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Michael Levey, Painting at Court, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1971 |
Novotny, Fritz, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880 (Pelican History of Art), Yale University Press, 2nd edn. 1971 ISBN 0-14-056120-X |
George Savage, Porcelain Through the Ages, Penguin, (2nd edn.) 1963 |
Schultz, Ellen (ed). Gothic and Renaissance Art in Nuremberg, 1986, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 978-0-87099-466-1 |
Scheyer, Ernst, Baroque Painting in Germany and Austria: A Gap in American Studies, Art Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Autumn, 1960), pp. 9–18, JSTOR online text |
Snyder, James; Northern Renaissance Art, 1985, Harry N. Abrams, ISBN 0-13-623596-4 |
Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517–1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-6 |
Wood, Christopher, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London, ISBN 0-948462-46-9 |
Further reading |
German masters of the nineteenth century: paintings and drawings from the Federal Republic of Germany. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1981. ISBN 978-0-87099-263-6. |
Nancy Marmer, "Isms on the Rhine: Westkunst," Art in America, Vol. 69, November 1981, pp. 112–123. |
Hungarian art stems from the period of the conquest of the Carpathian basin by the people of Árpád in the 9th century. Prince Árpád also organized earlier people settled in the area. |
Horsemen in the Carpathian basin |
Before the arrival of Árpád several other peoples from the steppe had founded states in the Carpathian basin. The capital of the Huns (Xiongnu in Chinese) was Buda, named after King Attila's brother, though Priscus rhetor, a 5th-century historian and ambassador of the Byzantine Empire stated that the capital of the Huns was in the plains between the Danube and Tisza rivers. After the death of Attila in 453 the Lombards and Gepids, and later the Avars founded states here (569). This late Avar kingdom was defeated by the Franks, and the Avars of Transdanubia were baptised. The first Hungarians came to the basin during the late 9th century. |
Art of the Conquest period |
The People of Árpád in the 9th century used ornamental motifs to decorate both their dress and the trappings of their horses, the main motif being the palmette (see the above illustration). This style remained important in Hungary from the 9th to the 11th centuries, and similar motifs can be found in the contemporary decorative arts of the Caucasus, Iran and Middle-Asia. |
Arts in the Romanesque age |
Descendants of Prince Árpád organized the medieval Hungarian Kingdom. During this period the combination of styles originating in the steppes with those of the European Romanesque produced a rich heritage, with noticeable parallels in the art of the Scandinavian Vikings and the Celts of Western Europe. The coronation mantle of King Stephen (crowned 1000 A. D.) is a particularly fine example from this period. |
This king stated that "10 villages should build a church", and though several of his foundations were later famous in new guises, they all date back to the lex Stephani (law of King Stephen). |
Church architecture and sculpture |
In spite of widespread destruction during the Turkish occupation (c 1526–1686, and see below), Romanesque churches and other ecclesiastical buildings can be found throughout the Carpathian basin. Fine examples survive at Székesfehérvár, Gyulafehérvár, Esztergom, and Pannonhalma, while recently opened lapidariums at Pécs, Veszprém, and Eger display remains from this period. Ruins of former royal houses at Tarnaszentmária, Feldebrő, and Szekszárd also show stylistic resemblances to contemporary architecture from the Caucasus. |
Sculptural works from the Romanesque age are often fragmentary. A 12th-century Maiestas Domini relief, the Tabán Christ, is an important example of the influence of Italian and French art in the Kingdom of Hungary. |
Large-scale reconstructions were undertaken after the Mongolian wars of 1241–42. Many village churches survive from this periods, both round churches (Szalonna, Kallósd and Nagytótlak), and those with western tower and southern doorway at Nagybörzsöny, Csempeszkopács, Őriszentpéter, Magyarszecsőd, Litér, Velemér and Zalaháshágy. |
Gothic art |
The Gothic style reached Hungary in the late 14th century, and continued throughout the reigns of the Anjou, Luxembourg, and Jagello kings. Wealthy mining towns have built them on their main square like as at such as Kassa (Košice, Slovakia), Bártfa (Bardejov, Slovakia), Brassó and Nagyszeben built their main squares in this style, which can also be seen in several rebuilt monasteries, for example (Garamszentbenedek in Slovakia). The now destroyed monastery of the Pauline Order at Budaszentlőrinci was also built in this style. |
The most renowned architect of this time was János Mester, a Franciscan friar. His largest churches are in Szeged-Alsóváros, in Farkas Street, Kolozsvár (Cluj, Romania), and in Nyirbátor. Perhaps the most famous Hungarian Gothic church of all is the Cathedral of St Elizabeth in Kassa (Košice, Slovakia). |
