_V$ denotes an average of the field intensities taken inside the film over a given volume enclosing a volume fraction $f$ of molecules. Since our molecular film is homogeneous (and composed of only one type of optically active molecules) we fix $f = 1$. Assuming $\\langle |E_0|^2 \\rangle_V \\langle E_0^2 \\rangle_V \\sim I_\\delta^2$ ($\\delta = \\text{ESC, non ESC}$), the enhancement factor of $\\chi^{(3)}$ is directly related to the enhancement factor for the electric field intensity with $\\eta_{\\chi^3} = \\eta_I^2$. This assumption is reasonable because the complex dielectric constant is dominated by its real part, especially for wavelengths near to the wavelengths of the polaritonic states. The field intensity enhancement factor can be directly evaluated from the simulations shown in Fig. 6 \\cite{36}. For our experimental conditions, the comparison between the results of Fig. 6a, b gives a maximal intensity enhancement $\\eta_I$ distribution along $z$ axis at the lower polariton wavelength. Consider the electric field intensity at 636 nm, the beam size at focal point is much larger than the thickness of the film, thereby the transverse electric field can be regarded as unchanged throughout the pumped unit volume. For the longitudinal electric field intensity, the $I_{\\text{ESC}}$ near the middle of the film is $\\sim 6$, which is much larger than the values of 1 at the two edges, i.e., $\\eta_I$ at the central part of the molecular volume dominates the enhancement of nonlinear susceptibility. Therefore, when taking into account the $I_{\\text{nonESC}}$ value at 636 nm (1.5), $\\eta_I$ is calculated to be $\\sim 4$ at the lower polaritonic wavelength and hence the corresponding $\\eta_{\\chi^3}$ is $\\sim 16$. Furthermore, from the optical Kerr effect by a single beam, intensity-dependent complex nonlinear refractive index $\\tilde{n}_2$ can be described by \\cite{1, 37}\n\n$$\\tilde{n}_2 = \\frac{3}{4n_0 n'_0 \\varepsilon_0 c} \\chi^{(3)}$$ \\hspace{1cm} (2)\n\nwhere $\\tilde{n}_2 = n_2 + i n''_2 = n_2 + i \\frac{c}{2\\omega} \\beta$, here $n_0$ and $n'_0$ are the complex and the real part of the linear refractive index, respectively. $n''_2$ is the imaginary part of the nonlinear refractive index, $\\varepsilon_0$ and $c$ are the permittivity and the light velocity in vacuum. This indicates that $\\tilde{n}_2$ can be enhanced with the same magnitude as $\\chi^{(3)}$ when the electric field intensity is boosted under strong coupling condition. Accordingly, as evaluated above, the enhancement factors of $n_2$ and $\\beta$ are 16 at the lower polaritonic wavelength. In addition, the enhancement of the electric field intensity at the wavelength of lower polariton is obviously larger than that at the upper polaritonic wavelength, which is consistent with the enhancement spectra of both $n_2$ and $\\beta$ in Fig. 2c, d, a trend that confirms that $\\eta_I$ contributes to the\n\n**Fig. 5 Ultrafast response of the coupled system.** Normalized ultrafast transmittance of the ESC system under a 640 nm optical illumination. The gray area shows the pulse intensity profile (in arbitrary unit).\n\n**Fig. 6 Electric field intensity of the samples.** a,b Electric field intensity spectra of molecules outside (a) and inside (b) the FP cavities along $z$ axis.\n\nenhancement of nonlinear coefficients. But remarkably, these 16-times enhancement values remain smaller than the two-orders-of-magnitude enhancement on nonlinear coefficients measured experimentally (Fig. 2c, d). This difference points toward other causes for the observed optical nonlinear enhancement under strong coupling.\n\nAs already stressed above, the data gathered in Fig. 2c, d reveal the signatures of clear resonance enhancements when the frequencies are close to the upper (UP) and lower (LP) polaritonic state energies. In addition, the results in Figs. 3 and 4 exclude (i) that exciton and cavity effects provide the main contribution to such resonance enhancements, and (ii) that weak-coupling conditions could be sufficient in reaching such nonlinear enhancements values. Taken together, these data clearly show that the polaritonic states are responsible for these enhancements. From this, it is then possible to follow a simple nonlinear Lorentzian model for the nonlinear third-order susceptibility involving the two polaritonic states and an excitonic state in the strongly coupled system. This model allows us to write\\(^{38}\\)\n\n\\[\n\\chi_{\\text{ESC}}^{(3)}(\\omega) = \\sum_{k=\\text{UP,LP,ex}} \\left( \\frac{\\omega_k^2}{\\omega_k^2 - \\omega^2 - i\\gamma_k \\omega} \\right) \\tilde{\\chi}_k^{(3)}\n\\]\n\nwhere \\( \\omega_k \\) and \\( \\gamma_k \\) correspond to the frequency and linewidth of upper polariton (\\( k = \\text{UP} \\)), lower polariton (\\( k = \\text{LP} \\)) and exciton (\\( k = \\text{ex} \\)), respectively. \\( \\omega \\) is the frequency of the pump beam and \\( \\tilde{\\chi}_k^{(3)} \\) is the static third-order susceptibilities associated with each excited states involved. Before analyze the dispersive \\( \\chi_{\\text{ESC}}^{(3)} \\) of the strongly coupled system, we should first estimate the value of \\( \\tilde{\\chi}_{\\text{ex}}^{(3)} \\) of the excitonic state from the uncoupled system. For the uncoupled system, only the excitonic resonance contributes to the dispersive nonlinear susceptibility. Since the experimental values of the real and imaginary parts of the third-order nonlinear susceptibility can be estimated from the Z-scan results above based on Eq. (2), \\( \\tilde{\\chi}_{\\text{ex}}^{(3)} \\) is obtained to be \\( (-0.528 - 2.091i) \\times 10^{-17} \\text{m}^2/\\text{V}^2 \\) by best fitting \\( \\chi_{\\text{NonESC}}^{(3)} \\) as presented in Fig. 7a, b. Then, using the measured values of \\( \\omega_{\\text{UP}} \\) (2.25 eV), \\( \\gamma_{\\text{UP}} \\) (0.201 eV), \\( \\omega_{\\text{LP}} \\) (1.95 eV) and \\( \\gamma_{\\text{LP}} \\) (0.141 eV) from the linear absorption spectrum of the coupled system (Fig. 1d), and fitting the best \\( \\chi_k^{(3)} \\) values with \\( \\tilde{\\chi}_{\\text{UP}}^{(3)} = (0.747 - 0.842i) \\times 10^{-17} \\text{m}^2/\\text{V}^2 \\) and \\( \\tilde{\\chi}_{\\text{LP}}^{(3)} = -(2.562 + 3.615i) \\times 10^{-17} \\text{m}^2/\\text{V}^2 \\), the dispersive nonlinear susceptibility of the coupled system can be well fitted, as illustrated in Fig. 7c, d. Furthermore, comparing the calculated dispersive nonlinear susceptibility of the strongly coupled and uncoupled systems, the enhancement of \\( |\\chi^{(3)}| \\) directly yields the spectral dispersive features observed in enhancement of the nonlinear coefficients, as presented with black solid curves in Fig. 2c, d. This indicates that the polariton-induced dispersive \\( \\chi_{\\text{ESC}}^{(3)} \\) also\n\n**Fig. 7 Experimental and fitted nonlinear susceptibilities of the coupled and uncoupled systems.** Experimental and fitted (black curves) absolute values of the third-order susceptibility of the uncoupled (**a**, **b**) and strongly coupled (**c**, **d**) systems. The blue circles in (**a**, **c**) and red circles in (**b**, **d**) represent the imaginary and real parts of the nonlinear susceptibility. The black curves are obtained with the nonlinear Lorentz model given by Eq. (3), and the error bars of each point are calculated from at least three sets of repeated data.\n\ncontributes to the enhancement of the nonlinear optical coefficients. The details of the model can be found in Supplementary Note 6. A microscopic description of the underlying mechanisms is beyond the scope of this work. But we can speculate that, beside the resonance enhancement effect of the dispersive nature of the polaritonic states, the rather high values for the static third-order susceptibilities could be related to the large transition moments associated with the delocalized nature of the polaritonic states, in a similar way as in our previous work on polaritonic states-driven enhanced second-harmonic generation\\textsuperscript{21}.\n\n**Discussion**\n\nSince both the large electric field intensity inside the cavity at the polaritonic wavelengths and the energy dispersion of $\\chi_{ESC}^{(3)}$ at the upper and lower polaritons contribute to the significant increase in the optical nonlinear coefficients, the enhancement factor of $n_2$ and $\\beta$ can be improved if $(\\eta_I)_{UP,LP}$ and $(\\chi_{ESC}^{(3)})_{UP,LP}$ are further increased. From the calculations, the $(\\eta_I)_{UP,LP}$ and $(\\chi_{ESC}^{(3)})_{UP,LP}$ are very sensitive to the quality factor (QF) of the cavity, i.e., strongly increasing with QF. Considering the fact that the QF of the FP cavity is only 12 at 590 nm resonance in our experiments, there is much room to further enhance $(\\eta_I)_{UP,LP}$ and $(\\chi_{ESC}^{(3)})_{UP,LP}$. For instance, distributed Bragg reflectors\\textsuperscript{39,40}, which are usually used in polariton condensation studies, and various nanostructures\\textsuperscript{30} provide possible candidates for high QF cavities. The study of the third-order optical nonlinearity enhancement by exciton-polaritons in this work opens the gates to explore the effect of strong coupling on a series of third-order optical nonlinear phenomena, such as wave mixing, optical modulation and stimulated Raman scattering. In addition, the femtosecond intrinsic response time of the coupled system makes it possible to realize ultrafast optical switching for future applications.\n\nIn summary, we have performed Z-scan measurements on J-aggregate cyanine molecules inside a FP cavity in the ESC regime, and measured an enhancement by two orders of magnitude on both the nonlinear refractive index $n_2$ and nonlinear absorption coefficient $\\beta$ at the lower polaritonic state compared with measurements done outside the cavity. These large nonlinear enhancements are ascribed to both the increase of the electric field intensity inside the cavity and the polaritonic dispersion of the third-order susceptibility. In addition, we also demonstrated an ultrafast response of ~120 fs of the coupled system using cross-correlation measurements. Such ultrafast, large optical nonlinearities in the strongly coupled system presented here offer an efficient way to realize high speed active photonic and optoelectronic devices.