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19,000 | def init_action(self)""the initial action act randomly initially could be overridden (but ' not sure why you would""self act random choice(self actionsself dist[self act+ return self act def select_action(selfreward)""select the action given the reward this implements "act randomlyand should be overridden""self total_s... |
19,001 | multiagent systems self display( , "agent {self iddid {self act}"return self act maslearn py -(continued class stochasticqagent(gameagent)"""this agent maintains the -function for each state (or just the average reward as the future state is all the samechooses the best action using ""def __init__(selfactionsalpha= q_i... |
19,002 | maslearn py -(continued class simulategame(displayable)def __init__(selfgameagents)self game game self agents agents list of agents self action_history [self reward_history [self dist_history [self actions tuple(ag init_action(for ag in self agentsself num_steps def go(selfsteps)for in range(steps)self num_steps + self... |
19,003 | multiagent systems range(len(self dist_history))]color=' '#plt legend(plt savefig('soccerplot pdf'plt show(the following are some games from poole and mackworth [ maslearn py -(continued class shoppinggame(displayable)def __init__(self)self num_agents self actions [['shopping''football']]* self players ['football prefe... |
19,004 | def __init__(self)self num_agents self actions [[' '' '' '],[' '' '' ']self players ['agent does''agent does' def play(selfactions)return {(' '' ')( )(' '' ')( )(' '' ')( )(' '' ')( )(' '' ')( )(' '' ')( )(' '' ')( )(' '' ')( )(' '' ')( }[actions choose onegm shoppinggame(gm soccergame(gm gameshow(gm uniquenegameexampl... |
19,005 | multiagent systems ""def __init__(selfactionsalpha= q_init= p_init= beta= )""actions is the set of actions the agent can do alpha is the step size q_init is the initial -values p_init is the initial counts for beta is the discount for older probabilities ""gameagent __init__(selfactionsself { :q_init for in self action... |
19,006 | relational learning collaborative filtering based on gradient descent algorithm of koreny bellr and volinskyc matrix factorization techniques for recommender systemsieee computer this assumes the form of the dataset from movielens (org/datasets/movielens/the rating are set of (useritemratingtimestamptuples relncollfilt... |
19,007 | relational learning )self rating_set rating_set self ratings rating_subset or rating_set training_ratings whichever is not empty if test_subset is noneself test_ratings self rating_set test_ratings elseself test_ratings test_subset self step_size step_size self reglz reglz self num_properties num_properties self num_ra... |
19,008 | self item_bias get(item, #self item_bias[itemsum([self user_prop get(user,self zeros)[ ]*self item_prop get(item,self zeros)for in range(self num_properties)]) def learn(selfnum_iter )""do num_iter iterations of gradient descent ""for in range(num_iter)self iter + abs_error= sumsq_error= for (user,item,rating,timestamp... |
19,009 | relational learning error self prediction(user,itemrating abs_error +abs(errorsumsq_error +error error return abs_error/len(ratings)sumsq_error/len(ratingsalternative formulation an alternative formulation is to regularize after each update plotting relncollfilt py -(continued def plot_predictions(selfexamples="test")"... |
19,010 | if plot_all is true num_points is the number of points selected at random plotted the plot has the users on the -axis sorted by their value on property and with the items on the -axis sorted by their value on property and the ratings plotted at the corresponding - position ""plt ion(plt xlabel("users"plt ylabel("items"... |
19,011 | relational learning lines (line decode('utf- 'for line in urllib request urlopen(url)all_ratings (tuple(int(efor in line strip(split('\ ')for line in linesself training_ratings [self training_stats { : : : : , : self test_ratings [self test_stats { : : : : , : for rate in all_ratingsif rate[ date_splitrate[ is timestam... |
19,012 | item_counts { : for in itemsfor (user,item,rating,timestampin self training_ratingsitem_counts[item+ items_sorted sorted((item_counts[ ],ifor in itemstop_items items_sorted[-num_items:set_top_items set(item for (countitemin top_items users {user for (user,item,rating,timestampin self training_ratingsuser_counts { : for... |
19,013 | version history version updated the csp code to have the same representation of variables as used by the probability code version major revisions to and introduced recursive conditioningsimplified much code new section on multiagent reinforcement learning version simplified value iteration for mdps version planning sim... |
19,014 | chent and guestrinc ( )xgboosta scalable tree boosting system in kdd ' proceedings of the nd acm sigkdd international conference on knowledge discovery and data miningpages - url cholletf ( )deeep learning with python manning duad and graffc ( )uci machine learning repository url archive ics uci edu/ml glorotx and beng... |
19,015 | bnfromdbn beliefnetwork boosted dataset boosting learner branch and bound cf learner cpdrename csp csp from strips clause con solver constraint dbn dbnvefilter dbnvariable df branch and bound dt learner data from file data from files data set data set augmented decisionnetwork decisionvariable displayable dropout layer... |
19,016 | |