Sculptures and paintings |
The rich heritage of paintings in Hungary originated with the royal houses of Luxemburg and Anjou, that both esteemed the earlier king Ladislaus I. (Both Sigismund of Luxemburg, King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor, and Louis The Great, King of Hungary and Poland were buried in the cathedral of Nagyvárad at the side of King Ladislaus.) Even today, after so many wars and so much destruction, there are about fifty churches where murals of the Saint Ladislaus legend can be found. |
Renaissance |
King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary had close ties with Italy, and Italian influence is clearly evident in architectural complexes built during his reign, such as his palaces in Buda and in Visegrad. A recent exhibition at the mining Museum in Rudabánya displayed the quality of Hungarian goldwork at this period in the golden forints made by Hungarian masters for the Russian Tsar Ivan III. 2008 saw the 550th anniversary of Matthias' reign, and many items from his library, the Bibliotheca Corvina (once the largest in Europe) were displayed in the National Széchényi Library in Buda Castle link |
Reformation |
During the same period as the Wars against the Turks and the beginning of the Ottoman occupation, the Reformation led to a change of religious allegiance in about one third of Hungary. This time was also a period of renewal for churches in an architectural sense, with inner spaces displaying fresh and delicate ornamentation, particularly in the use of plant forms. "Cassette" ceilings are also characteristic of this period. |
Architecture of fortresses |
The wars against the Ottoman Empire also led to great developments in the construction of Hungarian fortresses. Earlier fortresses had been built before the era of heavy artillery, but were now fortified to resist it. The best-known surviving fortresses from this period are those of Eger, Nagyvárad, Nagykanizsa and Érsekújvár (Nové Zámky in Slovakia). |
Baroque reconstruction |
After the expulsion of the Turks in 1686, the new ruling house of the Habsburgs brought with it the new Baroque style. Most of the early surviving buildings in Hungary today are in this style: not only churches, but also castles e.g. Fertőd, town halls (Szeged), monasteries (Zirc), cathedrals (Kalocsa), colleges (Eger) and the royal palace at Buda. |
Neo-classicism |
After the Age of Reform, in the early 19th century ancient Greek traditions were revived, with the consequent construction of such neo-Classical buildings as the Hungarian National Museum. |
Secessionism or Jugendstil |
One of the greatest architects of his age was Ödön Lechner, who planned the Museum of Trade Art, The Hungarian Geological Institute, the town hall of Kecskemét, and the Saint Ladislaus Church at Kőbánya, Budapest. Sometimes he is called the Hungarian Gaudí. |
See also |
Architecture of Hungary |
Anjou Legendarium |
References |
Further reading |
External links |
"Művészettörténet - 12.hét - A magyarországi romanika". Sulinet.hu. Retrieved 8 October 2017. |
"Művészettörténet - 15.hét - A reneszánsz művészete". Sulinet.hu. Retrieved 8 October 2017. |
"Művészettörténet - 17.hét - A magyarországi reneszánsz művészete". Sulinet.hu. Retrieved 8 October 2017. |
"FUNZINE - See you there!". Funzine.hu. Retrieved 8 October 2017. |
Irish art is art produced in the island of Ireland, and by artists from Ireland. The term normally includes Irish-born artists as well as expatriates settled in Ireland. Its history starts around 3200 BC with Neolithic stone carvings at the Newgrange megalithic tomb, part of the Brú na Bóinne complex which still stands today, County Meath. In early-Bronze Age Ireland there is evidence of Beaker culture and widespread metalworking. Trade-links with Britain and Northern Europe introduced La Tène culture and Celtic art to Ireland by about 300 BC, but while these styles later changed or disappeared elsewhere under Roman subjugation, Ireland was left alone to develop Celtic designs: notably Celtic crosses, spiral designs, and the intricate interlaced patterns of Celtic knotwork. |
The Christianization of Ireland in the fifth century AD saw the establishment of monasteries, which acted as centres of scholarship and artistic production, and led to the flowering of the Insular art style with its highly decorative illuminated manuscripts, metalwork and stonework (High crosses). From around 1200 to 1700, however, Irish art was relatively stagnant, and Irish culture was left comparatively untouched by the influence of Renaissance art. |
From the late 17th century, artists in the general contemporary styles of European fine art began to emerge, particularly the painting of portraiture and landscapes. The early 18th century saw increased prosperity and establishment of new cultural institutions including the Royal Dublin Society (1731) and Royal Irish Academy (1785). With a small pool of patrons and better opportunities to be found abroad, many Irish artists emigrated, especially to London (portraitists) or Paris (landscapists), which stifled the nascent indigenous scene. |