\n\n**Methods**\n\n**Sample preparation.** Three groups of samples were prepared for our experiments. The first group on strong-coupling measurements includes two samples. The first sample with molecules enclosed in an optical cavity (ESC sample) that can be strongly coupled to the cavity mode, and the second one without cavity (non-ESC sample), hence only uncoupled molecules exist. For the ESC sample, a 30 nm silver film was sputtered on the quartz window, and an ~146 nm polymer layer (PVA), doped with J-aggregate cyanine molecules TDBC [5,6-Dichloro-2-[5,6-dichloro-1-ethyl-3-(4-sulfobutyl)-benzimidazol-2-ylidene]-propenyl]-1-ethyl-3-(4-sulphobutyl)-benzimidazolium hydroxide, inner salt, sodium salt, Few Chemicals), was spin coated on top of the silver film. Then, another 30 nm silver film was sputtered on top of the polymer to form a FP cavity. The thickness of the polymer film was carefully selected so as to have the cavity resonance and the molecular absorption peak overlapping. For the non-ESC sample, the thickness of the bottom silver film and TDBC-PVA layer are the same with those of the ESC sample, but without the addition of the top silver film (no cavity formed). The TDBC-PVA solution was made by mixing equal amount of 0.5 wt% TDBC water solution and 5 wt% PVA water solution (molar weight 205000, Sigma-Aldrich). The second group on WC experiments also includes two samples. The PVA film doped with a lower concentration of TDBC (made by the mixed solution of equal amount of 0.05 wt% TDBC water solution and 5 wt% PVA water solution), was placed inside and outside the FP cavities to form the weakly coupled and the non-cavity samples. The third group of samples related to non-coupled measurements were made by PVA film without TDBC doping: one sample with a PVA film inside the FP cavity, and the other without the cavity. The thickness of the Ag film and polymer film for the second and third groups of samples are identical to those for the samples in the first group, and the substrates for all the samples are 1 mm thick quartz windows.\n\n**Estimation of optical nonlinear coefficients from Z-scan measurements.** The extraction of the nonlinear absorption coefficient $\\beta$ and nonlinear refractive index $n_2$ is only based here on the open- and closed-aperture transmissive Z-scan traces because the normalized changes in the reflective Z-scan are much smaller than that in the transmitted one for most of the cases, as displayed in Supplementary Fig. 4. In the case of the open aperture, the energy variations within the whole beam profile of the transmitted light were measured. Therefore, modifications in the transmittance only relate to the nonlinear absorption of the sample, being strongest at the focus and smallest far from it. A positive (negative) peak in the normalized transmittance near the focus corresponds to a negative (positive) value of $\\beta$, which indicates reverse saturable absorption (saturable absorption). In the closed-aperture case, only the energy near the center of the transmitted beam is detected. Thus, variations in transmission are associated to both the nonlinear absorption and nonlinear-refraction induced self-focusing and defocusing. A valley-peak signal in closed-aperture Z-scan indicates a positive nonlinear refractive index and a peak-valley profile corresponds to a negative value of $n_2$.\n\nAssuming a circular profile to the incident beam, the normalized transmittance in the Z-scan measurements can be expressed by\n\n$$T = \\frac{(1 - \\alpha L)/(1 - \\alpha_0 L)}{}$$\n\nwhere $\\alpha$ and $\\alpha_0$ are the total and linear absorption coefficients, respectively. $L$ is the sample thickness. The linear absorption coefficient $\\alpha_0$ at different wavelengths can be determined via $\\alpha_0 = 4\\pi n_0 \\kappa/\\lambda$ when the linear refractive index ($n_0$) and the extinction coefficient ($\\kappa$) are obtained from the measured absorption spectra.\n\nConsidering that both the saturation absorption and two-photon absorption contribute to the absorption response in Z-scan measurements, we have\\textsuperscript{41,42}\n\n$$\\alpha(I) = \\frac{\\alpha_0}{1 + I_s/I_e} + \\beta I_e$$\n\nwhere $I_e$ and $I_s$ are excitation intensity and saturable intensity, respectively. $I_e$ is related to the optical intensity at the focus $I_p$, the Rayleigh length $z_0$ of the beam and the sample position $z$ by $I_e(z) = I_p/(1 + z^2/z_0^2)$. According to the expressions above, the normalized transmittance for open aperture can be given by\n\n$$T_{OA} = \\left[1 - \\frac{\\alpha_0 I_e L}{I_e + I_p/(1 + z^2/z_0^2)} - \\frac{\\beta I_e L}{1 + z^2/z_0^2}\\right]/(1 - \\alpha_0 L)$$\n\nFor closed-aperture Z-scan\\textsuperscript{25},\n\n$$T_{CA} = \\left(1 - \\frac{4\\Delta \\Phi z/z_0}{(z^2/z_0^2 + 9)(z^2/z_0^2 + 1)}\\right)$$\n\nwhere $\\Delta \\Phi = 2\\pi n_2 I_e L_{\\text{eff}}/\\lambda$, $L_{\\text{eff}}$ is the effective length, which is associated with the linear absorption coefficient $\\alpha_0$ by $L_{\\text{eff}} = \\frac{1-\\kappa^{-n_0 l}}{\\alpha_0}$. 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Express* **22**, 7249–7260 (2014).\n\n**Acknowledgements**\n\nWe acknowledge support of the International Center for Frontier Research in Chemistry (icFRC, Strasbourg), the ANR Equipe Union (ANR-10-EQPX-52-01), the Labex NIE Projects (ANR-11-LABX-0058 NIE), CSC (ANR-10- LABX-0026 CSC), and USIAS (Grant No. ANR- 10-IDEX-0002-02) within the Investissement d’Avenir program ANR-10-IDEX-0002-02, the ERC (project no 788482 MOLUSC), PlasHybrid (ANR-18-CE30-0014-02) and QuantEra project RoutTe. M.S. acknowledges support from the Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions of the European Commission (project 753228, PlanN).\n\n**Author contributions**\n\nK.W. and T.W.E. conceived the idea; K.W. and K.N. prepared the samples; K.W. conducted all the optical measurements and the corresponding data analysis with the help of M.S.; M.S., T.C., C.G. and K.W. performed the numerical simulations; All authors contributed to discussing and commenting the paper. C.G. and T.W.E. supervised the project.\n\n**Competing interests**\n\nThe authors declare no competing interests.\n\n**Additional information**\n\nSupplementary information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21739-7.\n\nCorrespondence and requests for materials should be addressed to C.G. or T.E.\n\nPeer review information *Nature Communications* thanks Eric Van Stryland and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.\n\nReprints and permission information is available at http://www.nature.com/reprints\n\nPublisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.\n\nOpen Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. 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To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.\n\n© The Author(s) 2021"}}},{"rowIdx":204785,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Analysis of Fiber Reinforced Plastic Bolted Flange Joints\n\nby\n\nAli KHAZRAIYANVAFADAR\n\nTHESIS PRESENTED TO ÉCOLE DE TECHNOLOGIE SUPÉRIEURE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY PH.D.\n\nMONTREAL, JULY 22, 2019\n\nÉCOLE DE TECHNOLOGIE SUPÉRIEURE\nUNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC\n\nAli Khazraiyanvafadar, 2019\n\nThis Creative Commons license allows readers to download this work and share it with others as long as the author is credited. The content of this work can’t be modified in any way or used commercially.\n\nBOARD OF EXAMINERS\n\nTHIS THESIS HAS BEEN EVALUATED\n\nBY THE FOLLOWING BOARD OF EXAMINERS\n\nMr. Abdel-Hakim Bouzid, Thesis Supervisor\nDépartement de génie mécanique at École de technologie supérieure\n\nMr. Anh Dung Ngô, Thesis Co-supervisor\nDépartement de génie mécanique at École de technologie supérieure\n\nMrs. Wahid Maref, President of the Board of Examiners\nDépartement de génie de la construction at École de technologie supérieure\n\nMr. Guilbault, Raynald, Member of the jury\nDépartement de génie mécanique at École de technologie supérieure\n\nMr. Pierre Mertiny, External Evaluator\nDépartement de génie mécanique at University of Alberta\n\nTHIS THESIS WAS PRESENTED AND DEFENDED\n\nIN THE PRESENCE OF A BOARD OF EXAMINERS AND PUBLIC\n\nON JUNE 26, 2019\n\nAT ÉCOLE DE TECHNOLOGIE SUPÉRIEURE\n\n“The Moving Finger writes; and, having writ,\nMoves on: nor all thy Piety nor Wit\nShall lure it back to cancel half a Line,\nNor all thy Tears wash out a Word of it.”\n\n........................................................................................................... Omar Khayyam\n\nACKNOWLEDGMENT\n\nAt first and foremost, I owe my gratitude to all those people who have made this dissertation possible and because of whom my graduate experience has been one that I will cherish forever.\n\nMy deepest gratitude is to my advisor Dr. Abdel-Hakim Bouzid and my co-advisor Dr. Anh Dung Ngô. I have been fortunate to have advisors who gave me the freedom to explore on my own and at the same time the guidance to be on the right path. I am grateful for their patience, guidance, inspiration and continuous support throughout my Ph.D. studies.\n\nI would like to express my appreciation to my parents, Maryam and Ahmad for their outstanding support, care, encouragement and guidance throughout my life and specifically during my Ph.D.\n\nWith immense pleasure, I would like to express my gratitude to my wife Golnaz and my brothers Amir and Mo for their help and support.\n\nI also thank my colleagues and friends, in Static and Dynamic Sealing Laboratory for their help and friendship – Mehdi Kazeminia, Amir Hasrak, Ali Oweimer, Rahul Palaniappan, Linbo Zhu, and Mohammad Esouilem.\n\nMy special thanks to all the technicians of the Department of Mechanical Engineering of ÉTS, in particular, Serge Plamondon and Michel Drouin for their collaboration and technical support.