental disorders. Research to expand the knowledge base for preventive interventions should be continued. Knowledge base research should continue to be supported for all five disorders reviewed in this report, in addition to other mental disorders. Basic research is essential to the understanding of mental disorders. New funds for the development of other knowledge base areas and for preventive intervention research should not be taken from funds currently used to support basic science. The committee also recommends that support be increased for the three specific knowledge base areas outlined below. Support of basic research will ensure the quality and continuity of the existing research effort and attract new investigators to those fields. Support for research on potentially modifiable biological and psychosocial risk and protective factors for the onset of mental disorders should be increased. Priority should be given to research, regardless of the type of mental disorder, that illuminates the interaction of potentially modifiable biological and psychosocial risk and protective factors, rather than restricting the research to either biological or psychosocial factors. NIMH should support a series of prospective studies on well-defined general populations under the age of 18 to provide initial benchmark estimates of the prevalence and incidence of mental disorders and problem behaviors in this age group. These epidemiological investigations should be oriented toward diagnosis but also should record a range of symptomatology, so that future changes in the diagnostic system, or developmental changes in individuals, do not preclude understanding of the development of psychopathology throughout this age range and into adult life. These prospective studies also should be oriented toward identification of modifiable risk factors in this age group with the explicit goal of recommending modifiable targets for preventive interventions in the future. A population laboratory should be established with the capacity for conducting longitudinal studies over the entire life span in order to generate understanding as to how risk factors and developmental transitions combine to influence the development of psychopathology. The primary goal of this laboratory should be the enhancement of knowledge for prevention and the development of new knowledge for the implementation of preventive intervention trials. Special attention should be paid to developmental transitions, such as childhood to adolescence, adolescence to adult- OCR for page 477 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH hood, entry into marriage, and loss of a spouse; precursor signs and symptoms, prodromal periods, age periods just prior to when a specific mental disorder is most likely to occur; and the effects of race, ethnicity, and gender. Well-designed preventive intervention research trials might be conducted with these populations during the follow-up, as long as the goal of obtaining benchmark estimates of epidemiological data, especially in regard to developmental transitions, is not threatened. The population laboratory could be established as a branch in the intramural program of NIMH, although there are advantages to making it a multiagency project funded through agreements among DHHS agencies such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (SAMHSA), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), and Maternal and Child Health Bureau (MCHB), and departments such as the Departments of Justice, Education, and Defense. It could also be established as a unit outside the federal government funded through a special mechanism. An extragovernmental advisory panel, including experts in epidemiology, psychopathology, and prevention, should be formed to provide continuing scientific oversight to the population laboratory. Data from investigations of the population laboratory should be made available in anonymous form in a regular and timely fashion. Whenever possible, research proposals relevant to the knowledge base for preventive interventions should explicitly state this connection, such as identification of potentially modifiable risk factors and possible avenues for preventive interventions. This requirement should be applied across all federal agencies, and especially to research proposals funded from the additional support recommended by this committee. This clarification of relevance to prevention will help decrease confusion regarding definitions of prevention research and lead to findings relevant to preventive interventions. Treatment intervention research conducted under rigorous methodological standards that is directly relevant to preventive intervention research should continue to be supported—but not from the prevention research budget. The criteria for “direct relevance” should be reviewed by prevention researchers. Collaboration between treatment researchers and prevention researchers should be fostered. Principles from treatment research can and should be borrowed for use in prevention. Specialty areas in treatment research that are likely to yield payoffs for preventive intervention research include clinical psychopharmacology, cognitive-behavior therapy, and applied behavior analysis. OCR for page 478 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH Research should continue to be supported to determine which risk and protective factors are similar and which ones are different for treatment and prevention of a variety of mental disorders. Identifying potentially modifiable factors that are unique to first onset of a disorder increases possibilities for prevention. Research should be supported to study the effects of social environments, such as families, peers, neighborhoods, and communities, on the individual and the effects of context on the onset of various mental disorders. Researchers working on relevant research in the core sciences should be encouraged to participate in activities such as forums and colloquia with preventive intervention researchers. A comprehensive, descriptive inventory of the activities in which the public engages to promote psychological well-being and mental health should be developed and supported. This catalog of mental health promotion activities is expected to be substantial. Preliminary efforts should also be made to craft outcome criteria for these activities that could be used in rigorous evaluations down the road. Funding The committee recommends that $6.5 million be budgeted each year for the next five years for risk research on the complex interaction between biological and psychosocial risk and protective factors. This would augment the research base for those mental disorders furthest along the continuum in the understanding of etiology, emphasizing the identification of malleable risk factors that would augur well for further preventive intervention research. A child epidemiological study should be budgeted at a minimum of $2.5 million per year over the next five years, and a population laboratory should be budgeted at $5 million per year over the next five years. Over a two-year period, $1 million should be allocated to catalog mental health promotion activities and to craft outcome criteria. CONDUCTING WELL-EVALUATED INTERVENTIONS The knowledge base for some mental disorders is now advanced enough that preventive intervention research programs, targeted at risk factors for these disorders, can rest on sound conceptual and empirical foundations. Increased methodological rigor in all research trials, demonstration projects, and service program evaluations should be required. Wherever OCR for page 479 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH possible, the standards developed in this report, including hypothesis-driven randomized controlled trials and assessment of multiple outcome measures over time, should be instituted. The concept of risk reduction, including the strengthening of protective factors, should be used as the best available theoretical model for guiding interventions to prevent the onset of mental disorders. Other models for preventive interventions should continue to be explored; for example, as more becomes known about the mechanisms that link the presence of causal risk factors and absence of protective factors to the initial onset of symptoms, the possibilities for intervention may be increased. Universal preventive interventions should continue to be supported in the areas of prenatal care, immunization, safety standards such as the use of seat belts and helmets, and control of the availability of alcohol. These programs decrease brain injury and mental retardation, which are conditions associated with mental disorders. Although the main benefit of these interventions is the prevention of physical illness or injury, they may reduce the incidence of mental disorders as well. More evaluation is needed to assess their impact on mental disorders. Research on selective and indicated interventions targeting high-risk groups and individuals should be given high priority. Many of the programs described in this report are selective preventive intervention research programs, targeting multiple risk factors including poverty, job loss, caregiver burden, bereavement, medical problems, divorce, peer rejection, academic failure, and family conflict. These programs provide an impressive base for more rigorous research trials with larger samples. Priority should be given to preventive intervention research proposals that address well-validated clusters of biological and psychosocial risk and protective factors within a developmental life-span framework. Trials should measure short- and long-term outcomes for targeted disorders and should continue past the average age of onset. Sample size should be adequate for determining the validity of outcome measures. Increased attention should be given to preventive intervention research that addresses the overlap between physical and mental illness. For example, prevention trials with primary care populations should include examination of effects on physical well-being, use of health care (which at times may mean increased use), and social functioning. Research support should be developed in two waves over the next decade, initially focusing primarily on increasing research grant support for individual investigators and later on increasing support for specialized prevention research centers throughout the appropriate federal agencies. This strategy is based on the principle of building a prevention science from the ground up, rather than the top down. Individual investigators should compete for OCR for page 480 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH research grant support. As their academic track record becomes established, they should be encouraged to increase the size and scope of their trials and join with other solid investigators to form preventive intervention research centers. In the first wave, lasting five years, there should be a substantial increase in the funds available for peer-reviewed research projects. Preventive intervention research programs should be supported for any mental disorder for which there is well-validated evidence of risk factors that appear to be modifiable. After five years, with the impact of new mid-career researchers joining the field and evidence from five years of research programs, a review should be made of the evidence. It is highly likely that several other preventive intervention research centers could be warranted at that time. Research grant support should not decrease at this time. Research on sequential preventive interventions aimed at multiple risks in infancy, early childhood, and elementary school age to prevent onset of multiple behavioral problems and mental disorders should be increased immediately and substantially. This should include a large number of new research grants and at least one new specialized prevention research center. The knowledge base regarding multiple risk factors in infancy and childhood interacting in complex causal chains and resulting in multiple disorders is extensive. Data on the direct linkage to specific disorders that emerge in adolescence and adulthood are becoming available. Many rigorously designed preventive intervention programs document impacts on risk and protective factors that are likely to reduce incidence rates of mental disorders. Addressing clusters of risk and protective factors increases the chances of preventing multiple disorders, especially major depressive disorder and conduct disorder. A number of separate randomized controlled trials have demonstrated the efficacy, and in some studies the effectiveness, of specific preventive interventions across development from the prenatal period through adolescence in reducing risk factors and enhancing protective factors. These should now be combined and delivered in sequence to high-risk populations. The interventions should include high-quality prenatal care, childhood immunizations, home visiting and high-quality day care (such as the Prenatal/Early Infancy Project and the Infant Health and Development Program), high-quality preschool (such as the Perry Preschool Program), parenting training, and enhancement of social competence and academic performance. High priority should be given to interagency sponsorship of this research, including the specialized prevention research centers. The Department of Health and Human Services (including the Maternal and Child Health Bureau (MCHB), National Institute of Child Health and Human Development OCR for page 481 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH (NICHD), Administration on Children, Youth, and Families (ACYF), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), and the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)) and the Departments of Education, Justice, and Defense might be interested in sponsoring such research. Research on preventive interventions aimed at major depressive disorder should be increased immediately and substantially. This should include a large number of new research grants and at least one new specialized prevention research center. The knowledge base in this area is extensive, and promising preventive interventions have been empirically tested across the life span. Research to prevent depressive disorders should be more focused on preventing co-morbid mental disorders than it has been in the past. Also, outcomes often extend beyond traditional boundaries of mental disorders. For example, prevention of depression has strong implications for reducing suicides, lost work productivity, and physical disorders. High priority should be given to interagency agreements for research projects and specialized prevention research centers. Gradually over the next five years, other new specialized prevention research centers should be initiated to focus on depression and co-occurring conditions. Links between these new centers and other research sites are essential, and monies should be set aside to provide for ongoing collaboration. Research on preventive interventions aimed at alcohol abuse should be increased immediately. The knowledge base is extensive, and promising preventive interventions have been empirically tested. A less categorical approach to alcohol abuse preventive intervention research is needed. Coexisting illnesses, such as depressive disorders and physical disorders, must be carefully studied. Prevention of alcohol abuse has strong implications for reducing drug abuse, spouse and child maltreatment, and physical injury. The outcomes of preventive interventions on these problems also should be considered. For alcohol abuse, it may be best to target children and young adolescents to delay the initiation of alcohol use. Support for pilot and confirmatory preventive intervention trials should be increased for conduct disorder. Priority should be given to research that addresses multiple risk factors for young children with early onset of aggressiveness, including parental psychopathology, poverty, and neurodevelopmental deficits in the child. Research should be supported on alternative forms of intervention for the caregivers and family members of individuals with mental disorders, especially Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia, to prevent the onset of stress-induced disorders among these caregivers. OCR for page 482 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH Over the next decade, as new specialized prevention research centers are initiated, priority should be given to those that are sponsored through interagency agreement. In addition to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), and National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), other federal agencies, such as those in the Departments of Justice, Education, and Defense should be encouraged to become involved. Over the next 10 years, in addition to the new centers focusing on multiple childhood risks and depressive disorders, specialized prevention research centers could be developed for other risk factors or disorders if a review of the evidence suggests that such action is warranted. Knowledge base research at the specialized prevention research centers should be supported by new research grants (RO1s) that do not use preventive intervention research dollars. Specialized prevention research centers provide the structure, the personnel, and the study populations that could be used to increase the knowledge base for prevention through risk research and epidemiological studies as well as for increasing knowledge about preventive intervention research programs. When these two areas of research are combined in the same center, the definition of prevention research will be especially important. Dissemination mechanisms, including publication in peer-reviewed journals, and knowledge exchange opportunities with other researchers and with representatives from the community should be mandated as part of the mission of each specialized prevention research center. The preventive intervention research cycle as described in this report should be used as a conceptual model for designing, conducting, and analyzing research programs. Preventive intervention research should proceed from pilot studies to confirmatory and replication trials to large-scale field trials and finally be transferred into the community as service programs with rigorous evaluation. Increased attention to cultural diversity, ethical considerations, and benefit-cost and cost-effectiveness analyses should be an essential component of preventive intervention research. Community involvement should be increased to help identify disorders and problems that merit research and to support preventive intervention research programs. The committee believes strongly that the long-term interests of communities throughout the nation are best served if prevention services are based on well-crafted and thoroughly evaluated trial programs. Community groups that hope for the best long-term outcomes need to express an increased willingness to have service projects more rigorously evaluated and to bring promising prevention programs into the research cycle for a more complete analysis of efficacy and effectiveness. OCR for page 483 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH Funding Preventive intervention research (excluding the specialized prevention research centers) should be budgeted at $20 million above the FY 1993 level of support in years one, two, and three, with an additional $5 million (from $20 million to $25 million) in year four and year five. Support for new specialized prevention research centers is budgeted at $2 million per year in years one and two, $5 million in year three, and $8 million per year in years four and five. (The NIMH PIRCs receive, on average, $500,000 for core support per year.) Some of this support could come from reallocation and more prudent use of federal resources that currently are available for prevention in a broad sense. For example, huge demonstration projects are rarely warranted; scaling up from confirmatory and replication trials to large-scale field trials is a more cautious and constructive use of resources. Finding out the effectiveness of programs before they are widely disseminated is likely to save money in the long term. The support that is requested in this report is not necessarily new money, but it is new for the field of preventive intervention research for mental disorders. Much of the support should come from a wide array of federal agencies already supporting prevention services that currently lack rigorous evaluation. A FINAL WORD There could be no wiser investment in our country than a commitment to foster the prevention of mental disorders and the promotion of mental health through rigorous research with the highest of methodological standards. Such a commitment would yield the potential for healthier lives for countless individuals and the general advancement of the nation's well-being. Even with the support of the federal government, the effort will not be easy. There will be no “magic bullet.” No single prevention strategy or method of changing people's life-style, behavior, or environment will work across the broad range of risk factors and mental disorders that will be encountered. A program designed to prevent one public health problem will not exactly fit the needs and goals of another. Dedication to prevention service programs will not necessarily bring success without a corresponding commitment to rigorous evaluation to determine the effectiveness of these services. No single agency can accomplish the task outlined above. Overall, the effort will require the cooperation of numerous federal, state, and local agencies, universities, foundations, researchers, and communities. OCR for page 484 REDUCING RISKS FOR Mental Disorders: FRONTIERS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION RESEARCH Hardly a family in America has been untouched by mental illness. The need for effective preventive intervention programs is clear. It is equally clear that to obtain such programs we need to make a national commitment to rigorous research and increased support for the infrastructure to make that research possible. REFERENCES NAS (National Academy of Sciences). ( 1974) Science and Technology in Presidential Policymaking. Report of the ad hoc Committee on Science and Technology. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. Roosevelt, F. D. ( 1937) Second Inaugural Address, January 20. Representative terms from entire chapter:	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36722000
The Plasma Spray – Physical Vapor Deposition (PS-PVD) rig at NASA's Glenn Research Center uses new technology to create super thin ceramic coatings. Here, Bryan Harder, the lead for the PS-PVD, installs a sample in the rig. Image Credit: NASA Turbines, or rotary engines that create power, have a multitude of uses. They are used in machines that perform work on Earth and are essential components of airplanes. Currently, most turbines are built using metallic based components, and these metal components require cooling to avoid reaching their thermal limits. New, more efficient engine technology requires components that can survive higher temperatures and reduced cooling. Silicon based ceramic components show great potential for use in advanced, higher efficiency engines, as they are capable of withstanding higher temperatures and weigh less than metal components. However, when unprotected, these silicon based ceramic components react and erode in turbine engine environments due to the presence of water vapor. New coating processing technology is being pioneered at NASA Glenn's Research Center in Cleveland. The technology is used to protect advanced silicon based ceramic engine components that are being developed for future engines. This coating processing technology will enable more complex and thinner coatings than are currently possible. This is important for coating turbine blades, which need to endure engine environments and stress conditions, while still remaining smooth to avoid the disruption of airflow. This coating processing technology, called Plasma Spray – Physical Vapor Deposition (PS-PVD), has the potential to radically improve the capabilities of ceramic composite turbine components. "PS-PVD technology is really necessary for the integration of silicon-based ceramic airfoil components into turbine engines. The use of these silicon-based ceramics as engine airfoil components would increase engine operation temperature, which translates into higher efficiencies," says Bryan Harder, the lead for the PS-PVD Facility at Glenn. Plasma Spray – Physical Vapor Deposition The PS-PVD rig uses a system of vacuum pumps and a blower to remove air from the chamber, reducing the pressure to one Torr (1/760th of normal atmospheric pressure). Image Credit: NASA It has been known for decades that enveloping metals and other substances, such as silicon based ceramic components, with a ceramic coating can protect them. But there is new, cutting-edge technology that can create ceramic coatings in an extremely precise, uniform fashion—the coatings can be controlled to a thickness of ten microns (a micron is one-millionth of a meter). This technology is made possible by Glenn's Plasma Spray – Physical Vapor Deposition (PS-PVD) Facility. The Plasma Spray – Physical Vapor Deposition (PS-PVD) Coater was completed at Glenn in 2010. Created in collaboration with Sulzer Metco, the PS-PVD rig is one of only two such facilities in the U.S.A. and one of four in the entire world. The PS-PVD rig, which is currently a research and development facility, uses a state of the art processing method of creating thin ceramic coatings. Planning began for the facility in 2007, and construction began in 2008 (previously constructed infrastructure was reused and is now the base for the new rig). The rig is nearing completion of its capabilities testing and assessment phase. A team of five, led by Bryan Harder, a materials research engineer, has put the rig through its paces. The rig will soon begin supporting the Supersonic Project within NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate at Glenn. Eventually, the rig could be of service to many other areas and projects within Glenn, other NASA centers and governmental entities, and private industry partners. "When you have something that has broad capabilities like this, it really allows us to work with a lot of different areas, which is a great thing," says Bryan Harder. Super Thin Ceramic Coatings Ceramic powder is pumped into the PS-PVD rig. It will be transformed inside the chamber to become a thin, precise, accurate ceramic coating. Image Credit: NASA The Plasma Spray-Physical Vapor Deposition (PS-PVD) rig creates thin, extremely precise ceramic coatings. These coatings are created on metal, ceramic, or other appropriate materials. "To create these coatings, ceramic powder is injected into a very high power plasma flame under a vacuum. During operation, the plasma is approximately 7 feet long and 3 feet wide. The ceramic material is vaporized within the plasma, and condenses onto the target component," says Bryan Harder. The coatings can be single or multilayer, and they protect the components from environmental and thermal impact. The extremely high heat and the vacuum within the chamber allow the ceramic coating to be precisely applied, creating durable, long-lasting, effective coatings. "If you can reduce the thickness, and still provide an effective barrier layer — you can reduce the weight, you can reduce your cost. There are a lot of benefits that come from this technology," Harder says. Inside the Chamber Within the PS-PVD, an extremely hot plasma flame is created. The plasma can reach a temperature of 10,000 degrees Celsius—ten times hotter than a candle flame. Image Credit: NASA Located at Glenn, the Plasma Spray – Physical Vapor Deposition (PS-PVD) is installed in a dedicated room. A large, blimp-shaped chamber is made of stainless steel. The exterior metal, which is welded to a second sheet of stainless steel beneath, has cool water pumped through it to keep the chamber from getting too warm. Inside the chamber is a steel arm which holds a plate made of a nickel-based superalloy. This plate holds the component that will be coated. Several feet away from this plate is the torch, where the ceramic powder is injected into the plasma. Once the chamber is closed, a system of vacuum pumps and a blower remove air from the chamber, reducing the pressure to one Torr (1/760th of normal atmospheric pressure). Then, helium and argon gases are introduced to the torch. An arc is created between the anode and cathode inside the chamber, ionizing the gases and creating the high temperature plasma. The plasma, which can grow to seven feet in length, can be observed through one of three portals on the side of the rig. Its steady, fierce, concentrated glow resembles a Lightsaber from the Star Wars movies. Once the vacuum and plasma are stable, the ceramic powder is introduced to the torch. The plasma immediately begins to change colors. Depending on which ceramic powder is introduced, the plasma dramatically erupts into oranges, yellows, aquas, purples and blues. The gas stream moves at a speed of Mach 2 — a rate of more than 2,000 feet per second. As the ceramic powder and the plasma blast the arm and plate where the component being coated is attached, the plasma appears to envelop the component and splash around it. The plasma, which appeared like a Lightsaber, seems to morph into the effect of the undulating stream of magic that occurs when Harry Potter's wand meets with Lord Voldemort's wand, in the Harry Potter movies. Inside the PS-PVD, ceramic powder is introduced into the plasma flame. The plasma vaporizes the ceramic powder, which then condenses to form the ceramic coating. Image Credit: NASA The entire process is over in about five minutes. The plasma is extinguished and the exhaust system clears the chamber. The pressure is returned to normal atmospheric conditions, and then the chamber can be opened. The newly-coated component glows red hot and must cool down for an hour before it can be handled. The plasma within the chamber can reach a scorching 10,000 degrees Celsius — ten times hotter than a candle flame. After the sample cools, it will be tested and evaluated to ensure the coating is an effective barrier. And then the sample — be it a small test button or an essential component of a supersonic aircraft — is ready to go. The front, sides and inside of the sample can be coated — a capability never previously available from vapor deposition techniques. "The PS-PVD allows us to do things that you can't do anywhere else," Harder says. This newly developed technology could have myriad applications, both within NASA and with potential industry partners. The potential applications are only beginning to be discovered — from membrane technology to fuel cells to ion conductors and beyond. The rig is a game-changing technology; Glenn is maturing and developing a technology that doesn't exist elsewhere, while making direct contributions to the NASA mission. "This is new ground," Bryan Harder says. "This was only developed in the last couple of years… and we don't even know the limits of what it [PS-PVD] is capable of." -Tori Woods, SGT Inc. NASA's Glenn Research Center	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36727000
is the easternmost farm in valley Lundareykjadalur, to the north of river Grimsa, near its confluence with river Tungua and the abandoned The road into the interior Uxahryggir, to lake Reydarvatn and Brunnar is south of the farm. The Saga of Njall the Wise tells us about the slaying of Glumur, Hallgerdur langbrok's husband, by her foster father Tjostolfur. At the time, Glumur was shepherding and rounding up sheep south of Mt. Tverfell. A gully named after him, Glumsgil, is in the eastern slopes. Writer Kristmann Gudmundsson (1901-1983), was born at Tverfell. He was very controversial and did not gain the popularity he wished. During his long stay in Norway, he gained popularity in the other Nordic countries. He published novels, poetry, his memoirs, and the history of the literature of the world.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36728000
This 2012, Operation Sail and the US. Navy will once again bring the glory of tall ships to the American seaboard to celebrate the bicentennial of our national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner. A parade of magnificent tall ships and warships, from over 25 nations, will sail to five historic ports: New Orleans, Norfolk, Boston, Baltimore, and New York City and join America in commemoration of this national milestone. Operation Sail, (OpSail), a national non-profit organization dedicated to promoting goodwill among nations, and the development of youth through sail training, was conceived in 1961 by Frank Braynard and Nils Hansell. Following the endorsement of President John F. Kennedy, OpSail came to life in 1964 by successfully bringing the remaining tall ships of the world to New York City in conjunction with the 64’ World’s Fair. Since then, OpSail events have taken place in 1976 for the Bicentennial, 1986 for Lady Liberties 100th, 1992 for the Columbus 500th, and 2000 for the Millennium—and each event has been larger than the last.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36733000
Scientists have kept a close watch on the dazzling northern lights on Earth and other planets in our solar system, but now they have the chance to explore the auroras of alien planets orbiting distant stars, a new study suggests. Auroras on Earth occur when charged particles from the sun are funneled to the planet's poles and interact with the upper atmosphere, sparking spectacular light shows. Similar processes have been observed on other planets in the solar system, with Jupiter's auroras more than 100 times brighter than those on Earth, scientists said. Now, scientists are finding evidence of aurora displays on exoplanets for the first time. Researchers used the Low-Frequency Array radio telescope based in The Netherlands to observe radio emissions most likely caused by powerful auroras from planets outside of our solar system. "These results strongly suggest that auroras do occur on bodies outside our solar system, and the auroral radio emissions are powerful enough — 100,000 times brighter than Jupiter's — to be detectable across interstellar distances," study lead author Jonathan Nichols of the University of Leicester in England said in a statement. Jupiter's auroras are caused by an interaction of charged particles shot from its volcanic moon, Io, and the rotation of the planet itself. The gas giant turns on its axis once every 10 hours, dragging its magnetic field along for the ride, and effectively creating a whirl of electricity at each of the planet's poles. Space news from NBCNews.com Teen's space mission fueled by social media - Buzz Aldrin's vision for journey to Mars - Giant black hole may be cooking up meals - Watch a 'ring of fire' solar eclipse online - Teen's space mission fueled by social media Auroras akin to Earth's have been spotted on Saturn. But these newest findings show that auroras on exoplanets probably aren't formed from charged particles traveling on the solar wind. Instead, the auroras on the dim, "ultracool dwarf" stars and "failed stars" known as brown dwarfs that Nichols studied probably behave more like Jupiter's northern and southern lights. By studying these radio emissions, scientists will gain more insight into the strength of a planet's magnetic field, how it interacts with its parent star, whether it has any moons and even the length of its day. The new research is detailed in a recent issue of The Astrophysical Journal. - Saturn's Aurora - The Movie - Aurora Guide: How the Northern Lights Work (Infographic) - Amazing Auroras: Northern Lights of November 2012 (Photos) © 2013 Space.com. All rights reserved. More from Space.com.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36739000
Orthotist and Prosthetist What is an orthotist? An orthotist is a health care professional who makes and fits braces and splints (orthoses) for patients who need added support for body parts that have been weakened by injury, disease, or disorders of the nerves, muscles, or bones. They work under a doctor's orders to adapt purchased braces or create custom-designed braces. Braces are often named for the body part they support, such as: An AFO brace is an ankle-foot orthosis. A KAFO brace is a knee-ankle-foot orthosis, or long leg brace. A Halo brace is a brace that surrounds the head and is held in place with small screws in the skull. It is used to stabilize the neck and prevent further damage to the spinal cord after injury. What is a prosthetist? A prosthetist is a health care professional who makes and fits artificial limbs (prostheses) for patients with disabilities. This includes artificial legs and arms for patients who have had amputations due to conditions such as cancer, diabetes, or injury. Orthotists and prosthetists receive special education and training in undergraduate programs and/or apprenticeships. They may practice in a variety of settings, including the following: Inpatient rehabilitation centers Outpatient rehabilitation centers Industrial health centers	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36742000
Psychology Introduction 2 Available in 2013 \|Callaghan Campus\|\|Semester 2\| Previously offered in 2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008, 2007, 2006, 2005, 2004 This course continues on from PSYC1010 by introducing some additional key areas in psychology, including - sensation and perception, - motivation and emotion, - learning, and - memory and cognition. Where PSYC1010 focussed on how the world around us influences our thoughts and behaviour, PSYC1020 looks at the internal mechanisms of behaviour. The course forms part of a sequence of courses that have been approved by the Australian Psychology Accreditation Council. The course cannot be counted with PSYC1030. \|Objectives\|\|The course will: 1. Introduce some key areas in psychology that control behaviour which include sensation and perception, motivation and emotion,learning and memory and cognition. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the research/scientific approach and the content of the course. 3. Demonstrate competence in report writing for science in psychology at an introductory level. 4. Demonstrate competence skills in data collection, manipulation, graphing and reporting at an introductory level. 5. Develop the ability to report and discuss psychology in a clear and concise manner and using a professional style. As a consequence of studying this course students will build their: 4.Library and research skills 5.Research/data collection/measurement skills 7.Problem solving skills 8.Critical evaluation skills \|Content\|\|Psychology is the science of mind and behaviour. PSYC1020 provides an introduction to some of the classic and contemporary concepts, theories, and evidence in psychology. PSYC1020 is focused on the mechanisms of behaviour. PSYC1020 includes the following four modules: 1. Biological mechanisms of behavioural emotion 3. Sensation and perception 4. Memory and cognition \|Assumed Knowledge\|\|PSYC1010 recommended\| \|Modes of Delivery\|\|Internal Mode\| \|Contact Hours\|\|Laboratory: for 1 hour(s) per Week for Full Term Lecture: for 3 hour(s) per Week for Full Term \|Timetables\|\|2013 Course Timetables for PSYC1020\|	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36750000
09 August 2011 Real time operating system architectures are important for medical designers Medical device manufacturers understand the importance of the operating system (OS) and, contrary to common practice for embedded systems design, often select the OS before they choose the board. The business needs which drive OS selection for medical devices are much like those for most other devices and require little elaboration: cost, quality, time to market, portability, support, vendor history, ecosystem, and vendor track record. However, before a medical device can go to market, it must comply with legislation in the jurisdictions where it will be sold: for example, in the US, the FDA 510(k) pre market notification; in Europe, the Medical Devices Directive (MDD); and myriad national standards. Though agencies such as the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) evaluate devices as a whole, compliance can also be affected by how the OS and other device components are developed and by how their functional safety claims are validated. Things to look for from an OS vendor include: • development in a good manufacturing process/quality management environment (for example, ISO 9001) • validation of functional safety claims, including testing data, proven in use data and design verification, with the appropriate certification (such as IEC 61508 and IEC 62304) • a tool set that can provide concrete evidence of functionality and behaviours in a given system: code coverage, system profiling and memory analysis artefacts. For the purposes of this discussion, consumer grade medical devices, whose failure implies nothing more than an inconvenience, are excluded. For devices whose failure carries serious consequences, we can group key OS characteristics as follows: • dependability: a correct and timely response to events, for as long as required • connectivity: communication with diverse equipments and systems, either directly or through networks • data integrity and security: safe storage of data and protection from unauthorised scrutiny To these we can add: • power management: important for any device running on battery power, even temporarily • graphics capabilities: support for the user interface design that the device requires, including the concurrent use of multiple technologies such as OpenGL ES, Adobe Flash and Qt • platform independence: an OS that can run on different hardware architectures allows development of modular systems that can be reused for different products • multicore support: future projects will almost certainly require multicore processing While each of these characteristics merits in depth discussion, we will focus on the one that is, arguably, most important – dependability. GPOS or RTOS? Dependability is a combination of availability (how often the system responds to requests in a timely manner) and reliability (how often these responses are correct). A realtime OS is engineered explicitly to guarantee availability and reliability and is, therefore, a better candidate than a general purpose operating system, which can only offer best effort performance. Since an OS's architecture has a profound effect on a system's dependability, it should be the first item under scrutiny. The three most common RTOS architectures are real time executive, monolithic, and microkernel. With the real time executive model, all software components (kernel, networking stacks, file systems, drivers and applications) run together in one memory address space. Though efficient, this architecture has two immediate drawbacks: a pointer error in any module can corrupt memory used by the kernel or another module and cause a system failure; and the system can crash without leaving diagnostic information. Some RTOSs use a monolithic architecture, where user applications run as memory protected processes. While this architecture protects the kernel from errant user code, kernel components still share the same address space as file systems, protocol stacks, drivers and other system services. Hence, a programming error in any service can cause the entire system to fail. In a microkernel RTOS (see fig 2), device drivers, file systems, networking stacks and applications reside outside the kernel in separate address spaces, which means they are isolated from the kernel and from each other. A fault in one component will not bring down the entire system, memory faults in a component cannot corrupt other processes or the kernel and the OS can restart any failed component without a system reboot. • Real time commitments To ensure that high priority processes always get the cpu cycles they need, the RTOS must allow kernel operations to be preempted. However, the time windows during which preemption may not occur should be extremely brief and there should be an upper limit on how long preemption is held off and interrupts disabled. Further, the RTOS kernel must be simple, so there is a limit on the longest non preemptible code path through the kernel. • Protect against priority inversions Priority inversion infamously plagued the Mars Pathfinder project in July 1997. It is a condition where a low priority task prevents a higher priority task from completing its work. Priority inheritance is a technique for preventing priority inversions by assigning the priority of a blocked higher priority task to the lower priority thread doing the blocking until the blocking task completes (see fig 3). • Guaranteed availability For many systems, guaranteeing resource availability is critical. For example, a heart monitor that loses connectivity may fail to trigger an alarm – with dire consequences for the patient. Time partitioning addresses resource starvation by enforcing cpu budgets and preventing processes or threads from monopolising cpu cycles. Two time partitioning approaches are possible: fixed and adaptive. With fixed partitioning, the system designer divides tasks into partitions, allocating a portion of cpu time to each. No task in any partition may consume more than that partition's percentage of cpu time. Adaptive partitioning enforces resource budgets, but when cpu cycles are available, it uses a dynamic scheduling algorithm to reassign them from partitions that are not using them those which can benefit from extra processing time. • Monitor, stop, and restart processes Safeguards against process failures cascading through the system and self healing capabilities are crucial to a highly dependable OS. Devices that require availability or safety guarantees may implement hardware based high availability solutions, as well as a software watchdog. A software watchdog monitors the system and performs multistage recoveries or clean shutdowns as required. This process must be self monitoring and resilient to internal failures; if it is stopped abnormally, it must reconstruct its own state immediately and completely by handing over to a mirror process. It's the OS, it's the vendor Device manufacturers can improve their products' chances of success by paying careful attention to the OS. Devices that cannot be allowed to fail and reboot are best served by a microkernel RTOS, as this architecture is best-suited for ensuring system dependability and can support a full range of features and capabilities. An RTOS from a supplier with a track record of successful safety and security certifications can help reduce the costs associated with obtaining FDA, MDD and other certifications. Justin Moon is product manager, medical, for QNX Software Systems. QNX Software Systems Ltd This material is protected by Findlay Media copyright One-off usage is permitted but bulk copying is not. For multiple copies contact the	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36751000
MammoSite® 5-day Targeted Radiation Therapy is an advanced high-dose partial breast irradiation method for breast cancer treatment. Commonly, MammoSite is used following lumpectomy as a breast conservation strategy. For some women, it is an alternative to mastectomy (removal of the entire breast.) MammoSite targets the area where cancer recurrence is most likely to develop. Because it is specifically targeted, minimal radiation is delivered to other surrounding healthy tissues. It is especially appropriate for early stage breast cancers. With MammoSite, the duration of treatment is shortened from several weeks to just 5 days -- without compromising the outcome. After cancerous tissues are surgically removed, radiation therapy may be used to help keep the cancer from coming back. Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation beams to destroy cancer cells. Radiation disrupts the growth of cancer cells. Radiated cancer cells are not able to repair themselves or replicate, which helps to keep the cancer from coming back. Radiation damages all cells, both healthy and cancerous, in the exposed area. MammoSite spares as many healthy cells as possible because it directs a high-dose of radiation to only a specific area surrounding the lumpectomy cavity. MammoSite following lumpectomy is a breast conservation strategy. For some women, it is an alternative to mastectomy (removal of the entire breast.) MammoSite is a type of targeted radiation therapy, also referred to as brachytherapy. Targeted radiation therapy delivers a high-dose of radiation from inside of the body. Tiny sources of radiation called “seeds” are placed in the body and removed after a short period of time. MammoSite is an outpatient procedure. The radiation is delivered two times a day for five days. Traditional radiation methods usually take six to seven weeks to complete. Most women experience little or no discomfort during the treatment or when the catheter is removed. MammoSite appears to be well tolerated and is associated with short-term mild side effects.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36752000
The memory problems that many women experience in their 40s and 50s as they approach and go through menopause are both real and appear to be most acute during the early period of post menopause. That is the conclusion of a study which appears today in the journal Menopause. "Women going through menopausal transition have long complained of cognitive difficulties such as keeping track of information and struggling with mental tasks that would have otherwise been routine," said Miriam Weber, Ph.D. a neuropsychologist at the University of Rochester Medical Center (URMC) and lead author of the study. "This study suggests that these problems not only exist but become most evident in women in the first year following their final menstrual period." The study followed 117 women, who were grouped into categories based on criteria established in 2011 by the Stages of Reproductive Aging Workshop +10, which consisted of an international consortium of researchers. Study participants took a variety of tests assessing their cognitive skills, reported on menopause-related symptoms such as hot-flashes, sleep disturbance, depression and anxiety, and gave a sample of blood to determine current levels of estradiol (an indicator of estrogen levels) and follicle stimulating hormone. Results were analyzed to determine if there were group differences in cognitive performance, and if these differences were due to menopausal symptoms. The study grouped participants into four stages: late reproductive, early and late menopausal transition, and early post menopause. The late reproductive period is defined as when women first begin to notice subtle changes in their menstrual periods, such as changes in flow amount or duration, but still have regular menstrual cycles. Women in the transitional stage experience greater fluctuation in menstrual cycles - from a difference of 7 days or more in the early phase of transition to 60 days or longer in the later phase. Hormone levels also begin to fluctuate significantly during this time. This transition period can last for several years. The researchers also evaluated women in early post menopause, defined as the first year after which a woman experienced her last menstrual period. The study participants were assessed with a comprehensive battery of tests to evaluate a variety of cognitive skills. These included tests of attention, verbal learning and memory, fine motor skills and dexterity, and "working memory" - or the ability to not only take in and store new information, but also manipulate it. These tests are similar to daily tasks such as staying focused on something for a period of time, learning a new telephone number, and making a mental list of groceries and then recalling specific items as required as one wanders the aisles of a grocery store.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36754000