By the start of the 20th century, things began to improve. Opportunities began to spring up at home; the Celtic Revival movement saw a renewed interest in aspects of Celtic culture, Hugh Lane established the Municipal Gallery of Modern Art, the first public gallery of its kind in the world, and with increased patronage a new generation of homegrown talent and returning emigres gradually formed a solid basis for the regrowth of art in Ireland. The foundation of an independent Irish State in the early 1920s did not significantly alter the state of Ireland's visual arts; in the years following Independence, the arts establishment (exemplified by the committee of the Royal Hibernian Academy) was dominated by traditionalists who steadfastly opposed attempts to bring Irish art into line with contemporary European styles. |
Early Irish art |
Up to 200 AD |
Irish gold personal ornaments began to be produced within about 200 years either side of 2000 BC, especially in the thin crescent-shaped gold disks known as lunulae, which were probably first made in Ireland, where over eighty of the around one hundred known examples were found. A range of thin decorated gold discs, bands and plaques, often with pin-holes, were probably attached to clothing, and objects that appear to be earrings have also been found. By around 1400–1000 BC, heavier thin torcs and bangles have been found. |
The Late Bronze Age of 900–600 BC saw the peak of the surviving Irish prehistoric goldsmithing, with superbly worked pieces in simple but very sophisticated designs, notably in a type of dress-fastener that looks like a double-ended trumpet curved round so that the two bell mouths are roughly pointing in the same direction. There are also a series of grand gold collars, representing a development of the lunula, with round plates at either end, and a broad corrugated U-shaped body, decorated geometrically along the ridges and troughs of the corrugations. Goldwork all but disappears in the Iron Age, except for the late and enigmatic Broighter Hoard of the 1st century BC, which appears to mix local and Roman pieces. |
Although Ireland tends to be strongly associated in the popular mind with Celtic art, the early Continental style of Hallstatt style never reached Ireland, and the succeeding La Tène style reached Ireland very late, perhaps from about 300 BC, and has left relatively few remains, which are often described by art historians together with their British contemporaries as "Insular Celtic". Buried ironwork does not last long in Irish conditions, and gold is very rare, so the survivals are normally in bronze. The Petrie Crown, Loughnashade Trumpet and a series of discs whose function is mysterious are among the most striking pieces. The decoration on a number of bronze scabbards, many found in the River Bann, have inspired much discussion, as they seem close to other pieces from as far away as Hungary, and the possibility of an immigrant master has been raised. The National Museum of Ireland in Dublin holds the majority of major finds from the whole prehistoric period, with others in the Ulster Museum in Belfast and the British Museum in London. |
200 to 1150 |
Material from Ireland with La Tène style ornament from the third to fifth centuries AD is difficult to demonstrate. In the 6th to 8th centuries the art of the newly Christianised Irish mixed with Mediterranean and Germanic traditions through Irish missionary contacts with the Anglo-Saxons, creating what is called Insular art (or the Hiberno-Saxon style) and the second and best known great period of Irish art. This is exemplified in such masterpieces as the Book of Kells, the Ardagh Chalice and the Tara Brooch, the most spectacular of about fifty elaborate Celtic brooches in precious metal that have been found. |
The form of the illuminated manuscript book, new to Ireland, was taken up with enthusiam for luxury books, created in the monasteries, that were kept in the monastery church rather than the library, and were displayed to visitors who would appreciate the decorative styles that were close to those of the personal jewellery of the elite. Most were gospel books, with the most elaborate illumination often restricted to a relatively small number of pages with the evangelist portraits, their symbols, and abstract carpet pages. Narrative images were very few. |
The stone high cross, originally painted, was a distinctive insular type of monument, of which many examples survive. Later in the period, Scandinavian influences were added through the Vikings. |
1150 to 1550 |
These earlier styles largely came to an end with the Norman invasion of 1169–1170 and the subsequent wide adoption of Romanesque art. Through the Gothic and Renaissance periods Irish art was essentially a regional variation of wider European styles, with many works imported from England or further afield, and some English artists and craftsmen active in Ireland. Many objects of a distinctively Irish form from the first millennium, such as bell or book shrine reliquaries, were renovated or repaired in the contemporary style. |