\n\nDEDICATION\n\nTo those who devote their lives to the cause of “peace” “equality” and “freedom”\n\nAnalyse de raccords de brides boulons plastiques renforcés de fibres\n\nAli KHAZRAIYAN VAFADAR\n\nRÉSUMÉ\n\nLes composites en plastique renforcé de fibres (FRP) sont largement utilisés dans les domaines des appareils et tuyauterie sous pression. Les assemblages à brides boulonnées en FRP ont connu un développement spectaculaire dans le domaine du transport des fluides dans les systèmes de tuyauterie. Malgré l'utilisation accrue des composites de FRP dans les assemblages à brides boulonnées et la bonne connaissance de ces structures et du comportement de leurs matériaux, la procédure utilisée pour leur conception reste celle adoptée pour les brides métalliques. Cependant, les résultats sont souvent biaisés puisque celle-ci ne prend pas en considération le comportement anisotrope des brides en composites. Par conséquent, il est nécessaire de développer une approche réaliste pour procéder à une évaluation précise de la redistribution des charges dans l'assemblage afin de prédire l'intégrité des brides boulonnés en FRP.\n\nCette thèse présente deux modèles analytiques de brides, un sans collerette et un avec collerette. Ces modèles sont supportés par des modèles numériques par éléments finis et des essais expérimentaux. L'étude traite l'intégrité structurelle et l'étanchéité des assemblages à brides boulonnés en FRP sur la base de l'anisotropie, ainsi qu'une analyse de la flexibilité de tous les éléments de joint, à savoir le joint, les boulons et les brides. Dans les modèles analytiques des brides avec et sans collerette, la bride en composites est subdivisée en trois parties principales, à savoir: l'anneau ou la plaque annulaire, la collerette et la coque cylindrique. L'étude expérimentale, laquelle repose une approche fiable pour évaluer le modèle analytique proposé, a été réalisée sur un banc d'essai (banc d'éclatement de joints HOBT). Le banc d'essai a été modifié pour accommoder les brides NPS 3 en FRP conçu conformément à la section X du code l'ASME. Des modèles numériques 3D avec des éléments à coque anisotrope et des éléments solides ont été réalisés pour comparer et vérifier les résultats obtenus par les approches analytiques et expérimentales.\n\nMalgré l'analyse mathématique rigoureuse et la complexité des brides composite stratifié, la comparaison des résultats a prouvé que les modèles analytiques proposés des brides en FRP avec et sans le moyeu sont efficaces, précis et fiables pour prédire la distribution des contraintes longitudinales et tangentielles dans la bride ainsi que le déplacement radial de la bride. De plus, les résultats ont montré que le modèle FE développé pour les brides en FRP avec et sans moyeu peut reproduire parfaitement le comportement des assemblages à brides boulonnés en FRP.\n\nMots-clef: Plastique renforcé de fibres (FRP), assemblages à brides boulonnées, Composites, Anisotropie, Assemblage avec joint plat\n\nAnalysis of fiber reinforced plastic bolted flange joints\n\nAli KHAZRAIYAN VAFADAR\n\nABSTRACT\n\nFiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) composites are extensively used in the areas of pressure vessels and piping and FRP bolted flange joints have experienced a spectacular development to provide continuity for the flow of fluid through piping systems. In spite of the increased use of FRP composites in bolted flange joints and the good knowledge of these structures and their material behavior the procedure used for their design is still that of metallic flanges. There is a major concern to appropriately address the anisotropic behavior of composite materials in a flange design. Therefore, it is necessary to make a precise evaluation of the bolt and gasket loads in order to be able to predict the integrity of FRP bolted flange joints.\n\nThis thesis presents two analytical model cases; one with the flange hub and the other one without the flange hub. These models are supported by numerical finite element modeling and experimental test data. The study treats FRP bolted flange joints integrity and leak tightness based on the anisotropy and flexibility analysis of all joint elements including the gasket, bolts, and flanges. In the analytical models for the flange with and without the hub, the composite flanges are subdivided into three major categories, namely: ring flange, hub, and shell. The experimental study was carried out on a well-equipped test bench, used for Hot Blow out test of PTFE gaskets. The rig was modified to accommodate an NPS 3 FRP bolted flange joint designed according to ASME BPV Code Section X. Furthermore, three different numerical models based on 3D anisotropic layered shell and solid element models were conducted to compare and verify the results obtained from analytical and experimental approaches.\n\nIn spite of the rigorous mathematical analysis and complexity of the laminate composite flange, comparing the results proved that the proposed analytical models for FRP flanges with and without the hub, are efficient, accurate and reliable in predicting the longitudinal and tangential stress distributions on the flange surface and radial displacement of the flange. Moreover, the results demonstrated that the FE model which is developed for FRP flanges with and without the hub can depict the true behavior of FRP bolted flange joints.\n\nKeywords: Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP), Bolted Flange Joints, Composites, Anisotropy, Full face gasket\n\n# TABLE OF CONTENTS\n\n**INTRODUCTION** ...........................................................................................................1\n\n**CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW** ........................................................................7\n\n1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................7\n\n1.2 Fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) ................................................................................7\n\n 1.2.1 Material Systems (fibers and resins) ..........................................................8\n\n 1.2.2 General Fabrication Techniques ..................................................................10\n\n1.3 Bolted Flanged Joints .............................................................................................12\n\n 1.3.1 Fiber reinforced plastic bolted flange joints ..............................................14\n\n 1.3.2 Design codes and standards for FRP bolted flange joints .......................15\n\n 126.96.36.199 PS 15-69 .................................................................................................15\n\n 188.8.131.52 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section X ............................16\n\n1.4 Analytical studies ...................................................................................................19\n\n 1.4.1 Classical lamination theory ..........................................................................21\n\n1.5 Numerical Finite Element studies .........................................................................24\n\n1.6 Experimental studies ..............................................................................................29\n\n1.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................32\n\n1.8 Research project objectives ..................................................................................34\n\n**CHAPTER 2 ANALYTICAL MODELING OF FRP BOLTED FLANGE JOINT** ........37\n\n2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................37\n\n2.2 Analytical model ....................................................................................................38\n\n2.3 Theoretical analysis for FRP bolted flange joints without the hub .....................40\n\n 2.3.1 Analytical model of the shell (Cylinder theory) .......................................41\n\n 2.3.2 Analytical model of the flange ring (ring theory) .....................................47\n\n2.4 Theoretical analysis of FRP bolted flange joints with the hub .............................58\n\n 2.4.1 Analytical model of the hub ........................................................................58\n\n2.5 Axial compatibility: ...............................................................................................63\n\n2.6 Stress calculation ..................................................................................................69\n\n 2.6.1 Hub laminate: .............................................................................................70\n\n 2.6.2 Shell laminate ...............................................................................................71\n\n**CHAPTER 3 NUMERICAL (FINITE ELEMENT) MODELING** ................................75\n\n3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................75\n\n3.2 Applied loading .....................................................................................................76\n\n 3.2.1 Pretension load on bolts .............................................................................76\n\n 3.2.2 Internal pressure ..........................................................................................79\n\n3.3 Modeling of the gasket ..........................................................................................80\n\n3.4 Boundary conditions ............................................................................................82\n\n3.5 3D solid finite element models ............................................................................83\n\n 3.5.1 Finite element model for the flange with NPS 12 class 150 ....................84\n\n184.108.40.206 Geometry of the flange ................................................................. 85\n220.127.116.11 Lamina properties ........................................................................ 89\n18.104.22.168 Meshing and contacts................................................................. 95\n\n3.5.2 Finite element model for the flange with NPS 3 class 150 ............... 97\n22.214.171.124 Geometry of the flange ................................................................. 97\n126.96.36.199 Mesh of flange and contacts ...................................................... 99\n\n3.5.3 Finite shell element model ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP) .......... 