WebMD Medical News Louise Chang, MD Feb. 2, 2010 -- Lower levels of the hormone serotonin may help explain why some infants succumb to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), according to a new In the U.S., SIDS deaths have declined by more than 50% since 1990. Experts say that's partly due to practices believed to minimize the risk, such as putting infants to sleep on their backs rather than their stomach and avoiding soft bedding, which could lead to asphyxiation. But SIDS is still the leading cause of death among infants age 1-12 months, accounting for about 2,750 U.S. deaths annually. It's defined as the death of an infant before his or her first birthday that can't be explained even after a complete autopsy, investigation of the death scene and circumstances, and a review of the medical history of the child and family. Now, the new research suggests that a deficiency of serotonin in the brain stem (which controls vital functions during sleep, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure) may help explain most of the deaths, says study researcher Hannah Kinney, MD, a professor of pathology at Harvard Medical School and a neuropathologist at Children's Hospital Boston. "It is not going to explain all SIDS deaths," Kinney tells WebMD. However, she adds, "it will explain the majority." Her study is published in the Journal of the American Medical Association. SIDS research is a ''controversial area," Kinney says. Many experts look to the "triple risk" model to explain it, believing that SIDS results from an underlying vulnerability, a critical developmental period, and an outside ''The real risk period is the first six months," Kinney says of the critical period in which most deaths occur. But experts disagree on what the vulnerability is. Kinney's research suggests low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin, and probably other brain chemicals yet to be identified, are what make infants vulnerable. Other experts suspect other vulnerabilities, such as infections. Yet others say SIDS is due simply to suffocation, she says. "We say, yes, some babies will die if they are severely asphyxiated," Kinney tells WebMD. But she adds, "what we are saying is in the majority of cases, the babies have an underlying defect that puts them at risk that makes them unable to respond to a stressor, such as having their face compressed [while sleeping on the stomach or becoming tangled in soft bedding]." In previous research, Kinney and her colleagues found defects in the serotonin system of SIDS babies, including defects in the serotonin receptors, which are crucial for serotonin to work. ''But we never knew if there was too little or too much serotonin," she says. "In this study, we actually measured the levels of serotonin and the enzyme that makes serotonin." Kinney and colleagues evaluated serotonin and tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH2), the enzyme that helps make serotonin, in 35 infants who died from SIDS. They compared these measurements with those from two groups -- five infants who died suddenly for whom a cause of death was established and five infants who died while hospitalized for having insufficient oxygen to the tissues. They retrieved tissue samples from the autopsies to measure the enzyme and They found that: Finding the deficiency in serotonin levels isn't the whole story, Kinney says. "We think there are probably several neurotransmitter systems involved in The new research seems to verify the suspicions of many experts who have thought abnormalities of respiratory control contribute to SIDS, says Richard Martin, MD, director of neonatology at Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital and professor of pediatrics at Case Western Reserve University "Serotonin is important for arousal," he says. "If serotonin production is diminished in patients at risk for SIDS, that all makes sense. "I think the message is there is something inherently wrong in some of these babies," he says. "On the other hand, in no way should that subtract from the public health message -- to avoid prone position, avoid fluffy bedding and pillows, avoid exposure to cigarette smoking, and don't overheat your While researchers have been focusing on brain stem abnormalities to explain SIDS for many years, the new research ''tells us more about what is wrong with that part of the brain, the brain stem," says Marian Willinger, PhD, special assistant for SIDS at the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development at the National Institutes of Health. She calls the finding an important development. "This is another piece in the puzzle in terms of understanding what is wrong in the brain." Eventually, she says, it may help researchers develop ways to intervene or to develop screening tests for SIDS. SOURCES:Hannah C. Kinney, MD, professor of pathology, Harvard Medical School; neuropathologist, Children's Hospital Boston.Duncan, J. Journal of the American Medical Association, Feb. 3, 2010; vol 303: pp 430-437.Marian Willinger, PhD, special assistant for SIDS, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.Richard Martin, MD, director of neonatology, Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital; professor of pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University, The Health News section does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. See additional information.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36762000
Vast deposits of iron, copper, gold, and lithium have been discovered throughout Afghanistan by US geologists, a find estimated to be worth $1 trillion. The discovery of such huge natural resources could turn Afghanistan into one of the world's most important mining centers—and could have a profound impact on a country whose economy is based largely on illicit opium production and foreign aid, reports the New York Times. Afghanistan, a country with no mining industry or infrastructure, could become the “Saudi Arabia of lithium,” according to a Pentagon memo, and international competition for mining rights was strong even before the discovery was announced: China is seen as a major player and is accused of making a $30 million bribe to obtain contracts last year. The potential wealth could also prove a powerful incentive for the Taliban to continue fighting for regional control. Read the full article.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36766000
Published in Vaccine Weekly, May 26th, 1997 Hepatitis B virus infection (HBV) incidence generally remained static from 1990 to 1994 with an average of 2,868 cases annually and average infection rate of 10.3 cases per 100,000 annually. According to the Canada Communicable Disease Report (Tepper, "Acute Hepatitis B Incidence in Canada." 23;7) cases in men occurred at a higher crude rate (12.2 per 100,000) than in women (8.8 per 100,000) during this time period, and infection rates were... Want to see the full article? Welcome to NewsRx! Learn more about a six-week, no-risk free trial of Vaccine Weekly	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36771000
This booklet is divided into three main sections. The first section presents general information on the need for and importance of promoting occupant restraint use for children, youth, and young adults. Most of the data and discussion in the document refer to these groups according to the following ages: The next section provides occupant protection facts specific to children and youth, followed by facts for young adults. The last section includes survey findings from NHTSA's Motor Vehicle Occupant Safety Surveys on self-reported behavior, attitudes, and opinions about safety belt use and laws. These surveys measure consumers' attitudes and opinions about occupant protection.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36777000
NIH Research Matters February 14, 2011 Rare Artery Disease Linked to Gene Variant Scientists have discovered a genetic cause for a rare disorder that leads to calcium deposits in arteries in the lower half of the body and in the joints of patients' hands and feet. The culprit is a mutation in the gene encoding CD73, a protein that normally helps to prevent calcium buildup. The researchers hope that understanding the basis for this disease, which they call arterial calcification due to deficiency of CD73 (ACDC), will help them find a cure. Currently, 9 patients are known to have ACDC, and all come from 3 families. The patients experienced pain in their buttocks, legs and joints, but doctors could find no signs of rheumatoid arthritis or other recognized problems that might cause the symptoms. A research team that included scientists from NIH’s National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) examined members of 2 affected families to search for a common thread. MRI and X-rays showed that members of the 2 families all had calcium buildup in arteries in the lower half of their bodies, but not around their hearts. In one family, 5 siblings but neither parent was affected by the disorder. The researchers suspected that symptoms might be due to a recessive gene variant. Recessive variants only show their effects when found in both copies of the gene. To test this theory, the team, led by Dr. William Gahl of NHGRI, compared DNA from the parents of the family to their children's. They found a region of DNA that was present only once in the parents, but twice in the children. The team then compared this region to the same region in 200 unaffected people. The results were published on February 3, 2011, in the New England Journal of Medicine. The researchers found a variant in a gene called NT5E that unaffected people didn’t have. NT5E makes a protein called CD73, which produces a small molecule called adenosine that helps regulate many processes in the body. The NHLBI team, led by Dr. Manfred Boehm and Dr. Cynthia St. Hilaire, cultured the patients’ cells to examine the effects of the mutation on an enzyme called TNAP (tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase). TNAP is known to degrade a calcium buildup inhibitor and thus contribute to calcium deposits. The researchers found that the mutant cells produced higher levels of TNAP. Adding adenosine to the cell cultures restored normal levels of TNAP. In addition, while mutant cells made more calcium phosphate crystals in culture, restoring CD73 expression in the cells prevented crystal formation. "Vascular calcification often results from poor diet and lack of exercise," says Gahl, who is NHGRI clinical director and director of the NIH Undiagnosed Diseases Program. "The calcium buildup in arteries of our patients, however, arises because the systems to inhibit it are not working in their cells. We hope that an understanding of this faulty mechanism will guide us in providing helpful treatments for these patients." - NIH Radio: NIH Researchers Identify Genetic Cause of New Vascular - NHLBI Heart and Vascular Information: - Interview with Dr. William Gahl: NIH Research Matters Bldg. 31, Rm. 5B64A, MSC 2094 Bethesda, MD 20892-2094 About NIH Research Matters Harrison Wein, Ph.D., Editor Vicki Contie, Assistant Editor NIH Research Matters is a weekly update of NIH research highlights from the Office of Communications and Public Liaison, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36780000
Archive/File: people/e/erichsen.hugo/cremation-of-the-dead Last-Modified: 1998/05/25 "[the Belgian government] dispatched Colonel Creteur to examine into the grievances, and, if possible, remove them. One's hair stands on end when one reads the report of the colonel on the condition of the Sedan battle-field. The only way to remedy the evil was to destroy the dangerous cadavers by cremation, which was a difficult task, under the circumstances, but which was nevertheless accomplished by the ingenious Creteur. The colonel's report is full of horrible facts. The bodies of German soldiers in a trench at Laid-Trou were covered so little by earth that carnivorous animals had already devoured part of the hands and faces. Rain-water had caused 30 large pits, containing the remains of Bavarians, to cave in, and had laid bare the bodies. Between Belan and Bazailles, the owners of a field had leveled the elevation of a Bavarian grave. Relics of the dead protruded from the ground. The bodies were covered only by a thin layer of earth, in which corn flourished luxuriantly. Wild bears, foxes, and dogs, relishing the human flesh, helped to scratch away the soil over the remains, as did the numerous crows upon the pit in which the horses had been buried. Dogs, having once feasted on this fare, would not eat anything else. Creteur at first could not obtain men to carry out his plans, as every one who attempted to open the trenches contracted phlyctaena, an eruption of the skin. Finally, by promising good pay, he enlisted 27 workmen, whom he endeavored to protect by saturating their clothing and moistening the graves with a solution of carbolic acid. But this only intensified the phlyctaena. He then determined to cover the graves with a layer of chloride of lime, and to pour diluted muriatic acid upon them subsequently. By this means he succeeded in laying bare the topmost layer of the corpses. He then had large quantities of coal tar poured into the pit, which trickled down among the bodies to the bottom, thoroughly covering the remains. He then had more chloride of lime heaped upon the corpses, and finally had bundles of hay, previously saturated with kerosene, thrown burning into the pit. Creteur declares that from 200 to 300 bodies were consumed within 50 to 60 minutes. The smoke, impregnated with the smell of the carbolic acid that was formed by the combination of the chloride of lime and coal tar, was not offensive, and proved entirely harmless to the workmen. About one-fourth of all the contents remained in the pits, consisting of calcined bones and a dry mass. These were again covered with chloride of lime, and then the trenches were closed. In this way, 45,855 human and equine bodies were disposed of." (Erichsen, 137-138) Work Cited Erichsen, Hugo. Cremation of the Dead. Detroit, 1887 This information was provided by John C.Zimmerman, an ssociate professor at the University of Nevada,Las Vegas. He is presently completing a major work on Holocaust denial. Site Map · What's New? · © The Nizkor Project, 1991-2012 Home · Site Map · What's New? · Search Nizkor	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36782000
Introduction to Rocks and Minerals Examine the characteristics of common rocks and minerals and learn identification procedures. Find out all about the physical properties of minerals including hardness, luster and color as well as the chemical compositions of important rock-forming minerals. Information in the video is accurate, but narration is somewhat monotone. Run time 03:34. Dr. Loopy's Blinding you with Science #9: Rocks and Minerals This is another in the Blinding you with Science series I produced to help elementary students learn science concepts. In this episode Dr. Loopy and his friends use music, comedy and parody to teach students about different types of rocks and minerals. Run time 25:00. Rocks don't Roll: The science of Rocks and Minerals This is a clip from a longer video I produced in my Blinding you with Science series. The series is designed to help elementary students with science concepts. This is a musical parody about Rocks and Minerals. Run time 06:34. Differences Between Rocks & Minerals A general difference between rocks and minerals is that minerals are chemical substances, while rocks are made from volcanoes and bodies of water. Discover how granite and igneous rocks are formed with information from a science teacher in this video. Vincent Van Gogh part 1 Van Gogh was born in 1853 in Groot—Zundert, a small village in the southern Netherlands near the Belgian border. The oldest son of a Protestant minister, young van Gogh was moody, quiet, introverted, but he grew up with a love of nature and the arts. Van Gogh attended school as a young boy, but at the age of sixteen he left home for the Hague to work as an apprentice to an uncle, a dealer at Goupil and Co., an international art firm. Van Gogh subsequently worked for the firm in London and Pa Math Trick For Your Fingers - Easy Multiplication A quick way for students to learn basic multiplication using their fingers. Goes fast so you may need to watch it a couple of times. Students will love it. Learn How to Count in Sign Language for Small Children I absolutely love the Signing Time Videos made for babies and toddlers to learn sign language. My toddler learned how to sign through these videos way before he could talk which made it possible for him to communicate rather then throw tantrums. In this video you learn how to count through sign. Run time 0:31. Chanting and enchanting animals - Chap. 2/6 Ecuador as a country has among the largest diversity of frog and toad species in the world. Discover through this film the fascinating world of frogs in Ecuador: their night life, when thousands of love-stricken males get together and sing at mating time; their birth and transformation from beings of water to beings of dry lands; their survival tricks and mysterious ways of life; their importance in the discovery of medicines; and their great variety of beautiful patterns and colors, discover th Animal Mothers: Newborn Gators Watch how this protective alligator mother uses her "Jaws of Love" to protect her newborns from danger in the Florida Everglades. Unlike crocs, the gator babies stay close to mom for their first year because they are a common food source for predators. Run time 02:24. Dolphin Bay - Where Dolphins Swim with Humans Near St. Andrews State Park in Panama City is an area where the dolphins will swim right up to you to check you out and see what's happening. Gabrielle has been swimming with this same pod since she was four years old. They're extremely friendly and curious, and love to pose for a picture. Most of the video is set to music. Run time 03:49 This video discusses the evening or morning star, Venus. Earth's sister planet has a symbol derived from a hand mirror, because Venus was the Roman goddess of love and beauty, it is also the symbol for women. Discusses the size, atmosphere and its temperature. It also discusses the solar landers that went to Venus. It discusses Mariner 10, which went to Venus. In this video various scientists discuss Venus. Video is of good quality and is approp From an outsider's perspective, storm chasing might appear to involve hours and hours of boredom, accentuated by a few moments of unimaginable excitement — or terror — depending on one's love or fear of tornadoes. But to tornado researchers, the effort and expense they expend in search of a single tornado-producing storm reflect the importance of these events in terms of their impact on lives and property. This video segment adapted from NOVA follows some of the scientists who study these vi Touch and Vision In this episode of the human senses, they explore the two most highly used senses, touch and vision. In this video they test the amazing things we do with our eyes, how we can instantly spot attractive people in a crowded room, and how our eyes guide us around the world with astonishing accuracy. When it comes to touch they reveal why we love the feel of some things and loath others. Discover what our skin A Glacier Investigation From Dragonfly Tv. Deborah and Brittani live in Juneau, Alaska, which is home to 38 glaciers flowing from the gigantic Juneau Ice Field. The girls love being outside, especially in the short Alaskan summers, so they decided to check out a glacier up close at the Mendenhall Glacier Visitor Center. The center has cool exhibits that explain the science behind glaciers-like the fact that a glacier is a river of ice that moves because of its own weight and that the Mendenhall Glacier receives abo King Minus is a cute video to introduce or review basic subtraction. The animations are great, and fun. Any early elementary child will love this one! How to Teach Children to Read : Favorite Children's Authors Learn about popular authors for children's books from a professional librarian, Debbie Noah, in this children's video. Parents, this video is a great tool to use to help you choose great books that your children will love. How to Teach Children to Read : Favorite Children's Authors: Part 2 Learn about favorite authors of children's books from a professional librarian in this free children's video with expert: Debbie Noah. This is a great video for helping parents to choose reading material that young children will love. Interview with Phyllis Reynolds Naylor (Part 3) In this section Phyllis Reynolds Naylor, winner of the ASPCA Roger Caras Award, answers the question, "Shiloh is included on the recommended book list for many school districts and is assigned reading for many students each year. What are your thoughts about the wide appeal of Shiloh and the impact you have made with this book for countless children...and animals?" In her answer happy about the impact the books have had. She also commented that one teacher told her how children who have been abu Lois Ehlert Interview Lois Ehlert's unique children's books, such as Color Zoo, reflect her creative and curious mind. In this exclusive video interview, Lois Ehlert discusses her early love for art and how she continually strives to create highly original children's books. style, a vibrant mix of watercolor and collage, she brings stories to life. California Flag and Anthem California’s flag is the historic Bear Flag raised at Sonoma on June 14, 1846, by a group of American settlers in revolt against Mexican rule. The flag was designed by William Todd on a piece of new unbleached cotton. The star imitated the lone star of Texas. A grizzly bear represented the many bears seen in the state. The word, "Cal	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36787000
Archeological Investigations at Ulysses S. Grant NHS The restored stone building at Ulysses S. Grant NHS. Ulysses S. Grant, general of the triumphant Northern Army during the Civil War that brought an end to slavery in the United States, himself owned enslaved people. Prior to rejoining the Army in 1860, and then going on to become the 18th president (1869-1877), Grant farmed his wife’s family’s property outside of St. Louis, Missouri, with his father-in-law, Frederick Dent. NPS archeologists have been uncovering clues at White Haven, named after an estate in Dent’s native Maryland, that help us to better understand conditions of slavery in the two decades before the Civil War. They investigated a stone building behind the main house at White Haven to learn more about activities carried out there, and about the people who may have lived in it. This stone structure was probably a summer kitchen, and may have been sewing room and residence for African American house servants. The Dents and Grants at White Haven White Haven, ca. 1850. Stone building is visible to the immediate left of the main house. Frederick Dent bought the two story farmhouse and surrounding land located southwest of St. Louis in 1820. For several years he and his young family used the plantation as a summer retreat, but moved here to take up year-round residence in 1825. Julia Dent and her brother Frederick grew up on the farm. Fred would later befriend Ulysses Grant while they were both students at West Point. When Grant was stationed at Jefferson Barracks as a young Army officer he often rode over to visit his classmate’s family and, while at White Haven, met Julia. Ulysses and Julia were married in St. Louis in 1848, while he was still an officer in the Army. He resigned his commission in 1854, returning to Missouri to take up farming with his father-in-law at White Haven. He and his growing family lived on the farm until 1858. In 1860, Ulysses moved his family to Galena, Illinois, to go join his father and brother in their leather-goods business. He was in Galena when the Civil War was declared, and he immediately re-enlisted. Julia and the children then returned to White Haven and lived with her family. She and the children joined Grant at army headquarters as often as possible during the war. Prior to his election to the presidency the Grants, along with Julia’s father, lived in Georgetown. When Grant became the president the entire family moved into the White House. Although the farm stayed in the Dent-Grant family until 1885, the land was farmed by tenants after 1869. With Julia’s approval, Grant signed the property over to William Vanderbilt after falling into financial difficulties from failed business ventures and bad investments. Grant died shortly afterwards, only days after completing the memoir that helped provide for his widow. Enslaved People at White Haven Slave labor was used extensively in the farming and maintenance of the 850-acre plantation. Frederick Dent, Julia’s father, improved and maintained White Haven through the efforts of enslaved people. Eighteen enslaved people were living on the plantation in 1830; half of them were under the age of 10. Nation-wide financial depressions in the 1830s affected Dent’s businesses, and by 1840, only 13 enslaved people lived at White Haven. In 1850, however, 30 enslaved people were reported as working on the farm, indicating that Dent’s financial status had improved. Field hands plowed, sowed, and reaped wheat, oats, potatoes, and corn grown on the plantation. Slaves also cared for the orchards and gardens. More than 75 horses, cattle, and pigs required daily attention, while grounds maintenance and numerous remodeling projects on the main house and outbuildings utilized the skills of those in servitude. During Grant’s management of the farm, he worked side by side with the slaves. In 1859, Grant freed William Jones, the only slave he is known to have personally owned. Missouri’s citizens had divided opinions about slavery. The state was admitted to the Union as a slave state in 1821 as part of the Missouri Compromise, but the state government voted to stay within the Union when Southern states seceded at the beginning of the Civil War. During the war, some slaves at White Haven simply walked off, as they did on many plantations in both Union and Confederate states. Missouri’s constitutional convention abolished slavery in the state in January 1865, freeing any slaves still living at White Haven. The Stone Building: From Kitchen to Garage Frederick Dent was probably responsible for construction of the stone building. It stands behind and slightly north of the main residence. The dry course walls of the stone building are in sharp contrast to the largely wooden structures around it. The walls were laid with skill and care; there was a three feet foundation below the visible walls. Archeological excavations located the builder’s trench for the foundation. The stone building in ruins. The western wall of the north room is collapsed, revealing the warming fireplace. The south room has a rough wooden roof and western wall. The original building consisted of two adjacent rooms, each with its own gable end fireplace and chimney. The south room contained a massive limestone cooking fireplace, and the north room contained a smaller warming fireplace. Each room had a door to the outside in the western wall of the building, but no interior door connected the rooms. A window was located in the eastern wall of the south room. There appears to have been a window or a door in the corresponding position in the eastern wall of the north room. This type of building is known as “double pen,” although most double pen houses have an open porch between the two rooms. Early drawings of the building show small windows positioned high in the wall, directly under the eaves, but there is no evidence for these small windows in later photographs, or in the remnants of the stone walls. NPS archeologists found evidence for sewing and cooking in the stone building. The south fireplace still exhibits the gudgeons used to support a cooking pot crane. Kitchen functions may have seasonally moved from the basement kitchen of the main house to the relatively cooler quarters of the nearby stone building during the summer. The building’s construction material—stone—stood in contrast to the nearby wooden structures of the plantation. The choice of building material suggests that the stone building was constructed specifically to be used as a kitchen, being cooler in hot summer months than wood, and less prone to catching fire. The stone building rebuilt as a garage. The presence of two fireplaces suggests that this was a residential structure as well as a locus for cooking activities. At some point after slavery was abolished, a permanent kitchen was established on the first floor of the main residence and the stone building ceased to function as a summer kitchen. The roof and walls of the neglected building collapsed. In the 1940s, the private owners of White Haven expanded the west wall of the stone building, rebuilt and re-roofed it, and used it as a garage. Changes to the structure included rebuilding exterior walls, removal of the wall dividing the two rooms, replacement of the gabled roof with a shed roof, and a concrete floor. Excavations at the Stone Building Archeologists undertook excavations inside the stone building in 1991, shortly after the NPS acquired the property (Noble 1997), and again in 1999 as part of the restoration planning (Scott 2001). The concrete floor was removed to enable excavation beneath it. The 1991 excavations focused on location of original walls and on verifying construction details. Excavation units were placed in the area of the interior dividing wall, immediately outside of the eastern windows/door, and in the area of the western wall. The 1999 excavations were more extensive, and encompassed the entire interior floor space of the stone building. Project archeologists think that the original floor of the building was probably clay earth, and that the floor had been leveled prior to pouring the concrete. It is unlikely that the artifacts from inside the building were found in their original locations. There were extensive rodent holes, trenching for a utility pipe, and leveling and preparing of the earth surface in preparation for the concrete floor. As a result of this earth-moving, artifact distribution provides only general information about the activities that were carried out in the stone building. Objects tended to cluster on the west side of both rooms, near the exterior doorways, and not all artifacts displayed the same distributional patterns. The open doorways to the west would have afforded the greatest amount of natural light at the end of the day. The Stone Building Artifacts Domestic artifacts like spoons, thimbles, and marbles give insight into the work and domestic lives of the people who lived and labored in the stone building. A total of 2,202 artifacts were recovered during the 1991 and the 1999 excavations. The artifacts found during excavation come from three potential sources: 1) Objects such as nails and window glass may have been introduced into the archeological record as a result of decay of the building fabric. 2) Trash may have been thrown into the building after it was no longer used for domestic purposes. 3) Objects may have been lost or dropped while the building was in active use. The bulk of the objects dates from the 1840s to 1880s, which is probably the time span of domestic occupation of the stone building. As Grant directed his tenant to build an addition to the main house to house farm hands, it is likely that the stone building was also needed as a residence for laborers after 1866. Objects deposited in the stone building after this time may represent incidental trash. The scarcity of artifacts dating after the 1880s suggests that the structure was not used for deliberate deposition of domestic refuse. Over half of the artifacts consisted of nails and window glass. Most of the nails, no doubt, were deposited when the roof decayed. Window glass and glazing compound found in the north room suggest that this room once did contain a window, unless windows were simply stored (and broken) in this room. Window glass was also found in the south room. After eliminating objects deposited after domestic use of the structure, and the glass and nails from the building itself, the remaining artifacts can be divided into categories relating to domestic activities. Food Preparation. The majority of the domestic artifacts were numerous types of ceramics, and animal bones. Inside the building, most of the ceramics and bones were found in the south room, which also contained the large fireplace. The greatest density of ceramics and broken glass, however, was found outside the south room, next to the window. This suggests that a clumsy cook simply tossed broken vessels out of the window. Some of the identified ceramics and glass include a white ware sherd with blue decoration that was made between 1840 and the 1860s; an early Mason jar, dated to 1880-1916; and sherds of embossed wares, popular between the 1820s and 1840s. Laundry and Sewing. A number of objects suggest that laundry was washed or mended in the stone building. Pins, thimbles, a needle case fragment, sequins, clothes fasteners, and numerous buttons were located during excavations. For the most part, they were found in the western half of both rooms. A number of the buttons were decorated; several were from military uniforms. Personal Items. Marbles and smoking pipes cross-cut these functional artifact categories. Marble decoration included solid colors, polka dots, and two distinct bands that ran in right angles to each other (that is, plaid). Marbles are assumed to be children’s toys, and indicate that the stone building was used by young people as well as adults. A domino tile was also found. Fragments of ceramic pipes were found in both rooms; both African and European American men and women smoked pipes during this time period. A small number of coins were also uncovered. The stone building artifacts are similar to the array of objects recovered from excavations in the winter kitchen in the basement of the main house (Price and Hastings 1998), some of which have been interpreted as representing ritualistic caches intentionally placed beneath the cellar floorboards. Both yielded similar types of decorations and types of vessels, which were not restricted to serving containers but also included plates, saucers, and cups. Both excavations recovered marbles, sewing pipes, buttons, and sewing thimbles (Scott 2001:23). This similarity in artifacts suggests that the stone building, for at least part of its life, was the summer kitchen for White Haven. While the archeological excavations indicate that cooking and laundry-related activities were carried out in the stone building, the artifact assemblages do not specifically identify the people carrying out the activities as African Americans. Other archeological investigations of early 19th century kitchens have not identified any definitive archeological assemblage as having African American ethnic origins. While we know from written sources that African Americans are likely to have used this kitchen, we don’t expect a direct correlation between artifact assemblages and cultural backgrounds. Given the dates for the artifacts, and the historical information about the people living at White Haven, it is reasonable to conclude that the activities in the summer kitchen were carried out by enslaved African Americans. We do not know whether the enslaved African Americans who worked there also lived in the stone building, but there is no evidence to suggest that they did not. There is little nineteenth century documentation about housing for the enslaved at White Haven. Grant ordered that a group of slave cabins “by the barn” be demolished after the end of the Civil War. The stone building, near the main house, was left intact. Certainly, the range of artifacts found suggests that, even if people did not sleep there, a wide range of personal domestic activities were carried out in the stone building, including child care, mending, and food preparation for personal consumption. Investigations at the stone building on the White Haven plantation have provided us with a better understanding of the organization of labor at a mid-nineteenth century plantation. The material remains indicate that food preparation took place in the south room, suggesting that the building was used as a summer kitchen for the European American family in the main house. Activities related to washing and mending of clothing also took place there, presumably for the European American family. Although there are no artifacts to clearly identify them it may be assumed, at least prior to the Civil War, that the workers were African Americans. The range of personal items found indicates that domestic activities took place in the building as well. Children were present, and the range of non-serving ceramics identified suggests that cooking for personal consumption took place. This overlap of work activity areas and domestic activity areas is reproduced in the winter kitchen, in the basement of the house, and suggests that the enslaved African Americans at White Haven were allowed some discretion in their organization of space. By Karen Mudar Special thanks to Vergil Noble and Karen Maxville, who assisted with development of the text; and to Pam Sanfilippo and Karin Roberts, who assisted with images. Noble, Vergil E. 1997 A Report on the 1991 Excavations at Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site, St. Louis, Missouri. Midwest Archeological Center, Technical Report No. 49. Price, James E., and Mary Jane Hastings 1998 A Report on the 1995 Excavations at Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site, St. Louis, Missouri. American Archaeological Division, University of Missouri-Columbia. Scott, Douglas D. 2001 Archeological Investigations of the Ice House and Summer Kitchen/Stone Building at Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site, St. Louis, Missouri. Midwest Archeological Center, Technical Report No. 69	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36794000
The Black Hills Beetle It appears that our unwelcome acquaintance of 1927 and 1928, the Black Hills Beetle, is again becoming active and, indeed, manifests signs of becoming epidemic. Reports have been coming to the park office of valuable Ponderosa pines dying, and then the reporter asks what can be done about it. Since this beetle, it seems, is to plague us locally for some time to come, every resident of this community should know something of its habits. Rangers have been keeping an eye on the beetle ever since the big outbreak of 1927 and '28, when well over a thousand pine trees were killed in a summer. Our bark beetle belongs to the genus Dendroctonus and is one of the 24 species in the genus. The word Dendroctonus means "killer of trees" and this name surely is well applied to a genus of beetles which Mr. A. D. Hopkins of the Bureau of Entomology estimates has killed over $1,000,000,000 worth of standing timber in the last fifty years. The Black Hills Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) was first noted in the Black Hills, and it is now doing damage in the Black Hills region, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. In the adult stage, the beetle is a very dark brown or black, and is approximately one-quarter of an inch in length. It attacks the Ponderosa and Limber pines and has been noted a few times in Lodgepole pine. Its life cycle is interesting. It spends practically all of its life, with the exception of a few hours in flight after it emerges from one tree and enters another, in two trees and at times, one tree. A mature beetle will enter a tree during June or early July: it bores galleries in the living part of the tree and deposits eggs in these galleries. These eggs usually hatch into larvae in August and the larvae continue active until the beginning of hibernation in the fall. During the next spring, these larvae extend the galleries and are transformed into pupae, and then to adults, and the process repeats itself. It is the galleries the beetle bores in the cambium layer that kills the tree, for the extension of these galleries has the same effect as girdling the tree. Wherever the beetle enters a healthy tree, a small spot of pitch appears; and if the beetles become too numerous, the tree's needles become red and it is dead by the following spring. About the only practical method of combating this beetle on a large scale is to cut the infested tree and peel the bark in the infected area, which is usually confined to the lower trunks. Several years ago a citizen of Estes Park, Mr. Edward J. Walsh, developed a method of fighting this beetle in his ornamental and shade trees, and it appeared to have been in some instances at least, a successful check. It is a comparatively expensive process, but oftentimes a valuable tree near a summer home is more than worth the time and expense. Mr. Walsh cleaned the pitch from the holes where the beetle entered the tree, and then injected carbon bi-sulphide into the galleries. When the gallery was full of the liquid, he sealed the hole with putty. Some authorities regard this method of treatment as useless, but it seems to have produced the results, in some instances, and is at least worth a try. \|<<< Previous\|\|> Cover <\|\|Next >>>\|	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36795000
June 1, 2004 The iceman cometh to U-M ANN ARBOR, Mich.—No air-conditioning, frozen or refrigerated foods, iced drinks or ice cream. That's just a sampling of how drastically different our lives and diets would be if there was no refrigeration. "It was not so very long ago," said Janice Longone, curator of culinary history at the University of Michigan's Clements Library, "that meat was preserved primarily by drying or salting, that milk could be preserved only in the form of butter and cheese, that fresh fruits and vegetables were only available seasonally in areas where they were grown." And then came ice and icehouses followed by mechanical refrigeration. It is that history of American ingenuity that Longone illustrates in the exhibition "The Iceman Cometh... and Goeth" at the Clements Library June 8 through September. "Throughout history, the wealthy and powerful had icehouses and ice available to them in limited quantities," Longone said. "But it took that American ingenuity to make ice available to all. The democratization of ice was largely due to a couple of 19th century Yankee businessmen." The exhibition explores the history of the American ice industry from New England pond ice harvesting to the introduction of mechanical refrigeration. It includes: —The story of the Ice King, Frederic Tudor, and his collaborator Nathaniel Wyeth. —The 1803 book by Thomas Moore, "An Essay on the Most Eligible Construction of Ice-Houses." —The tools, equipment and methods of natural ice harvesting and its distribution, including the successful arrival in 1833 of a ship carrying ice from Boston to Calcutta, crossing the equator twice. —The manufactured ice industry and how it revolutionized food and eating in America. —The introduction of mechanical refrigerators, with the millionth Frigidaire sold by 1929 and the millionth General Electric Refrigerator by 1931. —Icehouses, ice cards, icemen, iceboxes, tools of the trade, advertising. "The use (or overuse) of ice and refrigeration is one of the features of American life most commented upon by visitors to our shores," Longone said. "This exhibition makes use of the diverse resources of the Clements Library to explain the whys and hows of this phenomenon of our culture." The exhibit can be viewed at the Clements Library Mon.-Fri. 1-4:30 p.m. June 8 through September. The Clements is at 909 S. University Ave. in Ann Arbor on U-M's Central Campus. For more information call (734) 764-2347 or visit www.clements.umich.edu. The exhibition is free. Longone, a nationally renowned food historian, will present a lecture sponsored by the Clements and the Culinary Historians of Ann Arbor on the history of the ice industry 3-5 p.m. Sept. 19 at the Clements Library. The event is free and open to the public. Iceman exhibit: http://www.clements.umich.edu/Exhibits/iceman/ Images for downloading: http://www.umich.edu/news/Releases/2004/Jun04/icepop.html Contact: Joanne Nesbit	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36798000
This mural was a collaborative project between the Lummi Cedar Project (Community Partner) Tami Chock. NWIC's Art History Class taught by Ramon Murillo and WWU's Art History Class taught by Julia Sapien Both are the (Instructional component of the project). This project was a group effort brought together by the Centers for Service Learning at Northwest Indian College and at Western Washington University. The project was meant to foster a sense of cultural understand between Lummi and Bellingham and to build bridges and break barriers, as well as work to end some stereotypes that exist. The artwork will find its permanent home at the Lummi Youth/Teen Center. The artwork depicted represents thoughts, ideas and heartfelt dialogues and discussions that the Lummi Cedar Project hosted and invited Elders and other members of the community to participate in. Lummi really opened up their homes to allow the students to enter and be able to complete this work!	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36804000
The following is the speech given by French President François Hollande to commemorate the seventieth anniversary of the Vel d’Hiv Roundup on July 16 and 17, 1942, when the French police arrested 13,152 Jewish men, women, and children from Paris and its suburbs, and confined them to the Vélodrome d’Hiver, a bicycle stadium in Paris. They were later deported to German concentration camps. Eight hundred and eleven survived the war. President Hollande delivered his speech at the site of the demolished velodrome on July 22, 2012. Prime Minister, President of the National Assembly, ambassadors, Mayor of Paris, President of the Representative Council of Jewish Institutions of France, Chief Rabbi, representatives of the religions, ladies and gentlemen: We’ve gathered this morning to remember the horror of a crime, express the sorrow of those who experienced the tragedy, and speak of the dark hours of collaboration, our history, and therefore France’s responsibility. We’re also here to pass on the memory of the Holocaust—of which the roundups were the first stage—in order to fight the battle against oblivion and testify to new generations what barbarity is capable of doing and what resources humanity may possess to defeat it. Seventy years ago, on July 16, 1942, early in the morning, 13,152 men, women, and children were arrested in their homes. Childless couples and single people were interned in Drancy, where the museum created by the Mémorial de la Shoah will stand in the autumn. The others were taken to the Vélodrome d’Hiver. Thrown together for five days in inhuman conditions, they were taken from there to the camps of Pithiviers and Beaune-la-Rolande. A clear directive had been given by the Vichy administration. “The children must not leave in the same convoys as the parents.” So, after heartrending separations, they departed—the parents on one side, the children on the other—for Auschwitz-Birkenau, where the deportees of Drancy had preceded them by a few days. There, they were murdered. Solely for being Jews. This crime took place here, in our capital, in our streets, the courtyards of our buildings, our stairways, our school playgrounds. It was to prepare the way for other roundups, in Marseille and throughout France—in other words, on both sides of the demarcation line. There were also other deportations, notably of gypsies. The infamy of the Vel d’Hiv was part of an undertaking that had no precedent and has no comparison: the Holocaust, the attempt to annihilate all the Jews on the European continent. Seventy-six thousand French Jews were deported to the death camps. Only 2,500 returned. Those women, men, and children could not have known the fate that awaited them. They could not even have imagined it. They trusted in France. They believed that the country of the great Revolution and …	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36806000
The Food and Drug Administration has gone to court to prevent the Colorado-based firm Regenerative Sciences from using stem cells developed in one part of your body (bone marrow) to repair damage in other parts of your body, such as joints. The FDA objects to the fact that these cells are chemicals, the use of which the agency has the power to regulate even though the cells are taken from your body to later be injected back into your body. The FDA is accustomed to the process by which it requires that many years and millions of dollars be spent to approve drugs developed in a laboratory before anyone is allowed to use them. Regardless of clinical results that show use of stem cells to be highly effective, the FDA finds it intolerable to let you use the cells in your own body without prior approval by a vast and expensive bureaucracy. It is a shame that no one told all of those who would benefit from stem-cell research that the benefits of such research would not actually be available to patients. Treatment of individuals does not comply with the FDA's regulatory paradigm. Personalized medicine may work new miracles, but care for the individual must be subordinated to supervision by a multitude of administrators. Growing government involvement in medicine, over generations, has resulted in control for the controller's sake. The most extreme example of this is the refusal of the FDA, in many cases, to forbid access by terminally ill patients to drugs that have passed the first phase of testing, which establishes safety. The FDA insists on protecting these patients from these drugs that have not been conclusively proven effective, taking pride in this perverse method of protecting the dead. As documented by the courageous Abigail Foundation, hundreds of thousands of these patients have died waiting for drugs already known to be safe – and which the FDA ultimately approved. The use of stem cells, should the FDA eventually give its approval, may still have to pass many other obstacles, thanks to the wonders enacted by Congress. In 2009, Congress created the Federal Coordinating Council for Comparative Effectiveness Research and handed it $400 million as a part of the stimulus bill. (Don't ask what that had to do with economic stimulus.) Now, anything that the FDA first decides is safe and effective must run an additional gauntlet of effectiveness. It will not make a difference whether a drug is effective for some people or most people – it must be effective for everyone. So much for personalized medicine. In 2010, another hurdle was created with the passage of Obamacare. The Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB) – “independent” because it is appointed by the president – decides whether it will allow payment for any care, including use of your stem cells. If you are on Medicare, and your physician accepts Medicare patients, you may not even use your own money for treatment with your own stem cells. No physician in Medicare is allowed to accept payment for anything not covered by Medicare. Economist and columnist Thomas Sowell lamented last year that in such situations “you are not free to use your life's savings to save your life.” All this from a loving government that claims it only wants you to place your medical care and, ultimately, all of your decisions and freedom in its hands so it can take care of you. And if that makes your joints ache, you may not be able to use your own money or your own stem cells to do anything about it.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36818000
Courtesy of the Arkansas Secretary of State’s Office Born on August 10, 1837, in Maury County, Tennessee, Eagle moved with his family to Arkansas when he was only two years old. The Eagle family, descendants of German immigrants who had settled in Pennsylvania in the colonial era, farmed first in Pulaski County and later outside Lonoke. In 1859, Eagle was elected deputy sheriff of Prairie County, a position he held when he enlisted in the Fifth Arkansas Mounted Rifles in June 1861. Entering the Confederate ranks as a private, he rose to the rank of captain and saw action at Hominy Creek and Pea Ridge and was taken prisoner at Murfreesboro, Tennessee. In May 1863, he returned to his unit as part of a prisoner exchange and fought in the battles at Jackson, Chickamauga, and Atlanta, where he was seriously wounded in the abdomen. Remarkably Eagle recovered and rejoined his troops after only two months. It was said that men either found God or lost Him forever during the Civil War. Eagle was among the former. Following the war he studied for the ministry and was ordained as a Baptist preacher. At the same time he managed the family farm, turning it into one of the most prosperous in the state. In 1872 friends placed Eagle's name in nomination for the state legislature and he was elected. He became actively involved in the Brooks-Baxter dispute in 1874, raising and commanding three companies in support of Elisha Baxter. Eagle married Mary Kavanaugh Oldham of Kentucky in 1882. Eagle's reputation as a farmer and a minister served him well in politics and contributed to his nomination as the Democratic Party's gubernatorial candidate in 1888. That year the party faced a formidable challenge from a coalition of blacks, Republicans, the Knights of Labor, and agrarian reformers who belonged to the Agricultural Wheel. Eagle won what many regard as the most corrupt election in Arkansas history. His rival C.M. Norwood protested the election results but to no avail. Eagle was re-elected by a larger margin in 1890. In Eagle's first term the legislature was little inclined to enact the more ambitious items in his agenda which included reforms in taxes, railroad regulation, education, roads, and prisons. His program fared a little better in his second term but the governor did manage over four years to restore a degree of harmony in the Democratic Party. In 1891 the legislature enacted a separate coach law requiring separate accommodations for blacks and whites traveling on public transportation. Eagle did not advocate such a measure, but allowed it to become law. Next: William M. Fishback	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36824000