19,017 | some of the key aspects of this book are it assumes knowledge of python and of concepts such as functionsclassesprotocolsabstract base classesdecoratorsiterablescollection types (such as list and tupleetc howeverthe book assumes very little knowledge or experience of the topics presented the book is divided into eight ... |
19,018 | preface what you need you can of course just read this bookhowever following the examples in this book will ensure that you get as much as possible out of the content for this you will need computer python is cross platform programming language and as such you can use python on windows pca linux box or an apple mac etc... |
19,019 | ix howeverusing ide (integrated development environmenteditor such as pycharm can make writing and running your programs much easier howeverthis book doesn' assume any particular editoride or environment (other than python itselfpython versions currently there are two main versions of python called python and python py... |
19,020 | preface tutorialslibrary referencesset up and installation guides as well as python how-tos the python language--this is where you can find online documentation for the various class and functions that we will be using throughout this book manymany python modules with short examples and explanations of what the modules... |
19,021 | xi note that keywords are shown in bold font in some cases something of particular interest may be highlighted with colourany command line or user input is shown in italics and coloured purplefor exampleor example code and sample solutions the examples used in this book (along with sample solutions for the exercises at... |
19,022 | preface if you do not have git then you can obtain zip file of the examples using you can of course install git yourself if you wish to do this see com/downloads versions of the git client for mac oswindows and linux/unix are available here howevermany ides such as pycharm come with git support and so offer another app... |
19,023 | introduction introduction part computer graphics introduction to computer graphics introduction background the graphical computer era interactive and non interactive graphics pixels bit map versus vector graphics buffering python and computer graphics references online resources python turtle graphics introduction the ... |
19,024 | contents computer generated art creating computer art computer art generator fractals in python the koch snowflake mandelbrot set online resources exercises introduction to matplotlib introduction matplotlib plot components matplotlib architecture backend layer the artist layer the scripting layer online resources grap... |
19,025 | xv windowing frameworks for python platform-independent gui libraries platform-specific gui libraries online resources the wxpython gui library the wxpython library wxpython modules windows as objects simple example the wx app class window classes widget/control classes dialogs arranging widgets within container drawin... |
19,026 | contents part ii changing the application mode adding graphic object the classes the pydrawconstants class the pydrawframe class the pydrawmenubar class the pydrawtoolbar class the pydrawcontroller class the drawingmodel class the drawingpanel class the drawingcontroller class the figure class the square class the circ... |
19,027 | xvii starshipmeteors pygame creating spaceship game the main game class the gameobject class displaying the starship moving the spaceship adding meteor class moving the meteors identifying collision identifying win increasing the number of meteors pausing the game displaying the game over message the starshipmeteors ga... |
19,028 | contents working with pytest parameterised tests online resources exercises mocking for testing introduction why mock what is mocking common mocking framework concepts mocking frameworks for python the unittest mock library mock and magic mock classes the patchers mocking returned objects validating mocks have been cal... |
19,029 | xix reading and writing files introduction obtaining references to files reading files file contents iteration writing data to files using files and with statements the fileinput module renaming files deleting files random access files directories temporary files working with paths online resources exercise stream io i... |
19,030 | contents the openpyxl workbook class the openpyxl worksheet objects working with cells sample excel file creation application loading workbook from an excel file online resources exercises regular expressions in python introduction what are regular expressions regular expression patterns pattern metacharacters special ... |
19,031 | xxi python db-api accessing database from python the db-api the connect function the connection object the cursor object mappings from database types to python types generating errors row descriptions transactions in pymysql online resources pymysql module the pymysql module working with the pymysql module importing th... |
19,032 | contents controlling the amount of information logged logger methods default logger module level loggers logger hierarchy formatters formatting log messages formatting log output online resources exercises advanced logging introduction handlers setting the root output handler programmatically setting the handler multip... |
19,033 | xxiii the threading module functions passing arguments to thread extending the thread class daemon threads naming threads thread local data timers the global interpreter lock online resources exercise multiprocessing introduction the process class working with the process class alternative ways to start process using p... |