99\n188.8.131.52 Lamina properties ........................................................................ 102\n184.108.40.206 Flange laminates ........................................................................ 102\n220.127.116.11 Geometry of the flange ................................................................. 105\n18.104.22.168 Meshing and contacts.................................................................. 106\n\nCHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP ......................................................... 109\n4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 109\n4.2 Bolted flanged rig .................................................................................. 109\n4.2.1 Bolt load measurement .................................................................... 111\n4.2.2 Displacement and rotation measurements ....................................... 112\n4.2.3 The data acquisition system ............................................................. 113\n4.3 FRP flange set-up .................................................................................. 113\n4.4 Test procedure ....................................................................................... 115\n\nCHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................. 117\n5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 117\n5.2 Results for the NPS 3 FRP flange .......................................................... 117\n5.2.1 Flange stresses ................................................................................ 118\n5.2.2 Radial displacement ....................................................................... 124\n5.2.3 Gasket contact stress ...................................................................... 125\n5.3 Results for the NPS 12 flange without the hub ..................................... 127\n5.3.1 Flange stresses ................................................................................ 127\n5.3.2 Radial displacement ....................................................................... 132\n5.4 Results for the NPS 12 flange with the hub .......................................... 133\n5.4.1 Flange stresses ................................................................................ 133\n5.4.2 Radial displacement ....................................................................... 139\n\nCONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................... 141\n\nRECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................... 145\n\nAPPENDIX A Analytical program for frp bolted flange joint ....................... 147\nAPPENDIX B LabVIEW program ................................................................ 155\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................... 159\n\n| Table | Description | Page |\n|-------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|\n| 1-1 | FRP joint standard, PS 15-69 | 16 |\n| 1-2 | Flange and nozzle dimensions, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section X | 18 |\n| 3-1 | Material properties of the bolts | 77 |\n| 3-2 | Bolt stress and bolt force for the NPS 3 and 12 FRP bolted flange joint | 78 |\n| 3-3 | Inside pressure and wall pressure for NPS 3 and 12 FRP flange | 80 |\n| 3-4 | Geometry of the gasket for the flange with NPS 3 and 12 | 82 |\n| 3-5 | Dimensions of the NPS 12 flange with the hub | 87 |\n| 3-6 | Dimensions of the NPS 12 flange without the hub | 88 |\n| 3-7 | Mechanical, physical and elastic properties of the laminates | 90 |\n| 3-8 | Geometry of the NPS 3 flange (ZCL Composite Co.) | 98 |\n\n| Figure | Description | Page |\n|--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|\n| 1-1 | Contact molding process (Black et al. 1995) | 10 |\n| 1-2 | Filament winding process (Estrada 1997) | 11 |\n| 1-3 | FRP Flanged Joints (Estrada 1997) | 12 |\n| 1-4 | Conventional Metallic Flanged Joints (Estrada 1997) | 13 |\n| 1-5 | Exact model and flange geometry and loading (Estrada, 1997) | 20 |\n| 1-6 | Modeling stub flange (Estrada, 1997) | 21 |\n| 1-7 | Laminate geometry for the tapered laminated shell (Estrada, 1997) | 21 |\n| 1-8 | Loading situation defined in AD-Merkblatt N1 (Kurz et al. 2012) | 22 |\n| 1-9 | Floating type bolted flange connection with GRP flange (Kurz et al. 2012) | 22 |\n| 1-10 | Pipe and ring used in the analytical model (Sun, L. 1995) | 24 |\n| 1-11 | Axisymmetric finite element model (Estrada 1997) | 25 |\n| 1-12 | Three-dimensional finite element model (Estrada 1997) | 25 |\n| 1-13 | Distribution of radial displacement (Estrada 1997) | 26 |\n| 1-14 | Distribution of axial moments (Estrada 1997) | 26 |\n| 1-15 | Results of the FE simulation (elastic equivalent stress) with highly loaded areas (dark) in the loose flange (left) and collar (right) (Kurz and Roos 2012) | 27 |\n| 1-16 | FE model of a bolted flange connection with loose flanges and collars (Kurz and Roos 2012) | 27 |\n| 1-17 | 15-degree section of the flange in the FE model (Sun 1995) | 28 |\n| 1-18 | Flange front face radial stress, Operating (Sun 1995) | 28 |\n| 1-19 | Flange back face tangential stress, Operating (Sun 1995) | 29 |\n\n| Figure | Description | Page |\n|--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|\n| 1-20 | Test rig for experimental investigations on bolted flange connections DN50 (without displacement transducers) (Kurz and Roos 2012) | 30 |\n| 1-21 | The displacements due to the rotation of the loose flange (Kurz and Roos 2012) | 30 |\n| 1-22 | Comparison of nominal stresses from FE simulation, AD-Merkblatt N1 (Kurz and Roos 2012) | 31 |\n| 1-23 | Dimensions of test vessel (Sun 1995) | 32 |\n| 1-24 | Test Set-Up (Sun 1995) | 32 |\n| 1-25 | Crack in the flange face between the bolts and inside the bolt hole (Dynaflow 2011) | 33 |\n| 1-26 | Crack at hub neck of the flange (Dynaflow 2011) | 33 |\n| 2-1 | Cross-section of FRP flange in (a) initial tightening phase, (b) pressurization phase | 39 |\n| 2-2 | Analytical model of the FRP flange without the hub (a) bolt-up (b) pressurization | 41 |\n| 2-3 | Analytical model of the shell (a) bolt-up and (b) pressurization | 42 |\n| 2-4 | Shell element model | 43 |\n| 2-5 | Analytical model of the ring (a) bolt-up and (b) pressurization | 47 |\n| 2-6 | Analytical model for the FRP flange with the hub (a) bolt-up (b) pressurization | 59 |\n| 2-7 | Analytical model of the hub (a) bolt-up and (b) pressurization | 60 |\n| 2-8 | Axial compatibility of the joint a) hand tightening b) initial pre-tightening (Bolt-up), c) pressurization | 64 |\n| 3-1 | Axial bolt load with special coordinate system | 79 |\n| 3-2 | Inside pressure $p_o$ and wall pressure $p_w$ at pressurization phase | 80 |\n| 3-3 | Gasket compression tests | 81 |\n| 3-4 | Boundary condition for the static model | 83 |\n| 3-5 | Symmetry surfaces of static model | 84 |\n\n| Figure | Description | Page |\n|--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|\n| 3-6 | Finite element model for the NPS 12 FRP flange without the hub | 85 |\n| 3-7 | Finite element model for the NPS 12 FRP flange with the hub | 86 |\n| 3-8 | Geometry of the NPS 12 flange with the hub | 87 |\n| 3-9 | Geometry of FRP flange with the hub modeled in Catia | 87 |\n| 3-10 | Geometry of the NPS 12 flange without the hub | 88 |\n| 3-11 | Geometry of FRP flange without the hub modeled in Catia | 88 |\n| 3-12 | General laminate for the shell | 91 |\n| 3-13 | General laminate for the ring of the NPS 12 flange without the hub | 92 |\n| 3-14 | General laminate for the hub | 93 |\n| 3-15 | General laminate for the ring of the NPS 12 flange with the hub | 94 |\n| 3-16 | FE mesh model for NPS 12 flange | 95 |\n| 3-17 | Finite element model of the isotropic NPS 3 FRP flange | 96 |\n| 3-18 | Geometry of the NPS 3 flange with the hub | 98 |\n| 3-19 | Geometry of the NPS 3 FRP bolted flange joint in (a) ANSYS and (b) Catia | 99 |\n| 3-20 | FE Mesh model for the NPS 3 FRP bolted flanged joint | 100 |\n| 3-21 | Structure of the numerical model in ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP) | 101 |\n| 3-22 | Finite element model for NPS 3 FRP bolted flange joint in ANSYS ACP | 101 |\n| 3-23 | General laminate for the shell | 103 |\n| 3-24 | General laminate for the ring | 103 |\n| 3-25 | General laminate for the hub | 104 |\n| 3-26 | FRP flange laminate in ANSYS ACP | 104 |\n| 3-27 | Geometry of the flange in ANSYS ACP | 105 |\n| 3-28 | Geometry of the flange in ANSYS geometry | 105 |\n\n| Figure | Description | Page |\n|--------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|\n| 3-29 | Geometry of the bolts and gasket | 106 |\n| 3-30 | FE mesh model for the flange | 106 |\n| 3-31 | FE model mesh for bolts and gasket | 107 |\n| 3-32 | Final FE mesh model for the FRP bolted flange joint | 107 |\n| 4-1 | General configuration of HOBT test rig | 110 |\n| 4-2 | Typical cross section of HOBT fixture (Bouzid, 2015) | 111 |\n| 4-3 | HOBT bolt load measurement system and the bolt-rod assembly | 112 |\n| 4-4 | HOBT displacement measurement system | 113 |\n| 4-6 | Strain gauges attached on FRP flange | 114 |\n| 4-7 | 45° strain rosette aligned with the x-y axes | 115 |\n| 4-8 | Torque sequence (SPEARS, 2014) | 116 |\n| 5-1 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up | 118 |\n| 5-2 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up | 119 |\n| 5-3 | Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up | 120 |\n| 5-4 | Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up | 120 |\n| 5-5 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization | 121 |\n| 5-6 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization | 122 |\n| 5-7 | Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization | 122 |\n| 5-8 | Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization | 123 |\n| 5-9 | Radial displacement of the flange during bolt-up | 124 |\n\n| Figure | Description | Page |\n|--------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|\n| 5-10 | Radial displacement of the flange during pressurization | 125 |\n| 5-11 | Distribution of the gasket contact stress as a function of a gasket width | 126 |\n| 5-12 