One of the first things every FreeBSD user wishes to configure on his computer is e-mail access. However, a look in the mail section of the ports collection yields an amazing 148 applications dealing with e-mail. To make matters worse, some claim to be MUAs, MTAs, POP3 clients, or IMAP4 servers. These descriptions are not helpful if you are unfamiliar with these terms and just want to be able to send and receive e-mail. In this article, I'll give a "readers digest" version of some important e-mail concepts, with references to additional information. Then I'll walk you through the steps of configuring your FreeBSD system to send and retrieve e-mail, as well as configuring Pine. Ever since networks were invented, people have wanted a method of sending messages to each other. This led to the development of many messaging programs, most of which were proprietary, meaning you could only send a message to someone who used the same messaging system. Early messaging systems allowed you to send a message directly to another person's computer. However, this method doesn't work if the other computer is turned off or there is a problem with the physical connection between the two computers. Most messaging systems prefer to have all users send their messages to a centralized server for storage; since this server is always available, it can act like a post office. If a user has a mailbox on that server, he can periodically check his mailbox to see if he has received any messages. As the need for messaging grew, standards were developed to allow users to send messages to any user, regardless of the messaging system they used. One of these standards was X.400; another was SMTP, which became the standard used on the Internet. Two interesting points of views on these standards can be found at X.400 - The Better Internet and X.400 is Dead, Long Live X.400. Unless you work at a company that uses an internal X.400 messaging system, you probably use SMTP to send e-mail. The e-mail addresses you are used to seeing are actually SMTP addresses and look like this: firstname.lastname@example.org You'll note that an SMTP address looks similar to a web address, except it has a @ instead of the first period. The Internet already uses DNS (the Domain Name System) to locate a computer's IP address. When an administrator sets up a mail server, he will create an MX (mail exchange) record in his DNS database to indicate which computer in his network is the mail server. The name to the left of the @ indicates the name of a user's mailbox on that mail server. When the Internet messaging standard was being developed, it was decided to use the centralized server (post office) approach where users would check their mailboxes. The Internet uses TCP/IP, so new TCP/IP protocols needed to be created. Remember from last week that protocols define the rules of communication and that each TCP/IP protocol has an associated port number and at least one RFC which describes its operation. SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) describes the communications between mail servers. Its port number is 25, and its behavior is described in RFC 821. As its name implies, SMTP merely transfers mail from one server to another until it reaches the correct mail server. In order to ensure that the message makes it into the right mailbox on that server, POP3 (post office protocol 3) is used. POP3 uses port number 110 and is defined by RFCs 1734, 1957, 2449, and STD0053 (standard 53). POP3 is also responsible for the management of the mailboxes on a mail server. POP3 will not let a user retrieve the messages in their mailbox until they have been authenticated. If you are unfamiliar with the commands used by POP3 and SMTP, try the SMTP with Telnet tutorial. This tutorial shows how you yourself can issue SMTP and POP3 commands to send and receive e-mail. These are the same commands that are usually issued by messaging systems and e-mail programs. One other term you may come across is IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol version 4). IMAP4 is similar to POP3, but with extra features. POP3 assumes that a user will download all of the mail in their mailbox so the copy on the mail server can be deleted; the user will then disconnect from the mail server to read his e-mail "offline." With IMAP4, a user can download just the headers of his e-mail so he can decide which messages he wants to retrieve at this time; he can also delete messages directly at the mail server without having to download them first. Messaging software is usually divided into two separate components: the MTA (message transfer agent) and the MUA (message user agent). The MTA runs on the mail server and understands both SMTP and POP3. Therefore, it is able to send messages to other SMTP mail servers, receive messages from other SMTP mail servers, and store messages in the appropriate user mailboxes. Sendmail is the most common MTA in use on the Internet and comes bundled and ready to go on your FreeBSD system. Exim, Postfix, and Qmail are examples of other MTAs that you can build using FreeBSD's ports collection. The MUA is used by users to compose and read e-mail messages. Some MUAs have a POP3 client built-in, meaning you can check for new mail using the MUA; some do not, and will only display e-mail you've retrieved using a separate POP3 client. MUAs differ widely in their features; which MUA to use is a matter of personal preference. There are dozens of MUAs in the ports collection; some of the most popular are Mutt, Pine, and Xfmail. So, how do all these components work together when you send an e-mail message? You use your MUA (for example, Pine) to create an e-mail message; Pine will pass the message to the MTA (Sendmail), who will query DNS to find the address of the SMTP server hosting the mailbox of the user you are sending the message to. Sendmail will then use SMTP commands to transfer the message to that mail server. That mail server will use POP3 to put the message in the correct mailbox. Your recipient will use POP3 commands to retrieve the message and will use their favorite MUA to read the message and possibly compose a reply to it. Let's look at the configuration of a FreeBSD system that will be using Sendmail (the MTA), fetchmail (the POP3 client), and Pine (the MUA). Let's assume a very quick and dirty scenario in which I have one user on a single FreeBSD computer who wishes to use e-mail. sendmail, 2nd Edition Like any MTA, Sendmail is a highly configurable and complex program capable of providing messaging for large companies and even ISPs. However, you don't want to start messing with the default Sendmail configuration files unless you know what you're doing. If you ever need to get into more complicated Sendmail configurations, you should first read the book sendmail, 2nd Edition by Brian Costales and Eric Allman. You may also wish to investigate other alternatives such as Qmail or Exim. Fortunately, the default Sendmail configuration on your FreeBSD system will issue SMTP commands so you can send out e-mail to the world. Sendmail is enabled by default; if you want to double-check that you haven't disabled it at some point, issue the following command: more /etc/defaults/rc.conf \| grep sendmail sendmail_enable="YES" # Run the sendmail daemon (or NO). sendmail_flags="-bd -q30m" # Flags to sendmail (if enabled) sendmail_enable line is set to "NO", you'll have to become the superuser to change it to "YES" using your favorite text editor. Be sure to check your change carefully for typos before saving the file. While you're still the superuser, close all programs running on the computer and issue the following from the Alt-F1 terminal: When you receive a prompt, press the Enter key, then type: Watch the messages that appear on the screen; you should see a line similar to this: starting standard daemons: sendmail. Now that your MTA is running, you'll want to build the MUA. If you have installed the ports collection on your computer, become the superuser and: cd /usr/ports/mail/pine4 make && make install When that is finished, you'll also want to build the POP3 client so: cd ../fetchmail make && make install If you don't use the ports collection, both Pine and Fetchmail have packages that can be downloaded from FreeBSD Ports. Save the downloaded packages to this directory, then: cd /usr/packages pkg_add pine* pkg_add fetc* Now that we have the necessary software, we need to create a user account to use when sending and receiving e-mail. You can either create a user with the same name as the mailbox portion of your e-mail address, or you can create an alias to map an existing user to the mailbox name. Since my e-mail address is email@example.com, to keep my life simple on my home FreeBSD box, I create a user called genisis. When I wish to access my e-mail, I log in to my FreeBSD system as the user genisis. This trick is useful on small systems as it saves you editing an alias file. If you need to create a new user, become the superuser and type /stand/sysinstall and select Configure \| User Management \| User. The login ID should be the same as the name of the mailbox, so in my case it is genisis. Input a password you'll remember and tab over to OK. Arrow over to Cancel twice, then arrow over to Exit Install. Leave the superuser account and log in as the new user. Now type pine -- you should see the following message: Creating subdirectory "/home/yourusername/mail" where Pine will store its mail folders. This will be followed by Pine's greeting text. You'll notice that Pine's commands are always listed at the bottom of your screen. The ^ symbol means use your CTRL key along with the letter next to the ^. Once you've read the greeting, use ^E (Exit This Greeting). This will bring you to Pine's main menu. Since this is the first time you are running Pine as this user, you'll need to press S to enter Setup, then C to enter Config. The first three items should be edited as follows: You'll notice that Pine supports a lot of configuration values; if you find one that sounds interesting, highlight it and press the ? key. This will give a short, and usually helpful, description of what this configuration parameter does. I usually change the following on mine: Under Viewer Preferences -- I use the Enter key to put an [X] in the following values: This will highlight URLs and e-mail addresses so I can go directly to a web site or add an address to my address book. Once you've finished your configurations, press E to exit Setup and Y to commit changes. This will return you to the main menu where you can press A to edit the address book. The @ key will let you add an e-mail address; when you're finished, type ^X and the address should now show in your address book. Highlight a user you've added to your address book and press C to compose an e-mail message to them. Arrow down to Cc and input your e-mail address so you'll be sent a copy of the message. Once you've composed your message, make sure you are connected to your ISP and press ^X to send your message. Type y when Pine asks you if you want to send the message. It should say [Sending Mail], then [Message sent and copied to 'sent-mail'.] Use your < key to return to the main menu, then L to enter the folder list. If you arrow over to sent-mail and press enter, you should be able to view and read the message that you sent. One last point on Pine: it contains a built-in editor called Pico. Pico is a very easy editor to learn as its commands are always listed on the bottom of the screen. You don't have to run Pine to use Pico; if you want to edit a file with Pico, do this: Now that you've sent your first e-mail with Pine, you'll want to check that you received your copy of the e-mail by using the fetchmail program. Open up another virtual terminal, and log in as your user. I use fetchmail like so: fetchmail istar.caEnter password for firstname.lastname@example.org: fetchmail: IMAP connection to istar.ca failed: Connection refused 1 message for genisis at istar.ca (868 octets). reading message 1 of 1 (868 octets) flushed When you check your e-mail, substitute the value to the right of the @ in your e-mail address for istar.ca. If everything worked, fetchmail will download at least one message. Return to the terminal where you are running Pine and navigate to your inbox to read it. Note that fetchmail added genisis to my e-mail address for me because I am logged in as genisis. If I happened to be logged in as another user, say biko, it would use the address email@example.com instead. The fetchmail command would then fail as I don't have a mailbox called biko on Istar's mail server. However, if I'm logged in as biko and invoke fetchmail like so: fetchmail -u genisis istar.ca This will tell fetchmail to use the mailbox name of genisis instead of my login name of biko so I can retreive genisis' email. Fetchmail also has a verbose mode which can be used to view the various POP3 commands between fetchmail and the mail server. You can invoke verbose mode with -v and very verbose mode with -vv. Here is a portion of a session with fetchmail in verbose mode: Enter password for firstname.lastname@example.org: fetchmail -v istar.ca You should be able to recognize the LIST commands from the tutorial. Fetchmail is highly configurable through its use of switches; its manpage is well worth reading. Hopefully, we've cleared up some of the mystery regarding how e-mail works. Next week, we'll look at setting permissions. Dru Lavigne is a network and systems administrator, IT instructor, author and international speaker. She has over a decade of experience administering and teaching Netware, Microsoft, Cisco, Checkpoint, SCO, Solaris, Linux, and BSD systems. A prolific author, she pens the popular FreeBSD Basics column for O'Reilly and is author of BSD Hacks and The Best of FreeBSD Basics. Read more FreeBSD Basics columns. Discuss this article in the Operating Systems Forum. Return to the BSD DevCenter. Copyright © 2009 O'Reilly Media, Inc.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36828000
The volume measure provides an estimate of the amount of goods and services purchased by households. In Q3 2012 it increased by 0.4 per cent, meaning it was 4.8 per cent below the peak of pre recession spending in Q4 2007. The current price value of household spending (inflation included) shows how much UK households spent. In Q3 2012 it increased by 0.8 per cent on the quarter, meaning it was 10.5 per cent higher than Q4 2007. In Q3 2012, the value of UK household spending per head, in current price terms, was £3,840, an increase of 0.6 per cent on the quarter, £241 higher than in Q4 2007. Household Final Consumption Expenditure (HHFCE) includes spending on goods and services except buying or extending a house, investment in valuables (paintings, antiques) or purchasing second-hand goods. Explanations for these exceptions and the related concepts are available in the Consumer Trends guidance and methodology section. Household expenditure is used in the National Accounts to measure the contribution of households to economic growth and accounts for about 60 per cent of GDP. There are two measures: Current prices: which is the value of spending in a particular quarter measured in the prices at that time. Volume terms: which adjusts for price inflation and gives a better picture of whether households are purchasing more goods and services. Analysis in this section of the Statistical Release is conducted from 1997 because this is the period from which revisions were applied in Blue Book 2012. Starting in 1997 household final consumption expenditure: Increased in current prices to £220.5 billion (in Q1 2008), before falling to £212.2 billion in Q2 2009, then returning to predominantly positive growth to reach £243.3 billion in the present quarter. Increased to £228.5 billion in volume terms in Q4 2007, before falling to £213.3 billion in Q2 2009. It then increased slightly between Q3 2009 and Q4 2010, but since then has fallen back and is still lower than Q4 2010. Pre-2007, increases in household spending were a consequence of households facing higher prices and buying more goods and services. However, in 2008 and 2009 households spent less because they bought less. Since 2009, household spending has increased, but the volume of goods and services purchased has been broadly flat. In Q3 2012, the value of household spending in current prices increased by 0.8 per cent on the quarter, and by 4.0 per cent on the same quarter in 2011. The volume measure of household spending increased by 0.4 per cent on the quarter, and 1.3 per cent on the same quarter in 2011. The increases in current price estimates and relative weakness (small increases or falls) in the volume estimates (inflation adjusted) signify households are spending more for a lower volume of goods and services than in the past. Trends in household spending per head have followed a similar pattern to overall household expenditure. In Q3 2012 the value of current price spending per head was £3,840, an increase of £23 on the previous quarter. This continued the increases of the past year, between Q3 2011 and Q3 2012 household spending per head increased by £119. In Q1 1997 the value of household spending per head in current prices was £2,155. It reached £3,599 in Q4 2007 before falling to £3,435 in Q2 2009. Since that date the current price expenditure per head has continued to increase to reach the Q3 2012 level of £3,840. The volume measure (inflation adjusted) of household spending per head increased to £3,431 in Q3 2012, up £7 from Q2 2012. In the latest quarter, the largest share of household spending per head has been on ‘Housing’ (which includes spending on electricity, gas and rental charges). This accounts for almost 25 per cent of current price spending. In the latest quarter, spending on ‘Housing’ decreased to £942 per head, a fall of £5 on the previous quarter. The main driver of this fall was reduced spending on ‘Gas’, which fell by £18. This fall is emphasised by higher than average spending in Q2 2012, when The Met Office recorded the coldest April and June for over 20 years. Spending on ‘Transport’ is the next largest component of overall spending this quarter, with current expenditure rising to £565, a rise of £3 on the quarter. ‘Transport’ expenditure includes the purchase of vehicles, the fuel to power vehicles, and other modes of transport. This reflects an increase in purchases of 'Motor cars', which has increased by £10 to £164. With additional spending on Olympic and Paralympic tickets this quarter, spending per head on 'Recreational and sporting services' has increased by £9 to a record level of £37. In volume terms (adjusted for inflation), spending on ‘Recreation and Culture’ made the largest contribution to the positive growth in Q3 2012, increasing by 3.3 per cent on the quarter. ‘Recreational and Sporting Services’ (which has this quarter included sales of Olympic and Paralympic tickets), has made the main contribution to growth, increasing by 31.7 per cent this quarter. This is an increase of 34.3 per cent when compared to Q3 2011. ‘Transport’ also contributed to the overall increase in volume spending, with an increase of 1.3 per cent. Within ‘Transport’, 'Motor cars' were the main positive contribution to growth with an increase of 6.9 per cent when compared to the previous quarter, and 23.1 per cent when compared to Q3 2011. Even with the positive growth in the latest 2 quarters the volume of purchases in Q3 2012 is still weaker in comparison to before the contraction in GDP in 2008. The largest negative contribution in the current quarter can be seen in ‘Housing’ which has fallen by 2.1 per cent this quarter. In particular, there has been a large decrease in sales of ‘Gas’ which has fallen by 20.1 per cent in volume terms. This large decrease is partially due to a higher than average Q2 2012, when The Met Office recorded unseasonably low temperatures for the time of year, meaning households spent more on heating than normal. The household expenditure measure of prices is an important component of the GDP deflator which is used to determine price pressures in the economy. This quarter the seasonally adjusted household expenditure measure of prices (the deflator) increased by 0.4 per cent. The household expenditure deflator (seasonally adjusted) is now 2.8 per cent higher than in Q3 2011. This continues the trend of positive deflator growth since 2009 Q2, indicating the increased prices that households face when purchasing goods or services. Although the household expenditure measure of price inflation is positive (indicating increasing prices) the growth in the first three quarters of 2012 is weaker than in 2010 and 2011. This indicates that the rate of increase in prices has slowed. In Q3 2012, the largest increases in percentage terms in the household deflator were seen in ‘Housing’ and ‘Restaurants and Hotels’ which grew by 1.7 per cent and 1.3 per cent respectively. It should be noted that the CPI and RPI are the two official main measures of inflation. From Blue Book 2011, CPI has been used to deflate estimates of Household Expenditure. Households bought tickets, but the wider Olympic and Paralympic effects are more difficult to identify in consumer demand. During Q3 2012, London played host to the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic games. In line with National Accounts methods expenditure on ticket sales has been included in the latest quarter’s estimate, so that all expenditure is captured at the point the service was provided, rather than when the tickets were purchased. For household expenditure the ticket sales are included in the category 'Recreational and sporting services' which captures household spending on services provided by sports stadia, racecourses, golf courses and other sporting and recreation venues. This section uses current price data to analyse the changes in spending related to the Olympics. Spending on Olympic and Paralympic tickets accounted for almost £500 million of household spending in 'Recreational and sporting services'. The increase in spending between Q2 2012 and Q3 2012 was exceptional in terms of growth for this category at £591 million (34 per cent on the quarter) and took the total amount spent by households to £2.3 billion. Household spending grew consistently for ten years from £849 million in Q1 1997 to £1,692 million in Q1 2007. Household spending on 'Recreational and sporting services' was then flat for the four years between 2007 and 2011 (a period spanning the recession), with total spending remaining close to £1,500 million. In addition to changes in spending on recreational and sporting services it might be expected that other categories of household spending were affected; for example, changes in spending on eating at home, eating out, travel to Olympic and Paralympic venues and accommodation. If there were changes in households spending behaviour these might appear in spending on food, alcohol, transport, restaurants and hotels. Household spending on food for “eating at home” increased by 1.4 per cent while the volume measure of food showed that households bought 0.9 per cent more food, so the increase in spending was a combination of price changes and an increase in the amount of goods purchased. In terms of “eating out” in restaurants spending increased by 1.6 per cent and when adjusted for inflation increased by 0.3 per cent. But neither of these changes were particularly strong in the context of previous growth rates. This suggests that any positive or negative impact from the Olympic and Paralympic Games was counter-balanced by other changes in households spending for this category. Spending on accommodation services increased by 1.2 per cent quarter on quarter but fell by 0.2 per cent when adjusted for inflation. Again, because these estimates are not unusual for the quarter this suggests that any positive or negative impact from the Olympic and Paralympic Games was counter-balanced by other changes in spending on this category. In comparison, the Index of Services publication showed a 2.0 per cent increase in output adjusted for inflation in the Distribution, hotels and restaurants industry between Q3 and Q2 2012. This stronger growth could be related to the business to business spend or the impact of the distribution industry. In Q3 2012 the major changes in spending on 'Transport' by households were driven by the purchase of motor vehicles. These estimates are based on information from the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. Apart from the ticket sales the possible direction of any Olympic and Paralympic Games effect on household spending is difficult to isolate. This is because both UK and foreign tourists could be substituting their usual expenditure for Olympic and Paralympic Games related expenditure in the same category. For example, households spending on accommodation related to Olympic and Paralympic events may have been a substitute for another holiday, and therefore not created any additional hotel spending. Between Q1 1997 and Q1 2008 UK household spending abroad (imports of tourism) increased from £3.5 billion to £9.1 billion (current prices seasonally adjusted). Following this, spending fell rapidly until Q2 2009. Spending by UK households abroad was then relatively stable up until Q3 2011, after which it has grown in consecutive quarters to its current level. In Q3 2012 UK households spent £7.4 billion abroad, its highest level since Q1 2009. This increase in spending fits with the estimates produced in the ONS publication, Overseas Travel and Tourism which showed that: During the period July to September, UK residents made 1 per cent more visits abroad than in the corresponding period in 2011, and spent 7 per cent more on these visits. The Met Office also reported that summer 2012 (June, July and August) was the wettest in 100 years, which could have influenced UK households decision to holiday abroad. Foreign households spending in the UK (exports of tourism) was relatively flat between Q1 1997 and Q4 2003. Since then, the amount of money spent by foreign tourists when holidaying in the UK has increased from £3.7 billion to £6.0 billion in Q3 2012. Again the Overseas Travel and Tourism publication supports this: During the period July to September 2012, overseas residents made 4 per cent fewer visits to the UK than in the corresponding period in 2011. However, they spent 6 per cent more on these visits. Spending by foreign tourists holidaying in the UK has continued to grow since Q3 2010 in current prices seasonally adjusted terms. Whilst the latest quarter is continuing the trend, the fact that the increase in spending is not exceptional suggests that foreign tourists coming to the UK to attend Olympic and Paralympic events were replacing rather than adding to the normal numbers who holiday in the UK. The level of UK tourist spending abroad and foreign tourist spending in the UK is captured by the International Passenger survey (IPS). The foreign tourist expenditure is subsequently removed from the HHFCE estimate at National level (exports of goods and services). Exports of goods and services are therefore normally expressed as a negative value. Information on UK residents’ spending abroad is also collected by the IPS. This is then included in the HHFCE estimate at National level (imports of goods and services). When analysing patterns of imports and exports of tourism, there are a number of influencing factors, for example changing popularity of holiday destinations and currency exchange rates. In common with all components of UK Gross Domestic Product (GDP), household final consumption expenditure (HHFCE) estimates are subject to the revisions policy of the UK National Accounts. This allows revisions to estimates to be made at particular times of the year. In Q3 2012, the revisions to total household final consumption expenditure have been made from the first quarter of 2011. Revisions between the previous edition of Consumer Trends (Q2 2012) and the latest HHFCE estimates are summarised in Table 1 ‘Revisions to Household Final Consumption Expenditure’. They reflect updated data from suppliers, as well as adjustments to HHFCE as a result of the GDP balancing process. \|Revisions to value (current prices)\|\|Revisions to growth (current prices)\|\|Revisions to growth (volume measure)\| Consumer Trends guidance offers full details regarding this publication. Date of this publication: 21 December, 2012. Next Edition: The next edition of Consumer Trends, Q4 2012, will be published on 27 March 2013. Estimates will be consistent with Blue Book 2012. ONS would like to invite users of the household expenditure and income estimates to a user seminar. The seminar will cover the Consumer Trends and Economic Position of Households publications, and the detailed estimates contained within, which feed into the estimate of the size of the UK economy (GDP). This event will offer the opportunity for suppliers and users of the data to discuss their priorities. Household Final Consumption Expenditure estimates produced in Consumer Trends are produced according to the National Accounts timetable. The preliminary estimate of GDP for the fourth quarter of 2012 will be published on 25 January 2013, followed by the second estimate of GDP on 27 February 2013. The next full set of quarterly national accounts will be published on 27 March 2013. Basic Quality Information for Consumer Trends Statistical Bulletin Summary Quality reports A Summary Quality Report (134.3 Kb Pdf) for this Statistical Bulletin can be found on the National Statistics website. Key quality issues Household expenditure volume series are chainlinked annually. Estimates in this Consumer Trends are now based on 2009 price structures, i.e the chained volume measure estimate in 2009 equals the current price value of expenditure in 2009. Growth in each year up to and including 2009 is calculated at average prices of the previous year. Growth from 2009 onwards is calculated at average prices of 2009. Volume series are only additive for the most recent periods; annual data for 2009 onwards and quarterly data for quarter one 2010 onwards. Common pitfalls in interpreting series: very few statistical revisions arise as a result of ‘errors’ in the popular sense of the word. All estimates, by definition, are subject to statistical ‘error’ but in this context the word refers to the uncertainty inherent in any process or calculation that uses sampling, estimation or modelling. Most revisions reflect either the adoption of new statistical techniques or the incorporation of new information which allows the statistical error of previous estimates to be reduced. Only rarely are there avoidable ‘errors’ such as human or system failures and such mistakes are made quite clear when they do occur. Household Final Consumption Expenditure estimates published in Consumer Trends are a component of the GDP expenditure approach. However, the preliminary estimate for GDP is produced based on the GDP output approach. Historic experience shows that the output approach provides the best timely approach to measuring GDP growth. GDP growth according to the expenditure and income approaches is therefore brought into line with that recorded by output. Further Quarterly National Accounts, Quarterly Sector Accounts and Financial Accounts tables are available in the United Kingdom Economic Accounts. Details of the policy governing the release of new data are available from the press office. View the latest podcasts on Youtube Code of practice National Statistics are produced to high professional standards set out in the UK Statistics Authority's Code of Practice for Official Statistics. They undergo regular quality assurance reviews to ensure that they meet customer needs. They are produced free from any political interference. For information about the content of this publication, contact Gareth Clancy. Tel: +44 (0)1633 45 5889. Other customer enquiries ONS Customer Contact Centre Tel: 0845 601 3034 International: +44 (0)845 601 3034 Minicom: 01633 815044 Fax: 01633 652747 Post: Room 1.101, Government Buildings, Cardiff Road, Newport, South Wales NP10 8XG. Tel: 0845 604 1858 (8.30am – 5.30pm weekdays). Details of the policy governing the release of new data are available by visiting www.statisticsauthority.gov.uk/assessment/code-of-practice/index.html or from the Media Relations Office email: email@example.com \|Gareth Clancy\|\|+44 (0)1633 455889\|\|Household Expenditure,\|\|firstname.lastname@example.org\|	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36831000
Edited By: Sports Medicine Team Last updated: Thursday, December 31, 2009 \| Shoulder instability (also called subluxation) and shoulder dislocation are potentially painful and disabling conditions, and the treatments for these conditions vary widely depending upon the severity of symptoms and signs. Many patients will improve with the appropriate bracing and physical therapy. However, for those patients who require surgery, arthroscopic shoulder surgery should be used to both define and diagnose the exact nature of the joint instability. In most cases, the problem can be treated using specially-designed instruments working through very small incisions with a minimum of discomfort and without the need for a hospital stay. The terms “instability”, “subluxation” and “dislocation” mean different things to different people. In addition, the term “shoulder instability” is a term that encompasses a vast spectrum of shoulder problems. In the simplest sense, the shoulder is like a “ball and socket” joint. Figure 1a shows the front view of a right shoulder. Figure 1b shows the view from behind of a right shoulder. For the sake of simplicity, the surrounding muscles and tendons are not shown, but the glenoid (socket) and humeral head are labled. Figure 2 shows an MRI view looking down through the shoulder joint from above. The glenoid and humeral head are labled. (Figures 1a and 1b are redrawn from Warner et al. Am J Sports Med 1992:20:675) Subluxation and dislocation both represent problems that occur when the “ball” (or humeral head) doesn’t stay centered correctly in the “socket” (or glenoid). These problems may manifest themselves in a variety of ways; from pain with the normal activities of daily living, to the inability to lift the arm without dislocating the joint, and everything in between. For many patients, the diagnosis is made in the emergency room after they have dislocated their shoulder during sports or an accident. Many other people who have subtle instability can be misdiagnosed as having “rotator cuff tear” or “bursitis”. An experienced shoulder surgeon or sports medicine surgeon can usually recognize the signs of shoulder instability. Often, the diagnosis is confirmed using Magnetic Resonance Imaging techniques (MRI), however many people can have a “normal MRI” appearance and debilitating symptoms—so a thorough clinical examination by an experienced orthopedic shoulder surgeon is recommended. Video 1 shows a patient being examined prior to surgery. The right shoulder can be subluxed out of joint in the anterior direction. Note: Video may be slow to load on non-broadband internet connections. Modem users may wish to right click (or Command click for Macs) and save the file locally for viewing. For many people, a conservative approach with physical therapy and a home-based strengthening program can resolve the pain or symptoms of instability. Those who do not improve with therapy, high-demand athletes, and overhead workers may require surgery to achieve a functional, painless range of motion. When surgery is required, it is of utmost importance that the surgeon look for and address all the potential causes of instability in the joint. If any of the factors contributing to instability is not addressed, the surgery will fail. Arthroscopic shoulder surgery, or shoulder arthroscopy is a valuable tool to diagnose and treat shoulder instability and dislocation. Using the scope, an experienced surgeon can evaluate the entire shoulder joint and can usually treat the conditions leading to instability through very small incisions using specially-designed instruments and devices. In a small subpopulation of patients, a formal open surgery (using an incision about 3” to 5” long) will be required to correctly address the problem(s) encountered. The goal of surgery is to re-establish the stability of the humeral head in the shallow glenoid socket without compromising the shoulder range of motion. This is a delicate balance, and the results are most predictable in the hands of a highly-specialized surgical team that is familiar with the various techniques and instruments and who perform the surgery often. Such a team will maximize the benefits of the surgery and minimize the risks. The procedure can usually be performed within a few hours under general (or nerve block) anaesthesia, and the patient can be discharged to home with a minimum of discomfort. In addition, the scope allows the surgeon to take pictures and video to show to the patient what problem(s) existed and how the problem was addressed. Patients undergoing arthroscopic shoulder stabilization require a limited period in a sling (usually 2- to 3-weeks) with some simple range-of-motion exercises at home. They will require fairly intensive outpatient physical therapy for re-establishing pain-free motion and strengthening the shoulder muscles for a few months. Normally, a person can return to most forms of normal activity within 6 weeks, and limited athletics between 10 and 14 weeks. A return to all activities and even contact athletics can usually be accomplished between 14 and 24 weeks, depending on the sport. Watch a video: Characteristics of shoulder dislocation, subluxation, and instability By definition, all forms shoulder dislocation and shoulder instability share the common bond that the humeral head (or “ball” at the top of the arm bone or humerus) does not stay adequately centered on the glenoid (or “socket” attached to the shoulder blade). This instability can be subtle, manifesting as pain at the shoulder or upper arm with overhead activities; mild to moderate, manifesting as the inability to perform overhead activities without apprehension (or the sense that the shoulder could dislocate); or severe, in which the shoulder can easily dislocate voluntarily or involuntarily during any activities, overhead or otherwise. Figure 3 shows the humeral head dislocated from the glenoid socket (redrawn from Burkhart et al. Arthroscopy. 2000:16:7:682) A dislocation following trauma (such as a sports injury or auto accident) may be obvious, requiring emergent relocation. However, subtle instabilities can be difficult to diagnose correctly in the hands of physicians who do not normally examine the shoulder. These are not infrequently misdiagnosed as “rotator cuff tears” or “bursitis”. In addition, shoulder instability can occur in concert with other shoulder problems, so if the instability is not recognized and treated, the results of a rotator cuff surgery or surgery to remove “bone spurs” may not alleviate the symptoms. Most patients with significant instability will have the sense that the shoulder “feels like it could come out of joint” when in certain positions, or have the sense that the shoulder “pops out and in” frequently with activities. The wide range of problems that contribute to shoulder instability can be defined in several ways, including: In fact, the severity, direction and mechanism all influence how the shoulder should best be treated, so all of these factors must be considered. Severe shoulder instability, manifested by frequent dislocations and subluxations during normal activities of daily living are less likely to resolve without surgery, but are also most difficult to treat. A subset of patients who may not improve with surgery are those who voluntarily or willfully dislocate their shoulders regularly, or those who are not willing or not able to undergo the appropriate postoperative rehabilitation. Dislocations and subluxations can also occur in people without any inciting event. This is called atraumatic instability, and can be more difficult to treat. Many people who suffer from atraumatic instability are usually also “double jointed” or “ligamentously lax” in other joints. Because the shoulder is the joint in the human body with the largest range of motion (i.e. it is relatively less stable anyway), the extra laxity or give in the shoulder can predispose it to subluxation or dislocation. The most common direction for dislocation and subluxation (instability) to occur is to the front of the shoulder (anterior dislocation). Anterior dislocations and subluxations are frequently associated with a disruption of the stabilizing ligaments at the front edge of the glenoid (this ligament tear is termed a “Bankart lesion”), but can occur in the absence of any discrete injury as well. True posterior dislocations are rare, and are usually the result of seizures or major trauma. Posterior subluxation, however, can occur after repetitive athletic trauma, particularly in weight lifters and contact athletes in sports such as hockey, lacrosse, and football. Persons who have atraumatic instability due to laxity of their shoulder ligaments may sublux or dislocate their shoulder in more than one direction; this is called “multidirectional instability” or “MDI”. Multidirectional instability is usually related more to an inherent elasticity in the connective tissues around the shoulder joint, and not to a discreet injury to any particular ligaments of the shoulder capsule. Physical therapy is the mainstay of treatment for mild multidirectional instability (MDI). More severe MDI may require surgery if a patient is to maintain an active lifestyle. Similar conditionsUnless a true dislocation occurs that must be relocated in the emergency room, the presentation of shoulder instability can be subtle, and the diagnosis can be confused with several other conditions. Instability of the shoulder joint can lead to shoulder pain or apprehension (the avoidance or of overhead activities due to a sense that the shoulder could dislocate). However, there are many other causes of pain and apprehension in the shoulder, including rotator cuff tears, shoulder arthritis or degenerative changes, or impingement (friction between the top of the rotator cuff and bone spurs at the bony roof of the shoulder joint). Not uncommonly, these different problems can occur simultaneously (i.e. instability can lead to arthritis or to rotator cuff tears or to impingment, and alternatively a rotator cuff tear can lead to subtle instability). For these reasons, a comprehensive shoulder examination by an experienced physician is important. Incidence and risk factors The shoulder joint had the greatest range of motion of all the joints in the human body and every individual is unique in terms of the amount of ligamentous laxity (or flexibility) they have. For this reason, the “stability” of the shoulder joint is relative from person to person and shoulder to shoulder. In general terms, in the “normal” shoulder the humeral head (ball) should not travel more than a few millimeters in any direction from the center the glenoid (socket)—it should behave essentially as a “ball and socket joint”. “Instability” of the shoulder joint should therefore be defined as excessive motion of the head away from the center of the socket (glenoid) that produces pain or the inability to perform activities of daily living, overhead motions, or sports. The same degree of movement causing symptoms in one person may be perfectly acceptable to another. It is therefore difficult to give an exact percentage of persons who suffer from any particular form of instability. Once a young person (who is still growing) suffers a shoulder dislocation, it is statistically likely that they will dislocate again. Studies have shown that when a dislocation occurs in a child with open growth plates, there is up to a 100% chance that they will dislocate again. In young adults (after the growth plates begin closing but younger than 20 years old), the re-dislocation rate is about 55% to 95%. People who suffer their first dislocation after 30 or 40 years of age are much less likely to suffer another dislocation without a significant traumatic event (usually less than 10% to 15%). Unfortunately, older persons who dislocate their shoulders may develop other problems as a result of the dislocation, such as fractures at the joint or rotator cuff tears. Risk factors for shoulder instability include: A physician can diagnose shoulder instability by reviewing the patients history, performing a thorough physical examination and shoulder examination, and through the use of imaging techniques such as X-rays and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The physical examination and history remain the most reliable means to diagnose instability, because several persons will have no abnormalities present on X-ray or MRI. X-rays may show bony injuries to the glenoid socket (termed a “bony Bankart lesion”) or to the humeral head (termed a “Hill-Sach’s lesion”). MRI may demonstrate tears of the stabilizing ligaments of the shoulder joint (termed “labral tears”, “capsular disruptions” or “soft tissue Bankart lesion”. Alternatively, the MRI may demonstrate an abnormally large or “loose” shoulder capsule (joint). Figure 4 shows an MRI of an unstable shoulder. The stabilizing ligaments are torn from the front of the glenoid (arrow). Figure 5 shows an arthroscopic view of the ligament attachments (L) the metal probe is on the labrum, where the ligament attaches. The top view is a normal attachment, the middle is a mild tear, below is a severely torn ligament attachment. There are no medications that can treat the excess laxity or instability of the shoulder joint. However, some medications such as Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) will frequently help to ease pain or symptoms related to the unstable shoulder. These medications can be quite helpful, but can also have side effects and therefore should be taken under the supervision of a physician experienced in their use. Injections of steroids (cortisone) or lubricants (such as hyaluronic acid) into the shoulder have little role in the treatment of instability and carry some risk of infection. For any medications taken, patients should learn: The stability of the shoulder joint is dependent upon a balance of several factors, including: Of all these factors, the one that can be addressed most easily is the strength and function of the rotator cuff muscles. Frequently, the extra laxity of the shoulder joint capsule can be overcome by strengthening the muscles around the joint that are used to stabilize the humeral head in the glenoid socket. These muscles can be strengthened effectively with a supervised and home physical therapy program designed to selectively balance and strengthen the four muscles around the shoulder that comprise the “cuff” ( called the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis). Most general shoulder exercisers in the gym do not adequately isolate and address rotator cuff strengthening, so it is important to learn which exercises are most beneficial. If the exercises are performed gently several times per day on an ongoing basis, many patients will obtain relief of their symptoms and suffer few or no episodes of instability. It is important for patients to learn the possible risks of physical therapy as well as its cost. The anticipated effectiveness of physical therapy is dependent upon the degree and nature of the instability. Possible benefits of arthroscopic shoulder surgery In persons who have recurrent episodes of shoulder subluxation or dislocation who continue to have instability despite an adequate trial of physical therapy, surgical stabilization of the shoulder is the most effective method to restore comfort and eliminate the symptoms. A qualified shoulder surgeon can isolate the factors contributing to instability, including tears of the glenoid socket “lip” (or “labrum”), tears of the shoulder capsule and ligaments, bony fractures of the glenoid socket or humeral head, the integrity of the rotator cuff tendons, or excessive laxity or volume of the shoulder capsule. Video 2 shows a short “diagnostic arthroscopy” of the shoulder, a virtual tour around the joint. This person has a normal glenohumeral ligament attachment, but a partial-thickness rotator cuff tear. Video 3 shows the “diagnostic arthroscopy” in which the ligament attachments at the front of the shoulder are torn. There are different procedures to address each of these problems, and most can be done on an outpatient basis using the arthroscope and special instruments designed to be used through very small incisions (3 to 4 incisions about 1-cm long). Note: Videos may be slow to load on non-broadband internet connections. Modem users may wish to right click (or Command click for Macs) and save the file locally for viewing. The overwhelming majority of patients who undergo arthroscopic shoulder surgery to address shoulder instability will have a successful result without recurrent problems with subluxation, dislocation, or pain.Watch Videos: Who should consider arthroscopic shoulder surgery? Arthroscopic or open shoulder surgery is considered for instability when: The results of arthroscopic and open shoulder stabilization procedures are most effective when the patient follows a simple post-operative rehabilitation program. Thus, the patient’s motivation and dedication are important elements of the partnership. What happens without surgery? Persons who subluxate or dislocate their shoulder on a frequent basis (on a weekly or daily basis) may lose valuable time from work, progress to more frequent subluxations or dislocations, or worse: do permanent damage to the shoulder joint or develop premature arthritis. It is impossible to know if a person who suffers a single dislocation or subluxation will continue to have this problem. Persons who are young (less than 20 years old) are likely to suffer from recurrent events. Persons who are older (older than 40 years old) are unlikely to have recurrent events. However, it is advisable to have the shoulder evaluated after any significant event of instability to be sure that there has been no significant damage to the joint. After an initial dislocation or subluxation, an experienced surgeon will usually recommend bracing and physical therapy to try and limit the possibility of recurrence. Several options are available to the patient and the surgeon, depending on the problem that causes the instability. In most cases, the problem to be treated will dictate the nature of the surgical procedure performed. In the hands of a surgeon who is experienced with arthroscopic shoulder surgery, almost all of the following procedures can be performed alone or together to restore joint stability and eliminate pain using arthroscopic techniques: Patients who have large bony fractures at the glenoid socket or humeral head (“bony Bankart lesions” or “Hill-Sach’s defects) or those who have true multi-directional instability (MDI) may require an open procedure (using a larger incision) to adequately stabilize the shoulder. EffectivenessIn the hands of an experienced surgeon, shoulder stabilization can be very effective in eliminating instability and restoring comfort and function to the shoulder of a well-motivated patient. The greatest benefits are often the ability to perform the usual activities of daily living, overhead activities, and sports without the fear of subluxation, dislocation or pain. As long as the shoulder is cared for properly and subsequent traumatic injuries are avoided, the benefits on stabilization should be permanent. A dislocated shoulder (one that is “out of joint”) must be relocated on an emergent basis. Any patient who thinks they have had a dislocation, or who can not move the shoulder appropriately after an injury must be evaluated in the emergency room as soon as possible to avoid a possible permanent injury to the nerves or blood vessels around the shoulder. Most often, the dislocated shoulder can be relocated into the joint with a mild sedative in the emergency room. X-rays must be taken to confirm that the shoulder has been appropriately relocated. Unless the shoulder can not be relocated or is stuck “out of joint”, surgical shoulder stabilization is not an emergency. The relocated shoulder is likely to remain in the joint as long as the patient is willing to wear a sling or brace and avoid motions that create un “unstable” feeling. Many persons who suffer their first episode of instability (particularly persons over the age of 30-40 years) may never require surgery to have a fully-functional, stable shoulder after an adequate period of bracing and physical therapy. Persons who suffer frequent or multiple dislocations may wish to have surgery to stabilize the shoulder, but such patients have time to adequately become informed about the surgical options and select an experienced surgeon. Before surgery is undertaken, the patient needs to: RisksThe risks of arthroscopic or open shoulder stabilization procedures include but are not limited to the following: Infection, temporary or permanent injury to the nerves and blood vessels around the shoulder, excessive stiffness of the joint, recurrent instability or loosening of the joint, recurrent tears of the rotator cuff, pain, allergic reactions to any implants or suture materials used to stabilize the joint, the need for additional surgeries. The anaesthesia used during the procedure also has some risks, that can be addressed by the anaesthesiologist. The experienced and cautious surgical team uses special techniques to minimize all the above risks. Adverse events following shoulder surgery are extremely rare, but they can not be completely eliminated. Managing riskMany of the risks of surgical stabilization can be effectively managed if they are promptly identified and treated. Infections may require a wash-out of the joint, and rarely require removal of any implanted materials. Blood vessel or nerve injuries are rare, and most resolve spontaneously. Occasionally, such an injury may require surgical repair. Excessive stiffness of the joint is rare in the person who is cooperative with the postoperative rehabilitation program, and most of the stiffness will respond to exercises. Excessive laxity or loosening of the joint is a sign that the surgery has not completely addressed the instability, and may require further evaluation and management. If a patient has questions or concerns about the “normal” course after surgery, the surgeon should be informed as soon as possible and be available to explain the expected course and outcome. Surgical shoulder stabilization is considered for healthy and motivated individuals in whom instability interferes with shoulder function and activity. Successful surgery depends upon a partnership between the patient and the experienced shoulder surgeon. Patients should optimize their health to prepare for surgery. Smoking should be stopped one month prior to surgery, and be avoided altogether for at least three months following surgery. Any heart, lung, kidney, bladder, tooth, or gum problems should be managed before the shoulder surgery. Any active infections will delay elective surgery to optimize the benefit and reduce the risk of shoulder joint infection. The surgeon should be made aware of any health issues, including allergies and non-prescription and prescription medications being taken. Some medications will need to be held or stopped prior to surgery. For instance, aspirin and anti-inflammatory medications (Advil®, Motrin®, Alleve®, and other NSAIDs) should be discontinued as they will affect intra-operative and postoperative bleeding. Before surgery, patients should consider the limitations, alternatives and risks to surgery. Patients must recognize that the procedure is a process and not an event: the benefit of the surgery depends a large part on the patient’s willingness to apply effort to rehabilitation after surgery. Patients must plan on being less active and functional for 12 to 16 weeks after the surgery. Driving, shopping and performing overhead chores, lifting, and repetitive arm activities may be difficult or impossible during this time. Plans for the necessary assistance need to be made before surgery. For individuals who live alone or those without readily-available help, arrangements for home help should be made well in advance. TimingUnless the