19,034 | contents processing future results using callback online resources exercises concurrency with asyncio introduction asynchronous io async io event loop the async and await keywords using async and await async io tasks running multiple tasks collating results from multiple tasks handling task results as they are made ava... |
19,035 | xxv observer concurrency available schedulers online resources exercises rxpy operators introduction reactive programming operators piping operators creational operators transformational operators combinatorial operators filtering operators mathematical operators chaining operators online resources exercises part ix ne... |
19,036 | contents web services in python introduction restful services restful api python web frameworks flask hello world in flask using json implementing flask web service simple service providing routing information running the service invoking the service the final solution online resources bookshop web service building fla... |
19,037 | introduction introduction have heard many people over the years say that python is an easy language to lean and that python is also simple language to some extent both of these statements are truebut only to some extent while the core of the python language is easy to lean and relatively simple (in part thanks to its c... |
19,038 | introduction one implementation of this standardthe pymysql module used to access mysql database logging an often missed topic is that of logging the book therefore introduces logging the need for loggingwhat to log and what not to log as well as the python logging module concurrency and parallelism the book provides e... |
19,039 | computer graphics |
19,040 | introduction to computer graphics introduction computer graphics are everywherethey are on your tvin cinema advertsthe core of many filmson your tablet or mobile phone and certainly on your pc or mac as well as on the dashboard of your caron your smart watch and in childrens electronic toys however what do we mean by t... |
19,041 | introduction to computer graphics become engaging and immersive with computer graphics which is in marked contrast to the textual versions of the this highlights the advantages of visual presentation compared to purely textual one background every interactive software system has human computer interfacewhether it be si... |
19,042 | operation or of larger entity such as an application program or filein generalwimp based systems are simple to learnintuitive to useeasy to retain and straightforward to work with these wimp systems are exemplified by the apple macintosh interface (see goldberg and robson as well as tesler)which was influenced by the p... |
19,043 | introduction to computer graphics pixels key concept for all computer graphics systems is the pixel pixel was originally word formed from combining and shortening the words picture (or pixand element pixel is cell on the computer screen each cell represents dot on the screen the size of this dot or cell and the number ... |
19,044 | each pixel can have colour and transparency associated with it the range of colours available depends on the display system being used for examplemono chrome displays only allow black and whitewhere as grey scale display only allows various shades of grey to be displayed on modern systems it is usually possible to repr... |
19,045 | introduction to computer graphics bit map versus vector graphics there are two ways of generating an image/display across the pixels on the screen one approach is known as bit mapped (or rastergraphics and the other is known as vector graphics in the bit mapped approach each pixel is mapped to the values to be displaye... |
19,046 | references the following are referenced in this sutherlandsketchpada man-machine graphical communication system (courtesy computer laboratoryuniversity of cambridge ucam-cl-tr- september )january smithc irbyr kimballb verplanke harslemdesigning the star user interface byte ( ) - ( online resources the following provide... |
19,047 | python turtle graphics introduction python is very well supported in terms of graphics libraries one of the most widely used graphics libraries is the turtle graphics library introduced in this this is partly because it is straight forward to use and partly because it is provided by default with the python environment ... |
19,048 | python turtle graphics degreesetc this idea has continued into the current python turtle graphics library where commands such as turtle forward( moves the turtle (or cursor as it is nowforward pixels etc by combining together these apparently simple commandsit is possible to create intricate and quiet complex shapes ba... |
19,049 | speed(speedthe drawing speed to usethe default is the higher the value the faster the drawing takes placevalues in the range - are accepted turtle tracer( nonethis can be used to batch updates to the turtle graphics screen it is very useful when drawing become large and complex by setting the number (nto large number (... |
19,050 | python turtle graphics already seen that you can control one of these properties using the pencolor(methodother methods are used to control the cursor (or turtleand are presented below the direction in which the cursor is pointing can be altered using several functions includingright(angleturn cursor right by angle uni... |