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up| 127 |\n| 5-13 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up| 128 |\n| 5-14 | Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up | 129 |\n| 5-15 | Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up | 129 |\n| 5-16 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization | 130 |\n| 5-17 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization | 131 |\n| 5-18 | Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization | 131 |\n| 5-19 | Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization | 132 |\n| 5-20 | Radial displacement of the flange during bolt-up and pressurization | 133 |\n| 5-21 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up| 135 |\n| 5-22 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up| 135 |\n| 5-23 | Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up | 136 |\n| 5-24 | Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up | 136 |\n| 5-25 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization | 137 |\n\n| Figure 5-26 | Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization | 137 |\n|------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----|\n| Figure 5-27 | Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization | 138 |\n| Figure 5-28 | Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization | 139 |\n| Figure 5-29 | Radial displacement of the flange during bolt-up and pressurization | 140 |\n\n| Abbreviation | Description |\n|--------------|-------------|\n| 1D | One dimensions |\n| 2D | Two dimensions |\n| 3D | Three dimensions |\n| ACP (Pre) | ANSYS Composite PrepPost |\n| ACP (Post) | ANSYS Composite PostProcessor |\n| Al | Aluminium |\n| ANSI | American National Standard Institute |\n| ASME | American Society of Mechanical Engineers |\n| B | Bore |\n| Ca | Calcium |\n| DIN | Deutsches Institut Fuer Normung |\n| EPDM | Ethylene Propylene Diene Terpolymer |\n| f | Flange |\n| Fe | Iron |\n| FEM | Finite Element Model |\n| FRP | Fiber Reinforced Plastic |\n| GRFP | Glass Reinforced Fiber Plastic |\n| HOBT | Hot Blowout Test |\n| LVDT | Linear Variable Differential Transformer |\n| Mg | Magnesium |\n| NPS | Nominal Pipe Size |\n\n| Abbreviation | Description |\n|--------------|------------------------------|\n| O | Oxygen |\n| PVP | Pressure Vessel and Piping |\n| PTFE | Polytetrafluoroethylene |\n| Si | Silicium |\n| Ss | Stainless Steel |\n| UV | Ultra-violet |\n\nLIST OF SYMBOLS AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS\n\nν Poisson ratio\n\nβ_h Hub constant [mm]\n\nβ_s Shell constant [mm]\n\nε Strain [%]\n\nσ_l Longitudinal Stress [MPa]\n\nσ_{h,l,i}^n Longitudinal stress in the inside hub surface [MPa]\n\nσ_{h,l,o}^n Longitudinal stress in the outside hub surface [MPa]\n\nσ_{h,t,i}^n Tangential stress in the inside hub surface [MPa]\n\nσ_{h,t,o}^n Tangential stress in the outside hub surface [MPa]\n\nσ_{s,l,i}^n Longitudinal stress in the inside shell surface [MPa]\n\nσ_{s,l,o}^n Longitudinal stress in the outside shell surface [MPa]\n\nσ_{s,t,i}^n Tangential stress in the inside shell surface [MPa]\n\nσ_{s,t,o}^n Tangential stress in the outside shell surface [MPa]\n\nσ_r Radial stress [MPa]\n\nσ_t Tangential stress [MPa]\n\nσ_t^f Tensile stress [MPa]\n\nσ_c^r Compressive yield strength [MPa]\n\nσ_{xy} Stress in the xy direction [MPa]\n\nρ Density [kg/m³]\n\nθ Flange rotation [rad]\n\nψ_p^n Rotation of the plate [rad]\n\nψ_h^n Rotation of the hub [rad]\n\n| Symbol | Description |\n|--------|-------------|\n| $\\psi_s^n$ | Rotation of the shell [rad] |\n| $a$ | Constant according to the gasket [MPa] |\n| $A_b$ | Bolt area [mm$^2$] |\n| $A_g$ | Full gasket contact area [mm$^2$] |\n| $A_p$ | Pressure area [mm$^2$] |\n| $A_{h,n}$ | In-plane laminate modulus for the hub [MPA.mm] |\n| $A_{p,n}$ | In-plane laminate modulus for the ring [MPA.mm] |\n| $A_{s,n}$ | In-plane laminate modulus for the shell [MPA.mm] |\n| $A_s$ | Section cut area of the shell [mm$^2$] |\n| $b$ | Effective gasket seating width [mm] |\n| $B_{h,n}$ | Coupling laminate modulus for the hub [MPA.mm$^2$] |\n| $B_{p,n}$ | Coupling laminate modulus for the ring [MPA.mm$^2$] |\n| $B_{s,n}$ | Coupling laminate modulus for the shell [MPA.mm$^2$] |\n| $D_{h,n}$ | Flexural laminate modulus for the hub [MPA.mm$^3$] |\n| $D_{p,n}$ | Flexural laminate modulus for the ring [MPA.mm$^3$] |\n| $D_{s,n}$ | Flexural laminate modulus for the shell [MPA.mm$^3$] |\n| $d_b$ | Diameter of the bolt [mm] |\n| $E$ | Young Modulus [MPa] |\n| $F_{b}^n$ | Bolt force [N] |\n| $F_G^n$ | Gasket force [N] |\n| $G$ | Effective gasket diameter [mm] |\n| $G_b$ | Loading intercept on a tightness curve [MPa] |\n| $G_s$ | Unloading intercept on a tightness curve [MPa] |\n\n| Symbol | Description | Unit |\n|--------|--------------------------------------------------|---------------|\n| $K_b$ | Bolt uniaxial stiffness | N/m |\n| $K_g$ | Gasket uniaxial stiffness | N/m |\n| $m$ | Gasket factor | / |\n| $M_{i}^{n}$ | Discontinuity moment in the initial phase | N |\n| $M_{h}^{n}$ | Discontinuity moment in the hub | N |\n| $M_{s}^{n}$ | Discontinuity moment in the shell | N |\n| $M_r$ | Moment resulting from r | N.mm |\n| $M_\\Theta$ | Moment resulting from $\\Theta$ | N.mm |\n| $N$ | Number of bolts | / |\n| $N_r$ | Stress resultant in the radial direction | N |\n| $N_\\Theta$ | Stress resultant in direction $\\Theta$ | N |\n| $N_{h,i}^{n}$ | Hub longitudinal force | N |\n| $N_{h,t}^{n}$ | Hub Tangential force | N |\n| $N_{s,i}^{n}$ | Shell longitudinal force | N |\n| $N_{s,t}^{n}$ | Shell tangential force | N |\n| $Q_h^{n}$ | Shear force in the hub | N |\n| $Q_s^{n}$ | Shear force in the shell | N |\n| $Q_{rx}$ | Shear force in the plane rx | N |\n| $P_w$ | Longitudinal stress on the wall | MPa |\n| $p_o$ | Internal pressure | MPa |\n| $P_1$ | Hub to cylinder discontinuity force | N/m |\n| $P_2$ | Flange to hub discontinuity force | N/m |\n\n| Symbol | Description | Unit |\n|--------|--------------------------------------------------|--------|\n| r | Radius considered | mm |\n| $r_b$ | Bolt circle | mm |\n| $r_i$ | Inside radius of the flange | mm |\n| $r_o$ | Outside radius of the ring | mm |\n| $S_b$ | Allowable bolt stress at design temperature | MPa |\n| $S_{ya}$ | Theoretical gasket seating stress | MPa |\n| $S_{m0}$ | Minimum operating gasket stress | MPa |\n| $S_{m1}$ | Gasket operating stress | MPa |\n| $S_{m2}$ | Gasket seating stress | MPa |\n| $T_f$ | Melting temperature | °C |\n| $t_h$ | Hub thickness | mm |\n| $t_r$ | Ring thickness | mm |\n| $t_s$ | Shell thickness | mm |\n| $T_{p\\text{min}}$ | Minimum tightness | / |\n| U | Strain energy | J |\n| $u^f$ | Ring radial displacement | mm |\n| $u^n$ | Radial displacement in the initial phase | mm |\n| $u_h^n$ | Hub radial displacement | mm |\n| $u_s^n$ | Shell radial displacement | mm |\n| V | Work done by force | J |\n| $w$ | Axial displacement | mm |\n| $w^f$ | Flange axial displacement | mm |\n| $W_m$ | Design bolt load | N |\n\n| Symbol | Description |\n|--------|-------------|\n| $W_{m1}$ | Operating design bolt load [N] |\n| $W_{m2}$ | Seating design bolt load [N] |\n| $y$ | Gasket design seating stress [MPa] |\n\n**Superscript**\n\n- $i$: Refers to an initial tightening of the bolt condition\n- $f$: Refers to final condition (pressurization)\n- $n$: Refers to the time $n$\n\n**Mass**\n\n- mg: Milligram\n- kg: Kilogram\n\n**Angel**\n\n- Deg: Degree\n- Rad: Radian\n\n**Length/Displacement**\n\n- m: Meter\n- mm: Millimeters\n- cm: Centimeter\n- $\\mu s$: Micro strain\n- in: Inches\n\n**Temperature**\n\n- C: Centigrade\n- F: Fahrenheit\n\n| Time | Unit |\n|--------------|----------|\n| S | Second |\n| H | Hours |\n\n| Pressure/stress | Unit |\n|-----------------|--------------------|\n| MPa | Mega Pascal |\n| GPa | Giga Pascal |\n| Psi | Pounds per Square Inches |\n\nFiber reinforced plastic composites have recently experienced a spectacular development in the areas of pressure vessels and piping. They are used in applications ranging from water and gas services to aeronautical and petrochemical industries. Their special properties have let these composites to take precedence over traditional materials in terms of weight, chemical resistance, resistance to fatigue, low maintenance cost, and even aesthetics. Because of the ability to resist in a corrosive environment, they are extensively used in chemical and petrochemical process plants. Only some type of metallic alloys such as nickel (Ni) molybdenum (Mo) chromium (Cr) alloys can successfully survive in these conditions.\n\nFluid handling and transportation require safe bolted flange assemblies and pressurized equipment. Indeed, the main purpose of a bolted flange joint is to ensure the containment fluid and thus protect the immediate environment against contamination from leakage of harmful fluids or fluid escapes that are nauseating, toxic, and dangerous. In the first case, the loss of such a harmless fluid primarily results in a reduction in the efficiency of the installation, although such joint failure may present hazards such as leakage of steam under pressure. In the second case, the leak does not only represent a decline in the performance of the pressure vessel but also it is dangerous for the environment and humans (Bouzid et al. 2007). Therefore, a proper choice of materials in bolted flange joints for a particular process is an important responsibility of the user and the designer, in terms of compliance with laws, regulations, and standards of calculation. In addition, it is important to note that the performance of bolted flange joints depends on the interaction of the various components of the system and satisfactory performance of joints can only be expected if all the system components work together in harmony.\n\nDespite the increased use of FRP composites in pressurized tanks and piping plants, limited information is available on the mechanical analysis of certain components, especially in bolted flange joints. Even though the ASME BPV Code Section X (American Society of Mechanical\n\nEngineers), ASME RTP-1 as well as other standards such as standard D4024, the British Standard BS 7159 have developed rules for the design, manufacturing techniques and inspection of pressure vessels made of fiber-reinforced plastic, the theories that are used in the analysis of composite flanges are more or less modified versions of the theories used for metallic flanges. But the mechanical behavior of composite materials is different from metallic materials, because of their anisotropy and their inhomogeneity, so that the results obtained in using these design codes cannot explain the significant behavior of composite flanges.