shoulder is dislocated or stuck “out of joint”; shoulder stabilization surgery can be delayed until the time that suits the patient best. Persons who suffer several subluxations or dislocations on a daily or weekly basis risk further injuries to the shoulder joint or capsule that could compromise the surgical result. CostsThe surgeon’s office should provide a reasonable estimate of: Surgical teamShoulder stabilization, particularly when done through the arthroscope is a technically demanding procedure that must be performed by an experienced, specially trained shoulder surgeon in a medical center accustomed to performing complex arthroscopic shoulder procedures on a weekly basis. Patients should inquire as to the specific training the surgeon has undergone to perform such procedures (i.e. a fellowship-trained, sports medicine specialist familiar with arthroscopic techniques and equipment) and also as to how many of these procedures the surgeon and the medical center perform on a yearly basis. Finding an experienced surgeonWhile surgeons who are capable of performing simple arthroscopic procedures are relatively easy to find, complex reconstructive surgeries in the shoulder (like arthroscopic stabilization procedures and arthroscopic rotator cuff repairs) demand a degree of highly-specialized training. Many capable surgeons will have completed a fellowship (additional year or two of training) specifically in arthroscopic techniques, shoulder surgery and sports medicine. A qualified sports medicine surgeon should be comfortable with both open (traditional) and arthroscopic techniques, and tailor the appropriate treatment to the problem to be addressed. Fellowship-trained surgeons may be located through university schools of medicine, county medical societies, or state orthopedic societies. Other resources include professional societies such as the American Orthopedic Society for Sports Medicine (AOSSM) or the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeon’s Society (ASES). FacilitiesArthroscopic shoulder stabilization is usually performed in a qualified ambulatory surgical center or major medical center that performs such procedures on a regular basis. These centers have surgical teams, facilities, and equipment specially designed for this type of surgery. For those patients who require an overnight stay, the centers have nurses and therapists who are accustomed to assisting patients in their recovery from shoulder stabilization. Shoulder stabilization, either arthroscopic or through an open incision is a highly technical procedure; each step plays a critical role in the outcome. After the patient is comfortably positioned in a seated position and anesthetic has been administered, the shoulder is given a sterile washed and draped for surgery. The surgeon begins by examining the shoulder while the patient is asleep or the shoulder relaxed so he or she can assess the relative stability of the joint, the range of motion, and feel for any abnormal grinding or catching of the joint. Next, one or two very small (1cm) incisions, or “portals” are made, usually one in the front and one behind the shoulder joint. Through these small portals, hollow instruments called “canulas” are placed that irrigate the inside of the shoulder joint with sterile saline and “inflate” the joint with clear fluid. The canulas allow the placement of an arthroscopic camera and specially designed instruments within the shoulder joint. Figure 6 shows the 2 healed incisions several weeks following an instability repair. The surgeon maneuvers the camera around the joint while he or she watches a video monitor of what the camera “sees”. A highly-skilled surgeon can evaluate all of the important structures within the joint, test their stability and integrity, and look for signs of ligament injuries, cartilage wear (or arthritis), and bony injuries that can be caused by or lead to shoulder instability or dislocation. (see video 2) Most often, the surgeon will take photographs of the interior of the joint to help to explain to the patient what was found, and how it was corrected. This portion of the surgery is called a “diagnostic arthroscopy” and is absolutely necessary to assure the success of any surgical procedure for shoulder instability (even if an MRI had been obtained prior to the procedure). This is because the arthroscopic examination of the joint is still the “gold standard”, or best way to understand ALL of the factors that could be present and may need to be addressed to treat the problem. Once the surgeon understands what structures within the joint are injured or torn, he or she will choose the best possible surgical approach to treat the problem. A highly-skilled surgeon who is comfortable with the anatomy of the joint and who has exceptional skills with specially-designed arthroscopic instruments and implants can usually address the problem without the need for large incisions. For the most common types of shoulder instability or dislocation, the ligaments at the front of the shoulder that hold the head in the glenoid socket are torn or loose from the lip of the glenoid (or labrum). Using special implants called “suture anchors” the surgeon can repair the ligaments and labrum in place and tighten them as necessary. These anchors are buried into the bone, and most are made of absorbable materials that will disintegrate over time after the shoulder has healed. Figure 7a shows the labrum (L) torn away from the glenoid surface. Figure 7b shows the labrum (L) repaired to the glenoid using three suture anchors. Other injuries, such as tears of the origin of the biceps muscle tendon (called a SLAP lesion) can also be seen and addressed during the procedure. Figure 8a shows the biceps (bi) and labrum torn away from the top of the glenoid. Figure 8b shows the biceps (bi) and labrum repaired to the labrum using a suture anchor. Very rarely, a patient will have severe dislocation is multiple directions (multidirectional instability or MDI) and will require an “open” approach to the shoulder joint through and incision in the front (or in very rare cases, in the back) of the joint. This incision is made in such a way to access the joint without damaging the important deltoid or pectoralis muscles that are important for the shoulder’s power. The open surgical approach requires that one of the rotator cuff muscles be moved or split to access the joint and repaired after the procedure is completed. During this open approach, the capsule of the joint is tightened by repositioning the excess or loose ligament tissue into a more suitable position, akin to making a pleat in a pant. The indications for open shoulder stabilization procedures differ according to the degree of instability, and the comfort level and skill of the surgeon with arthroscopic approaches. At the conclusion of the procedure, any incisions are closed using absorbable or removable sutures. Frequently, a surgeon will insert a temporary, easily-removable catheter (a tiny, flexible plastic tube) into the shoulder joint that is connected to an automatic pump filled with anesthetic solution. This “pain pump” can help considerably with postoperative discomfort, and is removed by the patient or their family 2 or 3 days after surgery. The patient’s shoulder is placed into a postoperative sling to protect the shoulder during the early postoperative period. The absorbable “suture anchors” or implants are gradually absorbed and the sutures attached are incorporated into the healing tissues. When metallic anchors are used (a matter of surgeon preference), these are buried in the bone, and do not affect the integrity of the bone or the shoulder joint. Further surgery is NOT normally required to remove the suture anchors after healing. Arthroscopic and traditional open shoulder stabilization procedures may be performed under a general anesthetic or under a brachial plexus regional block that makes the shoulder and arm numb during and for several hours after the procedure. The patient may wish to discuss their preferences with the anesthesiologist prior to surgery. Length of arthroscopic shoulder surgeryThe procedure takes approximately 2 to 2 1/2 hours, however, the preoperative preparation and postoperative recovery can easily double this time. Patients usually spend 1 or 2 hours in the recovery room. Patients who undergo arthroscopic procedures almost always are comfortable enough to be discharged home. Those undergoing more traditional open procedures may require one night’s hospitalization. Pain and pain management Recovery of comfort and function following shoulder stabilization procedures continues over a few months. Initially, the shoulder must be protected from overuse or stressing the repair while the shoulder heals using a sling and a very strict rehabilitation program. Ironically, many patients who undergo arthroscopic procedures feel very comfortable long before the healing has taken place, probably because the approach spares the patient from large incisions and dissection through the muscle tissues. Immediately postoperatively, the patient is given strong medications (such as morphine or Demerol) to help with the discomfort of swelling and the work of the surgery. Frequently, at the end of the operation a surgeon can insert a temporary, easily-removable catheter (a tiny, flexible plastic tube) into the shoulder joint that is connected to an automatic pump filled with anesthetic solution. This “pain pump” can help considerably with postoperative discomfort, and is removed by the patient or their family 2 or 3 days after surgery. Most patients are discharged to home with a prescription for oral pain medications (such as hydrocodone or Tylenol with codeine) and an anti-inflammatory medication. After the “pain pump” is removed 2 or 3 days after the operation, the oral medications alone are sufficient for occasional discomfort. Use of medicationsImmediately postoperatively, pain medications are given through an intravenous (IV) line. Patients who require a hospital stay are placed on patient controlled anesthesia (PCA) to allow them to administer their own medication as it is needed. Most patients will go home with a “pain pump” catheter in place connected to an automatic pump that will administer pain medication directly into the shoulder at a constant rate for 2 or 3 days. Oral pain medications are rarely required after the first week or two following the procedure. Effectiveness of medicationsPain medications are very powerful and effective. Their proper use lies in the balancing of their pain-relieving effect and their other, less desirable effects. Good pain control is an important part of appropriate postoperative management. Important side effects The medication in the “pain pump” has a similar effect to the medications used by the dentist during dental procedures—it “numbs” the shoulder joint slightly so that the pain is minimal. These medications have few side effects, and do not cause drowsiness or gastrointestinal side effects. Other pain medications (taken through the IV or orally) can cause drowsiness, slowness of breathing, difficulties in emptying the bladder or bowel, nausea, vomiting, itching, or allergic reactions. Patients who have been on pain medications for a long time prior to surgery may find that the usual doses of pain medication are less effective. For some patients, balancing the benefits and side effects of medications is challenging. Patients should notify their surgeon if they have had previous difficulties with pain medications or pain control. Most patients will not require a hospital stay after a shoulder stabilization procedure, particularly if done through the arthroscope. Generally, a person must spend an hour or two in the recovery room until the anesthetic medication has worn off. The instructions for the care of their shoulder, bathing, use of medications, and potential problems are explained to the patient and their family prior to discharge. Recovery and rehabilitation in the hospital When the patient is ready for discharge they should have been explained: Because fluid is used to expand the shoulder joint during arthroscopic procedures, the shoulder is frequently swollen for a few days following surgery. Also, the incisions will “weep” fluid for a couple of days postoperatively, and the dressing can become damp. The patient is asked to refrain from using the shoulder and arm EVEN IF IT FEELS GOOD for 3 to 4 weeks after the procedure and remove the sling only to perform a strict set of limited exercises of the wrist, elbow and shoulder. These exercises will be explained prior to discharge. Some patients find that finding a comfortable position to sleep can be difficult for the first few days. Some tricks to help sleeping are to: For the first 3 or 4 weeks, a home program of rest and limited self-therapy is usually recommended. Then, as healing has progressed, the arm is removed from the sling and a formal rehabilitation program is started with the physical therapist, on an outpatient basis. Some early motion is important after shoulder stabilization, but unrestricted motion can endanger the success of the procedure. For the first 3 or 4 weeks, the patient is scheduled to see a physical therapist once or twice per week to monitor the progress of healing and to reiterate the proper exercises. After a few weeks, the sling is removed, and a more comprehensive rehabilitation program is started. During this period, the therapist works closely with the patient to re-establish a normal range of motion. The therapist and patient work together, but the patient is expected to do “homework” on a daily basis so that constant improvement is achieved. Once a normal range of motion is re-established, shoulder strengthening is started. It takes about 12 weeks before the shoulder is completely rehabilitated for the normal activities of daily living, and about 16 weeks before contact athletics, throwing, and overhead sports can be re-started. A good therapist can work with the patient on “sports-specific” training to re-train the muscles and shoulder for golf, tennis, throwing, and swimming. Rehabilitation optionsThe results of physical therapy are optimized by a competent therapist, familiar with the procedure and the usual expectations, and a compliant patient, who is responsible to do home exercises and is motivated to improve. Most surgeons have a standard “protocol” that they can give to a physical therapist to let them know how to rehabilitate the shoulder. It is important for a patient to find a therapist with flexible hours and in a convenient location because the therapy will become part of a routine for 3 to 4 months. The surgeon can recommend a therapist or therapy group with whom he or she is used to working and who is familiar with the procedure. Therapy is generally done on an outpatient basis, with 2 or 3 visits per week so that the therapist can check the progress and review or modify the program as needed to suit the individual. Patients are almost always satisfied with the range of motion, comfort and function that they achieve as the rehabilitation program progresses. The sense of “apprehension” or pain with overhead motions is usually eliminated. Occasionally, persons will have slight decreases in their overall overhead mobility, as the shoulder has been tightened. These minimal decreases usually do not affect the ability to perform overhead activities or prohibit a return to athletics at the same or a higher level. Figure 9 shows a patient who presented with recurrent dislocations and subluxations after an initial traumatic shoulder dislocation. The figures show her range of motion following the repair of the stabilizing ligaments and rehabilitation of her right shoulder. Despite her active lifestyle and rigorous occupation, she has not suffered any further events of shoulder instability. If the exercises remain or become painful, difficult, or uncomfortable, the patient should contact the therapist and surgeon promptly. RisksThere are very few risks to appropriate postoperative therapy. If the therapist and surgeon are not in communication about what exactly what was done and what the short and long term expectations are following this procedure, the therapist can be too aggressive or alternatively too timid about the rehabilitation. This can result in failure of the procedure (re-dislocation or subluxation) or excessive shoulder stiffness. It is exceedingly uncommon for these problems to occur. Duration of rehabilitationEvery patient is slightly different. Once the range of motion is acceptable and the strength has returned, the exercise program can be cut back to a minimal level. Patients who have special needs, such as overhead athletes, swimmers, overhead laborers, and throwers may require sports-specific training with a therapist or athletic trainer. Returning to ordinary daily activities In general , patients are able to perform gentle activities of daily living with the operated arm at the side starting 2 or 3 weeks after surgery. Most persons who work at a desk job can return to work during this time. The patient is strongly encouraged to continue wearing the sling at all times for the first 3 to 4 weeks to remind themselves (and others) that the shoulder is injured and healing, and to limit overhead activities.Driving should wait until the patient can perform the necessary functions comfortably and confidently, and the pain in the shoulder is at a minimum and pain medications are not required. A good question to ask a patient is “Would you want you driving if your 4-year old child was in the car or playing in the street?” In general it may take longer for a person to drive after the right side has had the procedure because of the increased demands on the right arm for shifting gears, etc. With the consent of their surgeon, a patient may return to activities such as swimming, golf and tennis between 4 and 6 months following the procedure. More extreme sports (wrestling, pitching, rock climbing, etc) should only be undertaken when the shoulder is extremely comfortable, and the strength is within 90% of the opposite side. Long-term patient limitationsPatients must avoid impact activities (chopping wood, contact sports, sports with risk of falls) and heavy lifting (overhead labor, lifting heavy weights) until after the strength has returned to normal. Occasionally, the extremes of motion overhead and behind the back or head may be limited because the shoulder joint has been tightened. These limitations almost never affect daily activities and usually do not impact a return to sports at or above the level achieved before the shoulder became unstable. The surgeon and therapist should provide the information of the usual cost of the rehabilitation program. Most insurances will cover the costs of some or most of the rehabilitation, except perhaps a “copay” that the patient must pay at each visit. Careful adherence to the home exercises between visits will usually decrease the overall number and frequency of visits required. Summary of arthroscopic shoulder surgery for shoulder dislocation, subluxation, and instability THE FIVE THINGS ONE NEEDS TO KNOW ABOUT ARTHROSCOPIC OR OPEN SHOULDER STABILIZATION/CAPSULORRAPHY OR SURGERY FOR THE DISLOCATING/SUBLUXING SHOULDER	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36843000
Science still catching up on DDT harms Two recent studies report new evidence of the harms of a very old pesticide. It's that pesky, persistent and infamous chemical, DDT. Nearly 40 years after its use in agriculture was banned in many countries around the world, it's still present in our environment, food and bodies at levels that harm human health. And children, once again, are especially vulnerable. According to researchers in Spain, when mothers are exposed to higher levels of DDT breakdown products during pregnancy, their babies are more likely to develop lung infections in their first year. And scientists in Korea report that exposure to DDT remnants may cause vitamin D deficiency, which is in turn linked to chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. DDT has been largely phased out around the world. Small amounts are still used in some countries as a tool for malaria control, but because of DDT's persistence and toxicity — and the availability of safer ways to control malaria — efforts are underway through a global treaty called the Stockholm Convention to help all countries shift away from reliance on DDT. Since DDT can last for decades in the environment and remnants from its use 40 years ago are still affecting infant health, this seems like a very good idea. Science plays catch-up In an interview with Reuters Health about the Spanish study, Dr. Barbara Cohn, Director of Child Health and Development Studies at the Public Health Institute in California, noted the enthusiastic optimism about DDT when it was in widespread use in the '50s and '60s: People thought it was a miracle compound. Nobody really knew what might be happening. Eventually, the science catches up. Now history seems to be repeating itself — on a slightly tighter timeline — as new evidence emerges about the health harms of the latest batch of "safe" pesticides, pyrethroids. Shouldn't we know better by now? In the words of another Spaniard, philospher and poet George Santayana, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." In this case, our failure to pay attention to history is putting our children's health at risk.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36851000
5-Year Olds Get Their Own Standardized Tests October 16, 2012 Five-year olds are getting their own standardized tests, mandated in over 25 states, in a new Race to the Top requirement. (And a way to get federal dollars.) What is a standardized test anyway? The basic definition for a standardized test is a test that administered and scored in a standardized way, commercially prepared to measure a student’s performance level as compared to others. According to Reuters, in some cases, kindergarteners are given an hour-long multiple choice test while other tests are one-on-one with a teacher. Education experts, parents, and teachers feel concerned about these tests for a number of reasons: - stressful for kids - too narrow of a view of a child’s ability - lack of a post-test to measure growth in some cases (FL & TX) Those parents and testing proponents (politicians and test makers?) that are in favor of the test are so because: - they want their children in an academic kindergarten - it gives a way to evaluate the preschool programs Unbelievably (or maybe not,) parents can buy a Kindergarten Test Study System! Seven sessions of 30 minutes each for $50. If you thought the government heard your complaints about over-testing, you would be wrong. Apparently, there can always be more tests. Are you concerned? Comment here. Melissa Taylor is a freelance writer, an award-winning educational blogger at ImaginationSoup, an award-winning teacher with a M.A. in Education, and a mom of two children, ages 6 and 9. Follow Taylor on Twitter or find her on Facebook. Subscribe to Class Notes blog posts in RSS. You might also like: Join Mom Congress on Facebook for updates on the 2012 Mom Congress conference, breaking education news, advocacy resources, and exclusive offers.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36854000
“I’ve always tried to be aware of what I say in my films, because all of us who make motion pictures are teachers — teachers with very loud voices.” Based on the classic story of a young man’s battle with the forces of evil, George Lucas’s 1977 film STAR WARS introduced a modern myth to a new generation. A primal tale set in a distant galaxy, STAR WARS revolutionized special effects, forged new frontiers in sound design, and brought audiences to movie theaters in record numbers. The two sequels to STAR WARS, THE EMPIRE STRIKES BACK and THE RETURN OF THE JEDI, along with Lucas’s adventure trilogy of Indiana Jones movies, are among the most popular films ever made. Coming of age in Modesto, California in the early 1960s, George Lucas loved to write and considered becoming an English major until a childhood friend suggested he apply to The Cinema School at the University of Southern California. Even in his student days, his experimental films walked away with top honors at student film festivals. In 1973 Lucas had his first feature-length hit with AMERICAN GRAFFITI. AMERICAN GRAFFITI was produced by Francis Ford Coppola, a friend and mentor of Lucas since his days in film school. Sweeping up America in a wave of nostalgia for the summer nights of teenage innocence, AMERICAN GRAFFITI was one of the most profitable movies ever made. Its success gave Lucas both the following and economic resources to begin an even bigger project. Lucas spent the next four years hard at work on the first in a series of science fiction movies. STAR WARS (1977) was one of the first movies to take advantage of the advances in special-effects technologies. The movie created an entertaining fantasy world where important moral and ethical decisions were constantly intertwined with everyday life. Speaking of STAR WARS, Lucas said, “There was no modern mythology to give kids a sense of values, to give them a strong mythological fantasy life. Westerns were the last of that genre for Americans. Nothing was being done for young people with real psychological underpinnings.” In the writing of anthropologist Joseph Campbell, Lucas had learned about the myths that pervade many disparate cultures, and it is this mythology that gives Lucas’s space age epic its timeless resonance. Both of the sequels and the one prequel continued in the same vein and with equally successful. In 1981, Lucas’s work took a step in another direction, with the production of RAIDERS OF THE LOST ARK. RAIDERS OF THE LOST ARK was a 20th-century adventure story about a swashbuckling archeologist, Indiana Jones. Played by Harrison Ford, a long-time Lucas associate, Jones became one of the best loved heroes of the 1980s. For RAIDERS OF THE LOST ARK, Lucas teamed up with another major figure, Steven Spielberg. Spielberg had had great success with JAWS (1977) and CLOSE ENCOUNTERS OF THE THIRD KIND (1977), and brought his sense of suspense to the collaboration. It proved one of the most successful pairings of in Hollywood history. RAIDERS OF THE LOST ARK was followed by two more exceptional pictures in the series and a popular television show featuring the Indiana Jones character. In the late 1970s Lucas formed the production company, Lucas Films Ltd. In Northern California, Lucas’s 2,700-acre state-of-the art production center and “think tank,” Skywalker Ranch, is home to the empire. There, Lucas presides over his vast entertainment company, which now includes THX, Skywalker Sound, and Industrial Light and Magic. In many ways, Skywalker Ranch is the beating heart of the entertainment industry. Constantly at work developing new and higher-quality production methods, Lucas Films Ltd. has a significant influence on many of the most successful contemporary films. Today, with the second STAR WARS trilogy setting box office records, George Lucas remains one of the most popular filmmakers of all time. For the past few decades, he has been at the forefront of American culture and creative technology both predicting and creating our popular aesthetics. He has collaborated with some of the greats of the industry and has been nominated for 44 Academy Awards (winning 16 Oscars). More than anyone working today, George Lucas has expanded the visual and technological possibilities of the popular cinema, and he continues to delight audiences around the world.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36857000
Overview - SPELLREAD BUILD IT! SOFTWARE SpellRead for SMART Table software extends the proven success of the SpellRead program into collaborative technology with three games for the SMART TableT interactive learning center. Each of the games draws on content derived from SpellRead and presents it in an interactive, engaging format for additional practice, effective with or without the implementation of the SpellRead program. The games leverage SpellRead's phonics activities to help students practice building, pronouncing, and identifying words, and are easily integrated into any reading curriculum. When combined with the SpellRead program, SpellRead for SMART Table extends the program into a blended learning solution. The games offer additional practice with words and word parts presented in the SpellRead program and can supplement the learning that is already taking place in this established, proven-effective program. SpellRead for SMART Table software is also appropriate for use alongside any classroom reading curriculum or intervention program, as it reinforces phonemic awareness, phonics, word-building, pronunciation, and word identification skills. The use of the SMART Table encourages engaged, collaborative, small-group learning. The SMART Table is optimized for multitouch functionality and can interpret up to 120 distinct touches, whether from fingers, elbows, styluses, or other implements, enabling its use as assistive technology for students with physical limitations. Once the software is loaded onto the SMART Table, the applications allow two to four students to compete or collaborate in interactive, touch-controlled games. Each game includes three levels of difficulty, and features appealing visual design and movement as well as audio cues. A Classroom Integration Guide PDF includes game play instructions, word lists, and tips for integrating the games into SpellRead or any reading intervention program. A progress monitoring module within the Teacher Area enables teachers to create student users and groups. Progress monitoring data includes time which words built, pronounced, and identified were correct, and which were incorrect. Teachers determine the level of difficulty ÿfor each session. The levels reflect the phases in SpellRead. Level A focuses on one-syllable words, Level B focuses on two-syllable ÿwords, and Level C focuses on three-syllable words. SMART Table Activities In SpellRead Build It! students compose words using cards with vowel and consonant sounds or syllables. The game can be played competitively, with individual scores and stars awarded to individual players for speed, or cooperatively, with a cumulative team score and bonus points awarded when all players submit correct answers. SpellRead Blend It! incorporates a word-building component with a pronunciation component. Each student takes a turn building and pronouncing words with common sounds or syllables. The other students vote on whether the pronunciations are correct. Individual scores are kept, with points awarded separately for word-building and pronunciation, but collaboration and conversation occur naturally around the voting. Students practice word identification in SpellRead Grab It! Students hear a word and then locate that word on a rotating wheel. All distractors have a sound or syllable in common with the target word to minimize student guessing. Like SpellRead Build It!, scoring is both individual and team- based, so students' personalities are accommodated, whether they are competitive or cooperative.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36861000
Overview - ADPTD CLASSICS TM - QUIET ON THE WSTRN FRNT RL 5-6 Accessible Classic Literature and Literary Masterpieces. Appeal to students of all abilities with the high-interest titles in these series. The books are adaptations at various reading levels of classic literature, plays, novels, and stories. Each title is a concise book that retains the integrity and tone of the original work. Features easy-to-understand text and engaging illustrations. Pacemaker Classics Reading Level 3–4. Each 48-page Study Guide offers 35 reproducible project sheets, background information about the author and time period, plot summaries, character descriptions, teaching suggestions, and answer keys. Adapted Classics Reading Level 4+. The Teacher’s Resource Manual includes cooperative learning activities and reproducible writing worksheets. \|• 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea • A Christmas Carol • A Tale of Two Cities • Adventures of Huckleberry Finn • Adventures of Sherlock Holmes • Adventures of Tom Sawyer • All Quiet on the Western Front • Anne Frank • Call of the Wild • Frederick Douglass • Grapes of Wrath • Great Expectations • Gulliver’s Travels • Helen Keller • Julus Caesar • O. Henry • Phantom of the Opera • Red Badge of Courage • Romeo and Juliet • Tales of Edgar Allan Poe • The Canterbury Tales • The Scarlet Letter • Treasure Island	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36862000
Do you want to know more about Parkinson's? PDF's materials provide information about symptoms, medications, resources & more. News in Brief People who are carriers of the genetic mutation in a gene known as GBA have at least five times the normal risk of developing Parkinson’s disease (PD), according to a report in the October 22, 2009, issue of the New England Journal of Medicine. Mutations in the same gene, which provides instructions for producing the enzyme glucocerebrosidase, have been shown to cause the rare disorder known as Gaucher’s disease. Clinicians had long noticed an association between Gaucher’s disease and PD. In rare cases, people with Gaucher’s disease developed PD-like symptoms; more recently, scientists noted that relatives of people with Gaucher’s disease had an increased incidence of PD. Gaucher’s disease develops when both copies of the GBA gene are mutated. Normally a person has two working copies of the gene. A mutation in one copy of the gene causes no symptoms and was long thought to be harmless. These and other observed links between the diseases prompted lead investigator Ellen Sidransky, M.D., of the National Human Genome Research Institute to study how frequently people with PD carry the genetic mutations known to cause Gaucher’s disease. Dr. Sidransky organized a consortium of 64 researchers at 16 institutions around the world, who were already analyzing the genetics of people with PD. In total, the study involved about 10,000 people. The researchers focused on studying two common variants of the GBA gene, from among the nearly 300 mutations identified by scientists (and carried by about one in 100 Americans). In an ethnically diverse group of 5,691 people with PD, they found that 3.2 percent of the group had at least one of these variants, compared to 0.6 percent in a similar group of healthy people. Since mutations in the GBA gene are more common among Ashkenazi Jews (one in 15 people is a carrier), researchers studied this sub-group and found the incidence of one or more of these variants was 15.3 percent in people with PD and 3.4 percent in healthy people. Since these tests only focused on two common GBA mutations, the scientists also examined the full gene in 2,000 non-Ashkenazi individuals living with Parkinson’s. They found that nearly seven percent of people with PD had a GBA gene mutation. Still, this limited test missed nearly half of the mutations possible in GBA. Overall, people with Parkinson’s are 5.43 times more likely to carry a GBA mutation than individuals without PD. These findings indicate that being a carrier – having one mutated copy of a GBA gene – increases a person’s risk of developing PD over five-fold. The researchers also found that people with PD who had mutations in GBA tended to have been diagnosed at a younger age and have a family history of PD, a lower incidence of bradykinesia (slow movement) and resting tremor, and a higher incidence of cognitive changes. This makes the newly identified genetic risk factor, among the dozen known to scientists, the most common one found for PD to date. Mutations in the GBA gene most likely increase susceptibility to PD, which combined with other factors, results in disease. The mechanisms by which this happens are not understood and require further research. This study was conducted with funding from PDF, as part of the Columbia University Center Grant. Columbia was one of the 16 centers that participated in the study. * * * Uric acid, the chemical that causes gout and kidney stones, may be a marker for the progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD), according to a recent study published in the October 12 online edition of Archives of Neurology. Investigators led by Alberto Ascherio, M.D., Dr.P.H., and Michael Schwarzschild, M.D., Ph.D., at Harvard University recently analyzed samples of blood and cerebrospinal fluid (the body fluid that bathes the brain) that had been collected from nearly 800 people with early-stage PD in the 1980s as part of another clinical trial. While all of the individuals with PD showed normal levels of uric acid in their blood, when researchers looked at the group more closely, an interesting statistical relationship between uric acid and PD progression seemed apparent. Scientists observed that people with Parkinson’s who had the high-normal levels of uric acid had a slightly reduced risk of needing to take levodopa for their PD than those individuals with lower uric acid levels. This indicated a statistical trend in people in the high end of the normal range for uric acid, towards slower PD progression. The relationship between uric acid and PD progression is not yet fully understood. Many researchers believe that oxidation plays a role in PD, and uric acid participates in oxidation reactions. Researchers suspect that uric acid could be a specific marker of PD, but this hypothesis needs further exploration. A clinical trial is now under way to test the safety of the dietary supplement inosine, which the body converts into urate. To learn more about this trial, visit www.PDtrials.org. It is emphasized the uric acid levels in this study were all within the normal range. Researchers caution that raising the uric levels in the body by supplements or diet could result in gout, kidney stones, as well as hypertension and heart disease. This study was conducted with funding from PDF, as part of the Advancing Parkinson’s Treatments (APT) Innovations Grant, which funds innovative programs that facilitate the movement of treatments from “bench to bedside.” * * * Azilect®, a medication already approved and on the market for symptomatic relief of Parkinson’s disease (PD), showed mixed results in a study investigating its potential for protecting the brain cells that die in Parkinson’s. The report appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine on September 24, 2009. Lead investigator C. Warren Olanow, M.D., and his colleagues conducted a multi-center study known as ADAGIO (Attenuation of Disease Progression with Azilect Given Once Daily) to examine the effects of rasagiline (Azilect) on the progression of clinical signs of Parkinson’s. The study was sponsored by Teva Pharmaceuticals, the manufacturer of Azilect. Since the beginning of large-scale clinical trials for Parkinson’s, researchers have attempted to distinguish between these two aims: (i) does the drug reduce the symptoms of PD?; and (ii) does the drug slow the progression of PD? To date, no study design has successfully proven that a drug that reduces the symptoms also provides a neuroprotective effect. This study attempted to investigate whether rasagiline is neuroprotective for people with PD by using a “delayed-start” treatment design. The researchers looked at over 950 people living with Parkinson’s, and studied the effects of two doses of rasagiline, one-milligram (mg.) and two-mg. daily. Within each dosage group, one group of people with Parkinson’s got a nine-month head start in treatment, while the other group received treatment that was delayed by nine months. Researchers followed up with all participants throughout the study to track the progression of their PD symptoms, using the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale. Assuming that the drug reduced the symptoms of PD (e.g., tremor, rigidity, slowness) by an equal amount in each group, any differences in outcome would be assumed to come from the delayed start, and suggest the possibility of neuroprotection. Unfortunately, the study gave a conflicting result: those participants who received a daily one-mg. dose of rasagiline had a superior outcome when the drug was started nine months earlier. This supports the idea that the drug may have an effect on disease progression. By contrast, those receiving a daily dose twice as large, two-mg., did not show this benefit, which does not support the claim of neuroprotection. In the end, the researchers of this study concluded that the effect of neuroprotection remains unproven, and that more study is needed. “The results have been fairly reported with appropriate caution on interpretation,” says Christopher Goetz, M.D., Director of the PDF Parkinson’s Disease Research Center at Rush University Medical Center in Chicago. “Clearly, if one focuses on the results with the one-mg. dose, we would want to recommend early intervention as opposed to holding off on treatment to reserve it for later. If one focuses on the results with the two-mg. results, we would not have any reason to promote early treatment, since the outcomes achieved with the extra duration of treatment did not meet the outcome measures predicted. More research is needed and a longer follow-up on these patients since PD lasts far longer than 18 months.” * * * For the latest in Parkison's science news, visit PDF's Science News page.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36867000
Our directory is intended as a resource for people with peanut and nut allergies. It contains foods, helpful products, and much more. - What is a Peanut Allergy - Foods to Avoid - The Allergic Reaction - Recognizing and Treating Anaphylaxis - Epinephrine Auto-Injectors - Medical ID Bracelets - Support Groups Peanut Free and Nut Free Other Food Allergies Soap and Toothpaste Could Be Causing Rise in Childhood Food Allergies Researchers at Johns Hopkins Children's center believe they have uncovered a factor contributing to the dramatic rise of childhood food allergies over the past two decades. They believe that antibacterial chemicals in soap, toothpaste, and other products may be leading to an increase in allergies and asthma. This finding supports the “hygiene hypothesis” which suggests that children in developed nations grow up in environments that are too clean, and don't enable their immune systems to get used to the presence of bacteria and germs. As a result, the immune system overreacts when faced with a potential allergen. Results of New Research The study involved 860 children. Researchers measured the presence of antibacterial chemicals in their urine, and found that children with higher levels of the chemicals were more likely to have IgE antibodies in their blood. These antibodies are related to the immune systems, and levels are higher in people with allergies. Lead study author Jessica Savage announced in a press release, “The link between allergy risk and antimicrobial exposure suggests that these agents may disrupt the delicate balance between beneficial and bad bacteria in the body.” The researchers concluded that there may be a link between allergies and children being exposed to antibacterial chemicals in toothpastes, soaps, mouthwash, and other personal care products. Source: Global Post	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36870000
Health Issues in Dogs Dogs can suffer from a whole host of diseases and other serious health problems. Some of these conditions are inherited, while others are caused by viruses; still others are related to lifestyle and environmental influences. Because veterinary costs can run into the hundreds or even thousands of dollars, current and prospective dog owners alike need to be well-informed about the various medical maladies that can strike a seemingly healthy dog at any moment. Beyond these financial factors, a beloved family companion could end up suffering terribly from these serious illnesses and disorders, and anyone who cares about the health and welfare of their four-legged friend needs to know about all the dangers that may be lurking. Genetic ConditionsIn purebred dogs in particular, there are a number of genetic time bombs that may be lying in the weeds waiting to manifest in any dog unfortunate enough to have lost the genetic lottery. When acquiring a dog from a breeder, it is important to try and find a responsible seller who can provide genetic information about the parents, and even the grandparents of every dog they are offering for purchase. If a breeder is not able to provide such information, then he or she should not be considered a trustworthy merchant and anyone buying a dog from such a person is likely to find themselves with an animal that will suddenly begin to develop significant health problems later on. No matter what precautions dog owners try to take, however, it is inevitable that genetic disorders of many types will continue to express themselves, causing pain and suffering to dogs and many worrisome moments for their caring human companions. One of the most well-known and notorious genetic disorders is hip dysplasia, which is found in many larger breeds of dogs in particular. Hip dysplasia is a misalignment of the hip socket that causes degeneration of the joints, eventually leading to painful arthritis that makes it difficult for dogs suffering from this condition to move about. This disorder is extremely painful, and it is one of the primary genetic conditions that breeders try to screen out before they breed dogs and put their offspring up for sale. Dogs suffering from hip dysplasia may be treated with canine arthritis drugs (usually by way of injection), and in some extreme cases they may need hip replacement surgery to restore their mobility. Von Willebrand’s disease is a condition that can strike many breeds. Dogs with this condition lack a protein factor that interferes with the body’s ability to form blood clots. It is not unlike hemophilia in humans. Dogs with von Willebrand’s disease can suffer significant blood loss or even bleed to death if they are cut or suffer some kind of internal injury. Canine atopic dermatitis is a chronic skin disorder that causes extreme itchiness for dogs so inflicted. Labrador and Golden retrievers are especially vulnerable to atopic dermatitis, as nearly 50% of these dogs will suffer from this inherited disorder. There are a number of medications available from veterinarians that can be used to help dogs deal with the severe itching associated with atopic dermatitis. Viral DiseasesDistemper is probably the greatest disease threat that dogs face. Up to 80% of all puppies who are infected with this disease perish, which is why all dogs should be vaccinated against distemper as soon as possible after being brought home. Distemper shows up as symptoms that imitate a cold or the flu, but eventually this virus will attack the nervous system leading to seizures that resemble an epileptic fit or a stroke. This is a highly contagious disease that can be passed from dog to dog by saliva, or through contact with fecal matter and urine. Heartworm has an interesting pattern of development. It starts out as micro larvae in the body of dogs, which can be passed to mosquitoes and then back to dogs again when the mosquitoes feed. These larvae will hatch in the body of the mosquito, and when they are passed back to the dog they gravitate toward the heart as they grow into worms that can reach lengths of 14 inches. Untreated heartworms can damage the heart and other organs and ultimately bring death to an infected dog. Tests exist for heartworm, so it can be caught and treated during periodic check-ups. Canine parvovirus dates to only to the late 1970s. This relatively new virus can be easily passed from dog to dog through contact with fecal waste, and it is a fast-acting virus that can cause death in two or three days. A vaccine has been developed that has reduced the ravages of this terrible affliction, but there are still areas of the country where canine parvovirus represents a significant threat. Diseases Related to Lifestyle and EnvironmentAs a result of poor diet, obesity, inactivity, and old age, dogs can develop the same kinds of conditions that human beings experience – cancer, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, osteoporosis and so on. Healthy diet, exercise, and vitamin supplements can help reduce the incidence of these diseases, and help those afflicted with them recover to live a healthy and active life. Dogs have a lot of skin problems as a result of exposure to and infestation by parasites like fleas, ticks and mites. There are a number of products available in pet stores or from veterinarians that can help treat these disorders; but there is a good chance that most dogs will face attack by parasite on multiple occasions throughout their lives. Constipation and diarrhea are common in dogs, just as they are in humans. Processed foods lacking moisture can lead to problems with the former, while a dog eating something he shouldn’t – which is unfortunately a frequent occurrence – can lead to the latter. Prevention is the Best DefenseThis is just a sampling of the kind of health problems that plague dogs and bedevil dog owners. Regular medical check-ups, vaccinations and genetic records acquired from breeders are the primary weapons that dog owners have at their disposal to try and combat these health problems. However, almost every dog will suffer from some health problems during his or her lifetime, and anyone planning to get a dog should be prepared emotionally and financially to deal with this reality.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36872000
Who are the Chechens? The Chechens are a Muslim people who have lived in the Caucasus Mountains for more than a millennium. It took Czarist Russia 30 years to overcome fierce resistance and conquer them in 1864. After the 1917 revolution, the Soviets needed seven years to regain control of the area. The Chechens revolted against Stalin twice. They have been fighting the expansion of Russia for nearly 200 years. So when the Soviet Union fell apart three years ago, it was not a surprise that the Chechens, led by their president, Dzhokhar M. Dudayev, declared independence. What was the Russian response? For two years the Russians left the Chechens alone. Still, many in Moscow felt an independent Chechnya represented a threat to their control of the oil pipelines that flow through Chechnya and neighboring republics. There was also a feeling that Moscow needed to reestablish its authority in the Russian Federation—they had been collecting only 20 percent of the taxes owed, and few regions had been complying with the draft—by making an example of Chechnya. Last summer the secret police set things in motion by trying to overthrow Dudayev by arming his opponents, but they failed. Then the secret police convinced Yeltsin that the army should be brought in. Why did Yeltsin go along? Yeltsin has been losing political support and has become increasingly disillusioned with democracy as a solution to his problems. The economy has not turned around. The Americans have not come to his aid. By invading Chechnya, he thought he would get a quick victory and regain some of his earlier popularity. Now he has lost control of the situation. He twice issued orders to stop the bombing of Grozny, the Chechen capital, but the army and secret police ignored him. They were intent on continuing the bombing because they did not want to launch a mass frontal assault and risk thousands of casualties and the public wrath that would ensue. If the army is not listening to Yeltsin, then who is in charge? Yeltsin still has overall authority, but he is not prepared to enforce it. He might be able to end the war tomorrow by firing some of his generals, but that doesn't mean they would go. And if they stay, their solution may be to remove him. Will Chechnya be the Russians' Vietnam? I would say it's their Afghanistan in the media age. When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979, there was strict government control of all news outlets. But now the Russians see television reports every night about Chechnya, and they are horrified by what their government is doing. Polls suggest that 75 percent of the Russian people are opposed to the invasion. Has Yeltsin taken this opposition to heart? If he were a true supporter of democracy, he would fire his immediate entourage, call for parliamentary elections and offer to negotiate with the Chechens. But that is not likely to happen. I expect he will stick with the secret police and stand by as Grozny is destroyed. But the Russians will then discover you can't decapitate the Chechens. Their country is mountainous, and they can resist for a very long time. Lots of Russian boys will be coming home in body bags or, as they call them, overcoats of lead. How has the invasion of Chechnya affected relations between the U.S. and Russia? So far the Clinton Administration has done nothing except express concern about whether Yeltsin will survive or not. That's the wrong tack. It is a mistake to focus on Yeltsin as if he were an unchanging beacon of light. The question is, how do we react as Russian policy changes? Yeltsin today is not the one of a year ago. He has moved to the right. Our failure to criticize him removes one of the most important constraints on his behavior and undermines any belief in our moral authority around the world. What constructive action should the U.S. be taking? We need to make very clear that we want to cooperate with Russia but only if it lives up to international law and agreements. How can we cooperate with a government that has leveled an all-out assault on its own people? How do you think the war in Chechnya will play out? The real problem is going to begin after Grozny falls. Terrorism will follow, and it may expand into a guerrilla war, spreading across neighboring republics. This will send fault lines across Russia and could tear Russian society apart. Do you think there will be a return to communism? No. What we are seeing now is a move toward authoritarianism, toward a much tougher, less democratic regime in Moscow. War has so divided Russian society and isolated Yeltsin that the ultimate outcome could range from dictatorship to chaos. It's anyone's guess who will come out on top—the secret police, the army or, with any luck, the reformers. This is going to take a long time to sort out, and it is going to be very messy. In the meantime, it could put any possibility for continued cooperation between the U.S. and Russia at risk.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36873000