The superlative standard of the best Early Medieval works is not seen, but craftsmen such as metalworkers retained a relatively high social status. Many more signed their work than was usual in other countries in this period, but the rate of losses has been such that there is only a single metalworker whose signature is on two surviving pieces. They seem very often to have been attached to the court of a lord, as were poets. |
A number of important literary or historical manuscripts from the period have survived, many now entirely in the Irish language; examples include the Book of Leinster, which is one of several with a text of the Lebor Gabála Érenn or "Book of Invasions". But there are no surviving manuscripts with significant illumination beyond a few decorated initials. In contrast, the period saw a considerable development in the architecture of Ireland with several surviving churches and castles in English-influenced styles. |
1550 to 1700 |
Wars, rebellions, and unrest, concentrated in the late 16th century, from 1641 to the 1650s, and after 1688, greatly hindered the developments of the arts, and the processes exemplified by the Flight of the Earls in 1607 largely brought to an end the position of the old elites of Gaelic Ireland, who had been a mainstay of patronage for artists. |
The visual arts were slow to develop in Early Modern Ireland, due to political disruption, and the lack of patrons in either government, the church, and wealthy resident landowners or business class interested in art. Yet beginning in the late 17th century, Irish painting began to develop, especially in portraiture and landscape painting. |
The English portraitist James Gandy was brought to Ireland after his patron James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond became Lord Deputy in 1661, and remained until his death in 1689. By the 1680s the Dutch Golden Age painter Ludowyk Smits was able to base himself in Ireland, mainly painting portraits. Irish painters typically looked outside Ireland for influence, training and clients who were wealthy enough to afford the purchase of art. |
After 1700 |
By the 18th century an increasingly stable and prosperous Ireland was able to support a growing range of artists in various media, mostly based in Dublin. Edward Smyth (1749–1812), followed by his son John, got the main commissions for architectural sculpture. What became Belleek Pottery started around 1860, the first Irish manufacturer of fine ceramics, much for export. |
What is now the National College of Art and Design in Dublin has existed since founded as the Dublin Art School in 1746, training a high proportion of the artists mentioned below. Its founder Robert West had studied drawing and painting at the French Academy under François Boucher and Jean-Baptiste van Loo. A sculpture school followed later, with Edward Smyth the first principal. |
As in other areas of work, many artists based themselves in the much larger market offered by England for most of their careers, including the 18th-century landscapist George Barrett, Sr., the portraitist Nathaniel Hone the Younger, James Barry, Daniel Maclise, John Lavery and Sir William Orpen. Sir Martin Archer Shee, another portraitist, completed his training in London and stayed, becoming President of the Royal Academy in 1831. The portrait sculptor Christopher Hewetson (c.1737–1798) moved to Italy in his twenties, and never left, catching English aristocrats on the Grand Tour, and producing many busts of Pope Clement XIV. Thomas Hickey went as far as China, as the official artist of the Macartney Embassy in 1793, but is best known for his works produced during his several years in Bengal in India. |
Despite great success in London and Florence, the portraitist Hugh Douglas Hamilton eventually returned to Dublin for the last years of his career. Philip Hussey from Cork, began as a sailor, being shipwrecked three times. He moved to painting ships' figureheards and exteriors, before starting a successful portrait practice in Dublin. Later, Walter Frederick Osborne developed his open air painting in France whereas Sir William Orpen studied in London. |
In the second half of the 19th century a climate of cultural resurgence and nationalist ideals contributed to the development of an Irish style. A revived interest in the Irish language and Celtic history prompted a revival in the Irish visual arts as well. Belfast born Sir John Lavery may be the most internationally known painter of this generation. He trained in Glasgow and France, but unlike Orpen, maintained close ties to his native land. In 1928 he was commissioned to paint the symbol of Éire which would be used as the central image on the bank note of the new Irish Free State. Other paintings embodied the call for independence, such as Beatrice Elvery's Éire of 1907 which depicts the history of Irish Catholicism with the still-nascent Irish Republic. |
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