\n\nTo investigate the behavior of fiber reinforced plastic bolted flange joints, some research has already been done as shown in Sun's thesis (1995), which is focused on the behavior of FRP flanges by proposing an analytical and numerical study. But it turns out that the analytical results are not in good agreement with the results obtained from the numerical model because of some assumptions that make some errors in the analytical model. Blach et al. (1990) use the laminate theory to propose a method for a stress analysis of fiber reinforced plastic flanged connections with full face gaskets. They used a few assumptions to simplify their proposed method. Although they used rigorous mathematical analysis to describe all the complexity of the laminate materials, their method does not satisfy all the physical constraints associated with such composites. Kurz and Roos (2012), studied the mechanical behavior of floating type bolted flanged connections with glass reinforced plastic flanges, analytically and experimentally. In their study, they divided the flange into two small angular portions and considered as a beam clamped at one end subjected to bending. Thus, the design leads to virtual radial stress which only represents the usage level of the flange. The analytical model that Estrada and Parsons (1997) suggested in their study to describe the circumferential stresses and rotation shows good agreement with the results obtained from finite element simulation and experimentation. Campbell (1990) proposed a new technique to fabricate FRP flange that is the adoption of the one-piece integral flange. His design was based on the metal flange counterpart given by ASME B16.5. Black et al. (1995) suggested a simple design method for FRP flanges with full face gaskets but according to Bouzid (2011) bolts and gasket flexibility as well as the elastic interaction between them are neglected. It is worth noting that in designing\n\nFRP flanges, the impact of temperature on the stress redistribution is not explained like with metal flanges (Nechache and Bouzid 2007).\n\nAn overview of all researches done on FRP bolted flanged joints, shows that most of the proposed analytical models are based on metallic flange design. While, to have an accurate stress analysis in all part of FRP flange joints, it is necessary to choose a reliable method of design which describes the anisotropic behavior of FRP materials. Moreover, according to Czerwinski J (2012), very few papers deal with leak rate measurements in FRP bolted flange joints.\n\nThe elements that influence the behavior of flanges and especially composite flanges in the operating conditions are countless, so it becomes necessary to study comprehensively FRP bolted flange joints to address specific issues related to these elements. This work aims both to study the actual behavior of FRP bolted flange joints and also to evaluate their performance compared with metal flanges in order to provide the possibility of using composite flanges as an alternative to metallic bolted joints with the same geometry. In order to study of FRP bolted flange joints comprehensively, a combination of analytical, experimental and numerical investigation techniques is used.\n\nThe content of this thesis is organized into five chapters. All chapters have been written and presented in a constructive manner for ease of understanding of the reader. The first chapter is dedicated to the literature review and extensive and qualitative reviews of different types of bolted flange joints with particular focus on FRP bolted flange joints. This chapter also presents the properties and the anisotropic character of composite materials and exposes the peculiarity of the study of composite vessels in the domain of bolted flange joints.\n\nChapter 2 outlines the analytical approaches of FRP bolted flange joints. In this chapter, two analytical models were developed to treat FRP bolted joint structural integrity and leak tightness based on anisotropic behavior and taking into account the flexibility analysis of all joint elements including the gasket, bolts, and flanges. Since the analytical study is the essence\n\nof this research, a detailed explanation of the theories and equations for each part of the flange with the highest accuracy is vital. In the analytical models (one for the flange with the hub and one for the flange without the hub), the composite flanges are subdivided into three major categories, namely: ring flange, hub and shell, and the procedure for each part of the flange is described in detail.\n\nThe numerical study of FRP bolted flange joints is elaborated in the third chapter. The presented numerical models of FRP bolted flange joints in this chapter are an attempt to develop and validate the analytical model. The finite element analysis makes it possible to obtain an approximate solution of a physical problem by providing algebraic stiffness equations to solve the problem. This chapter describes the procedure of three different finite element models; a flange with the hub and without the hub and a multilayer shell model using ANSYS Composite PrepPost. Fiber reinforced plastic bolted flange joints of two sizes; NPS 3 class 150 and NPS 12 class 150 flanges are treated. To create and analyzed the finite element models, the program ANSYS® Mechanical 16.02 and the ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP) 16.2 were used. The geometry of flanges as well as laminate properties and the stacking sequence of the laminate used in the composite flange are presented in this chapter.\n\nIt was considered necessary to set up a test rig to investigate the real behavior of FRP bolted flange joints and use experimental results to verify and characterize the presented analytical and numerical models in the second and third chapter. Thus, the fourth chapter is dedicated to describe the operational mechanisms of the Hot Blow Out Test Bench (HOBT) and the experimental procedure involved in this characterization study. FRP flange and test rig in this study were developed for the purpose of measuring the parameters related to the analytical and numerical models of this research work.\n\nChapter five is devoted to present the results obtained from the analytical, numerical and experimental analysis of FRP bolted flange joints. In this chapter, discussion and comparison of the results shown in graphs and tables are performed.\n\nFinally, this thesis concludes with a broad conclusion highlighting the main results of the work conducted on FRP bolted flange joints. Furthermore, a few recommendations are suggested for the future works in this research area.\n\nCHAPTER 1\n\nLITERATURE REVIEW\n\n1.1 Introduction\n\nMost of the research conducted on composite bolted flanged joints, especially fiber reinforced plastic flanges, focuses on transferring the knowledge from metallic flange designs to composite flange designs. Since FRP flanges do not behave like isotropic materials (Estrada, 1997), (Hoa, 1991) designers have to rely on criteria based primarily on anisotropic designs and also other methods of analysis. In this chapter, some of the recent research work is reviewed which is one of the sources of instigation of this study objective. To present an extensive review of existing scientific articles and dissertations, this chapter is divided into four subsections:\n\n1- FRP flanges, standards and design codes,\n2- Analytical studies,\n3- Numerical (Finite Element) studies and,\n4- Experimental studies.\n\nThe next part presents a general introduction of FRP bolted flange joints as well as composite materials and the codes and standards of these materials. But before going deeper into these rules, especially those of ASME BPV Code Section X it is necessary to understand the different aspects of FRP bolted flange joints. Then, the existing analytical studies of FRP bolted flange joints are elaborated. The third part of this chapter presents the numerical finite element models used to simulate the behavior of FRP flanges. The fourth part discusses the experimental investigations and test procedures as well as the experimental results.\n\n1.2 Fiber reinforced plastic (FRP)\n\nFiber reinforced plastics are composites made by reinforcing a resin with fibers. Using the Fiber reinforced plastic composite in the pressure vessels need special attention to the\n\nfabrication techniques, design and testing of these structures. Pressure vessels which are made from metallic materials that are normally isotropic and ductile. These vessels are designed by using well-established allowable stresses based on measured tensile and ductility properties (ASME BPV Code Section X). In the form of composite like fiber reinforced plastic, a designer can take advantage of the propitious properties of these materials. In FRP, the strength and stiffness of the composite are provided by the fibers and the resin used as a binder to provide other favorable properties such as corrosion resistance, impact resistance and compressive strength. The anisotropic behavior of FRP material makes this composite separate from isotropic materials like metals. In an anisotropic material, the mechanical properties in each direction are different and it depends on the direction of the fibers. Higher-strength and stiffness to weight ratios is another advantage of FRP composites that make them dominant compared to other materials such as steel. (Blach et al. 1987).