The type of treatment is dependent on the underlying cause for the symptoms. Oxygen is sometimes necessary if the rabbit has trouble breathing; using a humidifier can also help open airways. Other ways to improve respiratory function include washing the affecting area and removing any environmental irritants, especially known allergic items. Antibiotics may help with cases of rhinitis or sinusitis due to bacterial infections. Often, secondary bacterial infections cause many of the clinical signs associated with these two conditions. And because certain topical nasal decongestants cause some symptoms to worsen, they are not commonly recommended. In these cases, your veterinarian may prescribe antihistamines. Living and Management Animals should be provided with a proper, well-balanced diet including a wide selection of fresh greens such as cilantro, romaine lettuce, parsley, dandelion greens and spinach. Recovering rabbits need plenty of fluids at this time, in addition to regular follow-up appointments. This will ensure that the long-term treatment is successful. Rabbits with the chronic bacterial form of sinusitis are less likely to completely eliminate all symptoms. However, it is possible to control the disease's clinical symptoms with proper care and education. A medical condition; occurs when the sinus becomes inflamed A cavity within a bone; may also indicate a flow or channel A special type of tissue that exudes mucus Term used to imply that a situation or condition is more severe than usual; also used to refer to a disease having run a short course or come on suddenly. The ability to create a disease where a disease might not normally be found, usually due to an ill timed or unlikely weakness	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36875000
Corn snakes make fascinating pets for adults and children of all ages. They are easy to keep and care for once set up in a correct environment. They are easy to handle and following regular handling will become fairly tame. Corn snakes can grow to 1.5m long and will often live for around 20 years so will be a long term commitment for anyone thinking of keeping one. These snakes are crepuscular, most active at dawn and dusk, so they will hide and sleep during the daytime when the light is switched on and will then come out when the lights are turned off, also they tend to be terrestrial meaning they spend most of their time on the ground, however they will enjoy climbing around the vivarium given the chance. Corn snakes do not have the same needs for companionship as most mammals do, so are happily kept on their own. At times it is advised to keep singularly as aggression can be shown between individuals; it would never be advised to try keeping different species together at any time. Corn snakes come from the Americas and are typically found in the South-eastern United States. In the wild they tend to live in over-grown fields, pine forests and areas of agriculture. Like most reptiles, they are normally housed in an enclosed cage with glass doors, known as a vivarium. They have specific requirements, therefore it's essential that the environment within the vivarium is controlled precisely and monitored at all times. Young Corn snakes should not be housed in large vivariums as this can be stressful for them and they can be less inclined to eat. Corn snakes are not highly active and do not need huge enclosures. A medium sized vivarium will house your snake comfortably. As a rough guide, the vivarium can be half to thwo-thirds the length of the snakes total body length. Snakes are excellent escape artists, so care must be taken when planning their enclosure. Make sure your vivarium has a tight fitting lid and tightly fitting doors. Snakes are very strong and can push a loose fitting lid from a vivarium. There are many options in regards to substrate that you can keep your snakes on. We would advise cage carpet, Aspen bedding or dried bark chips. The substrates are very easy to keep clean, which is paramount in order to stop possible health issues. Corn snakes do not tend to be aggressive and are not venomous. Once used to regular handling they will very rarely bite due to their relaxed and passive nature. They are rather inquisitive and they will move all around their vivarium to explore the surroundings. Corn snakes are carnivores and opportunist feeders. In the wild they would normally hunt small mammals, birds, and other reptiles. However, in captivity these types of snakes will solely feed on rodents, with the best choice being mice. Mice are available to buy frozen, they should be fully defrosted before use. As long as the correct environment and diet are provided, corn snakes are hardy and problem-free to keep as pets.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36876000
Posted by Bruce Kahl on December 10, 1999 In Reply to: Re: "Push the envelope" posted by Arthur Smith on December 10, 1999 : : I will accept the premise that "push the envelope" : : originated with airline pilots, but I would like to : : know in exactly what context: the actual practical : : mechanics of flying as in the use of the controls : : relative to a certain aspect of aircraft performance, : : the theory of flight as in aerodynamics or the : : efficiency with which the aircraft performs relative : : to outside forces, or some other practical : : explanation? This expression comes out of the US Air Force test pilot program of the late 1940's. The envelope refers to a plane's performance capabilities. The limits of the planes ability to fly at speeds and altitudes and under certain stresses define what is known as its performance envelope. It's an "envelope" in the sense that it contains the ranges of the plane's abilities. "Pushing the envelope" is a good example of how jargon -- the specialized or technical vocabulary of a group or profession -- gradually enters general usage. "Pushing the envelope" comes from the jargon of test pilots, and has actually been around since the end of the Second World War. The "envelope" involved is a sort of visual metaphor for the technical limits of a high-performance aircraft. A graph of such an aircraft's performance would appear as a rising slope as the craft approaches its limits of speed and stress, then fall off rapidly (putting it mildly) when the plane exceeds its capacity and the pilot loses control. Safety, relatively speaking, lies within these limits, or "inside the envelope." A pilot who "pushes the envelope" and tries to exceed the known capabilities of the aircraft risks what engineers delicately term "catastrophic system failure," otherwise known as a crash. Because "pushing the envelope" had such a esoteric origin, it took a best-selling book -- Tom Wolfe's "The Right Stuff" in 1979 -- and later the popular movie "Top Gun" to introduce it to the general public. Since then it has begun to crop up in increasingly non-technical contexts, to the point where it is now a currently trendy metaphor for simply "pushing it," or testing the limits of what is permissible in a given situation.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36885000
Each year, nearly 7 million children die before reaching their fifth birthdays, according to the World Health Organization. More than half of these deaths are caused by conditions that are preventable or treatable, including pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, measles, and malnutrition. To put it bluntly, every day 20,000 children are killed by conditions that could be prevented or cured with simple, affordable remedies—vaccinations, bed nets, food, clean drinking water, and antibiotics. PIH strives to eliminate this unnecessary suffering and death by providing free comprehensive health care for children and their families and by working to ensure that children have access to the basic rights—vaccinations, health care, education—that are key to a healthy, productive life. Preventing the transmission of HIV to infants Each day, about 1,000 infants are born with HIV, the vast majority of whom reside in poor countries. Most of these infants could be protected from HIV infection through effective HIV testing and treatment for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT). These interventions have nearly eliminated mother-to-child transmission in wealthy countries, UNAIDS reports. In Haiti, PIH began offering PMTCT and HIV counseling to pregnant mothers in 1995, just one year after it became available in the United States. PIH’s HIV Equity Initiative has provided antiretroviral therapy (ART) free of charge for thousands of Haitian children living with HIV since 2000. HIV care for children is fully integrated into other basic health services, also provided at no cost. In 2005, PIH began implementing this model first in Rwanda and later Malawi and Lesotho. Creating access to health and education In Peru, PIH’s Socios En Salud Sucursal program serves children in the deeply impoverished communities of Carabayllo in northern Lima. The program targets both health and education for children living in the Carabayllo slums. To improve health, PIH manages community health posts where staff promote health, prevent the spread of disease, and provide primary health care. These activities address issues of gender, equity, community participation, and social empowerment that have a significant effect on health. PIH’s education activities aim to organize the community to promote the rights of children and adolescents. PIH identifies community leaders who follow children in their education, providing support to families that helps address social barriers that prevent many children from completing their education. In Haiti, PIH supports 39 community primary schools and 25 accelerated learning centers for children who had not previously been enrolled in primary school. In total, these schools educated about 8,000 students in 2011. These primary and secondary students have performed exceedingly well on national exams, achieving a 91 percent pass rate in 2012. To improve attendance and achievement at schools throughout the rural Central Plateau district, PIH also provides hot lunches at 125 schools, reaching 18,000 students each day. Because Haiti’s school system requires that students wear closed-toe shoes to class, PIH partnered with TOMS Shoes to distribute more than 70,000 pairs of shoes to local school children from 2010 to 2012. All of these programs address key barriers to education for poor children to help break them out of the cycle of poverty and disease. With many other child-centered programs in the poor communities where PIH works, we offer children the same essential rights and services that have virtually eliminated deaths from common childhood ailments in rich countries.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36887000
Plants of the Pine Barrens Of the several thousand species of plants native to New Jersey, only about 550 species were known to occur in the Pine Barrens in the early 1900’s. Witmer Stone, the foremost authority on the vegetation of the Pine Barrens at that time, indicated that a good many of these were present only because people had amended the soil in the villages and industrial sites. He put the number of “true” Pine Barrens species at 386. The flora of the Pinelands National Reserve is a more complicated matter. It contains most of the historical Pine Barrens ecosystem, but also considerable coastal areas and some Delaware Bay shore area. Also, the influence of people on the vegetation communities of the Pinelands region has increased exponentially. Here we offer brief sketches of a few true Pine Barrens plants. Pine Barrens Gentian, Bog Asphodel, and Swamp Pink are wetland flowers that are threatened or endangered globally and nationally, yet are locally abundant in the Pinelands. Unknown to many, the Pinelands is home to a delightful array of wild orchids. Several, such as Rose Pogonia and Grass-pink, are very abundant and easily found along the Pinelands streams and in wet meadows and open swamps. Other orchids range from the rare to the imperiled, the most critically endangered being Spreading Pogonia, Yellow Fringeless Orchid, and Lace-lip Ladies’-tresses. The Pinelands also hosts several species of carnivorous plants, including Pitcher Plants, Sundews, and Bladderworts, that have evolved their own unique ways to capture and consume insects and other tiny animals. Since the soil contains so few nutrients, the plants use the nitrogen obtained from their prey to supplement their diet. Pine Barrens Trees Woody plants can be divided into groups such as trees, shrubs, subshrubs, and vines, but some woody plants blur these distinctions. For general purposes we can think of trees as typically tall perennial woody plants with a single stem (trunk). There are only about twenty tree species native to the Pine Barrens.Learn More There are about 68 species of shrubs native to the Pinelands.Learn More Ferns & Fern Allies The Pine Barrens is not particularly rich in ferns, but it does have several prominent and beautiful species.Learn More There are over 250 native Pinelands plants in this informal category (excluding the Grasses, Sedges, and Rushes, q.v. Also, see the separate category for the Orchids.)Learn More Aquatic HerbaceousLearn More Though all of our orchids are terrestrial herbaceous plants, they are so distinctive and so well-loved, we have given them a special place here.Learn More Rushes are often confused with grasses and sedges because of superficial similarities, but they are quite distinct.Learn More Routinely overlooked by some, the sedges (Cyperaceae family) are a ubiquitous and, ecologically, highly important component of the Pinelands flora.Learn More Wildflower enthusiasts who disregard the grasses are certainly missing a big part of the show. The flowers produced by grasses are indeed small, but they are quite spectacular when viewed with a 10X hand lens.Learn More Any plants with long, trailing or climbing stems are commonly considered vines. Some are woody and others are herbaceous. We have about 16 such plants native to the Pinelands.Learn More Pinelands Native Plant Resources Brochures, fact sheets, links and a list of retail and mail order native plant nurseries.Learn More Special Plants of New Jersey Fact Sheets These fact sheets give identification details, conservation status, habitat descriptions, and additional information for each of the rare plant species listed below. The fact sheets were created by the Partnerships for New Jersey Plant Conservation, a group of scientists and citizens committed to saving New Jersey's incredible botanical heritage, and the New Jersey Natural Heritage Program. Please use and distribute these fact sheets!Learn More Plants of the Pine Barrens (Georgian Court University) Descriptions in this section are from New Jersey Wild Plants by Mary Hough	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36888000
The Silk Museum in Soufli presents all the phases and the stages of the pre-industrial process of rearing silkworms (sericulture) and of silk processing (silk manufacturing) within the socio-economic context that made the region a major silk-producing centre in Greece (late 19th – mid-20th century). The Silk Museum's ground floor, where the old exhibition used to be housed, is now dedicated to the section on the history of silk. At the same time, the projected documentaries produced by PIOP help the visitor to put sericulture and silk manufacturing into a specific space- and time- frame. On the first floor the exhibition's scenario on sericulture is developed. The visitor's itinerary follows the cycle of sericulture. It begins with the production and hatching of the silkworm seed (eggs), the mulberry and the silkworm. It continues with the silkworm's different stages of development (instars) and the weaving of the valuable cocoon (mounting of the branches and harvesting). This is followed by the cocoons' cleaning and sorting. The silkworm's life cycle ends with the process called stifling. The next section is dedicated to silk manufacturing (reeling, i.e. unwinding the cocoon's silk filament, dyeing and weaving of silk yarn, with particular mention to the Givre silk mills). The authentic exhibits are accompanied by audiovisual material. Lastly, the section «traditional costumes in Soufli» presents unique accessories and items of traditional attire in this region.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36889000
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS From:(Michael A. Stueben) In the interest of historical accuracy let it be known Fibonacci's daughter was not named "Bunny." Michael Rolle was not Danish, and did not call his William Horner was not called "Little-Jack" by his The "G" in G. Peano does not stand for "grand." Rene Descartes' middle name is not "push." Isaac Barrow's middle name is not "wheel." There is no such place as the University of Wis-cosine, and if there was, the motto of their mathematics department would not be "Secant ye shall find." Although Euler is pronounced oil-er, it does not follow that Euclid is pronounced oi-clid. Franklin D. Roosevelt never said "The only thing we have to sphere is sphere itself." Fibonacci is not a shortened form of the Italian name that is actually spelled: F i bb ooo nnnnn aaaaaaaa It is true that August Mobius was a difficult and opinionated man. But he was not so rigid that he could only see one side to every question. It is true that Johannes Kepler had an uphill struggle in explaining his theory of elliptical orbits to the other astronomers of his time. And it is also true that his first attempt was a failure. But it is not true that after his lecture the first three questions he was asked were "What is elliptical?" What is an orbit?" and "What is a planet? It is true that primitive societies use only rough approximations for the known constants of mathematics. For example, the northern tribes of Alaska consider the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle to be 3. But it is not true that the value of 3 is called Eskimo pi. Incidentally, the survival of these tribes is dependent upon government assistance, which is not always forthcoming. For example, the Canadian firm of Tait and Sons sold a stock of defective compasses to the government at half-price, and the government passed them onto the northern natives. Hence the saying among these peoples: "He who has a Tait's is lost."	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36896000
Language issues: Proposed recognition of South African Sign Language as official language, Sepedi/ Sesotho sa Leboa issues: Briefings by Deaf SA, CRL Commission, Pan South African Language Board The Deaf Federation of South Africa (DeafSA), addressed the Committee on the need to recognise South African Sign Language (SASL) as an officially recognised language under the Constitution. It was a real language, and recognition would mean that institutions would be required to accord it full weight, and allow for it to be taught to children in schools, promoted as part of the language policy of the SABC, and require that interpreters be made available for deaf people, for instance. DeafSA stressed that at present the Department of Education did not recognise it as a medium of instruction, which was akin to forcing children to be taught via a medium that was completely foreign to them, similar to the situation with schools in 1976. This request had been made prior to 1994 and again in 2007, when a task team should have been set up. The Third Parliament had approved the report of the previous Committee that SASL be recognised as an official language, and DeafSA therefore appealed to this Parliament to take the matter further. The Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (CRLC), addressed the Committee on whether Sepedi or Sesotho sa Leboa (Northern Sotho) should be listed as an official language in the Constitution. The interim Constitution had designated Sesotho sa Leboa as an official language, but this was replaced in the final Constitution with Sepedi. Some communities complained to the Commission that Sepedi was in fact a dialect of Sesotho sa Leboa, not a language on its own, and would prefer their children to be taught in Sesotho sa Leboa. The Pan South African Language Board (PanSALB) indicated that it had done research also into this issue, and had reached the conclusion that Sepedi was indeed a dialect of Sesotho sa Leboa. PanSALB recommended that the Committee should do some more research and consult with a broader community before any final decision was taken on the issue. It also recommended that there must be more consultation on whether to recognise SASL as an official language. Members asked why DeafSA wanted the language to be recognised officially, asked if other countries had accorded their sign language official or protection status, asked how South African sign language was aligned to other international sign languages, and whether it was able to be used only by those who were educated. Members indicated that although they were sympathetic to the request, there were some practical considerations, and that in fact many of the official languages were already not being accorded equal treatment, airing or resources. Members indicated that they wished to hear (perhaps not at this meeting) the differences between the work of the PanSALB and the Commission, and why Sepedi had been inserted as an official language in the final Constitution. They were aware how difficult the issues were, being closely linked to identity. The Committee asked whether PanSALB could give recommendations, and the Commission and PanSALB indicated that there were a number of differing views that would require some sensitivity to reconcile. Because there was no quorum, further deliberations would stand over to the next meeting. The Chairperson recorded apologies submitted from Members Mr S Holomisa (ANC), Mr A Watson (DA - Mpumalanga) and Ms B Mncube (ANC - Gauteng). He noted that the Committee did not have a quorum present, and thus no decisions would be made today, although it wished the institutions to make their presentations. Deaf Federation of South Africa (DeafSA) Submission Mr Bruno Druchen, National Director, Deaf Federation of South Africa (DeafSA), addressed the Committee on the need to recognise South African Sign Language (SASL) as an officially recognised language under the Constitution. He noted that South African Sign Language was a real language. In February 2007, DeafSA had also made a presentation to the Committee in which it made out a case for SASL to be recognised as an official language. He explained that prior to 1994, DeafSA was run by those without hearing difficulties, but since then it had been run by deaf people, and it was affiliated to the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). At present South Africa had 44 schools for the deaf, yet only ten had classes up to matric level. This was a major concern for DeafSA. It had lobbied the Department of Education to use SASL as a medium of instruction in these schools, so that more learners could obtain their matric on a proper standard. It was therefore important that all teachers also learn SASL. He went on to explain that SASL was a language on its own, and did not differ from one language group to another, although, just as there were different dialects within other languages, SASL also had different dialects. He added that it was a wrong perception that total communication (spoken language with signs) was the same as SASL. He explained further that Uganda was the first country in Africa that had approved sign language as an official language. After the last presentation had been made to Parliament, a task team was supposed to be set up with DeafSA and the Department of Arts and Culture. This, however, had never taken place. After the presentation in 2007, Deaf SA wrote to the Speaker, who had promised to follow up on this issue. The Third Parliament had approved the report, which suggested that SASL be recognised as an official language. Action, however, was now required. The deaf community was looking to this Parliament to take the matter further. He concluded by emphasising that the deaf community did not want the spoken language enforced on them. Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (CRLC) Mr Wesley Mabuza, Chairperson, Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities (CRLC), addressed the Committee, following the powerpoint presentation attached to this report. He explained that the CRLC was presently addressing the issue as to whether Sepedi or Sesotho sa Leboa (Northern Sotho) should be an official language that would be listed in the Constitution. He explained further that the CRLC was a constitutional body, established in terms of Chapter 9 of the Constitution, and that it had received complaints from some communities about the fact that Sepedi was accepted as an official language in South Africa. These communities felt that Sepedi was a dialect of Sesotho sa Leboa, and not a language on its own. It should therefore be replaced by Sesotho sa Leboa as one of the official languages. These communities were also unhappy that their children were being forced to learn Sepedi and not Sesotho sa Leboa. He pointed out that in the interim Constitution, Sesotho sa Leboa was designated as an official language. This was changed, however, to Sepedi in the final Constitution of 1996, without consultation. Pan South African Language Board (PanSALB) Mr Chris Swepu, Acting Chief Executive Officer, Pan South African Language Board (PanSALB), addressed the Committee on the issue of SASL and Sepedi, as outlined by the previous presenters, and in line with the powerpoint presentation that he tabled. He pointed out that PanSALB had done research and that the main finding was that Sepedi was indeed a dialect of Sesotho sa Leboa. PanSALB recommended that the Committee should do some more research and consult with a broader community before any final decision was taken on the issue. In regard to SASL, he indicated that much progress had been made by PanSALB in this area, but PanSALB also recommended that there must be more consultation on the matter. Mr N Koornhof (COPE) asked if DeafSA could give one or two examples why it would be better for SASL to be declared an official language. He also wanted to know if the countries that had been mentioned in the presentation had declared sign language an official language, or whether it was just protected or recognised in these countries. He also wanted to know when sign language was first initiated. Mr H Schmidt (DA) asked DeafSA to explain how SASL linked with international sign language, and whether there was not one international sign language. Ms J Sosibo (ANC) wanted clarity on the fact that SASL was recognised by some schools, yet it seemed like the implementation was a problem. She wanted to know if this meant that monitoring was not being done. Ms Sosibo asked whether a person who had not been educated would be able to communicate with an educated person in sign language. Mr A Ainslie (ANC) asked what the CRLC’s position was on SASL. Ms D Smuts (DA) was sympathetic to DeafSA's plea for SASL to be made an official language, but wanted to know what this would mean in practical terms. She was not sure whether it would give any additional impetus or muscle to the language. The present eleven languages did not receive equal funding or usage. The Constitution stated that provinces and municipalities had to use at least two languages, but it was necessary to consider and be sensitive to the practical issues. Mr Swepu indicated that if SASL were made into an official language, the different government departments would be compelled to use it. Provinces and municipalities would also include it in their language policy. Ms Smuts noted that the presentation had given a figure of one million deaf people in South Africa, but enquired whether perhaps this number was not higher. She had been informed that four million South Africans were hard of hearing. Mr Druchen said that prior to 1994, DeafSA had also lobbied for SASL to be declared an official language. The SABC had not put this into its language policy, because SASL was not listed as an official language. The Department of Education had also not accepted it for schools, because it was not listed as an official language. The Department of Transport had also not employed any interpreters, again because SASL was not an official language. He hoped that this illustrated that declaring SASL as an official language would compel departments to make these service available to people. He pointed out that New Zealand, Uganda, Finland and Spain had made sign language an official language. The other countries mentioned in the presentation had either protected sign language or had given it some form of recognition. He pointed out that sign language was possibly the oldest language, as cavemen had probably used it to communicate. The first documented signs occurred in the seventeenth century. He added that some people who were born or became hard of hearing and accepted sign language could communicate well with others. Some people who became deaf later in life, however, did not want to accept sign language. He explained that the Department of Education still told DeafSA that SASL was not a real language, and insisted that in the schools, total communication be used. The spoken language was therefore being enforced on deaf children. For the deaf community this was akin to people being forced to be educated in Afrikaans in 1976. Mr Druchen explained to the Committee that each country had its own sign language. There were different signs for the same words, but the grammar was the same. The WFD was aiming to have everyone adopt the same system. Adjustments, however, could be made so that people could communicate. People who were illiterate still were able to use basic signs to communicate with others. Ms Digkale supported SASL being declared as an official language. This would enable more children to obtain their matric and find work, rather than becoming dependent on grants. Mr A Ainslie (ANC) wanted to know what the difference was between the CRL and the PanSALB. Mr Ainslie asked why Sepedi was made an official language in the final Constitution. Ms C Digkale (ANC) commented that Sepedi was not a language on its own but rather a dialect. Ms Smuts suggested that the Committee should not spend time discussing the difference between the CRL and the PanSALB, or how Sepedi was made an official language, as this information could be obtained by Members outside this meeting. Ms Smuts asked about the impartiality of PanSALB, and said that it should give recommendations to the Committee, since the Committee was not able to consult with all communities. She added that PanSALB had consulted with people within the DA, and it had agreed with the recommendation originally made by PanSALB regarding Sepedi. She pointed out that it was only the Zulu and English versions of the Constitution that needed Sepedi replaced by Sesotho sa Leboa. Mr Swepu responded that he did not think that it was necessary for PanSALB to make recommendations as to what the Committee should do, and it was up to Members to say whether Sepedi should be recognised as an official language or not. The mandate of the PanSALB was to work with languages. Parliament, however, had to decide what the status of those languages should be. He added that PanSALB had consulted and had submitted a report to the Department of Arts and Culture. It had also met with the Chairperson of the previous Committee. Mr Mabuza said that the CRLC was under no illusion as to the seriousness of the issues around the use of Sepedi. The Commission had met with PanSALB as well to discuss the matter. It was important that all sides be satisfied with the outcome. Mr Aubrey Sedupane, Acting Manager, CRLC, added that the Commission had received submissions from all the dialects that fell under Sesotho sa Leboa. There had to be some sort of test that needed to be done so that the status of the languages could be determined. Mr Schmidt said that the issue around Sepedi was very confusing and intricate. He referred to some of the dialects that Ms Digkale had mentioned, and asked where those fitted in. The Chairperson said that these dialects were part of Sesotho sa Leboa. Ms Digkale said that the Batswana and Basotho fell into the same group, and this was the reason why Sepedi should also fall into this grouping. The Chairperson asked the organisations to give closing statements. Mr Swepu said that PanSALB had found the discussion to be very valuable. He encouraged the Committee to approach the Sepedi language question with an open mind, in order to resolve the issues. He emphasised that there were other perspectives that needed to be taken into account. Ms Smuts (DA) said that of all the issues in South Africa, language was one of the most difficult to deal with, as it was linked to identity. She was not sure about the way forward. Mr Mabuza said that despite the difficulty involved in the Sepedi language question, South Africa had great people who could do great things. He warned that the Committee should not spend too much time on this issue, as there were other important matters to attend to as well. It was important to use the important research that PanSALB had done already, and to be fully informed on, and keep an open mind on the issues. Mr Druchen said that DeafSA had faith that the Committee would take the proper steps. The Chair repeated that there was no quorum and therefore no decisions could be taken at his meeting, and would stand over to the next meeting. The meeting was adjourned.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36899000
Antarah (Antar) Ibn Shaddad (525 - 615 / Najd) 'Antarah Ibn Shaddad al-'Absi was a pre-Islamic Arabian hero and poet (525-608) famous both for his poetry and his adventurous life. What many consider his best or chief poem is contained in the Mu'allaqat. The account of his life forms the basis of a long and extravagant romance. Antarah was born in Najd (northern Saudi Arabia). He was the son of Shaddad, a well-respected member of the Arabian tribe of Banu Abs, his mother was named Zabibah, an Ethiopian woman, whom Shaddad had enslaved after a tribal war. The tribe neglected Antara at first, and he grew up in servitude. Although it was fairly obvious that Shaddad was his father. He was considered one ... more » Click here to add this poet to your My Favorite Poets. Popular PoemsMore poems of Antarah (Antar) Ibn Shaddad » HIV Vaccine Awareness Day observed annually on May 18 International Museum Day memory + creativity = social change Happy Birthday Omar Khayyam! (1048-1131) Persian mathematician, poet, and philosopher Happy Birthday Friedrich Rückert! (1788-1866) German poet, translator, and professor of Oriental languages.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36901000
April 15, 2012 Jumbo Piston Core Speed 0.8 knots Location Bransfield Strait (-62.56427333, -55.98799167) Depth 253 meters Yesterday we finished all scientific operations and we began our journey north back towards Chile. We are slowly maneuvering through lots and lots of ice and hopefully we'll make it back home on time. From the picture below you can see where we've been so far on this cruise. We are currently at the end of the red line headed back towards Chile. It'll take us a few days to get there, maybe more if the ice continues to be heavy. Jumbo Piston Core As I looked back over my blogs, I realized I hadn't shared one of the most interesting operations that the scientists have done. It's called a Jumbo Piston Core (JPC for short) and it is made of 24 meters of solid steel. The JPC is lowered over the side of the boat and dropped to the seafloor to collect sediment. It can only be used in areas that have a lot of sediment and not a lot of rocks otherwise it will bend. Because of the potential danger that can be caused by the wiring of the JPC, all of the outside decks have to be cleared. There are signs up on all the doors warning people not to pass through them. The Jumbo Piston Core is slowly placed into the water on the side of the boat. A winch lowers the core until is about 50 meters off the bottom of the seafloor and then it is allowed to freefall into the sediment. At the bottom of the core is a small device that stops the sediments from leaking out as the core comes up. Once it reaches the surface, it is raised back onto the deck using a crane. This JPC is full of mud and is so heavy the steel pipe is bending. Once on deck, the inner core liner (PVC pipe) full of marine sediment is removed in pieces. It is pushed down from one end of the JPC and extruded on the opposite end. In order to get the tubes inside, at least two strong people must carry them. Inside, they are labeled and stored in a cold room kept at 4°C. The tubes will be sent to a laboratory in Florida where the team will be able to look at them more closely. The geology team was able to complete a JPC yesterday that contained almost 80 feet of mud! The depth of these cores gives the scientists information that goes back much further into time than the other cores. This gives them more evidence into the history of an area and allows the scientists to tell a more complete story.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36904000
It's official: Mississippi bans slavery A hundred and forty-eight years after it became law, and 18 years after passing it, Mississippi officially ratified the 13th Amendment banning slavery. The cause of the delay? A clerical error, according to The Jackson Clarion-Ledger.Continue Reading In 1995, Mississippi was the only state not to have passed the 13th Amendment. While it passed unanimously, the resolution was never sent to the Office of the Federal Register at the National Archives, a required step. Two University of Mississippi employees — Ranjan Bantra, a doctor who became a U.S. citizen in 2008 and Ken Sullivan, who works for the university’s body donation program — started researching after seeing “Lincoln,” about the 16th president’s efforts to pass the amendment through Congress. Sullivan eventually contacted the Mississippi Secretary of State’s office, which was able to fix the error. On Feb. 7, the Archives wrote back that Mississippi’s ratification was official. “Now it’s officially filed and recorded,” Sullivan told the paper over the weekend. “There’s no asterisk by Mississippi anymore.”	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36909000
initdb creates a new PostgreSQL database cluster (or database system). A database cluster is a collection of databases that are managed by a single server instance. Creating a database system consists of creating the directories in which the database data will live, generating the shared catalog tables (tables that belong to the whole cluster rather than to any particular database), and creating the template1 database. When you create a new database, everything in the template1 database is copied. It contains catalog tables filled in for things like the built-in types. initdb initializes the database cluster's default locale and character set encoding. Some locale categories are fixed for the lifetime of the cluster, so it is important to make the right choice when running initdb. Other locale categories can be changed later when the server is started. initdb will write those locale settings into the postgresql.conf configuration file so they are the default, but they can be changed by editing that file. To set the locale that initdb uses, see the description of the The character set encoding can be set separately for each database as it is created. initdb determines the encoding for the template1 database, which will serve as the default for all other databases. To alter the default encoding initdb must be run as the user that will own the server process, because the server needs to have access to the files and directories that initdb creates. Since the server may not be run as root, you must not run initdb as root either. (It will in fact refuse to do so.) Although initdb will attempt to create the specified data directory, often it won't have permission to do so, since the parent of the desired data directory is often a root-owned directory. To set up an arrangement like this, create an empty data directory as root, then use chown to hand over ownership of that directory to the database user account, then su to become the database user, and finally run initdb as the database user. This option specifies the directory where the database system should be stored. This is the only information required by initdb, but you can avoid writing it by setting the PGDATA environment variable, which can be convenient since the database server (postmaster) can find the database directory later by the same variable. Selects the encoding of the template database. This will also be the default encoding of any database you create later, unless you override it there. To use the encoding feature, you must have enabled it at build time, at which time you also select the default for this option. Sets the default locale for the database cluster. If this option is not specified, the locale is inherited from the environment that initdb runs in. --locale, but only sets the locale in the specified category. Selects the user name of the database superuser. This defaults to the name of the effective user running initdb. It is really not important what the superuser's name is, but one might choose to keep the customary name postgres, even if the operating system user's name is different. Makes initdb prompt for a password to give the database superuser. If you don't plan on using password authentication, this is not important. Otherwise you won't be able to use password authentication until you have a password set up. Other, less commonly used, parameters are also available: Print debugging output from the bootstrap backend and a few other messages of lesser interest for the general public. The bootstrap backend is the program initdb uses to create the catalog tables. This option generates a tremendous amount of extremely boring output. Specifies where initdb should find its input files to initialize the database system. This is normally not necessary. You will be told if you need to specify their location explicitly. By default, when initdb determines that an error prevented it from completely creating the database system, it removes any files it may have created before discovering that it can't finish the job. This option inhibits tidying-up and is thus useful for debugging. Specifies the directory where the database system is to be stored; may be overridden using the	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36917000
DNA typing is an invaluable forensic tool for associating biological evidence with its true source. Generally DNA technology affords the forensic scientist the ability to effectively eliminate individuals who have been falsely associated with a biological sample and to substantially reduce the number of potential contributors to a few (if not one) individuals. When it was initially developed, DNA typing was used predominately to compare an evidence profile directly with the profile from a reference sample(s). Many of these one-to-one comparisons have been extremely useful in assisting to solve crimes. More than a decade ago the capability of DNA typing was substantially expanded by the creation of DNA databases that contain profiles from convicted felons (and now arrestees as well) and profiles from evidence from unsolved cases(1) . The DNA profiles contained within the forensic indices can be compared, and candidate matches can be investigated further. Indeed, DNA database searching has become another routine way to develop new and often strong investigative leads. The success stories of DNA database search leads are well known for identifying suspects (ultimately perpetrators) and are being used increasingly in post-conviction exoneration cases. Initially, database searching was applied to direct profile comparisons to generate investigative leads. However, in 2003–2004 the Forensic Science Service demonstrated that the database searching capabilities could be expanded by employing indirect comparisons via an approach known as familial searching(3) . This type of search led to the identification of Craig Harman through an association with a first-order relative’s DNA profile housed in the United Kingdom DNA Database. The crime involved the heart attack death of a motorist due to a brick thrown through the windshield of the victim’s truck from a bridge above the roadway. A direct comparison of the DNA profile from the brick and profiles in the National Database did not result in any candidate matches. However, 25 similar DNA profiles were identified, and at the top position on the list of candidates was a relative of Craig Harman. Harman voluntarily submitted a reference sample, and his DNA profile was a direct match with that of the evidence. He subsequently pleaded guilty to manslaughter. "There is good a priori reason to believe that familial searching would have some success. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics Correctional Populations in United States, 1996 report, at least 42.8% of inmates had close relatives who also have been incarcerated." Anecdotally, familial searching had been carried out previously to the Harman case for years in one-to-one comparison cases in which an evidence profile was sufficiently similar to the evidence. Such similarities often prompted the forensic scientist to suggest to investigators to look for a relative of the suspect. However, the Harman case was the first one in which a DNA database was used to develop the investigative lead. Today there are a number of documented cases where familial searching was successful in identifying the perpetrator(3) Familial searching is based on the principle that first-order relatives, i.e., siblings, parents, and to a lesser degree even more distantly related relatives (e.g., uncles, aunts and cousins), will share features of their DNA profiles (i.e., alleles) on average more so than do unrelated individuals. While there may be no direct matches when comparing an evidence DNA profile with reference profiles in a DNA database, there can be "near genetic matches" (or better stated "associations") with convicted felon profiles, and one of these candidates may be a close relative of the true source of the crime scene evidence. Familial searching is another tool in the arsenal for developing investigative leads from DNA databases. There is good a priori reason to believe that familial searching would have some success. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics Correctional Populations in United States, 1996 report(5) , at least 42.8% of inmates had close relatives (i.e., father, mother, brother, sister, child) who also have been incarcerated. Since DNA profiles of most inmates are entered in the CODIS system (and, for example, the UK Database), familial searching has a great potential to assist law enforcement by identifying an individual in CODIS who may be a close relative of the true source of a forensic sample. Typically, familial DNA database searches are best suited for identification of an individual who could be a sibling of the true source of the evidence sample and identification of an individual who could be the parent or offspring of the true source of the evidence. Use of familial searching can constitute a powerful law enforcement tool that should increase the number of suspects (and thus perpetrators) identified through forensic DNA technology, and advocates say it already is a legitimate way to develop investigative leads(3) . Anecdotally, it appears that the use of familial DNA searching in the UK that results in a conviction may be on a performance par with the use of CODIS to produce offender hits that result in conviction(3) . Bieber et al.(4) suggested that familial search analysis could increase the cold hit rate up to 40%. Even with its success in identifying true perpetrators via indirect associations in a DNA database search, familial searching is not without its critics, who contend that familial searching simply is an invasion of privacy and merely a genetic fishing expedition by law enforcement. While those against familial searching acknowledge that convicted criminals should lose some privacy rights, they assert that relatives of convicted felons do not have an expectation of a reduced right to privacy. Critics claim that these searches are even more troubling since they constitute an increased discriminatory scrutiny of the low-income and ethnic groups that are overrepresented in the database(6) The recent identification in California via familial searching of a serial killer suspect shows that this investigative tool could be beneficial to underprivileged groups(7) . For more than 30 years, a serial murderer—the Grim Sleeper—in Los Angeles remained unidentified. The majority of victims were young African American females (that clearly represented a low-income, minority population group). Yet familial searching linked Franklin via his son who was entered into the California database for a felony weapons charge in recent years. To ensure that the association was a viable lead, the DNA laboratory also typed the evidence and the son for Y STRs. Barring mutation, a father passes his Y STR chromosome intact to his son. Given the discrimination power afforded by current Y STR profiling kits is around 0.999, most false indirect associations can be eliminated(9) . Thus, when using a Y STR match threshold, rarely would an investigator be incorrect in following up the lead provided by the DNA association. The two Y STR profiles were the same, which strongly supports a paternal relationship between the source of the DNA evidence and Franklin's son. Franklin's DNA profile was a direct match to evidence in the murders over the past three decades. This is strong support of the power of Y STRs in this context. Even with this success story the debate on the use of familial searching will likely continue. Currently some countries and only two US states (California and Colorado) are openly conducting familial searching; few jurisdictions are moving towards conducting familial searching, and one state (Maryland) has prohibited familial searching of criminal databases. As the debate continues additional questions will likely arise, including: - Could one make a proportionality argument and that the seriousness of the crime warrants its use (for example in the Grim Sleeper case)? - Alternatively to the proportionality position, if it is acceptable under serial murder cases, should familial searching be appropriate in other “lesser” crimes? After all there is evidence that a large portion of violent criminals start out by committing lesser crimes. - Should familial DNA searching be made available to a convicted person who has been afforded post-conviction DNA testing that has not yet “exonerated” him/her because the identity of the source of the forensic unknown DNA profile has not been established, even after a CODIS search? - Is familial searching any different than using partial information as is done in other settings? - Does the aura of DNA impede its use—i.e., should DNA be treated differently than other forensic evidence? - Is a one-to-one comparison case in which a familial association is indicated any different than a familial association obtained by a database search? - Is legislation required prior to proceeding with a familial search? - Is there accountability if a CODIS manager or a laboratory analyst discovers a potential suspect who partially matches the evidence and does not report the finding? - Could the nonreported association constitute Brady material? - What about the next victim who would not have become a victim if the analyst provided the information? - Should database managers seek legal advice on what is proper action regarding partial matches or potential associations? - If a state or jurisdiction desires to implement familial searching, what are the best practices to apply? With regard to the last question, software is needed that effectively searches databases based on the best-performing parameters. The proposed practices for identifying associations with their false-positive and false-negative rates should be understood(12) . When possible, Y STR typing should be performed (for male relatives)(11) In conclusion, there is unequivocal evidence that familial searching will increase the cold hit rate and help solve more cases. Most states legislatively authorized CODIS to be utilized for "criminal identification" purposes. The means used to achieve that purpose are seldom specifically described in the empowering statutes. California and Colorado each implemented familial DNA searching without legislative assistance(3) . The "Grim Sleeper" case shows that familial DNA searching can be used solely for "criminal identification" purposes (see reference 20 for an extended discussion of this topic(14) ). The prediction is that as more successes such as the Grim Sleeper case are reported, more laboratories will seek to use familial searching. If familial searching is to be implemented it should be performed in a well-thought-out, robust manner. There are some models to follow, and the laboratory should work closely with its legal counterparts to develop an effective plan. Editor's Note: Learn more about familial searches to solve crimes at the 21st International Symposium on Human Identification, which is being held October 11–14, 2010, in San Antonio, Texas. A panel discussion on October 14 will explore the details of familial searching and focus on the controversy behind the policy. Panelists will include Bruce Budowle, Institute of Investigative Genetics; Rockne Harmon, Alameda County District Attorney’s Office (retired); Jennifer Luttman, Federal Bureau of Investigation; Chris Maguire, Forensic Science Service; and Sonia Suter, George Washington Law School.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36931000