19,051 | you can now use some of the above methods to draw shape on the screen for this first examplewe will keep it very simplewe will draw simple squaredraw square turtle forward( turtle right( turtle forward( turtle right( turtle forward( turtle right( turtle forward( turtle right( the above moves the cursor forward pixels t... |
19,052 | python turtle graphics import turtle def setup()""provide the config for the screen ""turtle title('multiple squares animation'turtle setup( turtle hideturtle(def draw_square(size)""draw square in the current direction ""turtle forward(sizeturtle right( turtle forward(sizeturtle right( turtle forward(sizeturtle right( ... |
19,053 | filling shapes it is also possible to fill in the area within drawn shape for exampleyou might wish to fill in one of the squares we have drawn as shown belowto do this we can use the begin_fill(and end_fill(functionsbegin_fill(indicates that shapes should be filled with the current fill colourthis function should be c... |
19,054 | python turtle graphics pyqtgraph the pyqtgraph library is pure python library oriented towards mathematicsscientific and engineering graphic applications as well as gui applications for more information see pillow pillow is python imaging library (based on pil the python imaging librarythat provides image processing ca... |
19,055 | online resources the following provide further reading materialintended for teaching the basic concepts behind programming using the turtle graphics library exercises the aim of this exercise is to create graphic display using python turtle graphics you should create simple program to draw an octagon on the turtle grap... |
19,056 | computer generated art creating computer art computer art is defined as any art that uses computer howeverin the context of this book we mean it to be art that is generated by computer or more specifically computer program the following exampleillustrates how in very few lines of python codeusing the turtle graphics li... |
19,057 | computer generated art the program used to generate this picture is given below for referenceimport turtle width height def setup_window()set up the window turtle title('circles in my mind'turtle setup(widthheight turtle colormode( indicates rgb numbers will be in the range to turtle hideturtle(batch drawing to the scr... |
19,058 | elsered green calculate the radius for the smaller circles new_radius int(radius drawn four circles draw_circle(int( new_radius)ynew_radiusredgreenbluewidthdraw_circle( new_radiusynew_radiusredgreenbluewidthdraw_circle(xint( new_radius)new_radiusredgreenbluewidthdraw_circle(xint( new_radius)new_radiusredgreenbluewidthd... |
19,059 | computer generated art angle to use when changing the direction in which the line is drawn as the drawing happens within loop even this simple change to the angle used to draw the lines can generate very different pictures lets play with some colours import turtle from random import randint def get_input_angle()""obtai... |
19,060 | some sample images generated from this program are given below the left most picture is generated by inputting an angle of degreesthe picture on the right uses an angle of degrees and the bottom picture an angle of degrees the following pictures below use angles of and degrees respectively what is interesting about the... |
19,061 | computer generated art fractals in python within the arena of computer art fractals are very well known art form factrals are recurring patterns that are calculated either using an iterative approach (such as for loopor recursive approach (when function calls itself but with modified parametersone of the really interes... |
19,062 | the following program can be used to generate koch snowflake with different levels of recursion the larger the number of levels of recursion the more times each line segment is dissected import turtle set up constants angles [ - size_of_snowflake def get_input_depth()""obtain input from user and convert to an int""mess... |
19,063 | computer generated art def draw_koch(sizedepth)if depth for angle in anglesdraw_koch(size depth turtle left(angleelseturtle forward(sizedepth get_input_depth(setup_screen('koch snowflake (depth str(depth')'background='black'screen_size_x= screen_size_y= set foreground colours turtle color('sky blue'ensure snowflake is ... |
19,064 | running the simple draw_koch(function with different depths makes it easy to see the way in which each side of triangle can be dissected into further triangle like shape this can be repeated to multiple depths giving more detailed structured in which the same shape is repeated again and again mandelbrot set probably on... |
19,065 | computer generated art after the predetermined number of iterations (this is necessary to clearly distinguish the mandelbrot set image from the image of its complementthe following image was generated for the mandelbrot set using python and turtle graphics the program used to generate this image is given belowfor in ra... |
19,066 | online resources the following provide further reading materialsnowflake exercises the aim of this exercise is to create fractal tree fractal tree is tree in which the overall structure is replicated at finer and finer levels through the tree until set of leaf elements are reached to draw the fractal tree you will need... |
19,067 | introduction to matplotlib introduction matplotlib is python graphing and plotting library that can generate variety of different types of graph or chart in variety of different formats it can be used to generate line chartsscatter graphsheat mapsbar chartspie charts and plots it can even support animations and interac... |