\n\nComposites have replaced many traditional materials and provided users with longer-lasting equipment. These products created a history of successful field experience of long-term use of composites under specific conditions. Fiber reinforced plastics laminates may have a modulus of elasticity as low as 6894.76 MPa (1.0 x $10^6$ psi), compared with that of ferrous materials which may be of the order of 20,6842.71 MPa (30 x $10^6$ psi) (ASME BPV Code Section X). This low modulus characteristic requires careful consideration of vessel profile in order to minimize bending and avoid buckling.\n\n### 1.2.1 Material Systems (fibers and resins)\n\nThermoplastic resins are capable of being repeatedly softened and hardened by an increase and decrease of temperature. This change upon heating is mainly a physical rather than a chemical feature (Gendre, L. 2011).\n\nBecause of the lower creep resistance and thermal stability, thermoplastic resins are not used as composite flanges. In general, thermoplastic polymers have higher strains to failure than\n\nthermoset polymers, which may provide better resistance to matrix micro-cracking in a composite laminate. Popular types of thermoplastic resins include:\n\n- Polyvinyl chloride (PVC);\n- Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC);\n- Polybutylene (PB);\n- Polyethylene (PE);\n- Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC);\n- Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF);\n\nThermoset plastics, do not flow under the application of heat and pressure. However, when exposed to heat or chemical environments, change into practically infusible and insoluble materials. Thermoset resins are more commonly used with FRP products and exhibit less creep and stress relaxation than thermoplastic polymers. They show superior thermal stability. In the ASME BPV Code, Section X, thermoset resins include:\n\n- Polyesters;\n- Epoxies;\n- Vinyl esters;\n- Phenolics;\n- Furan;\n\nIn the (ASME BPV Code, Section X), reinforcements embedded in a resin matrix are a combination of fibers such as:\n\n- Glass (Type A, E, S, C);\n- Carbon;\n- Graphite;\n- Aramid;\n\nGlass fibers are used in most composite materials as reinforcement in many fields such as constructions, transport, optics, and sports. The reasons for these diverse applications are the\n\nexcellent properties they offer such as tensile strength that is twice as strong as steel, thermal insulation, dimensional stability, and low moisture absorption. Polyester and vinyl ester are corrosion resistance resins that are used in a wide range of pressure vessels such as tanks, pipes, ducting, chemical plant equipment because of these properties. In addition, a relatively low cost of glass fibers, making it competitive with other fibers.\n\n1.2.2 General Fabrication Techniques\n\nThere are several methods or manufacturing process for FRP flange production such as contact molding or hand lay-up, injection molding, filament winding, compression molding, resin transfer molding and centrifugal casting (Rosato et al. 1964). The following methods are mostly used in FRP flange production:\n\nFigure 1-1 Contact molding process (Black et al. 1995)\n\n1- **Contact Molding:**\n\nIn this method, cylindrical sections, heads, and attachments are fabricated by applying reinforcement fibers and resin to a mandrel or mold. System cure is either at room temperature or elevated temperature using a catalyst-promoter system. The contact molding process is depicted in figure 1.1. As shown in the figure each ply is applied one by one, paying attention to ensuring that the recommended orientation is respected and that no air bubbles seep into the resin. The resin is applied with a brush or a gun between each ply.\n\n\n\n1- **Filament Winding**\n\nIn this process, continuous filaments of fiber wetted with the specified resin are wound in a systematic manner under controlled tension and cured on a mandrel or other supporting structure. The filament winding process is shown in figure 1.2. Heads and fittings fabricated by contact-molding methods may be attached with suitable adhesive resins and secondary reinforcement with the cutting of filaments as required. Heads are\n\nintegrally wound and the only openings allowed are those centered on the axis of rotation and are wound into the vessel during fabrication.\n\n1.3 Bolted Flanged Joints\n\nIn order to connect piping systems and pressure vessels containing fluids or gas under pressure, the most reliable way is to use bolted flanged joints. Flanges are used as an alternative to welding or threading different pipelines components and pressure vessels. In addition, bolted flange joints that are the alternative to welding because they can be easily assembled, disassembled, then reassembled when needed for shipping, inspection, maintenance, and replacement (Derenne et al. 2000).\n\nFigure 1-3 FRP Flanged Joints (Estrada 1997)\n\nDue to the leakage in the large-bore threaded pipe and also threading pipe is not reliable and economical, flanged connections are favored over threaded connections. For these reasons, flanges are important components of any piping system. There are two types of the metallic bolted flanged joint shown in Figure. 1.3; integral flange and loose flange.\n\nFigure. 1.4 depicts two varieties of the integral flange geometry. As shown in this figure, raised face flanges are used for the applications at high pressure while flat face flanges are used for low pressures applications. Flat-faced flanges are typically used with full face gaskets and ring gaskets for the flanges with and without the hub respectively.\n\nFigure 1-4 Conventional Metallic Flanged Joints (Estrada 1997)\n\nDue to the greater contact area in the flanges with full face gaskets, they need greater load applied by the bolts to make them sealed. Therefore, to maintain the flanges sealed the gasket should deform plastically to close all the porosities on the flange face. The flange contact occurs inside the bolt circle of the raised face flanges and flat face flanges with ring gaskets. As a result, relatively higher flange rotation occurs when the joint is bolted leading to high bending stresses at the hub-to-cylinder junction.\n\n1.3.1 Fiber reinforced plastic bolted flange joints\n\nThere are commonly two types of flange known as FRP bolted joints:\n\n1- Stub flanges;\n2- Flat face flanges with full face gaskets;\n\nThere are two general fabrication procedures used in the production of contact molded fiber reinforced plastic flanges; the first method is two-piece construction that the flange is laid-up directly onto a piece of pipe or a cylindrical pressure vessel shell. The second one is one-piece construction that the continuous axial glass fibers wetted with resin, made a continuous form of the shell and hub into layers of the flange. It is necessary to mention that the one-piece integral flange eliminates all the problems associated with the bond of the two-piece construction and this method has been used successfully in industry application for almost two decades [Sun et al. 1995].\n\nFRP bolted joints present more difficulties in design and operation than their metallic counterparts. This is because their material properties are more complex and the bolting requirements are different. Although the bolt holes in metallic flanges make a slight material discontinuity problem, drilling the bolt holes in FRP composite flanges can be significant, particularly in filament wound joints. In the composite flanges that are made with the hand lay-up manufacturing technique, this problem is solved by incorporating the holes in the flange during the manufacturing process. The field of application of these vessels varies since they are used in most industrial domains, in particular in the\n\npetrochemical and nuclear industries. It is worth noting that because of their anisotropic behavior, the study of composite flanges is much more complex than for metal flanges.\n\n1.3.2 Design codes and standards for FRP bolted flange joints\n\nThere are two standards for fiber reinforced plastic flange joints:\n\n22.214.171.124 PS 15-69\n\nThe first FRP flange standard from the national bureau of standards voluntary product standard, PS 15-69, appeared in 1969. This standard presents the minimum values of the flange thickness as well as the specifications for bolting system of FRP flanges including all metal washers, nut and bolt heads. In general, PS 15-69 covers some type of FRP flanges such as contact molded flanges and gives guidelines to keep their use in the safe zone with the butt-strap joint recommended as the standard pressure vessel connections. In addition to this standard, ASTM added the specifications for the fabrication techniques (Filament winding and contact molding) of FRP flanges. However, this standard doesn’t cover flange design and only covers the specifications that are based on FRP flange performance. Technically, this standard becomes an updated version of the PS 15-69 standard. But there is a difference between these two standards in being proof tested and is listed in table 1.1. The performance requires to the leakage test for sealing of FRP flange with the 1.5 times higher pressure of the design pressure and test with four times higher pressure of the design pressure period of the one-minute period for rupture strength. On the other hand, the composite material of contact molded flange should be able to resist about two times of recommended bolt torque by the manufacturer, and other flange construction should be able to resist 1.5 times bolt torque without visible signs of damage.\n\nThis standard gives no specification for the gasket and bolting system, instead, it suggests to follow the manufacturer's recommendation. It also mentions that flanges fabricated with different techniques and different manufacturers with identical classification can not be interchangeable because the pressure vessels and piping systems need to get standardized.