For some women, genes may influence pressure to be thin Genetics may make some women more vulnerable to the pressure of being thin, a study led by Michigan State University researchers has found. From size-zero models to airbrushed film stars, thinness is portrayed as equaling beauty across Western culture, and it’s an ideal often cited as a cause of eating disorder symptoms in young women. The researchers focused on the potential psychological impact of women buying into this perceived ideal of thinness, which they call thin-ideal internalization. Changes in self-perception and behavior, caused by this idealization, can lead to body dissatisfaction, a preoccupation with weight and other symptoms of eating disorders. “We’re all bombarded daily with messages extoling the virtues of being thin, yet intriguingly only some women develop what we term thin-ideal internalization,” said Jessica Suisman, lead author on the study and a researcher in MSU’s Department of Psychology. “This suggests that genetic factors may make some women more susceptible to this pressure than others.” To explore the role of genetic factors in whether women “buy in” to the pressure to be thin, the idealization of thinness was studied in sets of twins. More than 300 female twins from the MSU Twin Registry, ages 12-22, took part in the study. Suisman and colleagues measured how much participants wanted to look like people from movies, TV and magazines. Once the levels of thin idealization were assessed, identical twins who share 100 percent of their genes were compared with fraternal twins who share 50 percent. The results show that identical twins have closer levels of thin idealization than fraternal twins, which suggests a significant role for genetics. Further analysis shows that the heritability of thin idealization is 43 percent, meaning that almost half of the reason women differ in their idealization of thinness can be explained by differences in their genetic makeup. In addition to the role of genes, findings showed that influences of the environment are also important. The results showed that differences between twins’ environments have a greater role in the development of thin ideal internalization than wider cultural attitudes, which women throughout Western societies are exposed to. “We were surprised to find that shared environmental factors, such as exposure to the same media, did not have as big an impact as expected,” Suisman said. “Instead, non-shared factors that make co-twins different from each other had the greatest impact.” Although the study did not look at specific environmental triggers, non-shared environmental influences typically include experiences that twins do not share with one another. This could include involvement by one twin in a weight-focused sport like dance, one twin being exposed to more media that promotes thinness than the other, or one of the twins having a friendship group that places importance on weight. “The take-home message,” Suisman said, “is that the broad cultural risk factors that we thought were most influential in the development of thin-ideal internalization are not as important as genetic risk and environmental risk factors that are specific and unique to each twin.” Kelly Klump, MSU professor of psychology and co-author on the study, said it is well established that a broad range of factors can contribute to the development of eating disorders. “This study reveals the need to take a similar approach to the ways in which women buy in to pressure to be thin, by considering how both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the development of thin-ideal internalization,” Klump said.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36937000
Published December 9th 2004 by Routledge – 96 pages Series: Routledge A Level English Guides Routledge A Level English Guides equip AS and A2 Level students with the skills they need to explore, evaluate, and enjoy English. Books in the series are built around the various skills specified in the assessment objectives (AOs) for all AS and A2 Level English courses. Focusing on the AOs most relevant to their topic, the books help students to develop their knowledge and abilities through analysis of lively texts and contemporary data. Each book in the series covers a different area of language and literary study, and offers accessible explanations, examples, exercises, summaries, suggested answers and a glossary of key terms. Preface 1. Genre Text Conventions Case Study: The Recipe Genre. Conclusion. Summary. 2. Theme Bridging the Gap between Texts. Case Study: Single Parents and their Children. Bleak House in Context. Choosing Your Own Theme. Conclusion Summary. 3. Linked and Labelled Texts Labelling Texts. The 'Great Tradition' and Cultural Capital. Problems with the Labelling Process. Case Study: The Romantic Movement. The Romantic Background and the Age of Revolution. The Byronic Hero. Romantic Texts in Context. Key Contextual Questions. Extension Exercise: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner Conclusion. Summary. 4. Sources and Adaptations Parody Case Study: Pride and Prejudice and Bridget Jones's Diary. Comparing Form, Structure and Language. Interpretations of Texts. The Writer's Context. The Text's Context. The Reader's Context. The Readings Context. Conclusion. Summary. 5. Comparing Texts in Examinations Case Study 1: Comparing Literary Texts. Case Study 2: Comparing Non-Literary Texts. Conclusion: Comparing Texts in Examinations - Methods and Approaches. Summary. Suggestions for Answers. Glossary Nicola Onyett is an experienced A level examiner, moderator and coursework advisor. Previously Head of English at Queen Margaret's School in York she now teaches in the Department of Educational Studies at the University of York.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36938000
Excerpted from An Eighth of August by Dawn Turner Trice. Copyright © 2002 by Dawn Turner Trice. Excerpted by permission of Anchor, a division of Random House, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher. 1) For discussion of An Eighth of August: An Eight of August presents the same events from several different points of view. Which narrator most closely represents, if any, the voice of the author? Did your opinions of the characters change as you saw them through different eyes? Did you trust their own words and perceptions more than the portraits others painted of them? 2) Sweet Alma is a central character in the book, despite the fact that she isn't present in 1986. Drawing on the impressions the other characters offer, how would you describe her? Do you feel sympathy for her or do you think she is acting selfishly by not returning to Halley's Landing? 3) What motivated Flossie's decision to send Simon and Sweet Alma to St. Louis? Was she merely protecting the family from scandal? In what ways did it reflect her dissatisfaction with her own life? What would have happened to Sweet Alma had she remained in Halley's Landing? 4) Why did Flossie decide to raise El herself? To what extent was she influenced by the close-knit community of Halley's Landing and the attitudes of her friends and family? Would she have made the same decisions about both her daughter and her grandson in Chicago, where she, Simon, and Sweet Alma lived before coming to Halley's Landing? 5) The people of Halley's Landing are very involved with each other's lives. Do you think this is an accurate portrait of small-town life? Are the characters more tolerant of each other because of their shared histories? Are they more accepting of eccentricities and idiosyncrasies than members of your own community? 6) Trice portrays the relationships between several couples: Flossie and Simon, Herbert and Thelma, Pepper and June, and May Ruth and John. Discuss how each of these relationships represents a different concept of love and marriage. What makes Herbert and Thelma's marriage so successful? Why do Flossie and Simon continue to meet years after their divorce, and why do they keep it a secret from the others? Do your sympathies for June and Pepper change when you learn more about June's background? Do you think they will be able to overcome their pasts and form a family of their own? 7) Thelma is presented as a scattered-brained, flighty, naively endearing woman. How does Trice convey Thelma's strengths without contradicting the portraits the narrators draw? 8) Does Cora's position as confidante and mediator to the others give added weight and credibility to her version of events? How does her dream about El and Sweet Alma [pp. 74-75] show a side of her that is not apparent in her straightforward accounts of the day-to-day activities? 9) What role does May Ruth play in the novel? Why does Trice wait until the end of the book to reveal her story and how she became a part of Cora's and the others' lives? 10) Why do Pepper and El allow the others to believe that Pepper was the one who attacked Mr. Paul? Why does Flossie allow Pepper to accept the blame for El's death? What insights does this give you into Flossie's own feelings of guilt and responsibility? 11) Why did Trice set the story against the background of an Emancipation Day celebration? Discuss how the conversations and events of the 1986 festival represent a personal emancipation for each of the characters. For discussion of the two novels 1) Trice describes three different African-American communities--the posh Lakeland and sordid 35th Street in Only Twice, and the rural midwestern town of Halley's Landing in An Eighth of August. In what ways do each of these communities reflect the history of African-Americans in this country and the social and economic realities of America today? What attitudes or beliefs do the characters who inhabit these very different worlds share? 2) Only Twice deals graphically with the problems of urban living--drug addiction, prostitution, casual violence, governmental indifference and neglect, not to mention that the fateful events in An Eighth of August are set in motion by Mr. Paul's act of perversion. What keeps the negative events at the heart of the novels from overshadowing the stories Trice tells? 3) Why does Trice use more than one narrator? How do the changes in voice shape the stories she tells? Did you identify more closely with specific narrators, and if so, why? 4) Tempestt tells her story from the vantage point of twenty years, and the recollections in An Eighth of August switch back and forth from 1973 to 1986. How do the changing time frames and perspectives strengthen the power of the novels? 5) In Only Twice, all the characters are African-American. In her second novel, Trice included a white woman, May Ruth, as part of the community she creates. What do you think she was trying to accomplish by doing this? Does May Ruth's background and race influence the way the other characters relate to her? 6) Both Tempestt and Pepper witness the death of their best friends, and both feel a sense of responsibility for the tragedy. How do their reactions differ? How do the reactions of the adults around them affect their abilities to cope with their guilt? We know that Tempestt ended up living a rich, fulfilling life. What do you think will happen to Pepper in the future?	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36950000
the Cooking Hacks team is happy to announce at last the new development board we have been doing to use with Raspberry! The idea behind the Raspberry Pi to Arduino shields connection bridge is to allow to use any of the shields, boards and modules designed for Arduino in Raspberry Pi. It includes also the possibility of connecting digital and analog sensors, using the same pinout of Arduino but with the power and capabilities of Raspberry. In order to make complete the compatibility we have created the arduPi library which allows to use Raspberry with the same code used in Arduino. To do so, we have implemented conversion functions so that you can control in the same way as in Arduino all the I/O interfaces: i2C, SPI, UART, analog, digital, in Raspberry Pi. Let's summarize what we can do using this shield along with the arduPi library: - - Connect any Arduino Wireless module in Raspberry. Some examples: XBee 802.15.4/XBee ZigBee, RFID, NFC, Bluetooth, Bluetooth Pro, Wifi, GPRS, 3G - - Connect any sensor (analog 0-5V, digital) to Raspberry Pi with a precession of 16b using the ADC integrated. Connect also complex sensors through i2C and UART buses - - Connect any Arduino specific shield such as: Radiation sensor shield, CanBus, Relay shield,... - - Connect any electronic module or actuator which works over i2C, SPI, UART All the information can be found in this tutorial: Raspberry Pi to Arduino shields connection bridge For further information or any question which may arise we will be pleased to help you. Cooking Hacks Team	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36953000
by Michael Mann and Gavin Schmidt On this site we emphasize conclusions that are supported by “peer-reviewed” climate research. That is, research that has been published by one or more scientists in a scholarly scientific journal after review by one or more experts in the scientists’ same field (‘peers’) for accuracy and validity. What is so important about “Peer Review”? As Chris Mooney has lucidly put it: [Peer Review] is an undisputed cornerstone of modern science. Central to the competitive clash of ideas that moves knowledge forward, peer review enjoys so much renown in the scientific community that studies lacking its imprimatur meet with automatic skepticism. Academic reputations hinge on an ability to get work through peer review and into leading journals; university presses employ peer review to decide which books they’re willing to publish; and federal agencies like the National Institutes of Health use peer review to weigh the merits of applications for federal research grants. Put simply, peer review is supposed to weed out poor science. However, it is not foolproof — a deeply flawed paper can end up being published under a number of different potential circumstances: (i) the work is submitted to a journal outside the relevant field (e.g. a paper on paleoclimate submitted to a social science journal) where the reviewers are likely to be chosen from a pool of individuals lacking the expertise to properly review the paper, (ii) too few or too unqualified a set of reviewers are chosen by the editor, (iii) the reviewers or editor (or both) have agendas, and overlook flaws that invalidate the paper’s conclusions, and (iv) the journal may process and publish so many papers that individual manuscripts occasionally do not get the editorial attention they deserve. Thus, while un-peer-reviewed claims should not be given much credence, just because a particular paper has passed through peer review does not absolutely insure that the conclusions are correct or scientifically valid. The “leaks” in the system outlined above unfortunately allow some less-than-ideal work to be published in peer-reviewed journals. This should therefore be a concern when the results of any one particular study are promoted over the conclusions of a larger body of past published work (especially if it is a new study that has not been fully absorbed or assessed by the community). Indeed, this is why scientific assessments such as the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA), or the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports, and the independent reports by the National Academy of Sciences, are so important in giving a balanced overview of the state of knowledge in the scientific research community. There have been several recent cases of putatively peer-reviewed studies in the scientific literature that produced unjustified or invalid conclusions. Curiously, many of these publications have been accompanied by heavy publicity campaigns, often declaring that this one paper completely refutes the scientific consensus. An excellent account of some of these examples is provided here by Dr. Stephen Schneider (Stanford University). Perhaps the most publicized recent example was the publication of a study by astronomer Willie Soon of the Harvard University-affiliated Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and co-authors, claiming to demonstrate that 20th century global warmth was not unusual in comparison with conditions during Medieval times. Indeed, this study serves as a prime example of one of the “myths” that we have debunked elsewhere on this site. The study was summarily discredited in articles by teams of climate scientists (including several of the scientists here at RealClimate), in the American Geophysical Union (AGU) journal Eos and in Science. However, it took some time the rebuttals to work their way through the slow process of the scientific peer review. In the meantime the study was quickly seized upon by those seeking to sow doubt in the validity behind the scientific consensus concerning the evidence for human-induced climate change (see news articles in the New York Times, and Wall Street Journal). The publication of the study had wider reverberations throughout the academic and scientific institutions connected with it. The association of the study with the “Harvard” name caused some notable unease among members of the Harvard University community (see here and here) and the reputation of the journal publishing the study was seriously tarnished in the process. The editor at Climate Research that handled the Soon et al paper, Dr. Chris de Frietas, has a controversial record of past editorial practices (see this ‘sidebar’ to an article in Scientific American by science journalist David Appell). In an unprecedented (to our knowledge) act of protest, chief editor Hans von Storch and 3 additional editors subsequently resigned from Climate Research in response to the fundamental documented failures of the editorial process at the journal. A detailed account of these events are provided by Chris Mooney in the Skeptical Inquirer and The American Prospect, by David Appell in Scientific American, and in a news brief in Nature. The journal’s publisher himself (Otto Kline) eventually stated that “[the conclusions drawn] cannot be concluded convincingly from the evidence provided in the paper”. Another journal which (quite oddly) also published the Soon et al study, “Energy and Environment”, is not actually a scientific journal at all but a social science journal. The editor, Sonja Boehmer-Christensen, in defending the publication of the Soon et al study, was quoted by science journalist Richard Monastersky in the Chronicle of Higher Education somewhat remarkably confessing “I’m following my political agenda — a bit, anyway. But isn’t that the right of the editor?”. Shaviv and Veizer (2003) published a paper in the journal GSA Today, where the authors claimed to establish a correlation between cosmic ray flux (CRF) and temperature evolution over hundreds of millions of years, concluding that climate sensitivity to carbon dioxide was much smaller than currently accepted. The paper was accompanied by a press release entitled “Global Warming not a Man-made Phenomenon”, in which Shaviv was quoted as stating,“The operative significance of our research is that a significant reduction of the release of greenhouse gases will not significantly lower the global temperature, since only about a third of the warming over the past century should be attributed to man”. However, in the paper the authors actually stated that “our conclusion about the dominance of the CRF over climate variability is valid only on multimillion-year time scales”. Unsurprisingly, there was a public relations offensive using the seriously flawed conclusions expressed in the press release to once again try to cast doubt on the scientific consensus that humans are influencing climate. These claims were subsequently disputed in an article in Eos (Rahmstorf et al, 2004) by an international team of scientists and geologists (including some of us here at RealClimate), who suggested that Shaviv and Veizer’s analyses were based on unreliable and poorly replicated estimates, selective adjustments of the data (shifting the data, in one case by 40 million years) and drew untenable conclusions, particularly with regard to the influence of anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations on recent warming (see for example the exchange between the two sets of authors). However, by the time this came out the misleading conclusions had already been publicized widely. Next, we discuss the first of three so-called “bombshell” papers that supposedly “knock the stuffing out of” the findings of the IPCC. Patrick Michaels and associates billed his own paper (McKitrick and Michaels, 2004) (co-authored by Ross McKitrick ), this way: After four years of one of the most rigorous peer reviews ever, Canadian Ross McKitrick and another of us (Michaels) published a paper searching for “economic” signals in the temperature record. …The research showed that somewhere around one-half of the warming in the U.N. surface record was explained by economic factors, which can be changes in land use, quality of instrumentation, or upkeep of records. It strikes us as odd, to say the least, that, after one of the “most rigorous peer reviews ever”, nobody involved (neither editor, nor reviewers, nor authors) seems to have caught the egregious basic error that the authors mistakenly used degrees rather than the required radians in calculating the cosine functions used to spatially weight their estimates. This mistake rendered every calculation in the paper incorrect, and the conclusions invalid — to our knowledge, however, the paper has not yet been retracted. Remarkably, there were still other independent and equally fundamental errors in the paper that would have rendered it entirely invalid anyway. To the journals credit, they published a criticism of the paper by Benestad (2004) to this effect. It may come as no surprise that McKitrick and Michaels (2004) was published in Climate Research and was handled by none other than Chris de Frietas. The other two “bombshell” papers were published in the AGU journal Geophysical Research Letters (GRL) which publishes over 1500 papers per year. It can be conservatively estimated that they publish no more than 70% of the papers received, and thus probably process over 2000 papers per year. That gives each of the typically 8 or so editors of the journal almost a paper per day to evaluate. While GRL publishes many excellent papers and provides an important forum to the research community for rapid publication of important results, occasionally, poor papers slip through the net. These two papers were authored by Douglass and collaborators (Douglass et al, 2004a;2004b) the first with Fred Singer as a co-author and the second with both Singer and Michaels. Both papers* argue that recent atmospheric temperatures have been cooling, rather than warming, based on the analysis of data over a selective (1979-1996) time interval that eliminates periods of significant warming both before and after, and using a controversial satellite-derived temperature record whose robustness has been called into question by other teams analysing the data. An excellent discussion of both papers is provided by Tim Lambert. Another relevant GRL paper was the article by Legates and Davis (1997) which criticized the use of “centered correlations” common to numerous “Detection and Attribution” studies supporting the detection of human influence on recent climate change. They argued that correlations could increase while observed and simulated global means diverge. However, as pointed out in the chapter on Detection and Attribution in IPCC (2001), centered correlations were introduced for precisely this reason: to provide an indicator that was statistically independent of global mean temperature changes. As noted by the IPCC, “if both global mean changes and centered pattern correlations point towards the same explanation of observed temperature changes, it provides more compelling evidence than either of these indicators in isolation”. Again, a basic logical flaw in the authors’ criticism of past work was not caught in peer review. Next, we consider the paper by Soon et al (2004) published in GRL which criticized the way temperature data series had been smoothed in the IPCC report and elsewhere. True to form, contrarians immediately sold the results as ‘invalidating’ the conclusions of the IPCC, with the lead author Willie Soon himself writing an opinion piece to this effect. Once again, a few short months later, a followup article was published by one of us (Mann, 2004) that invalidated the Soon et al (2004) conclusions, demonstrating (with links to supporting Matlab source codes and data) how (a) the authors had, in an undisclosed manner, inappropriately compared trends calculated over differing time intervals and (b) had not used standard, objective statistical criteria to determine how data series should be treated near the beginning and end of the data. It is unfortunate that a followup paper even had to be published, as the flaws in the original study were so severe as to have rendered the study of essentially no scientific value. There are other examples of studies that have even been published in high quality venues that were heavily publicized at the time, but in retrospect were flawed (though not as egregiously as the examples above). For instance, Fan et al (1998), on the size of the carbon sink in the continental US, rebutted by Schimel et al. (2000). Or the solar-cycle length/climate correlation described by Friis-Christensen and Lassen (1991) whose seeemingly impressive correlation for the latter half of the 20th Century disappears if you don’t change the averaging scheme half way along (Laut, 2003; Damon and Laut, 2004). The current thinking of scientists on climate change is based on thousands of studies (Google Scholar gives 19,000 scientific articles for the full search phrase “global climate change”). Any new study will be one small grain of evidence that adds to this big pile, and it will shift the thinking of scientists slightly. Science proceeds like this in a slow, incremental way. It is extremely unlikely that any new study will immediately overthrow all the past knowledge. So even if the conclusions of the Shaviv and Veizer (2003) study discussed earlier, for instance, had been correct, this would be one small piece of evidence pitted against hundreds of others which contradict it. Scientists would find the apparent contradiction interesting and worthy of further investigation, and would devote further study to isolating the source of the contradiction. They would not suddenly throw out all previous results. Yet, one often gets the impression that scientific progress consists of a series of revolutions where scientists discard all their past thinking each time a new result gets published. This is often because only a small handful of high-profile studies in a given field are known by the wider public and media, and thus unrealistic weight is attached to those studies. New results are often over-emphasised (sometimes by the authors, sometimes by lobby groups) to make them sound important enough to have news value. Thus “bombshells” usually end up being duds. However, as demonstrated above, even when it initially breaks down, the process of peer-review does usually work in the end. But sometimes it can take a while. Observers would thus be well advised to be extremely skeptical of any claims in the media or elsewhere of some new “bombshell” or “revolution” that has not yet been fully vetted by the scientific community. Note added 1/21/05: It has come to our attention that Legates and Davis (1997) were similarly rebutted in a separate publication by Wigley et al (2000). Note added 1/21/05: McKitrick and Michaels have published an errata correcting the degrees/radians error in CR 27, 265-268 which now shows that latitude correlates much better with temperature trends than any economic statisitic. *Note added 1.25.05: Chip Knappenberger correctly points out that the the second Douglass et al paper doesn’t actually make the claim that the atmosphere is cooling. We therefore withdraw that specific comment, but note that the comment concerning the selective use of data series and time periods stands. Benestad, R.E., Are temperature trends affected by economic activity? Comment on McKitrick & Michaels., Climate Research, 27, 171-173, 2004. Damon, P. E. and P. Laut, Pattern of Strange Errors Plagues Solar Activity and Terrestrial Climate Data, Eos, 85, p. 370. 2004 Douglass, D. H., Pearson, B.D., and S.F.Singer, Altitude dependence of atmospheric temperature trends: Climate models versus observation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L13208, doi:10.1029/2004GL020103, 2004. Douglass, D. H., Pearson, B.D., and S.F.Singer, Knappenberg, P.C., and P.J. Michaels, Disparity of tropospheric and surface temperature trends: New evidence, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L13207, doi:10.1029/2004GL020212, 2004, 2004. Fan, S., Gloor, M., Mahlman, J., Pacala, S., Sarmiento, J., Takahashi, T., Tans, P. A Large Terrestrial Carbon Sink in North America Implied by Atmospheric and Oceanic Carbon Dioxide Data and Models, Science 282: 442-446, 1998. Friis-Christensen, E., and K. Lassen, Length of the Solar Cycle: An indicator of Solar Activity Closely Associated with Climate, Science 254, 698-700, (1991). Legates, D. R. and R. E. Davis, The continuing search for an anthropogenic climate change signal: limitations of correlation based approaches, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 2319-2322, 1997. Laut, P., Solar activity and terrestrial climate: An analysis of some purported correlations, J.Atmos. Solar-Terr.Phys.,65, 801-812. 2003 Mann, M.E., On Smoothing Potentially Non-Stationary Climate Time Series, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, 2319-2322, L07214, doi: 10.1029/2004GL019569, 2004. McKitrick, R., and Michaels, P.J., A test of corrections for extraneous signals in gridded surface temperature data., Climate Research, 26, 159-173, 2004. Rahmstorf, S., D. Archer, D.S. Ebel, O. Eugster, J. Jouzel, D. Maraun, G.A. Schmidt, J. Severinghaus, A.J. Weaver, and J. Zachos, Cosmic rays, carbon dioxide, and climate, Eos, 85, , 38,41, 2004. Schimel, D., Melillo, J., Tian, H., McGuire, A. D., Kicklighter, D., Kittel, T., Rosenbloom, N., Running, S., Thornton, P., Ojima, D., Parton, W., Kelly, R., Sykes, M., Neilson, R. and Rizzo, B., Contribution of Increasing CO2 and Climate to Carbon Storage by Ecosystems in the United States, Science 287: 2004-2006, 2000 Shaviv, N, and J. Veizer, Celestial driver of Phanerozoic climate?, GSA Today, 13, , 4-10, 2004. Soon, W., D. R. Legates, and S. L. Baliunas, Estimation and representation of long-term (>40 year) trends of Northern-Hemisphere gridded surface temperature: A note of caution, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, , L03209, doi:10.1029/2003GL019141, 2004. Soon, W., and S. Baliunas, Proxy climatic and environmental changes over the past 1000 years, Climate Research, 23, 89-110, 2003. Soon, W., S. Baliunas, C, Idso, S. Idso and D.R. Legates, Reconstructing climatic and environmental changes of the past 1000 years, Energy and Environment, 14, 233-296, 2003. Wigley, T.M.L, Santer, B.D and K.E. Taylor, K.E., Correlation approaches to detection, Geophys. Res. Lett.,, 27, 2973-2976, 2000.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36956000
Keba Keba is Japanese for Gaudy Tawdry and it is the title of artist Takashi Murakami's first picture book for children, with a story written by pop musician Yujin Kitagawa. This bright, colorful book, appropriate for readers of all ages, features both Japanese and English texts and emerges at a pivotal time for America's scrutiny of Japan's self-expression. Murakami is both an artist and an intellectual; he has written on and created works employing the concept he calls "Superflat," which is to say, "completely Westernized." Murakami has speculated that "The world of the future might be like Japan is today -- super flat." Murakami's art is inspired both by animation and children's culture. But while he has created stuffed animals and monstrously sized inflatable characters, Keba Keba is his first work intended for children. As the book begins, we meet Keba Keba -- a round, colorful, exeedingly generous, though friendless creature. Keba Keba gives his yellow to a baby chicken who has been bullied, his favorite color red to the sad sun, his blue to the crying sky, and the rest of his colors to some frail, unhappy flowers. While Keba Keba is giving his colors away to the colorless strangers, he becomes thinner and more faint -- but at the same time incredibly happy. In fact, Kitagawa's story continuously emphasizes Keba Keba's wonderful feelings. Yet Murakami uses a climactic, wordless illustration encompassing two full pages to show Keba Keba in shades of grey. His eyes are closed, he is thin, exhausted -- super-flat. Fashion designer Marc Jacobs, whose comments are featured on Keba Keba's book jacket, says that this story is a lesson about the need to give generously and selflessly in order to receive true joy. Certainly this is one message children can absorb. But it's also possible to see the book as offering a more cautionary tale for contemporary youth. The story ends with a colorful world, but KebaKeba is not in this world anymore. And he never does make any friends. Sources:Brehm, Margrit. "Takashi Murakami: A Lesson in Strategy (Morphed Double-Loop." The Japanese Experience Inevitable. Ed. Margrit Brehm. Germany, Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2002. 034-083. Friis-Hanssen, Dana. "Takashi Murakami Declares The World is Flat." Twisted: Urban and Visionary Landscapes in Contemporary Painting. Rotterdam: Nai Publishers, 2000. Kitagawa, Yujin and Takashi Murakami. Keba Keba (Gaudy Tawdry). Japan, Takashi Murakami/Kaikai Kiki, 2003. Murakami, Takashi. "Impotence Culture-Anime." My Reality: Contemporary Art and the Culture of Japanese Animation. Des Moines, Iowa: Des Moines Art Center, 2001. 58-66. Copyright 2004 © Jaimy Mann Today's program featured the following work: \|Search the transcripts by date or keyword. Friday, 01-Oct-2004 11:14:37 EDT	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36960000
Rajeev Srinivasan looks at the reasons behind the debacle. The currency exchange rate is a representation of the market sentiment about the strength of a nation's economy. As such, it is often ruthless in indicating what the rest of the world thinks about a country's economic stewardship. Thus, when the rupee plummets, it is a clear indication that the world thinks India's [ Images ] economy is in bad shape, and that its prospects for the future is cloudy. The proximate cause is the Budget, with its Black-Swan event of a 50-year rollback and retroactive taxation of deals. This strengthens the notion that India is still a Banana Republic. There is also the spectre of a balance-of-payments crisis as in 1991, which also followed a spending binge. India has a healthy foreign exchange reserve of some $330 billion, but this is not as much of a cushion as one might think: It may only pay for some months worth of imports. What is also striking are the following numbers from Shankar Acharya in Business Standard ('The Exchange rate: Economics bites back): after being at around 1 per cent since 1991, the current account deficit is ballooning to about 4 per cent of GDP now; the fiscal deficit is stubbornly high at over 8 per cent. According to The Economist, inflation was at 9.5 per cent in March, exceeded only by Turkey, Pakistan and Venezuela! And yet, here is the Government of India acting as though its finances were in the pink of health, proposing more entitlement programmes! Tellingly, the interest rates on 10-year government bonds, at 8.51 per cent, are also among the highest in the world, exceeded only by Turkey, Pakistan, and everybody's favorite, Greece. Nice company. From a personal point of view, a collapse in the rupee's purchasing power is a rude shock when an Indian travels outside the country. For instance, I remember traveling once to Thailand about twenty years ago. The Thai baht and the Indian rupee were roughly equivalent, and if I remember right, at about 20 to 25 to the dollar. So it was easy to compare prices -- including those of Bangkok's infamous and dodgy delights -- because you could just use relevant Indian prices. Unfortunately, things have diverged a long way: the Thai baht (despite the punishment of the Asian financial crisis a while ago) is still around 31.1 to the US dollar, whereas the rupee has plunged to (as of this writing) 56 to the US dollar (56.38 this morning). That is, it has depreciated by about 80 per cent compared to the Thai baht. What that suggests is that Thailand's economic fundamentals are considerably worse than those of Thailand. Thailand is a small country, with not much by way of natural resources or human resources, yet they are so much more economically worthy than India! The saga of the rupee is starkly visible in this chart from The Economist (The Tale That Wags the Elephant, May 12, 2012) -- the rupee has continuously depreciated against the dollar. The sharp fall happened in 1991 as part of liberalisation, but the general trend has been downwards, except for two brief periods: One in the 2000-2007 era when the fruits of liberalisation were beginning to appear; and two in the 2008-2011 era when the financial meltdown hit the West. In fact, that latter point is one of the two reasons why India is at risk now. There is an empirical observation that those countries that escape a particular financial crisis (and pat themselves on the back) are quite likely to fall prey to the next financial crisis. There was an orgy of self-congratulation and complacency about the wisdom of the Indian 'third way' when the West self-destructed and India did not. That chicken may now be coming home to roost. The second reason is structural: The Congress is happy with a certain economic climate; and if presented with any other, they will quickly convert it into what they like. Some commentators have anointed the Congress 'the natural party of governance', and their 'natural form of governance' is: The Nehruvian Growth Rate of 2 to 3 per cent, high inflation, industrial stagnation, the license-permit raj, hyper-Keynesian tax-and-spend, crony capitalism, deficit financing, mushrooming public spending on entitlements. I proposed a 'Goat Theory of Everything' to explain this phenomenon (see my earlier Rediff column). Much as goats will convert any lush grassland into their natural habitat of semi-arid, hardscrabble land, the Congress is structurally incapable of feeling comfortable in anything other than their natural habitat. Part II: Rescuing the rupee: What can be done You can read more columns by Rajeev Srinivasan here.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36963000
CR-39 is transparent in visible spectrum and is almost completely opaque in the ultraviolet range. It has high abrasion resistance, in fact the highest abrasion/scratch resistance of any uncoated optical plastic. CR-39 is about half the weight of glass and index of refraction only slightly lower than that of crown glass, making it an advantageous material for eyeglasses and sunglasses lenses. A wide range of colors can be achieved by dyeing of the surface or the bulk of the material. CR-39 is also resistant to most of solvents and other chemicals, to gamma radiation, to aging, and to material fatigue. It can withstand the small hot sparks from welding. It can be used continuously in temperatures up to 100 °C and up to one hour in 130 °C. In the radiation detection application, raw CR-39 material is exposed to proton recoils caused by incident neutrons. The proton recoils cause tracks, which are enlarged by an etching process in a caustic solution of sodium hydroxide. The enlarged tracks are counted under a microscope (commonly 200x), and the number of tracks is proportional to the amount of incident neutron radiation. Effect of alpha-particle energies on CR-39 line-shape parameters using positron annihilation technique.(Polyally diglycol carbonate ) Jul 01, 2006; Polyally diglycol carbonate "CR-39" is widely used as etched track type particle detector. Doppler broadening positron...	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36968000
If and only if - "Material equivalence" redirects here , in logic and fields that rely on it such as mathematics , is a logical connective between statements which means that the truth of either one of the statements requires the truth of the other. Thus, either both statements are true, or both are false. To put it another way, the first statement will always be true when the second statement is, and will only be true under those conditions. In writing, common alternative phrases to "if and only if" include iff, Q is necessary and sufficient for P, P is equivalent to Q, P precisely if Q, P precisely (or exactly) when Q, P exactly in case Q, and P just in case Q. Many authors regard "iff" as unsuitable in formal writing; others use it freely. The statement "(P iff Q)" is equivalent to the statement "not (P xor Q)" or "P == Q" in computer science. In logic formulas, logical symbols are used instead of these phrases; see the discussion of notation. The truth table of p iff q (also written as p ↔ q ) is as follows: p ↔ q \|\| T \| \|\| F \| \|\| F \| \|\| T \| The corresponding logical symbols are "↔", "⇔" and "≡", and sometimes "iff". These are usually treated as equivalent. However, some texts of mathematical logic (particularly those on first-order logic , rather than propositional logic ) make a distinction between these, in which the first, ↔, is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while ⇔ is used in reasoning about those logic formulas (e.g., in metalogic Another term for this logical connective is exclusive nor. In most logical systems , one proves a statement of the form "P iff Q" by proving "if P, then Q" and "if Q, then P" (or the inverse of "if P, then Q", i.e. "if not P, then not Q"). Proving this pair of statements sometimes leads to a more natural proof, since there are not obvious conditions in which one would infer a biconditional directly. An alternative is to prove the disjunction "(P and Q) or (not-P and not-Q)", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts — that is, because "iff" is truth-functional , "P iff Q" follows if P and Q have both been shown true, or both false. Origin of the abbreviation Usage of the abbreviation "iff" first appeared in print in John L. Kelley book General Topology Its invention is often credited to the mathematician Paul Halmos The difference between if, only if, and iff - Madison will eat pudding if the pudding is a custard. (equivalently: If the pudding is a custard, then Madison will eat it) - Madison will eat pudding only if the pudding is a custard. (equivalently: If Madison is eating pudding, then it must be a custard) - Madison will eat pudding if and only if (iff) the pudding is a custard. (equivalently: If the pudding is a custard, then Madison will eat it. AND If Madison is eating pudding, then it must be a custard.) Sentence (1) states only that Madison will eat custard pudding. It does not, however, preclude the possibility that Madison might also have occasion to eat bread pudding. Maybe she will, maybe she will not - the sentence does not tell us. All we know for certain is that she will eat custard pudding. Sentence (2) states that the only pudding Madison will eat is a custard. It does not, however, preclude the possibility that Madison will refuse a custard if it is made available, in contrast with sentence (1), which requires Madison to eat any available custard. Sentence (3), however, makes it quite clear that Madison will eat custard pudding and custard pudding only. She will eat all such puddings, and she will not eat any other type of pudding. A further difference is that "if" is used in definitions (except in formal logic); see more below. A sentence that is composed of two other sentences joined by "iff" is called a biconditional . "Iff" joins two sentences to form a new sentence. It should not be confused with logical equivalence which is a description of a relation between two sentences. The biconditional "A iff the sentences A , describing a relation between the states of affairs A describe. By contrast "A is logically equivalent to B " mentions both sentences: it describes a relation between those two sentences, and not between whatever matters they describe. The distinction is a very confusing one, and has led many a philosopher astray. Certainly it is the case that when A is logically equivalent to B, "A iff B" is true. But the converse does not hold. Reconsidering the sentence: - Madison will eat pudding if and only if it is custard. There is clearly no logical equivalence between the two halves of this particular biconditional. For more on the distinction, see W. V. Quine's Mathematical Logic, Section 5. One way of looking at "A if and only if B" is that it means "A if B" (B implies A) and "A only when B" (not B implies not A). "Not B implies not A" means A implies B, so then we get two way implication. In philosophy and logic, "iff" is used to indicate definitions , since definitions are supposed to be universally quantified biconditionals. In mathematics and elsewhere, however, the word "if" is normally used in definitions, rather than "iff". This is due to the observation that "if" in the English language has a definitional meaning, separate from its meaning as a propositional conjunction. This separate meaning can be explained by noting that a definition (for instance: A group is "abelian" if it satisfies the commutative law; or: A grape is a "raisin" if it is well dried) is not an equivalence to be proved, but a rule for interpreting the term defined. (Some authors, nevertheless, explicitly indicate that the "if" of a definition means "iff"!) Here are some examples of true statements that use "iff" - true biconditionals (the first is an example of a definition, so it should normally have been written with "if"): - A person is a bachelor iff that person is a marriageable man who has never married. - "Snow is white" (in English) is true iff "Schnee ist weiß" (in German) is true. - For any p, q, and r: (p & q) & r iff p & (q & r). (Since this is written using variables and "&", the statement would usually be written using "↔", or one of the other symbols used to write biconditionals, in place of "iff"). - For any real numbers x and y, x=y+1 iff y=x−1. Other words are also sometimes emphasized in the same way by repeating the last letter; for example orr for "Or and only Or" (the exclusive disjunction The statement "(A iff B)" is equivalent to the statement "(not A or B) and (not B or A)," and is also equivalent to the statement "(not A and not B) or (A and B)". It is also equivalent to: not[(A or B) and (not A or not B)], or more simply: which converts into: which were given in verbal interpretations above. More general usage is used outside the field of logic, wherever logic is applied, especially in mathematical discussions. It has the same meaning as above: it is an abbreviation for if and only if , indicating that one statement is both necessary and sufficient for the other. This is an example of mathematical jargon . (However, as noted above, if , rather than iff , is more often used in statements of definition.) The elements of X are all and only the elements of Y is used to mean: "for any z in the domain of discourse, z is in X if and only if z is in Y."	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36969000
Government power to take private property for public use without the owner's consent. Constitutional provisions in most countries, including the U.S. (in the 5th Amendment to the Constitution), require the payment of just compensation to the owner. As a power peculiar to sovereign authority and coupled with a duty to pay compensation, the concept was developed by such 17th-century natural-law jurists as Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf. Seealso confiscation. Learn more about eminent domain with a free trial on Britannica.com. Domain is the distinguished part of an abstract or physical space where something exists, is performed, or is valid. For example, we may talk about: domain of interest, domain of activity. This concept is used in every branch/sector/field of human activity. It also has several meanings: In mathematics domain can refer to: In information technology, the term domain can refer to:	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36971000
Artificial "skin" materials can sense pressure CHICAGO (Reuters) - New artificial "skin" fashioned out of flexible semiconductor materials can sense touch, making it possible to create robots with a grip delicate enough to hold an egg, yet strong enough to grasp the frying pan, U.S. researchers said on Sunday. Scientists have long struggled with a way to make robotic devices capable of adjusting the amount of force needed to hold and use different objects. The pressure-sensitive materials are designed to overcome that challenge. "Humans generally know how to hold a fragile egg without breaking it," said Ali Javey, an electrical engineer at the University of California Berkeley, who led one of two teams reporting on artificial skin discoveries in the journal Nature Materials. "If we ever wanted a robot that could unload the dishes, for instance, we'd want to make sure it doesn't break the wine glasses in the process. But we'd also want the robot to be able to grip a stock pot without dropping it," Javey said in a statement. Javey's team found a way to make ultra tiny "nanowires" from an alloy of silicon and germanium. Wires of this material were formed on the outside of a cylindrical drum, which was then rolled onto a sticky film, depositing the wires in a uniform pattern. Sheets of this semiconductor film were then coated with a layer of pressure-sensitive rubber. Tests of the material showed it was able to detect a range of force, from typing on a keyboard to holding an object. A second team led by Zhenan Bao, a chemical engineer at Stanford University in California, used a different approach, making a material so sensitive it can detect the weight of a butterfly resting on it. Bao's sensors were made by sandwiching a precisely molded, highly elastic rubber layer between two electrodes in a regular grid of tiny pyramids. "We molded it into some kind of microstructure to incorporate some air pockets," Bao said in a telephone interview. "If we introduce air pockets, then these rubber pieces can bounce back." When this material is stretched, the artificial skin measures the change in electrical activity. "The change in the thickness of the material is converted into an electrical signal," she said. Eventually, the teams hope artificial skin could be used to restore the sense of touch in people with prosthetic limbs, but scientists will first need a better understanding of how to integrate the system's sensors with the human nervous system. Javey's artificial skin is the latest application of new ways of processing brittle, inorganic semiconductor materials such as silicon, into flexible electronics and sensors. Earlier this year, a team at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena devised a way to make flexible solar cells with silicon wires that are thin enough to be used in clothing. (Editing by Vicki Allen) - Tweet this - Share this - Digg this	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36976000
“Act as if what you do makes a difference. It does.” – William James There are fewer than 50 Javan rhinos left in the world and you can help protect them by supporting Operation Javan Rhino, a global partnership led by International Rhino Foundation and Save the Rhino International. Javan rhinos at risk With the recent extinction of the Javan rhino in Vietnam, there is only one population of Javan rhinos left on Earth. All of them live in Ujung Kulon National Park on the island of Java, Indonesia. The Javan rhino is at significant risk of extinction – one natural disaster or an introduced disease could be the end of this species forever. But you can help prevent the extinction of Javan rhinos! Operation Javan Rhino Operation Javan Rhino is creating 4,000 hectares of expanded habitat for Javan rhinos in Ujung Kulon, to encourage population growth and establish a second “insurance” population of Javan rhinos at a separate site. Here’s what Operation Javan Rhino is doing to make the new habitat suitable and safe for Javan rhinos: - Clearing the site for an electric fence and adjacent patrol road - Constructing a fence and small bridges - Planting rhino food plants and removing invasive species - Creating a water supply and salt-lick - Constructing new guard posts - Hiring and training more guards and other staff from local villages - Launching an education program for nearby communities This immense project costs $650,000 – and $350,000 has already been raised. International Rhino Foundation and Save the Rhino International are asking for your help in raising the additional funds needed to prevent the extinction of the Javan rhino. Please visit the International Rhino Foundation’s Operation Javan Rhino page to make your donation and learn more.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36980000