19,068 | introduction to matplotlib matplotlib can be used on its own or in conjunction with other libraries to provide wide variety of facilities one library that is often used in conjunction with matplotlib is numpy which is library often used in data science applications that provides variety of functions and data structures... |
19,069 | in this examplethe plot(function takes sequence of values which will be treated as the axis valuesthe axis values are implied by the position of the values within the list thus as the list has six elements in it the axis has the range - in turn as the maximum value contained in the list is then the axis ranges from to ... |
19,070 | introduction to matplotlib value there can be major ticks which are larger and may be labeled there are also minor ticks which can be smaller (and may also be labelledtick labels (major and minorthis is label on tick axis the maplotlib axis axis class defines an axis object (such as an or axiswithin parent axes instanc... |
19,071 | backend layer the matplotlib backend layer handles the generation of output to different target formats matplotlib itself can be used in many different ways to generate many different outputs matplotlib can be used interactivelyit can be embedded in an application (or graphical user interface)it may be used as part of ... |
19,072 | introduction to matplotlib the backend layer can be divided into two categoriesuser interface backends (interactivethat support various python windowing systems such as wxwidgets (discussed in the next qttk etc hardcopy backends (non interactivethat support raster and vector graphic outputs the user interface and hardc... |
19,073 | the scripting layer the scripting layer is the developer facing interface that simplifies the task of working with the other layers note that from the programmers point of viewthe scripting layer is represented by the pyplot module under the covers pyplot uses module-level objects to track the state of the datahandle d... |
19,074 | introduction to matplotlib online resources see the online documentation forexamples with complete listingsdocumentationgalleries and detailed user guide and faq |
19,075 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot introduction in this we will explore the matplotlib pyplot api this is the most common way in which developers generate different types of graphs or plots using matplotlib the pyplot api the purpose of the pyplot module and the api it presents is to simplify the generation and manipulati... |
19,076 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot the plyplot api can be used to construct the plotconfigure labels and axismanage color and line styleshandles events/allows plots to be interactivedisplay (showthe plot we will see examples of using the pyplot api in the following sections line graphs line graph or line plot is graph wit... |
19,077 | the program used to generate this chart is given belowimport matplotlib pyplot as pyplot set up the data [ [ set the axes headings pyplot ylabel('speed'fontsize= pyplot xlabel('time'fontsize= set the title pyplot title("speed time"plot and display the graph using blue circles for markers ('bo'and solid line ('-'pyplot ... |
19,078 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot finally the program then uses the show(function to render the figure on the screenalternatively savefig(could have been used to save the figure to file coded format strings there are numerous options that can be provided via the format stringthe following tables summarises some of theset... |
19,079 | finallythe format string supports different line stylescharacter description '-'-'':solid line style dashed line style dash-dot line style dotted line style some examples of formatting strings'rred line with default markers and line style ' -green solid line '-dashed line with the default colour and default markers 'yo... |
19,080 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot in this graph each dot represents the amount of time people of different ages spend on three different activities the program that was used to generate the above graph is shown belowimport matplotlib pyplot as pyplot create data riding (( )( )swimming (( )( )sailing (( )( )plot the data ... |
19,081 | linewidths which is used to indicate the line width of the marker edges edgecolors indicates the color to use for the marker edges if different from the fill colour used for the marker (indicates by the parameter ' 'when to use scatter graphs useful question to consider is when should scatter plot be usedin general sca... |
19,082 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot the polyfit(function performs least squares polynomial fit for the data it is given poly class is then created based on the array returned by polyfit(this class is one-dimensional polynomial class it is convenience classused to encapsulate "naturaloperations on polynomials the poly objec... |
19,083 | the following chart illustrates pie chart used to represent programming language usage within particular organisation the pie chart is created using the pyplot pie(function import matplotlib pyplot as pyplot labels ('python''java''scala'' #'sizes [ pyplot pie(sizeslabels=labelsautopct='% %%'counterclock=falsestartangle... |