Termites' enzyme anomaly 26 March 2007 Japanese researchers have discovered a previously unknown method used by termites to digest cellulose. The discovery offers a novel source of enzymes to assist in the production of biofuels, they suggest. Primitive groups of termites break down the normally indigestible cellulose with the aid of cellulase enzymes secreted by single-celled protozoans in the termite gut. Higher termites secrete their own cellulases directly from cells in their midgut. But Gaku Tokuda and Hirofumi Watanabe from the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa predicted that these endogenous cellulases produced by higher termites are not sufficient to meet the insect's energy needs. Termites digest the cellulose in wood, causing extensive damage. © William Rafti of the William Rafti Institute. Tokuda believes these findings will be of interest to the US Department of Energy, which is funding genomic analysis of different termite species in its search for more efficient methods of converting agricultural and forestry waste into usable energy. He points out that the termites could be a valuable source of industrial enzymes because they have adapted to live on diets involving a wide range of plant material as well as wood. 'The termite gut is the smallest bioreactor in the world,' said Tokuda. 'We have a lot of fundamental knowledge to learn from these micro bioreactors to establish efficient biomass conversion systems.' But termite expert David Bignell from Queen Mary College, University of London, UK, is sceptical about claims of industrial applications of termite-based products. 'This argument has been used for the last 30 years to justify all kinds of termite research but I don't know of any commercial applications,' said Bignell. 'We have an extensive knowledge of microbial cellulases, and most interest from biotechnologists is focused there.' Where the Japanese study is interesting, he said, is in highlighting an evolutionary paradox: why should the termites go to the trouble of developing their own cellulases when they can be supplied more efficiently by symbiotic bacteria? Bignell suspects that cellulases in the hindgut are there to supply the energy needs of symbiotic bacteria, not the host. 'In wood feeders the limiting factor for growth is nitrogen, not carbon, because wood contains very little nitrogen. So the bacterial community of the termite hindgut contains bacteria that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, and nitrogen fixation is energetically expensive. Any cellulose processing going on there may just be supporting the N-fixing bacteria.' ReferencesG Tokuda and H Watanabe, Biol Lett, 2007, DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0073 Also of interest Rapid termiticide development fails to stem insect swarm. Comment on this story at the Chemistry World blog Read other posts and join in the discussion External links will open in a new browser window	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36994000
Save 10% on your orders of $100 or more Ask the Naturalist Do you have a natural history question? Ask us! \|World of Roger Tory Peterson\| Born in Jamestown, New York, to working-class immigrant parents, Roger was a self-made man who made a successful livelihood by single-mindedly following his guiding passion for birds. In books, articles, lectures, films, and, above all, in his revolutionary field guides, he showed countless readers and listeners how to see and observe nature. His impact lives on in the modern-day proliferation of field guides, nature books, and nature education programs. It lives on in the popularity of bird watching as a recreational pastime. It lives on, too, in the environmental protection laws that stem in part from his advocacy and education work. For Roger, passion, joy, and commitment all flowed from the same source, from the world of wings he first discovered in the woods and fields of Jamestown. Roger well knew the value of education—he always remembered how his seventh-grade teacher, Blanche Hornbeck, helped introduce him to the wider world of nature through the Junior Audubon Club she founded. As an adult, Roger lectured ceaselessly for the National Audubon Society and other organizations, produced educational pamphlets that reached millions of schoolchildren, and wrote articles and books that inspired countless readers. But his greatest contribution to a more widespread public understanding of the natural world lies in his development of practical, user-friendly guidebooks. His A Field Guide to the Birds, published in 1934, introduced simple, reliable identification techniques that can be used by anyone. That first, wildly successful guide led to others. Roger wrote and illustrated some, and edited many more. The Peterson Field Guide Series now numbers over fifty titles that describe practically all readily observable facets of nature, from fishes to mushrooms to clouds and the stars above. “In this century,” wrote the ecologist Paul Ehrlich, “no one has done more to promote an interest in living creatures than Roger Tory Peterson, the inventor of the modern field guide.”	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36998000
The Trick to Weight Loss? Turn Off the TV During Dinner New study links multitasking during meals to increased calorie intake. Watching television or reading during mealtime could lead to greater calorie intake over the course of the day, an analysis in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition has found. The review examined two dozen studies that looked at the effects of multitasking (or not) during mealtime. One study, for example, observed how much subjects consumed if they watched television while they ate. Another looked at the effects of distracted eating on calorie intake later in the day. Studies that evaluated the influence of greater mindfulness (like subjects being told to pay attention to what they were eating) and memory (recalling what they'd eaten at lunch just before snack time) were also included. Distracted eating was not only linked to a modest increase in calorie consumption during mealtime, but also to the likelihood of eating more hours later. Interestingly, greater awareness of consumpion during meals did not always lead to eating fewer calories. However, subject who recalled how much they ate at a previous meal did rein in food intake later in the day.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-36999000
As an environmental health professional, I have enjoyed a successful career in hands-on food protection from farm to table. My success in this wide array of conditions has come through the effective application of environmental health principles. Nowhere in food safety today is environmental health needed more than down on the farm, where the environmental health risks factors are becoming better understood. As a sanitarian and independent food safety auditor, there are some key areas of environmental health in my work on the farm; water quality, animal control, and worker hygienic standards. Private food safety auditors have started calling these the "Three W’s" for Workers-Water-and Wildlife. Typical tomato wash water used to rinse picking buckets Downstream effects of the environmental health problems originating on produce farms are huge. The problems reverberate through the the rest of the controls we have in place. Because the risks are not well controlled, we need more and more robust surveillance, traceability and product recall ability, testing; and of course, redress for victims in court. These unfortunate individuals and their families hold the bag at the end of the system without much control. The cost burden on the food industry due to outbreaks is remarkable. The Listeria problem in cantaloupe may cost industry $150 million in legal fees, alone. All of this has happened because we have not effectively established in the produce industry a relatively few environmental health protections that should have been there years ago. Thinking optimistically, we can fix most of the produce contamination problem during growing and harvesting of produce by effective controls over workers; water supplies and usage in all its forms; and wildlife. We can ease the pressure on the supply chain, and minimize the downstream effects on consumers and society at large. Agriculture has been side by side with animal husbandry and wild animal populations forever, so we cannot expect to remove the zoonotic reservoirs for pathogens completely in farm environments. Therefore, there will always be some risk in fresh produce; but the residual risks passed on in the supply chain will be better managed during packing, processing and handling downstream, if the microbial burden is low. Vaccination maybe an option to protect against E coli infection in cattle, since we have one with efficacy; but granted, this protection has had poor discussion and vaccines have not been applied. If we had an effective vaccine and farmers would use it, one would start there. Ideally, we would reduce the incidence of pathogenic E coli in cattle (the reservoir) through vaccination, and then move on to exclude the wild animal populations and clean up water sources. It is likely that adequate fences and other animal barriers, adequate setbacks (still don’t know what this means in every case), water treatment (when needed), strict adherence to personal hygiene, self-inspection and maintenance will solve most of the E. coli and Salmonella problem in growing areas. We can do this, but a coordinated national efforts is not so simple, and everything has a cost. Somebody must pay, then somebody must make sure it gets done, and financial resources are not necessarily there. The farms I see would need about $10,000 to $50,000 (could be higher for some) of initial investment, and probably at least 10% of that for yearly maintenance, to implement effective wild animal exclusion measures. The cost would be borne by the farmer in addition to the many other costs of Good Agricultural Practices(GAP), like personal hygiene, training, use of antimicrobials and water treatment, liquid and solid waste controls, that he currently pays for. Not all farms need the same intensity of controls; I see irrigation water coming out of deep wells as clean as tap water (Total Coliform < 1 cfu), and often the crops see no foliar applications. I see other situations where the foliar application of water is sourced from the surface, and must be treated. Animal intrusion risks vary widely also; there are some farms in the Southeast where I see only isolated dogs, cats, or bird exposures with an occasional rodent or ground animal. On some other occasions, I see systematic deer, pig and other wildlife intrusion and extensive droppings. Sometimes we find feces to the extent where harvesting must be halted, and/or production stopped. In the western US, I see the cattle operations butted right up to produce production; the Salinas Valley in California has much different space requirements, resource needs, and land use issues then Immokalee in the Florida Everglades. As an aside, during our private investigation of the 2006 spinach E coli matter, I sampled one cow patty from a Salinas area hillside pasture and recovered an E. coli: O157:H7 isolate (but not the outbreak strain). One lucky random sample? Or is this bug seriously rampant in this area? In addition, there are areas with water diversion and flooding problems (due to drought conditions we have not seen much of this factor in outbreaks) and several other environmental health risks we can point out across the board in agriculture. This is all manageable, and makes it more manageable for us to put into place all of the other safeguards we now need. On the farm we have “in your face" environmental health problems similar to those that are already addressed by the existing environmental health profession. We need environmental health professionals to fix environmental health down on the farm, and they can do it, its as simple as that.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37005000
Leticia M. Vacek, TRMC/MMC Present & Past The City of San Antonio’s official flag was designed in 1935 by William Herring, deputy commander of the Texas Department of United War Veterans. Herring designed the flag for the national convention of the United Spanish War Veterans being held in San Antonio that year. The original design featured the Alamo superimposed in the center of a white Lone Star of Texas. The Lone Star shined from a field of one-half blue, representing loyalty, and one-half crimson red, which represents the blood that courses through the veins of every loyal Texan. Originally, the words “San Antonio” and “Texas” were printed across the top and bottom of the flag. City commissioners unofficially adopted the flag in 1935 and two copies were made, one for City Hall and the other for the Chamber of Commerce. However, no action was taken to formally adopt the flag’s design until 1976. In 1992, the City was informed that it was no longer acceptable to have words on a flag.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37008000
Last Update: Thursday, May 16, 2013 \|LIFELONG HEALTH- Coffee Research Continues to Stir Debate\| \|Written by Dr. David Lipschitz Creative Syndicate\| \|Thursday, 09 August 2012 01:45\| Many of us can't wait for that first cup of coffee in morning. Many need the caffeine to wake up and get going. As a nation, the daily average for all Americans is 1.9 cups for men and 1.4 cups for women. An average 8-ounce cup of coffee contains anywhere from 90 to 200 milligrams of caffeine. But these days, who even knows what an 8-ounce cup looks like. Order a 24-ounce cup of your favorite blend, drink three or more of these daily and you will have enough caffeine to keep you wide awake and wired for most of the day and much of the night. Caffeine stimulates and acts as a diuretic. Drinking coffee in the late afternoon can interfere with sleep, lead to nighttime urination, cause fatigue the following day and the need, therefore, for that extra boost of caffeine to stay awake and concentrate. There are other adverse effects of coffee. Caffeine can stimulate the heart rate and lead to an irregular heartbeat. While caffeine may not lead to heart disease, medications to treat irregular heartbeat are frequently prescribed. The most common are a class of drugs called beta blockers that can cause fatigue, insomnia, decreased libido and an inability to concentrate: all symptoms that may increase the need for another coffee jolt. There is evidence that coffee can impair the absorption of some vitamins and minerals and can cause panic attacks. Some research suggests that it can cause an interference with sperm motility that can contribute to infertility. But like wine and alcohol, there is accumulating evidence that coffee can be beneficial to your health. Epidemiologic studies largely conducted at the Harvard School of Public Health have shown that compared to nondrinkers, those consuming coffee are less likely to have diabetes, strokes, certain forms of cancer and even Alzheimer's disease. And the evidence indicates that the more you drink, the better. For example, a study conducted in 2005 showed that those who drank more than six cups of coffee daily had a 35 percent reduction in the risk of diabetes. Published recently in the prestigious New England Journal of Medicine, a joint study by the National Institutes of Health and AARP reported on the effects of coffee on the risk of disease and mortality in 400,000 people ranging from 51 to 70. They examined risk and causes of death in those consuming one, two to three, four to five, or more than six cups of coffee daily. Using sophisticated statistical analysis that excluded the risks of cigarette smoking, sedentary lifestyle and dietary indiscretion, the study found that the more coffee consumed, the lower the overall risk of death. In addition, the more coffee, the lower the incidence of heart disease, strokes, peripheral vascular disease, cancer, diabetes, depression and Alzheimer's. Is it the caffeine in coffee that is causing the health benefits? The answer is almost certainly no, as most evidence suggests that decaffeinated coffee has similar health benefits. Coffee has been shown to have the highest concentration of antioxidants of any beverage. These antioxidants neutralize highly toxic substances in cells that contribute to cell damage. Over time the continued negative effects of oxidants can cause the cell to undergo malignant transformation. And in the case of cells coating the wall of blood vessels, damage by oxidants promotes the deposition of cholesterol and heart disease. Coffee also contains high concentrations of magnesium and chromium that may reduce the risk of diabetes. Because coffee is derived from a nutritious bean, it is not surprising that it contains compounds that promote health. But always consider the downside when considering the benefits of any beverage. Just like alcohol, too much caffeinated coffe e, particularly late in the day, is bad for you. In moderation and particularly without caffeine, coffee can promote health and be an ideal way to quench thirst without consuming empty calories. Dr. David Lipschitz is the author of the book "Breaking the Rules of Aging." To find out more about Dr. David Lipschitz visit www.drdavidhealth.com.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37009000
Nile crocodile, Mamba, Garwe, Ngwenya > Crocodylus is derived from the Greek krokodeilos which means literally "pebble worm" (kroko = pebble; deilos = worm, or man) referring to the appearance of a crocodile. > niloticus means "of the Nile" (Nile River, Africa) Given the wide distribution range, a number of population differences have been observed, and several subspecies proposed. These are rarely differentiated in the literature, however, and they are not officially recognised. Suggested subspecies: C. n. africanus (East African Nile crocodile), C. n. chamses (West African Nile crocodile), C. n. corviei (South African Nile crocodile), C. n. madagascariensis (Malagasy Nile crocodile, Malagasy alligator, Croco Mada), C. n. niloticus (Ethiopian Nile crocodile), C. n. pauciscutatus (Kenyan Nile crocodile, Kenya alligator, Kenya caiman), C. n. suchus (Central African Nile crocodile) The Nile crocodile is a member of the reptile class and is a survivor of the Archosaria, a group that included dinosaurs. They have not changed much over millions of years. They are more advanced than other modern day reptiles in that they have a four-chambered heart like mammals and can adapt their behavior to survive. They have a lifespan of 70 to 100 years. Wide habitat preferences, reflecting their success and distribution- e.g. lakes, rivers, freshwater swamps, brackish water. Sub-adults disperse into different habitats, away from breeding areas, when they reach a length of approximately 1.2 m. Nile crocodiles modify their habitat by digging dens (usually with their snouts and feet) into which they retreat from adverse conditions such as temperature extremes. Considerable variation exists throughout the range of the Nile crocodile. Generally, it is a large crocodilian, averaging 5 m in length but reportedly reaching 6 m in rare instances. There are dubious reports of 7 m animals having existed, but these are hard to verify. There is some evidence that Nile crocodiles in cooler countries (eg. South Africa) reach slightly smaller adult sizes (4 m). There are two known population of dwarf Nile crocodiles living on the extreme limits of the species' range, in Mali and even the Sahara Desert! Due to suboptimal conditions, adults average between 2 and 3 metres. Juveniles are dark olive brown with black cross-banding on the tail and body. This banding becomes fainter in adults. The snout is long and broad and ends in nostrils which can close underwater. The eyes have a third eyelid which protect them while underwater. The eyes, ears, and nostrils are found on the same plane on the top of the head, allowing the crocodile to be completely submerged underwater while still being able to see, smell, and hear. The teeth are long and conical. The teeth on the top jaw are in line with the bottom jaw, a feature which distinguishes all crocodiles from alligators. The fourth lower tooth is larger than the others and can be seen when the mouth is closed. Nile crocodiles have 66 teeth. Although the juveniles are generally restricted to eating small aquatic invertebrates and insects, they soon move onto larger vertebrates (fish, amphibians and reptiles). Adults, however, can potentially take a wide range of large vertebrates, including antelope, buffalo, young hippos, and large cats. Fish and smaller vertebrates often form the greatest part of their diet, however. As with C. porosus, they have a reputation as being man-eaters, although probably kill more people than all other crocodilian species combined. Along with hippos and lions, crocodiles account for perhaps a few hundred deaths and disappearances each year, although exact figures are very hard to verify. Nile crocodiles will also often scavenge from carcasses, together with a number of other animals, all of which seem to tolerate each others' presence. They have a rather well-known relationship with several species of birds (e.g. spur-wing plover, called "trochilus" by Herodotus) which are reputed to pick pieces of meat from between the teeth of the crocodiles as they gape - the birds gain a meal, the crocodiles have their teeth cleaned of scraps they could not eat themselves. Whether such a mutual relationship actually exists is hard to determine from the literature and anecdotal reports, but seems more likely to be opportunistic rather than symbiotic. Several prey animals have been found wedged under submerged branches and stones, leading to reports that the crocodiles store unwanted prey here until a later date. Some claim that it is necessary for the prey to decompose before the crocodiles are able to tear portions of flesh off, but this is unlikely to be true. The flesh may become softer if the prey remains in water after death, but crocodiles will certainly avoid rotting meat. When feeding, a number of individuals will hold onto a carcass with their powerful jaws whilst twisting their bodies. The anchorage provided by the other individuals allows large chunks to be torn off for easier swallowing. A few lone individuals have been reported to wedge prey between branches in order to provide the anchorage necessary for such actions to be effective, which could even be claimed to be a form of primitive tool use. Other cooperative feeding behaviour has been reported, such as the action of many animals to cordon off an area of water to concentrate fish within. A hierarchy of feeding order is often observed in such situations, with more dominant animals feeding first. Groups of crocodiles will often move onto land to scavenge from kills made up to several hundred metres from the water. Adults have also been observed fishing using their bodies and tails to corral the fish towards the bank where they are concentrated and picked up with a sideways snatch of the jaws. Social behaviour in Nile crocodiles is often underestimated, although there are many aspects still poorly understood. It has been observed that social status may influence an individual's feeding success, with less dominant animals tending to eat less in situations where they come into frequent social contact with other, more dominant individuals. Males become sexually mature at 10 ft (3 m - 10 years of age) and females at 6.5 ft (2 m - 10 years of age). The breeding season is July, where they mate in shallow water. The female lays 30-80 eggs in a nest of rotting vegetation near the water's edge. The eggs hatch after an incubation of 2-3 months. If the nest was below 85Ã‚Â° F during this period, then all the hatchlings are female. Above 95Ã‚Â° F - male. Between 85Ã‚Â° F and 95Ã‚Â° F - both male and female. When it is time to hatch, either parent helps to open the eggs by cracking them in its mouth. They are then carried to the water. They remain in the water for several weeks. Hatchlings are 12 in (30 cm) long and are dark olive green with darker crossbandings on the body and tail. This species digs hole nests up to 50 cm deep in sandy banks, several metres from the water. These may be in close proximity to other nests. Timing of nesting behaviour varies with geographic location - it takes place during the dry season in the north, but at the start of the rainy season further south, usually from November through to the end of December. Females reach sexual maturity around 2.6 m, males at around 3.1 m. Females lay around 40 to 60 eggs in the nest, although this number is quite variable between different populations. Females remain near the nest at all times. Incubation time averages 80 to 90 days (ranges from 70 to 100 days), after which females open the nest and carry the juveniles to the water. Both males and females have been reported to assist hatching by gently cracking open eggs between their tongue and upper palate. Hatchlings remain close to the juveniles for up to two years after hatching, often forming a creche with other females. As with many crocodilians, older juveniles tend to stay away from older, more territorial animals. Despite the vigilance of the female during the incubation period, a high percentage of nests are raided by a variety of animals, from hyaenas and monitor lizards to humans. This predation usually occurs when the female is forced to leave the nest temporarily in order to thermoregulate by cooling off in the water. Crocodiles are not solitary predators as often imagined, but social creatures. Cows of some species protect not only their hatchling young but offspring from the previous year. Nile Crocodile bulls also respond to distress calls of their young., crocodiles convey social messages with motions, odors, postures, by touch and with sounds. Nile Crocodiles produce at least six different vocal signals. Both cow and bull Nile Crocodiles maintain territories, especially during breeding season. Few animals are willing to prey on the Nile crocodile except for other Nile crocodiles and humans. They have been overhunted by humans for their skin, which is good for tanning, and their meat. Habitat destruction also dwindles their numbers. The young are preyed upon by Nile monitor lizards, marabou storks, herons, ibises, turtles, and catfish. Nile crocodiles are not endangered. The trade of the Nile crocodile has become an environmental concern especially in the Republic of Tanzania. Crocodile skins are being exported from Tanzania in large quantities due to the high demand for leather goods. The Nile crocodile skins are being exported for the luxury leather goods market including shoes, handbags and belts, especially to Japan, Italy and France. However, this trade has caused the Nile crocodile to be classified as an endangered species. As a result, the United States along with 120 other countries throughout the world have joined in signing the Convention on International Trade and Endangered Species of World Fauna and Flora (CITES) treaty in 1973 to ban skins from endangered or potentially endangered species, such as the Nile crocodile, from being traded. In April 1994, the classification of the Nile crocodile was changed from endangered to threatened as a result of various acts and treaties protecting this species.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37011000
\|Product #: EMC5015001_TQ\| Why are Bones Hard and Muscles Soft? (Resource Book Only) eBookGrade 5 Please Note: This ebook is a digital download, NOT a physical product. After purchase, you will be provided a one time link to download ebooks to your computer. Orders paid by PayPal require up to 8 business hours to verify payment and release electronic media. For immediate downloads, payment with credit card is required. This daily science unit for grade 5 presents information and five activities in which students learn how hard skeletal bones and soft muscle tissue work together to give humans strength, structure, and movement. Week 1 of 5 on 'Big Idea 1: Living things are made mostly of cells. Multicellular organisms have different cells that perform specialized functions.' Includes answer key. Submit a review	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37016000
A condition that temporarily causes heart failure in people who experience severe stress might actually protect the heart from very high levels of adrenaline, according to a new study published in the journal Circulation. The research provides the first physiological explanation for Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, also called "broken heart syndrome" because it affects people who suffer severe emotional stress after bereavement, and suggests guidance for treatment. Around 1-2% of people who are initially suspected of having a heart attack are finally discovered to have this increasingly recognised syndrome. The Imperial College London study, which simulated the condition in an animal model, suggests that the body changes its response to adrenaline by switching from its usual role in stimulating the heart to reducing its pumping power. Although this results in acute heart failure, most patients make a full recovery within days or weeks. The researchers propose that the switch in the heart's response to adrenaline might have evolved to protect the heart from being overstimulated by the particularly high doses of adrenaline that the body releases during stress. Patients with Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, most often older women, experience symptoms that resemble a heart attack, but heart tests reveal no blockage in the coronary arteries; instead the heart has a balloon-like appearance caused by the bottom of the heart not contracting properly. The same condition is sometimes seen in people who are injected with adrenaline to treat severe allergic reactions. In this new research, the authors simulated the condition by injecting high doses of adrenaline in anaesthetised rats. In these rats, as in Takotsubo patients, heart muscle contraction was suppressed towards the bottom of the heart. The researchers found that these rats were protected from an otherwise fatal overstimulation of the heart, indicating that adrenaline acts through a different pathway from usual, and that this switch protects the heart from toxic levels of adrenaline. The study also examined drugs that might be useful for treating Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Some beta blockers, used to treat high blood pressure, angina and heart failure, reproduced or enhanced the features of Takotsubo, giving new insights into the protective effects of these drugs. Levosimendan, a different type of drug given in heart failure to stimulate the heart without going through the adrenaline receptor pathways, had a beneficial effect. "Adrenaline's stimulatory effect on the heart is important for helping us get more oxygen around the body in stressful situations, but it can be damaging if it goes on for too long," said Professor Sian Harding, from the National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI) at Imperial College London, who led the study. "In patients with Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, adrenaline works in a different way and shuts down the heart instead. This seems to protect the heart from being overstimulated." Study co-author Dr Alexander Lyon, also from the NHLI at Imperial, and consultant cardiologist at Royal Brompton Hospital, set up one of the first specialist services in the UK to look after people who have experienced Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. "Currently it is not fully known how to treat these patients," he said. "Insights from this work show that the illness may be protecting them from more serious harm. We've identified a drug treatment that might be helpful, but the most important thing is to recognise the condition, and not to make it worse by giving patients with Takotsubo cardiomyopathy more adrenaline or adrenaline-like medications." "At the Royal Brompton Hospital and Imperial College London we are leading a European initiative to bring together experts to understand this recently recognised cardiac syndrome, and we hope the findings from this work will lead to new treatment strategies for these patients during the acute phase of their illness, and to prevent recurrence". The study was funded by the British Heart Foundation (BHF), the Wellcome Trust, the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and the Academy of Medical Sciences. Dr Shannon Amoils, Research Advisor at the BHF, said: "This is a fascinating study which presents a possible explanation for the signs of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, a rare condition that's usually preceded by intense emotional or physical stress. Patients usually have symptoms that resemble those of a heart attack but nearly all fully recover after a short time. "The study also provides new insights into how the heart may protect itself from stress, which opens up exciting avenues of exploration for research. We must remember though that this is a study in rats, and the findings need to be confirmed in people before we can be sure of their relevance to patients."	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37021000
May 19, 2008 A vaccine created by University of Rochester Medical Center scientists prevents the development of Alzheimer's disease-like pathology in mice without causing inflammation or significant side effects. Vaccinated mice generated an immune response to the protein known as amyloid-beta peptide, which accumulates in what are called "amyloid plaques" in brains of people with Alzheimer's. The vaccinated mice demonstrated normal learning skills and functioning memory in spite of being genetically designed to develop an aggressive form of the disease. The Rochester scientists reported the findings in an article in the May issue of Molecular Therapy, the journal of The American Society of Gene Therapy. "Our study demonstrates that we can create a potent but safe version of a vaccine that utilizes the strategy of immune response shaping to prevent Alzheimer's-related pathologies and memory deficits," said William Bowers, associate professor of neurology and of microbiology and immunology at the Medical Center and lead author of the article. "The vaccinated mice not only performed better, we found no evidence of signature amyloid plaque in their brains." Alzheimer's is a progressive neurodegenerative disease associated with dementia and a decline in performance of normal activities. Hallmarks of the disease include the accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brains of patients and the loss of normal functioning tau, a protein that stabilizes the transport networks in neurons. Abnormal tau function eventually leads to another classic hallmark of Alzheimer's, neurofibrillary tangle in nerve cells. After several decades of exposure to these insults, neurons ultimately succumb and die, leading to progressively damaged learning and memory centers in the brain. The mice that received the vaccines were genetically engineered to express large amounts of amyloid beta protein. They also harbored a mutation that causes the tau-related tangle pathology. Prior to the start of the vaccine study, the mice were trained to navigate a maze using spatial clues. They were then tested periodically during the 10-month study on the amount of time and distance traveled to an escape pod and the number of errors made along the way. "What we found exciting was that by targeting one pathology of Alzheimer's -- amyloid beta -- we were able to also prevent the transition of tau from its normal form to a form found in the disease state," Bowers said. The goal of the vaccine is to prompt the immune system to recognize amyloid beta protein and remove it. To create the vaccine, Bowers and the research group use a herpes virus that is stripped of the viral genes that can cause disease or harm. They then load the virus container with the genetic code for amyloid beta and interleukin-4, a protein that stimulates immune responses involving type 2 T helper cells, which are lymphocytes that play an important role in the immune system. The research group tested several versions of a vaccine. Mice were given three injections of empty virus alone, a vaccine carrying only the amyloid beta genetic code, or a vaccine encoding both amyloid beta and interlueikin-4, which was found to be the most effective. "We have learned a great deal from this ongoing project," Bowers said. "Importantly, it has demonstrated the combined strengths of the gene delivery platform and the immune shaping concept for the creation of customized vaccines for Alzheimer's disease, as well as a number of other diseases. We are currently working on strategies we believe can make the vaccine even safer." Bowers expects the vaccine eventually to be tested in people, but due to the number of studies required to satisfy regulatory requirements, it could be three or more years before human trials testing this type of Alzheimer's vaccine occur. Grants from the National Institutes of Health supported the study. In addition to Bowers, authors of the Molecular Therapy article include Maria E. Frazer, Jennifer E. Hughes, Michael A. Mastrangelo and Jennifer Tibbens of the Medical Center and Howard J. Federoff of Georgetown University Medical Center. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37022000
Apr. 14, 2011 Scientists at Queen’s University Belfast have pioneered a new needle-free test to take the sting out of medicine testing in premature babies. The research will not only lead to greater accuracy in prescribing, but will also significantly reduce the trauma of such tests for newborn infants and their families. In the first published research project worldwide on this new approach to testing medicines in children, the findings were announced in the US medical journal Pediatrics. The study, which involves the use of blood spots obtained from a simple heel-prick, took place in the Belfast Hospital for Sick Children and the School of Pharmacy at Queen’s. The research was carried out by a team from the University’s School of Pharmacy in partnership with the Regional Neonatal Unit in the Royal Maternity Hospital. It was funded by the Health and Social Care Research and Development Office (HSC R&D) and Action Medical Research. Principal Investigator, Queen’s Professor of Pharmacy Practice James McElnay said: “This type of testing will obviously reduce the discomfort of medicine testing in these vulnerable patients. What is even more important, however, is that it will ensure maximum accuracy in calculating the most appropriate dose of a medicine for a sick child. “Some 80 per cent of infants in intensive care in hospitals receive medicines which have not been appropriately tested or licensed for use in such young patients, and the dosage is usually calculated based on licensed doses for adults or older children. Sizable blood samples are then required to measure the concentrations of the drug in the infant’s bloodstream. “Our work opens up opportunities for using the same approach to study other medicines which are used in this manner in children, and we are currently studying a number of these.” The Queen’s study involved the antibiotic metronidazole. The research team used single drops of blood collected on blotting paper from premature infants who were receiving the medicine as part of their routine care. The ‘spots’ were dried, analysed in the University’s School of Pharmacy, and the results used to develop dosage guidance for doctors. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. - M. Suyagh, P. S. Collier, J. S. Millership, G. Iheagwaram, M. Millar, H. L. Halliday, J. C. McElnay. Metronidazole Population Pharmacokinetics in Preterm Neonates Using Dried Blood-Spot Sampling. Pediatrics, 2011; 127 (2): e367 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2010-0807 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37023000
Aug. 9, 2012 The sought-after equanimity of "living in the moment" may be impossible, according to neuroscientists who've pinpointed a brain area responsible for using past decisions and outcomes to guide future behavior. The study, based on research conducted at the University of Pittsburgh and published August 9 in the professional journal Neuron, is the first of its kind to analyze signals associated with metacognition -- a person's ability to monitor and control cognition (a term cleverly described by researchers as "thinking about thinking.") "The brain has to keep track of decisions and the outcomes they produce," said Marc Sommer, who did his research for the study as a University of Pittsburgh neuroscience faculty member and is now on the faculty at Duke University. "You need that continuity of thought," Sommer continued. "We are constantly keeping decisions in mind as we move through life, thinking about other things. We guessed it was analogous to working memory, which would point toward the prefrontal cortex." Sommer predicted that neuronal correlates of metacognition resided in the same brain areas responsible for cognition, including the frontal cortex -- a part of the brain linked with personality expression, decision making, and social behavior. Sommer worked with Paul G. Middlebrooks, who did his research for the study at Pitt before he received his Pitt PhD in neuroscience in 2011; Middlebrooks is now a postdoctoral fellow at Vanderbilt University. The research team studied single neurons in vivo in three frontal cortical regions of the brain: the frontal eye field (associated with visual attention and eye movements), the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (responsible for motor planning, organization, and regulation), and the supplementary eye field (SEF) involved in the planning and control of saccadic eye movements, which are the extremely fast movements of the eye that allow it to continually refocus on an object. To learn where metacognition occurs in the brain, subjects performed a visual decision-making task that involved random flashing lights and a dominant light on a cardboard square. Participants were asked to remember and pinpoint where the dominant light appeared, guessing whether they were correct. The researchers found that while neural activity correlated with decisions and guesses in all three brain areas, the putative metacognitive activity that linked decisions to bets resided exclusively in the SEF. "The SEF is a complex area [of the brain] linked with motivational aspects of behavior," said Sommer. "If we think we're going to receive something good, neuronal activity tends to be high in SEF. People want good things in life, and to keep getting those good things, they have to compare what's going on now versus the decisions made in the past." Sommer noted that defining such concepts related to metacognition, like consciousness, has been difficult for decades. He sees his research and future work related to studying metacognition as one step in a systematic process of working toward a better understanding of consciousness. By studying metacognition, he says, he reduces the big problem of studying a "train of thought" into a simpler component: examining how one cognitive process influences another. "Why aren't our thoughts independent of each other? Why don't we just live in the moment? For a healthy person, it's impossible to live in the moment. It's a nice thing to say in terms of seizing the day and enjoying life, but our inner lives and experiences are much richer than that." So far, patients with mental disorders have not been tested on these tasks, but Sommer is interested to see how SEF and other brain areas might be disrupted in these disorders. "With schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease, there is a fracturing of the thought process. It is constantly disrupted, and despite trying to keep a thought going, one is distracted very easily," Sommers said. "Patients with these disorders have trouble sustaining a memory of past decisions to guide later behavior, suggesting a problem with metacognition." Funding for this research was provided by the University of Pittsburgh, the joint University of Pittsburgh-Carnegie Mellon University Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, the National Institute of Mental Health, and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. - Paul G. Middlebrooks, Marc A. Sommer. Neuronal Correlates of Metacognition in Primate Frontal Cortex. Neuron, 2012; 75 (3): 517 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.05.028 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37024000
What happens in week 3? Three weeks after fertilisation, the different parts of the embryo start to form. Three layers of cells form, out of which all the different organs of the body will develop. Two folds grow along the length of the embryo - these roll up to make the neural tube which eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord. The placenta - the embryo's life-support system - starts to work, delivering nourishment and taking waste products away.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37025000
Simaltaneously introduces the joys of treasure hunting and coin collecting This kit will encourage users to not only find buried coins using a special child-sized metal detector, but also learn about the history of the treasure they unearth by researching them in the included child’s coin guide. Set up a treasure hunt and let participants find, research, classify and store their coins using all the tools included in this kit. This makes a nice small group activity for classroom use or independent study. Includes junior metal detector, child's coin guide, 2-in-1 magnifier, plastic trowel, 12-pocket coin wallet, small pouch and U.S. quarters coin folder. Requires two “9-Volt” batteries (not included). WARNING: CHOKING HAZARD – Small parts. Not for children under 3 years. Recommended for ages 8+.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37027000
Defy Gravity To Display A Precious Collectible Although Ernshaw's Theorem states that it is impossible to create a static magnetic field that can levitate an object stably on all axes, inventor Bill Hones' latest device will allow you to levitate objects weighing up to 13 ounces! The magnetic hover disc can float a small item in mid-air, while four white accent LEDs illuminate it as it continuously revolves around in space. Spotlight your models, jewelry or geology specimens, and other collectibles in the most spectacular way possible! The 4” x 4” x 4” base comes complete with hover disc and instructions. Includes A/C adapter. * Note: You supply the objects to levitate and rotate. Objects depicted in the above images are for demonstration only and are not included. WARNING: CHOKING HAZARD – Small parts. Not for children under 3 years.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37028000
The Coaching Manual consists of six parts: Before You Start - how to prepare yourself and maximise your palaeographical performance. Letter Finder - a compendium of letter forms in Scottish documents. Numbers - examples of numbers, Roman numerals and dates. Problem Solver - a device which helps you when you get stuck reading a document. Bibliography - books on palaeography, Scots dictionaries, legal glossaries etc to buy, beg or borrow. Links - other online palaeography	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37032000
things. Emotional response, and trauma, must be seen in relative not absolute terms. Themodel helps remind us that the other person's perspective is different to our own, whether weare the one in shock, or the one helping another to deal with their upset.The study of death and dying is actually known as thanatology (from the Greek word'thanatos' meaning death). Elisabeth Kübler-Ross is accordingly sometimes referred to as athanatologist, and she is considered to have contributed significantly to the creation of thegenre of thanatology itself.Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's seminal book was On Death & Dying, published in 1969, in whichshe explained her now classically regarded 'five stages of grief'. The book and its ideas werequite revolutionary at the time, reflecting Kübler-Ross's outspoken and bold approach, whichis paradoxical given the sensitivity and compassion of her concepts. was a catalyst. She opened up and challenged previously conservative (sweep itunder the carpet, don't discuss it, etc) theories and practices relating to death and bereavement, and received an enormously favourable response among carers, the dying andthe bereaved, which perhaps indicates the level of denial and suppression that had earlier characterised conventional views about the subject - particularly in the western world, wheredeath is more of a taboo than in certain other cultures.As stated, and important to emphasise, Kübler-Ross's five stages of grief model wasdeveloped initially as a model for helping dying patients to cope with death and bereavement,however the concept also provides insight and guidance for coming to terms with personaltrauma and change, and for helping others with emotional adjustment and coping, whatever the cause. This has probably helped her ideas to spread and to enter 'mainstream' thinking. and her ideas have now become synonymous with emotionalresponse to trauma, and to grief support and counselling, much likeMaslowis fundamentallyassociated with motivational theory;Kolb with learning styles, and Gardner with multiple intelligence.As with much other brilliant pioneering work, the Kübler-Ross model is elegantly simple. Thefive stages of grief modelis summarised and interpreted below.This Kübler-Ross five stages and terminology are featured here with permission from theElisabeth Kübler Ross Foundation, which is gratefully acknowledged. Please look at the twowebsiteswww.ekrfoundation.org, andwww.elisabthkublerross.com, both of which enable and sustain Dr Kübler-Ross's values and mission, and extend help to those who need it.Please be aware that the interpretation and contextual material on this webpage represents myown thoughts on the subject. I would encourage you to develop your own ideas too - this is adeeply significant area and one that can be interpreted in many ways. My interpretation andassociations are not an attempt to reproduce Kübler-Ross's thinking, they seek to provide amodern context, and to relate the basic model to the philosophies of this website.Use of and reference to the Elisabeth Kübler-Ross five stages for commercial purposes, and publication of EKR quotations, require permission from the EKR Foundation. You can usefreely the other aspects of this page subject to the normaltermsfor using this website, brieflysummarised at the foot of this page.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37037000
Tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is a form of vitamin C that’s been modified to be more lipid soluble. This modification allows it to better penetrate the skin. The problem with most topical forms of vitamin C is they’re water soluble and can’t make it through the lipid-rich skin barrier to reach the dermis of skin where they could have maximal benefits. Tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is able to successfully penetrate the epidermis and move to the layer underneath called the dermis. It’s in the dermis that collagen, a protein that gives skin its youthful firmness and ability to resist wrinkles, is made. Vitamin C has a variety of benefits for health and for maintaining healthy, youthful skin. It functions as an antioxidant, helping to offset oxidative damage that degrades collagen and leads to wrinkles and saggy skin. When skin is exposed to ultraviolet light from the sun, a sequence of events occurs that leads to free radical production. These free radicals damage skin cell membranes and activate enzymes that break down collagen and elastin, two most important proteins that keep skin firm and youthful. Vitamin C has the ability to donate electrons to free radicals so they aren’t as damaging to cellular structures. Vitamin C isn’t a substitute for sunscreen, but it does provide extra protection against oxidative damage that can lead to premature aging and skin cancer. Another benefit of vitamin C is it stimulates collagen production. Since collagen provides skin with the support it needs to stay firm and youthful, this helps to reduce wrinkles and skin sagging. A study published in the Archives of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery found that participants who used topical vitamin C for three months experienced a decrease in fine lines and wrinkles and an improvement in skin texture. This was confirmed by a similar study published in the journal Dermatologic Surgery. Topical vitamin C also appears to be effective for lightening excessive skin pigmentation and improving the appearance of stretch marks. It also reduces redness and inflammation after laser surgery. Despite the benefits of vitamin C, it has drawbacks. Some forms can’t penetrate the epidermis and reach the dermis where it can stimulate collagen production. Plus, vitamin C is unstable and loses its effectiveness quickly, especially if exposed to air or light. Tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is more stable than other vitamin C preparations, and is lipid-soluble, which allows it to reach the dermis of the skin where it can stimulate collagen production. Most vitamin C preparations remain on the surface of the skin where they guard against oxidative damage but have little effect on collagen production. Tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate is able to move into the dermis where it can offer additional anti-aging benefits by stimulating collagen production. It also stimulates the production of glycosaminoglycans, compounds present naturally in skin that bind and hold on to water. Levels of glycosaminoglycans decline with age and may account for some of the skin changes that occur as skin matures. Is tetrahexydecyl sulfate safe? Like most forms of vitamin C, tetrahexyldecyl sulfate is safe. The Environmental Working Group classifies it as a low hazard cosmetic ingredient. Most forms of topical vitamin C cause skin irritation and redness, but tetrahexyldecyl sulfate is less irritating than other forms, although people with sensitive skin may experience mild burning and irritation. Some manufacturers of cosmetic and skin care products add tetrahexyldecyl sulfate to their products due to its antioxidant and anti-aging benefits. Some types of products that contain this ingredient include facial moisturizers, eye creams, sunscreens, lip gloss, foundation and anti-aging products of all types. It’s often combined with other antioxidants like vitamin E, retinols or peptides for additional anti-aging benefits. All in all, tetrahexyldecyl sulfate is a form of vitamin C that’s more stable and better able to penetrate skin to reach the dermis. By reaching the dermis, it can stimulate collagen production to help give skin greater firmness and resiliency. In addition, it helps to protect against damage due to sun exposure, lighten pigmented areas, treat stretch marks and improve skin texture. It does this safely and with minimal skin irritation. Cosmetic’s Cop. “Tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate” Environmental Working Group. “Tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate” Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 125: 1091, 1999. Dermatol Surg. 2006 May;32(5):618-25. Cosmetic Dermatology: Principles and Practice. Leslie Baumann, M.D. (2002)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37064000
The Voyager 1 has found its way into the far reaches of space, specifically to the edge beyond which scientists believe lies interstellar space. This area is within our solar bubble, and is referred to as a “magnetic highway for charged particles.” The findings were detailed earlier today at the American Geophysical Union, which took place in San Francisco. The magnetic highway detailed in the announcement is explained thusly: the connection betwixt the sun’s magnetic field lines and interstellar magnetic field lines lets high energy particles from beyond our heliopsphere “zoom in,” while letting low-energy particles “zoom out.” When Voyager goes beyond these fields into interstellar space, it is believed the occasion will be marked by a change in the direction of the lines. One of the project’s scientist Edward Stone offered this statement. “Although Voyager 1 still is inside the sun’s environment, we now can taste what it’s like on the outside because the particles are zipping in and out on this magnetic highway. We believe this is the last leg of our journey to interstellar space. Our best guess is it’s likely just a few months to a couple years away. The new region isn’t what we expected, but we’ve come to expect the unexpected from Voyager.” Voyager has been traipsing around the outer layer of the heliosphere for years, 5.5 of which were spent with stable solar wind. Over time – and rather suddenly – the solar wind decreased, eventually to zero. Says scientists, if one were to look at the charged particle (solar wind) information, it would seem that the Voyager is already beyond the heliosphere. Other data doesn’t indicate this, however, and so for the time being, it’s still a matter of patience.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37065000
Related Topics: OpenGL Transformation Updates: The MathML version is available here. A computer monitor is a 2D surface. A 3D scene rendered by OpenGL must be projected onto the computer screen as a 2D image. GL_PROJECTION matrix is used for this projection transformation. First, it transforms all vertex data from the eye coordinates to the clip coordinates. Then, these clip coordinates are also transformed to the normalized device coordinates (NDC) by dividing with w component of the clip coordinates. Therefore, we have to keep in mind that both clipping (frustum culling) and NDC transformations are integrated into GL_PROJECTION matrix. The following sections describe how to build the projection matrix from 6 parameters; left, right, bottom, top, near and far boundary values. Note that the frustum culling (clipping) is performed in the clip coordinates, just before dividing by wc. The clip coordinates, xc, yc and zc are tested by comparing with wc. If each clip coordinate is less than -wc, or greater than wc, then the vertex will be discarded. Then, OpenGL will reconstruct the edges of the polygon where clipping occurs. In perspective projection, a 3D point in a truncated pyramid frustum (eye coordinates) is mapped to a cube (NDC); the range of x-coordinate from [l, r] to [-1, 1], the y-coordinate from [b, t] to [-1, 1] and the z-coordinate from [n, f] to [-1, 1]. Note that the eye coordinates are defined in the right-handed coordinate system, but NDC uses the left-handed coordinate system. That is, the camera at the origin is looking along -Z axis in eye space, but it is looking along +Z axis in NDC. Since glFrustum() accepts only positive values of near and far distances, we need to negate them during the construction of GL_PROJECTION matrix. In OpenGL, a 3D point in eye space is projected onto the near plane (projection plane). The following diagrams show how a point (xe, ye, ze) in eye space is projected to (xp, yp, zp) on the near plane. From the top view of the frustum, the x-coordinate of eye space, xe is mapped to xp, which is calculated by using the ratio of similar triangles; From the side view of the frustum, yp is also calculated in a similar way; Note that both xp and yp depend on ze; they are inversely propotional to -ze. In other words, they are both divided by -ze. It is a very first clue to construct GL_PROJECTION matrix. After the eye coordinates are transformed by multiplying GL_PROJECTION matrix, the clip coordinates are still a homogeneous coordinates. It finally becomes the normalized device coordinates (NDC) by divided by the w-component of the clip coordinates. (See more details on OpenGL Transformation.) Therefore, we can set the w-component of the clip coordinates as -ze. And, the 4th of GL_PROJECTION matrix becomes (0, 0, -1, 0). Next, we map xp and yp to xn and yn of NDC with linear relationship; [l, r] ⇒ [-1, 1] and [b, t] ⇒ [-1, 1]. Then, we substitute xp and yp into the above equations. Note that we make both terms of each equation divisible by -ze for perspective division (xc/wc, yc/wc). And we set wc to -ze earlier, and the terms inside parentheses become xc and yc of the clip coordiantes. From these equations, we can find the 1st and 2nd rows of GL_PROJECTION matrix. Now, we only have the 3rd row of GL_PROJECTION matrix to solve. Finding zn is a little different from others because ze in eye space is always projected to -n on the near plane. But we need unique z value for the clipping and depth test. Plus, we should be able to unproject (inverse transform) it. Since we know z does not depend on x or y value, we borrow w-component to find the relationship between zn and ze. Therefore, we can specify the 3rd row of GL_PROJECTION matrix like this. In eye space, we equals to 1. Therefore, the equation becomes; To find the coefficients, A and B, we use the (ze, zn) relation; (-n, -1) and (-f, 1), and put them into the above equation. To solve the equations for A and B, rewrite eq.(1) for B; Substitute eq.(1') to B in eq.(2), then solve for A; Put A into eq.(1) to find B; We found A and B. Therefore, the relation between ze and zn becomes; Finally, we found all entries of GL_PROJECTION matrix. The complete projection matrix is; This projection matrix is for a general frustum. If the viewing volume is symmetric, which is and , then it can be simplified as; Before we move on, please take a look at the relation between ze and zn, eq.(3) once again. You notice it is a rational function and is non-linear relationship between ze and zn. It means there is very high precision at the near plane, but very little precision at the far plane. If the range [-n, -f] is getting larger, it causes a depth precision problem (z-fighting); a small change of ze around the far plane does not affect on zn value. The distance between n and f should be short as possible to minimize the depth buffer precision problem. Constructing GL_PROJECTION matrix for orthographic projection is much simpler than perspective mode. All xe, ye and ze components in eye space are linearly mapped to NDC. We just need to scale a rectangular volume to a cube, then move it to the origin. Let's find out the elements of GL_PROJECTION using linear relationship. Since w-component is not necessary for orthographic projection, the 4th row of GL_PROJECTION matrix remains as (0, 0, 0, 1). Therefore, the complete GL_PROJECTION matrix for orthographic projection is; It can be further simplified if the viewing volume is symmetrical, and .	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37073000
The last administration of the SAT II Writing was on 1/22/05. Beginning 3/12/05, parts of the SAT II Writing test will be included in the New SAT. You should be studying the New SAT book. Go there! How to Approach Improving Sentences Questions When answering questions in this section, use these eight rules to help you. We briefly list the rules below and then explain them in more detail, using them to answer the sample question. Now to apply these steps to the sample question, which is reprinted below: 1. Read the sentence and try to hear the problem. A good ear will take you far on Improving Sentences questions. If you can read a sentence and figure out what about the underlined part sounds strange or wrong, you’re on your way to a right answer. You might read the sample sentence and immediately recognize that wordiness is the problem—the phrase but for her being a participant should be rewritten in a more compact form. If you don’t come up with the specific term “wordiness,” you might sense that something about the underlined part is vague and a bit convoluted. It’s fine if you can’t think of the term that would best describe the problem. Just getting a general sense of the problem will be very helpful. 2. If there is an error, immediately eliminate (A). You already know that there’s a problem with this sentence. That means you can eliminate (A), since answer choice (A) always repeats the underlined part word for word. Even if you know only that there’s an error of some sort, and haven’t yet figured out what the error is, you can eliminate (A). The elimination of (A) means something besides “one down, four to go.” It means that even if the other four answers look like gibberish, you must guess. Remember, if you can eliminate even one answer choice, the guessing odds are in your favor. 3. Before you look at the answer choices, figure out how to fix the error. Once you’ve decided what the problem is with the underlined part of the sentence, say to yourself (silently, not aloud—you don’t want to reveal your genius to other test takers in the room): “This would be a better sentence if it read something like Jenna was awarded the medal not for her academic prowess or her skill on the soccer field, but for participating in gym class.” That conveys the right information, but doesn’t take up unnecessary space. It is of the utmost importance to correct the sentence in your head before you look at the answer choices. Why? Because if you go right to the answer choices, and dutifully read through them one by one, by the time you get to (C), they will all sound equally confusing and wrong. The answer choices are designed to make you feel this way. If you have a solution in mind before you dive in, you can look at the answer choices calmly, and with focus. 4. Look at the remaining answer choices and try to find the correction that most closely matches your own correction. Your correction was, Jenna was awarded the medal not for her academic prowess or her skill on the soccer field, but for participating in gym class. You look at the remaining answer choices and see which one of them most nearly matches your correction: (E) looks most like the answer you came up with before looking at the answer choices. It’s not exactly like your prepared answer—it uses her participation instead of for participating—but it’s very close. Rarely will an answer choice exactly match the one you generated on your own, which is fine. The purpose of preparing your own answer first is not to find an exact match in the answer choices, but to have an idea of what you’re looking for before you start reading the choices. Of course, sometimes you won’t be sure whether your own answer matches any of the answer choices closely enough. In that case, move to step #5. 5. If none of the corrections matches your own, go through the answer choices and eliminate those that repeat the mistake or contain a new mistake. You’ll usually see a few answer choices that actually repeat the mistake. Some might fix the original mistake, but in the process add a new error to the mix. Suppose you weren’t certain that (E) matched your prepared answer closely enough. In that case, you would read through the answer choices and try to determine if they repeated the first mistake or contained a new one. Answer choice (B) has a problem similar to that of the original sentence. It says, the reason being, which is a wordy phrase. (C) contains a new problem: the word participating is a gerund, but should be a noun. (D) repeats the original mistake, repeating the phrase but for her being; it also introduces a new problem by using the strange phrase participation-willing. Only (E) neither repeats the original problem nor contains a new one. Step #5 covers cheap tricks that can help you eliminate answers when all else fails. Since we aren’t stumped on this question, we’ll skip the cheap tricks for now, and discuss them at the end of the chapter. 6. Plug your answer back into the sentence to make sure it works. Sounds good. This step shouldn’t normally cause you to reevaluate your work; it’s just a quick check to make sure the answer choice actually sounds okay in the context of the sentence. SAT II is a registered trademark of the College Entrance Examination Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. ©2006 SparkNotes LLC, All Rights Reserved.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37080000
\|First World War\|\|Second World War\|\|The Cold War\| Hans Gisevius was born in Germany in 1904. After studying law he was employed by the Prussian Ministry of the Interior. When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 he became increasingly concerned about the illegal activities of the police. After the Night of the Long Knives he left the ministry and went to work in the private sector. Gisevius had compiled dossiers on Nazi officials which he eventually took to Wilhelm Canaris and Hans Oster of Abwehr. In 1939 Canaris employed Gisevius as chief of special projects. The following year he was sent as military intelligence officer in the German consulate in Zurich where he made contact with John Foster Dulles of the Office of Strategic Services. Hans Gisevius, who provided important evidence against the Nazi leaders during the Nuremberg War Trials, died in 1974.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37081000
Jeremy Bentham, the son of a lawyer, was born in London in 1748. A brilliant scholar, Bentham entered Queen's College, Oxford at twelve and was admitted to Lincoln's Inn at the age of fifteen. Bentham was a shy man who did not enjoy making public speeches. He therefore decided to leave Lincoln Inn and concentrate on writing. Provided with £90 a year by his father, Bentham produced a series of books on philosophy, economics and politics. Bentham's family had been Tories and for the first period of his life he shared their conservative political views. This changed after Bentham read the work of Joseph Priestley. One statement in particular from The First Principles of Government and the Nature of Political, Civil and Religious Liberty (1768) had a major impact on Bentham: "The good and happiness of the members, that is the majority of the members of the state, is the great standard by which every thing relating to that state must finally be determined." Another important influence on Bentham was the philosopher David Hume. In books such as A Fragment on Government (1776) and Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), Bentham argued that the proper objective of all conduct and legislation is "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". According to Bentham, "pain and pleasure are the sovereign masters governing man's conduct". As the motive of an act is always based on self-interest, it is the business of law and education to make the sanctions sufficiently painful in order to persuade the individual to subordinate his own happiness to that of the community. In 1798 Bentham wrote Principles of International Law where he argued that universal peace could only be obtained by first achieving European Unity. He hoped that some form of European Parliament would be able to enforce the liberty of the press, free trade, the abandonment of all colonies and a reduction in the money being spent on armaments. In Catechism of Reformers (1809) Bentham criticised the law of libel as he believed it was so ambiguous that judges were able to use it in the interests of the government. Bentham pointed out that the authorities could use the law to punish any Radical for "hurting the feelings" of the ruling class. Bentham also attacked other aspects of the legal system such as "jury packing". Radical reformers such as Sir Francis Burdett, Leigh Hunt, William Cobbett, and Henry Brougham praised Bentham's work. Although written in a complex style, radical publishers attempted to communicate his ideas to the working class. Jonathan Wooler published extracts in his journal Black Dwarf and eventually published a cheap edition of Catechism of Reformers. When Burdett introduced a series of resolutions in the House of Commons in July 1818, demanding universal suffrage, annual parliaments and vote by ballot, he quoted the writings of Jeremy Bentham to support his case. In 1824 Bentham joined with James Mill (1773-1836) to found the Westminster Review, the journal of the philosophical radicals. Contributors to the journal included Lord Byron, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Thomas Carlyle. Bentham's most detailed account of his ideas on political democracy appeared in his book Constitutional Code (1830). In the book Bentham argued that political reform should be dictated by the principal that the new system will promote the happiness of the majority of the people affected by it. Bentham argued in favour of universal suffrage, annual parliaments and vote by ballot. According to Bentham there should be no king, no House of Lords, no established church. The book also included Bentham's view that women, as well as men, should be given the vote. In Constitutional Code Bentham also addressed the problem of how government should be organised. For example, he suggested the introduction of rules that would ensure the regular attendance of members of the House of Commons. Government officials should be selected by competitive examination. The book also suggested the continual inspection of the work of politicians and government officials. Bentham pointed out they should be continually reminded that they are the "servants, not the masters, of the public". Jeremy Bentham died in 1832. (1) Jeremy Bentham, The Constitutional Code (1830) The all-comprehensive object, or end in view, is, from first to last, the greatest happiness of the greatest number; namely, of the individuals, of whom the political community, or state, of which it is the constitution. The greatest happiness of the greatest number of the members of the community: of all without exception, in so far as possible: of the greatest number, on every occasion on which the nature of the case renders it impossible by rendering it matter of necessity, to make sacrifice of a portion of the happiness of a few, to the greater happiness of the rest. (2) Jeremy Bentham, The Constitutional Code (1830) The greater a man's power, the stronger his propensity in all possible ways to abuse it. Of this fact, all history is one continued proof. Whatsoever evil it is possible for man to do for the advancement of his own private and personal interest at the expense of the public interest, that evil, sooner or later, he will do, unless by some means or other, intentional or otherwise, prevented from doing it. (3) Jeremy Bentham, The Constitutional Code (1830) The supposition of a new constitution coming to be established, with the greatest happiness of the greatest number for its end in view, sufficient reason would have place for taking the matter of wealth from the richest and transferring it to the less rich, till the fortunes of all were reduced to an equality, or a system of inequality, so little different from perfect equality that the difference would not be worth calculating.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37082000
Oftentimes we find it acceptable to tell what we call “white lies” to the people around us, for a multitude of reasons. Maybe you don’t want to hurt someone’s feelings, or maybe you just don’t feel like dealing with a situation and tell a little lie to avoid it altogether. Besides, these lies are harmless…or so we used to think. A new study from the American Psychological Association has found evidence that lying may actually have negative health consequences. Think back to grade school, when we all learned that President George Washington could never tell a lie, and he lived to the ripe old age of 67 — a lot based on 1700’s standards. Consider that the average person in his time only lived to age 36! For those who prefer more scientific evidence, consider this: The group of people within the study who told the most lies suffered from higher levels of anxiety, depression and exhaustion, among other ailments. On the other hand, the study participants who made it a point not to lie overall had better mental and physical health. More benefits of being honest: Stronger, more solid relationships, as well as fewer feelings of tension overall health problems. Seems like a no-brainer to us – if being honest is an easy (and cheap!) way to boost our health and wellness, we should all be taking advantage.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37083000
A recent study published in the August 16 online edition of the The Lancet reinforces the life gains to be had from exercise. The data shows that exercising for as little as 15 minutes a day increases life expectancy by three years. It also reduces the risk of dying from all diseases by 14%. Every additional 15 minutes of exercise performed per day further reduced all-cause mortality by 4%. The study involved 416,175 people (men and women) living in Taiwan. It followed them for more than eight years and recorded the amount of weekly exercised each participant accumulated. The participants were then grouped by levels of activity; starting at low (15 minutes per day), medium, high or very high (60 minutes per day). Those who exercised for 15 minutes a day lived on average three year longer than those who were largely sedentary. This study further highlights the benefits of exercise in all age groups and in both sexes. It seems that being active for as little as fifteen minutes a day can produce a significant benefit. For more information on this study click here to go directly to the Lancet’s website.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37090000
New crosswalk technology improves pedestrian safety Congress’s ongoing debate over whether to include funding for pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure in the next transportation bill does not change the fact that pedestrian traffic deaths are unacceptably high. Sixty-seven percent of the more than 47,000 pedestrian fatalities from 2000 to 2009 occurred on federal-aid roadways. These numbers clearly indicate there should be a federal interest in funding pedestrian safety measures. Many state and local governments are not waiting for the federal funding bill, but are moving forward to improve pedestrian safety, particularly at intersections and mid-block crossings. Fortunately, recently approved technological advances in intersection design and signalization are improving pedestrian safety and motorist behavior. The traveling public, both motorized and nonmotorized, are encountering these new technologies with increasing frequency. Improvements may not even be visible such as passive pedestrian detectors that are able to recognize pedestrian presence and adjust the time of the walk signals accordingly. These passive detectors work regardless of whether a pedestrian pushes a button requesting a crossing phase. Other measures, such as high-visibility crosswalk markings and installation of raised crossings, also improve pedestrian safety. New types of pedestrian crossing signals increase pedestrian safety while also encouraging the compliance of drivers in yielding to pedestrians. For example, installation of HAWK (High Intensity Activated Crosswalk) signals in Tucson, Arizona, improved the rate of drivers’ yielding to pedestrians from 30 to 90 percent. Use of the Rapid Rectangular Flashing Beacon (RRFB), a high intensity LED light array that is normally dark, but is activated by pedestrians waiting to cross a street at an uncontrolled crosswalk, is raising awareness in Florida, home to the top four most dangerous metro areas for pedestrians. Studies of motorist behavior before and after installation of RRFBs showed an increase in drivers’ yielding from 15 to 20 percent compliance to between 80 and nearly 100 percent. This data comes from St. Petersburg and Miami/Dade County, Florida. The benefits of installing these new traffic controls should get the attention of traffic engineers and lawmakers, resulting in continued safety improvements.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37095000
Set in Depression-era Maycomb, Alabama in 1935, young Scout Finch lives with her father, Atticus Finch, an attorney, and her older brother Jem. When Tom Robinson, a black man, is accused of raping a white woman, Mayella. Atticus is asked to represent him and accepts, knowing that that decision will likely make him and his family unpopular in town. Meanwhile Scout, Jem and another friend forge a bond over one of the neighborhood legends –Boo Radley. Jem and Scout have never seen Boo, though they have heard that he is heald captive in a house down the street. T As the trial moves ahead, the town’s emotions run high, mobs gather and relationships are strained. Over the course of the trial, it becomes clear that Tom could not have raped Mayella. However, a jury made up completely with white males convicts Tom. With the conviction comes more heartache for the town as innocents are sacrificed and children learn about the harsh realities of the world.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37097000
In 1981, Stanford Libraries acquired over 10,000 books collected over a forty-year period by Mary Schofield, who spent her career as a librarian at Hoover Library. The collection consists of illustrated children's tales, stories for young adults, and works of reference relating to her collecting areas, with a focus on works published since the late eighteenth century. The Venezky Collection contains primers and readers published between the end of the eighteenth century through the early decades of the twentieth century. Many titles are present in nearly every edition issued. In addition, there are early pamphlets, chapbooks, primers, almanacs, dictionaries, children's stories, plus works on penmanship, spelling, and phonetics. "This digital collection consists of over 30 full-text, digitized children's books. The books were selected using the following criteria: publication date, rarity, uniqueness, size, and location of publication. All of the items in the digital collection were published before 1923, and are in the public domain. The oldest book in the digital collection, Dolly's ABC was published in 1854. Many of the items in the digital collection are quite rare, with only a few other holdings available."	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37098000
Skip Maine state header navigation Skip First Level Navigation \| Skip All Navigation \|Home \| Contact Us \| Calendar \| News \| Maine Weather\|\| Site Map \| MAINE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY Winter Weather: The Basics November 1, 2010 Winter Weather Awareness Week The National Weather Service offices that serve New England have declared the week of November 1st through 5th, 2010 WINTER WEATHER AWARENESS WEEK. This Winter Weather message is courtesy of the National Weather Service Forecast Offices in Gray and Caribou, Maine. For those who live in New England, winter weather is a part of life from November through March. Snow, sleet, freezing rain, cold temperatures, and cold wind chill temperatures will be common occurrences soon. While most of the time these weather elements are only a nuisance to our daily routines, at times they can produce hazardous or life-threatening situations for those who are not prepared, or for those who do not take the proper precautions. In Maine, normal snowfall averages from 50 to 70 inches along the coast, but gradually increases as you move inland to more than 140 inches in the mountains. In northern Maine, 100 to 120 inches of snow falls annually. The lesser amounts in coastal areas are partly a result of a frequent change-over to sleet, freezing rain or rain during many well-developed winter storms. To those driving or walking, this mixture of precipitation can be even more dangerous than snow. As residents of Maine and New Hampshire are all aware from January 1998 and December 2008, large accumulations of freezing rain can cause disastrous conditions. High winds, cold temperatures, cold wind chill temperatures, and coastal flooding can also accompany or follow winter storms. To alert the public to potentially dangerous winter weather events or situations, the National Weather Service issues OUTLOOKS, WATCHES, WARNINGS, and ADVISORIES. Keep the following general definitions in mind (the exact criteria used to trigger watches, warnings, and advisories in Maine and New Hampshire will be discussed in an article later this week, ). Hazardous Weather Outlook A HAZARDOUS WEATHER OUTLOOK is issued daily by National Weather Service offices across the country to alert the public to the potential for any hazardous weather during the next 7 days (including significant winter storms, high wind, coastal flooding, and extreme temperatures). Due to the uncertainty in predicting the strength and path of a winter storm more than several days in advance, the exact impact on the area (if any) will not be known. In addition, National Weather Service offices may issue SPECIAL WEATHER STATEMENTS highlighting the potential impact of a major winter storm. WATCHES are issued to alert the public that dangerous winter conditions are possible in the within the next 24 to 60 hours. Products include: WINTER STORM WATCHES, HIGH WIND WATCHES, and COASTAL FLOOD WATCHES. WARNINGS are issued to alert the public that dangerous winter conditions are likely to occur within the next 6 to 36 hours or are occurring. Products include WINTER STORM WARNING, ICE STORM WARNING, BLIZZARD WARNING, HIGH WIND WARNING, WIND CHILL WARNING, and COASTAL FLOOD WARNING. An ADVISORY is issued to alert the public that winter conditions are expected to cause a significant inconvenience and may be hazardous. If caution is exercised, these situations should not be life threatening. Products include WINTER WEATHER ADVISORY, FREEZING RAIN ADVISORY, WIND ADVISORY, and WIND CHILL ADVISORY. MEMA carries National Weather Service Watches, Warnings and Advisories on its website: In addition, weather and safety information can always be found on National Weather Service websites: Last update: 07/20/10 \|Copyright © 2005 All rights reserved.\|	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37100000
What's Behind Student Plagiarism? Plagiarism is generally discussed in the context of students’ ethical behavior and respect for their teachers, fellow students, and the academy. Often discussions turn to remembrances of faculty’s youth at college and actions we dared not do. Recently, however, teachers and scholars have viewed plagiarism as resulting from a more complex interaction of changes to a specific socio-historical context, students’ understanding and use of sources, the younger generation’s sense of self, and technology and scholarly communication. In January 2011, I led a discussion about student behavior and perceptions with several professors from several different departments, from science to fine arts and humanities. Professors in the group made the oft-heard comment, “Everyone cuts and pastes from post to post on the Internet now. They think it’s okay.” According to Mallon (2001), commercial consequences for the writer and a requirement for innovation and originality must exist for the concept of plagiarism to develop as misconduct. In the academy, this is clearly the case, though few students, especially undergraduates, recognize these obligations. Susan Blum (2010) states that students see borrowing from others as a creative reuse of others’ work. In ordinary life, when students quote movies and songs to each other, they assume that the listener knows where the quote originates. If the listener requires a citation, it only demonstrates that he is outside the group. Since being part of the group is essential to young adults, asking for a citation is social ruin. Plagiarism may also be an issue of poor writing and little contextual knowledge. Researchers studying students’ use of sources find that students tend to read and cite at the sentence level, rather than attempting to understand the entire source to support their argument. In attempting to paraphrase sentences, students were unable to divorce themselves from the original source text. (Howard, Serviss, & Rodrigue, 2010). The Citation Project, a national, multi-institution research project devoted to responding to educators’ concerns about plagiarism, found in a recent workshop that students appeared to choose one paper that was easy to read, from a popular magazine or website, to use as the basis for their paper. They then found several peer-reviewed articles which they used to pepper their papers with statistics. Rather than the essence of the study, students chose the one statistic that they understood or would support their own point. Faculty members compare students to students across years. Why do they feel that students today plagiarize more than earlier students? In the discussion with faculty, the conversation centered around the tendency for writers on the Internet to borrow from each other (without attribution), one professor said, “And then when you see your own work! It’s like a stab to the heart.” The pain that the faculty member felt when she read her words on another person’s blog, according to Blum (2009), reflects her core of an authentic self: an authentic self that she represents on the page by her own words. The current generation of students gathers words from others to represent themselves. Blum states that they are more concerned with a performance self, a self that reverberates with the group they wish to engage at any particular moment. Their selves are more fluid and flexible; their words more ephemeral, even if located on a page (2009). Is this difference in generations just a difference in developmental stage? Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson suggests that adolescents’ major task is to try on different selves in an effort to find their authentic self. Arnett (2006) believes that currently, identity work occurs during emerging adulthood, the time when students are in college and graduate school. Thus, they have not yet developed an authentic self. Whatever it is, plagiarism in the academy is different than quoting music lyrics on Facebook. Understanding why students plagiarize can help us help students to understand the difference between life on social media sites and life in the university. Arnett, J. J. (2006). Emerging adulthood: Understanding the new way of coming of age. In J. J. Arnett & J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 3-19). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Blum, S . D. (2009). My word! Plagiarism and college culture. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Mallon, T. (2001). Stolen words: The classic book on plagiarism. San Diego, CA: Harcourt. Editor's Note: Watch for ideas on how to manage plagiarism in the February issue of Synergia	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37111000
Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind is made up of eight sections. Each section starts with an explanation of the topic and is followed by hand sketching exercises for the student to complete. All 76 sketching exercises found in the textbook are printed on perforated paper making it easy for students to turn in for review. The textbook covers the following topics: 16 separate audio/video lectures address the above topics and show students how to solve select problems contained in the book. To see a sample Audio/Video file from this DVD click below. The size of this file is 182MB and may take several minutes to download. Engineering Graphics Digital Reference Book: Technical Graphics, a 522 page engineering graphics textbook, is included in digital form to give your students reference material for a wide range of engineering graphics topics. Technical Graphics Table of Contents To see additional information for Technical Graphics, including a complete table of contents and a sample chapter, click here. Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind A Comprehensive Set of Engineering Graphics Tools By Bryan Graham Published April 1, 2007 \|No reviews found\|	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37112000
“Come on mate just one, we all are. You scared or something? What is one going to do anyway?” The problem is if this teenage boy accepts that cigarette he would be a part of the 6,000 people below the age of 18 in America to start smoking in that day. 2,000 of those teens will keep smoking. That’s 800,000 new teen smokers every year that are inhaling 4,000 chemical compounds into their body, 40 of them are cancer causing agents and it’s all passed through just one cigarette. That teen could potentially join the 396,000 smokers who started as teens that die each year from smoking, and that’s only in America. So that’s what one cigarette could do. So Why Do Teenagers Smoke? Teenagers can start smoking as a result of peer pressure. Feeling weak if they don’t accept a cigarette or fear of rejection can be felt by the teen. Quit Victoria executive director; Fiona Sharkie says that “smoking is part of socialization.” Social groups are where peer pressure occurs and therefore sometimes smoking. Peer pressure is one of the main creators of teenage smokers today. Teens may also smoke as a result of imitation. Product placement in movies and media causes teens to copy their role models. This same cause relates to parents or family members as well. Many teens may grow up in a smoking environment resulting in addiction themselves. How Bad is Smoking for You Really? There are many health issues that are consequences of smoking. Some a major some are minor but all damaging. There are many dangerous chemicals in one cigarette. Chemicals such as benzene- a petrol additive, ammonia- found in toilet cleaner, acetone- present in nail polish remover, tar, nicotine- addictive drug, arsenic- rat poison, etc. Many chemicals in cigarettes are actually poison that can kill someone in high enough doses. So the deadly health issues that result from this gradual poisoning are heart disease, strokes, emphysema. Other smoking related health issues... [continues] Cite This Essay (2013, 02). It's Not a Joke to Choke on Smoke. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 02, 2013, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/It-s-Not-A-Joke-To-Choke-1430865.html "It's Not a Joke to Choke on Smoke" StudyMode.com. 02 2013. 02 2013 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/It-s-Not-A-Joke-To-Choke-1430865.html>. "It's Not a Joke to Choke on Smoke." StudyMode.com. 02, 2013. Accessed 02, 2013. http://www.studymode.com/essays/It-s-Not-A-Joke-To-Choke-1430865.html.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37115000
Cognitive Learning I: Understanding Effective Thinking This chapter will help you answer the following questions about your learners: • How can I teach my learners to become good thinkers? • What cognitive learning strategies can help my learners remember what I teach? • What cognitive learning strategies can help my learners improve their comprehension of what they read? • Which is more important to how much my learners are able to learn: prior knowledge or intelligence? • How can I use the information processing model of thinking to better understand how learning occurs? • What are some ways of getting and holding my learners’ attention? • What teaching strategies can I use to enhance my learners’ reception, availability, and activation of the information I present? • Do my learners have to learn in orderly, sequential ways or can they use different sources of information simultaneously to construct their own meanings? BORICP05.doc - 2 • Is my learners’ intelligence fixed, or is it made up of many specific abilities that I can improve through instruction? In this chapter you will also learn the meanings of these terms: automaticity cognitive strategies comprehension monitoring decay theory declarative knowledge displacement theory domain-specific knowledge dual-coding theory elaboration general knowledge immediate memory information processing model interference theory keyword method long-term memory metacognition organization parallel distributed processing model procedural knowledge propositional networks rehearsal schema theory working memory BORICP05.doc - 3 Many years ago in the village of Gidole in southern Ethiopia, there lived an old man and his three sons. The old man knew that he had only a few more years to live and he wanted to make sure that his property and possessions were left in good hands. He decided that he would leave all his worldly goods to the most intelligent of his three sons. The problem... [continues] Cite This Essay (2010, 10). Learning. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 10, 2010, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Learning-457243.html "Learning" StudyMode.com. 10 2010. 10 2010 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Learning-457243.html>. "Learning." StudyMode.com. 10, 2010. Accessed 10, 2010. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Learning-457243.html.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37116000
After reading Oedipus, one may think that in this story, there was no justice, and nobody could avoid their fate. King Laius and Queen Jocasta, fearing the prophecy of the Delphic oracle, had the young Oedipus left on Mount Cithaeron to die, but the father dies and the son marries the mother anyway. Oedipus, seemingly a good person, also tries to avoid the second prophecy, only to fulfill the first. But even through all this, I have done some research and feel that there was justice in Oedipus, The King, and their fate wasn't First, the murder of King Laius. Laius seemed to die a unwarranted death, but he was not necessarily in complete innocence, for he had done some malicious things earlier in his life, such as the attempted murder of his son, Oedipus, and the kidnapping and rape of Chrysippus, a young man Laius fell in love with before Jocasta. And Oedipus wasn't as guilty under ancient Greek law as he is under our modern laws. It was every Greek's duty to harm his/her enemies, and as far as Oedipus knew, King Laius was an enemy. Queen Jocasta wasn't exactly guiltless, either. The great Queen had also tried with King Laius to kill their son, and had no respect for the prophecies of Apollo: "A prophet? Listen to me and learn some peace of mind: no skill in the world, nothing human can penetrate the future." She was also the other half of a mother-son marriage. Greek law considered the act, not the motive - meaning that even though she nor Oedipus knew they were related, they committed Finally, Oedipus's guilt. In some ways, Oedipus was the most guilty of them all. Consider his 'hubris'. He regarded himself as almost a god, assuming that since he alone had solved the sphinx's riddle, he was the one of the gods' favorites. He was very quick to judge, and judged on the most flimsy of evidence. He calls on Tiresias to tell him what he should do, and when he... [continues] Cite This Essay (1999, 10). The Story of Oedipus. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 10, 1999, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Story-Oedipus-3687.html "The Story of Oedipus" StudyMode.com. 10 1999. 10 1999 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Story-Oedipus-3687.html>. "The Story of Oedipus." StudyMode.com. 10, 1999. Accessed 10, 1999. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Story-Oedipus-3687.html.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37117000
Gone are the days when Fred Haise, of the Apollo 13 crew, could remark on how his urine looked as if a golden string of glittering stars as they passed out of the evacuation chamber of the space capsule in which he’d just relieved himself. Or at least gone are the days when Bill Paxton in the character of Haise could say something like that in a movie and be accurate. These days our astronauts drink the water recycled from their pee — and find clever new uses for their poop too. On the International Space Station, they use an automated system to remove extract water from waste for use once more. On the private Mars shot that will launch in 2018, Inspiration Mars, they will use a simpler, but perhaps more elegant, method: a technique called forward osmosis. Water likes to move to diffuse concentrations whenever possible from high to low, in an effort to even things out. So when it’s confronted with a solution that contains a solution with a high concentration of salt, which has a high osmotic potential, this ticks water off and it will move toward that higher concentration to balance things out. So when urine, which contains lots of water, of course, is put into in a chamber it will pass through the membrane, leaving behind all of the other stuff that makes up urine, leaving the water purified and the salty solution diluted and ready to, yick, drink. I’m sure that any remnant salty taste from the diluted solution will provide the astronauts plenty of reminder of where their water came from (their pee). The forward osmosis method was tested on the last space shuttle flight, Atlantis in 2011. The problem is, the results showed that in microgravity osmosis worked at only about half the efficiency it does here on Earth, something the mission’s engineers will have to work out. The Inspiration Mars people recently announced that these bags of water and waste will be used in an entirely novel way, to line the space capsule to protect it from cosmic rays. A quote from a mission member in a New Scientist article on the subject points out that nuclei block cosmic radiation and that water has about three times the amount of nuclei that are found in metals. And since the nuclei block rather than absorb radiated particles, the water won’t become irradiated, keeping it safe to drink. So lining the capsule with bags of water that the crew can also drink should be an efficient and elegant solution to both staving off cosmic radiation and dehydration among the crew. But what’s more efficient than drinking the water extracted from your own urine? Nothing. When a bag of water is finished off by the husband/wife team that will serve as personnel on the mission, they will use said bag to deposit waste. The osmotic processes will then extract the water for reuse. In the meantime, that bag of waste will go back in the capsule lining to serve as a shield once more, this time filled with poop or pee. And one can only imagine how effective those are at reflecting cosmic rays.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37119000
More Riverside County residents – adults and young people – smoke than in previous years, and residents eat fast food more often than the rest of California. Those factors might help explain why Riverside County ranks near the bottom in overall health among California counties and why more than 60 percent of early deaths here are caused by heart disease, cancer, lung disease and stroke. These nuggets and more detailed information can be found in the 2013 Community Health Profile, an 83-page snapshot of the health of county residents. The report, released by the County of Riverside Department of Public Health, describes the health issues facing Riverside County residents. It illustrates the scope of the chronic disease problem, the behaviors that lead to disease, and suggests opportunities to change behaviors to improve health. Recent studies ranked Riverside County 32nd among California’s 58 counties in overall health. “We’re using data to tell a story; create a roadmap,” said Wendy Hetherington, chief epidemiologist for the county. “The report will help guide our public health programs and policies.” The report is also the foundation for the Healthy Riverside County Initiative, an effort being launched in conjunction with the release of the health profile. Using the findings of the report the initiative has four priority areas: Improving eating habits, increase daily physical activity, reduce tobacco rates and building healthier environments that support walking, biking and exercise. “It’s a new era of community involvement and population health improvement. The profile serves as starting point for community driven change. By making better food and drink choices, building exercise into our day and not smoking, we can make a difference not only for ourselves but for our friends and family,” said Dr. Cameron Kaiser, Riverside County interim health officer. The report, which includes data collected from local, state and federal sources, provides a resource for educational institutions, cities and other municipalities looking for ways to improve the health of their employees and residents. The 2013 Community Health Profile is available for download at: www.rivcoph.org<http://www.rivcoph.org and www.rivcohealthdata.org<http://www.rivcohealthdata.org. *Contributed by Riverside County Department of Public Health	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37130000
Iowa has been under a Heat Stress Alert for two days, and although the weather situation might break for a couple of days, the forecast for late this week and early next week indicates the state could be facing an alert situation again. Managing Heat Stress in Cattle As temperatures heat up during the summer, cattle producers need to assess the heat stress that their cattle are under. Compared to other animals, cattle rely on respiration more than sweating to dissipate their heat load. Since cattle do not dissipate heat effectively they accumulate a heat load during the day and dissipate heat at night when it is cooler. During extreme weather conditions with insufficient environmental cooling at night, cattle will accumulate heat that they cannot disperse. Typically physiological factors such as hide color, weight and animal health predispose cattle to heat stress during the summer months. To minimize heat stress, cattle producers can start now initiating measures in their operation to assist cattle in managing periods of hot, humid weather. 1. Make sure cattle have access to EXCESS WATER CAPACITY. This means getting extra water tanks into pens filled with fresh water. During the heat of the day (noon through sundown) cattle may increase their water demand to 2 gallons per 100 lbs of body weight. 2. Do not handle or process cattle past 9:00 am. 1. Shift feeding to provide 70% of the day’s feed delivered after sundown. 2. Provide shade. A minimum of 20 square feet per head of shade is recommended. 3. Remove restrictions to air flow, such as wind breaks. 4. Provide mounds for cattle to make use of what little breeze may be available. 5. Grind light-colored bedding, such as straw or grass hay, into the pens. This will provide a cooler surface to rest on than the dark-colored pen surface. 1. When heavy, black-hided cattle show signs of severe heat stress such as continuous, open-mouthed panting, get these cattle to a shaded area, and cool these cattle with a hose, including their head and body. Either a stream of water or of large droplets which will penetrate through the hair coat to the skin is critical to provide evaporative cooling. In addition to management practices, cattle producers can monitor forecasted heat stress events at www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=20426. For more information on preventing heat stress in cattle go to vetmed.iastate.edu/ and type “heat stress cattle” in the search box.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37137000
One of our most valuable resources is the water beneath our feet. - Something you canít see and may not even know is there! Ground water is the part of precipitation that seeps down through the soil until it reaches rock material that is saturated with water. Ground water slowly moves underground, generally at a downward angle (because of gravity), and may eventually seep into streams, lakes, and oceans. Most of the void spaces in the rocks below the water table are filled with water. But rocks have different porosity and permeability characteristics, which means that water does not move around the same way in all rocks. When water-bearing rocks readily transmit water to wells and springs, they are called aquifers. Wells can be drilled into the aquifers and water can be pumped out. Precipitation eventually adds water (recharge) into the porous rock of the aquifer. The rate of recharge is not the same for all aquifers, though, and that must be considered when pumping water from a well. Pumping too much water too fast draws down the water in the aquifer and eventually causes a well to yield less and less water and even run dry. Ground water is an important natural resource, especially in those parts of the country that donít have ample surface-water sources, such as the arid West. It provides about 38 percent of the water delivered by water departments for use in our homes, businesses, and industries and provides drinking water for the 99 percent of the rural population who supply their own water from their own wells.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37138000
California African American Museum The California African American Museum presents African American art, history, and culture. The museum's permanent exhibit addresses life in West Africa, experiences in the American South, and the Great Migration toward the western coast. Highlights include traditional headdresses and masks. Collections include landscapes, traditional and modern arts, and other artifacts of historical note. The museum offers exhibits, guided tours, lectures, craft activities, films, performances, readings, discussions, and a high school docent internship. Groups of 10 or more are asked to make reservations. The website offers educator resource guides for purchase.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-37146000

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