19,084 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot the labels parameter is an optional parameter that can take sequence of strings that are used to provide labels for each wedge the autopct parameter takes string (or functionto be used to format the numeric values used with each wedge the counterclockwise parameter by default wedges are ... |
19,085 | the program that generated this modified chart is given below for referenceimport matplotlib pyplot as pyplot labels ('python''java''scala'' #'sizes [ only "explodethe st slice ( 'python'explode ( pyplot pie(sizesexplode=explodelabels=labelsautopct='% %%'shadow=truecounterclock=falsestartangle= pyplot show(when to use ... |
19,086 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot bar charts bar chart is type of chart or graph that is used to present different discrete categories of data the data is usually presented vertically although in some cases horizontal bar charts may be used each category is represented by bar whose height (or lengthrepresents the data fo... |
19,087 | import matplotlib pyplot as pyplot set up the data labels ('python''scala'' #''java''php'index ( provides locations on axis sizes [ set up the bar chart pyplot bar(indexsizestick_label=labelsconfigure the layout pyplot ylabel('usage'pyplot xlabel('programming languages'display the chart pyplot show(the chart is constru... |
19,088 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot in this case the only line of code to change from the previous example ispyplot barh(x_valuessizestick_label labelscoloured bars it is also common to colour different bars in the chart in different colours or using different shades this can help to distinguish one bar from another an exa... |
19,089 | the colour to be used for each category can be provided via the color parameter to the bar((and barh()function this is sequence of the colours to apply for examplethe above coloured bar chart can be generated usingpyplot bar(x_valuessizestick_label=labelscolor=('red''green''blue''yellow''orange')stacked bar charts bar ... |
19,090 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot import matplotlib pyplot as pyplot set up the data labels ('python''scala'' #''java''php'index ( web_usage [ data_science_usage [ games_usage [ set up the bar chart pyplot bar(indexweb_usagetick_label=labelslabel='web'pyplot bar(indexdata_science_usagetick_label=labelslabel='data science... |
19,091 | series of lab exercises are displayed thus each team has bar for lab lab lab etc space is left between each category to make it easier to compare the sub categories the following program generates the grouped bar chart for the lab exercises exampleimport matplotlib pyplot as pyplot bar_width set up grouped bar charts t... |
19,092 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot this program generates the following grouped bar chart figures and subplots matplotlib figure is the object that contains all the graphical elements displayed on plot that is the axesthe legendthe title as well as the line plot or bar chart itself it thus represents the overall window or... |
19,093 | thus (and all indicate that the subplot will take the st index within two by two grid of plots in turn ( indicates that the sub plot will be at index which will be row and column within the by grid of plots where as (or indicates that the plot should be added as at index or the fourth subplot within the grid (so positi... |
19,094 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot this figure is generated by the following programimport matplotlib pyplot as pyplot range( range( - set up the grid of subplots to be by grid_size=' initialize figure figure pyplot figure(add first subplot position grid_size ' print('adding first subplot to position'positionaxis figure a... |
19,095 | the console output from this program is given belowadding first subplot to position adding second subplot to position adding third subplot to position adding fourth subplot to position graphs three dimensional graph is used to plot the relationships between three sets of values (instead of the two used in the examples ... |
19,096 | graphing with matplotlib pyplot obtain the figure object figure pyplot figure(get the axes object for the graph axes figure gca(projection=' 'plot the surface surf axes plot_surface(x_valuesy_valuesz_valuescmap=colourmap coolwarmadd color bar which maps values to colors figure colorbar(surfadd labels to the graph pyplo... |
19,097 | one point to note about three dimensional graphs is that they are not universally accepted as being good way to present data one of the maxims of data visualisation is keep it simple/keep it clean many consider that three dimensional chart does not do this and that it can be difficult to see what is really being shown ... |
19,098 | graphical user interfaces introduction graphical user interface can capture the essence of an idea or situationoften avoiding the need for long passage of text such interfaces can save user from the need to learn complex commands they are less likely to intimidate computer users and can provide large amount of informat... |
19,099 | graphical user interfaces guis and wimps guis (graphical user interfacesand wimp (windowsiconsmice and pop-up menusstyle interfaces have been available within computer systems for many years but they are still one of the most significant developments to have occurred these interfaces were originally developed out of de... |
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