\n\nTable 1-1 FRP joint standard, PS 15-69\n\n| Nominal Pipe Size (I.D.) | Wall Thickness | Flange Diameter (O.D.) | Flange Thickness | Bolt Circle Diameter | Bolt Hole Diameter | Number of Bolts |\n|--------------------------|---------------|------------------------|------------------|----------------------|--------------------|----------------|\n| 2 | 1/8 | 63/8 | 1/4 | 5 | 7/16 | 4 |\n| 3 | 1/8 | 73/8 | 1/4 | 6 | 7/16 | 4 |\n| 4 | 1/8 | 83/8 | 1/4 | 7 | 7/16 | 4 |\n| 6 | 1/8 | 103/8 | 1/4 | 9 | 7/16 | 8 |\n| 8 | 1/8 | 123/8 | 1/4 | 11 | 7/16 | 8 |\n| 10 | 1/8 | 143/8 | 3/8 | 13 | 7/16 | 12 |\n| 11 | 1/8 | 153/8 | 3/8 | 15 | 7/16 | |\n| 12 | 1/8 | 163/8 | 3/8 | 15 | 7/16 | 12 |\n| 14 | 1/8 | 183/8 | 3/8 | 17 | 7/16 | 12 |\n| 16 | 1/8 | 203/8 | 1/2 | 19 | 7/16 | 16 |\n| 18 | 1/8 | 223/8 | 1/2 | 21 | 7/16 | 16 |\n| 20 | 1/8 | 243/8 | 1/2 | 23 | 7/16 | 20 |\n| 24 | 3/16 | 283/8 | 1/2 | 27 | 7/16 | 20 |\n| 30 | 3/16 | 343/8 | 1/2 | 33 | 7/16 | 28 |\n| 36 | 3/16 | 403/8 | 1/2 | 39 | 7/16 | 32 |\n| 42 | 1/4 | 463/8 | 5/8 | 45 | 7/16 | 36 |\n| 48 | 1/4 | 543/8 | 5/8 | 52 | 9/16 | 44 |\n| 54 | 1/4 | 603/8 | 5/8 | 58 | 9/16 | 44 |\n| 60 | 1/4 | 663/8 | 5/8 | 64 | 9/16 | 52 |\n\n### 126.96.36.199 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section X\n\nASME code section X covers the design rules for FRP pressure vessels and piping systems. In this standard, the pressure vessels are qualified by two class designs:\n\n1. **Class I design** – this method qualifies the design through the destructive test of a prototype.\n\n2. **Class II design** – this method qualifies the design through acceptance testing by non-destructive methods and mandatory design rules.\n\nClass II flange design rules are based on the same mandatory rules as their metallic counterparts. These rules are standard rated flanges and flange design calculations. Standard rated flange design is based on ANSI flanges as the PS 15-69 standard. Not only, the ASME Section X code design calculation of FRP flanges is similar to that of metallic flanges known as Taylor Forge method but it assumes FRP materials to be isotropic as in steel. The only\n\ndifference in design is the allowable stresses which incorporate a higher safety factor. According to the code, the flange design stresses vary depending on the type of stress. Therefore, designing the flange based on hoop strength against internal pressure, the range of design stress may vary from 11.03 MPa (1,600 psi) to 21.37 MPa (3,100 psi). In addition, the design stress for inter-plies shear strength may be as low as 0.69 MPa and also the intermittent loads’ design stress may reach as high as 24.13 MPa (100 psi). Nevertheless, flange design stresses over 24.13 MPa (3,500 psi) are rare. In order to design FRP flanges using these methods, an additional stress check namely the radial stress at the bolt circle is used. Class II design recommended that the maximum pressure for vessels are limited to 0.52 MPa (75 psi) and the maximum inside diameter is limited to 243.84 cm (96 inches).\n\nThe relevant ASME BPV code section X comprises the design rules for fiber reinforced bolted flange joints. The flange and nozzle dimensions in ASME BPV code section X are listed in table 1.2. According to this standard, there are several modulus values in the mechanical properties of FRP material such as hoop tensile modulus, axial tensile modulus, and an axial compressive modulus. It is exceedingly important that the flange designer while designing the flanges in particular FRP flanges takes this into account the anisotropic properties of composite material. Hence, understand the anisotropic behavior of FRP materials would be a proper assumption for a designer. No additional calculations are required when a flange is selected from this standard.\n\nIn some applications of FRP vessels where special joints can be utilized such as downhole tubing, high pressures about hundreds of MPa can be attained. Design pressure is the permissible pressure in the vessel which is the maximum applicable pressure at the laminate of the vessel. In piping systems and pressure vessels of FRP materials, the temperature range is much smaller compared to metallic vessels and piping such as carbon and stainless steels and copper-nickel. Also, the design temperature is less than the interior laminate wall temperature expected under operating conditions for the part considered and is less than $10^\\circ$C, or $1.667^\\circ$C below the glass transition temperature of the resin, whichever is lower.\n\n| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n| 14 | 21 | 18½ | 1¼ | 2¼ | 1 | 12 | 6 | 3½ | 1½ | 1½ | ¾ | 1½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n| 16 | 23½ | 21½ | 1¼ | 2¼ | 1 | 16 | 1 | 3½ | 1¼ | 1½ | ¾ | 1½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n| 18 | 25 | 22½ | 1¼ | 2¼ | 1¼ | 16 | 1 | 3½ | 1¼ | 1½ | ¾ | 1½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n| 20 | 27½ | 25 | 1¼ | 2¼ | 1¼ | 20 | 1½ | 3½ | 1½ | 1½ | ¾ | 1½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n| 24 | 32 | 29½ | 1¼ | 3 | 1¼ | 20 | 1¼ | 3½ | 1½ | 1½ | ¾ | 1½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n| 30 | 38½ | 36 | 1¼ | 3 | 1¼ | 28 | 1½ | 3½ | 2½ | 2½ | ¾ | 2½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n| 36 | 46 | 42½ | 1¼ | 3½ | 1¼ | 32 | 2 | 3½ | 2½ | 2½ | ¾ | 2½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n| 42 | 53 | 49½ | 1¼ | 3½ | 1¼ | 36 | 2½ | 3½ | 2½ | 2½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n| 48 | 59½ | 56 | 1¼ | 3½ | 1¼ | 44 | 2½ | 3½ | 3½ | ¾ | (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | 19½ |\n\n1.4 Analytical studies\n\nThe analysis of FRP flanges is very complicated and the general solution always goes through a cumbersome computer program. Because of the anisotropic behavior of composite bolted flanges, there is a general use of simplifying assumptions that can sometimes affect the accuracy of the results obtained from the developed model.\n\nEstrada (1997) proposed a model that includes four distinct axisymmetric structural components that are analyzed separately. The exact model and flange geometry and loading is depicted in figure 1.5. He modifies the model for the composite component to account for orthotropic material properties using classical lamination theory. Figure 1.6 illustrates the body diagram of the model, flange geometry and loading. This is the simplest way to analyze this structure because of the complication of the boundary conditions. He performed the analyses on a modified stub flanged joint which is shown in figure 1.7.\n\nThis GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic) joint is a modified version of a typical GFRP joint, the stub flanged joint developed by Estrada et al (1997) to address some problems particular to GFRP joint geometries currently in use. The pipe and the hub are filament wound and form an integral unit. The backing ring is metallic and is used to connect the joint to other members. He analyzed the flange in two parts: the stub and the pipe-hub. He modeled the stub as an isotropic annular plate with an inner ring stiffener and the pipe-hub as two separate orthotropic axisymmetric shells.\n\n**Stub:**\n\nThe stub is analyzed as two distinct linear elastic isotropic components: a ring stiffener and an annular plate. The ring is modeled as a reinforcing ring subjected to an axial moment. In order to reduce the number of unknown parameters, they used the assumption that the ring stiffener thickness is half of the annular plate thickness.\n\nFigure 1-5 Exact model and flange geometry and loading (Estrada, 1997)\n\n**Pipe-hub:**\n\nThe pipe-hub is modeled analytically by dividing into two structural sections which were analyzed separately. These two sections are analyzed using shell theory and the shell with variable thickness theory. The solutions for the two sections were obtained from classical laminated shell theory in terms of parameters that depend on the end conditions for each section. They modeled the cylindrical shell as an axisymmetric laminated shell and the tapered hub as an axisymmetric laminated cylindrical shell of variable thickness. Also, they reduced the strain-displacement relations, kinematic assumptions, equilibrium equations and constitutive law to a single equation.\n\n1.4.1 Classical lamination theory\n\nThe theory of mechanics of composite materials is based on the lamination theory which is the main theory used for the composite materials. In the microscopic scale, a composite is defined as a complex system consisting of matrix and fibers combined to make a monolithic compound. But the definition of composite material in this theory is a material system with enhanced material properties that is made from a combination of chemically distinct materials on the macro-scale bonded together by a distinct interface. This theory mainly used to analyze the composite system which is made in layers and each layer consisting of parallel fibers embedded in a matrix. In order to fabricate a laminate, laminae are stacked in a specified sequence of orientation and this sequence of orientation can allow the designer to meet the demanding mechanical properties of the composite. Lamination theory can be summarized as the development of equations that relate generalized strains to generalized forces through the constitutive law. According to ASTM Standard Specification D5421, the material properties in composites are simplified by the assumption that the properties of fiber and matrix can be combined into an effective transversely isotropic material layer.\n\nSome of the assumptions to simplify the calculations that are stated in this theory:\n\n1. The laminas in a laminate are perfectly bonded together.\n\n2. Each layer is of linear varying thickness. Each lamina has an equal thickness at the large end ($g_1 = n t_1$) and at the small end ($g_0 = n t_0$) and varies linearly along the axial direction.\n\n3. Each lamina acts as a homogeneous transversely isotropic linear elastic system.\n\nKurz and Roos (2012), conducted an analytical and experimental evaluation of the mechanical behavior of floating type bolted flanged connections with glass reinforced plastic flanges that are depicted in figure 1.8. They modeled the bolted flange connection according to AD-Merkblatt N1, shown in figure 1.9. The design is based on bending of a beam clamped at one end. Thus, the design leads to virtual radial stress which only represents the usage level of the flange. Their model describes analytically the circumferential stresses and the rotation and shows a good agreement with the results of the FE simulation and the experimental investigations.\n\nBlach and Hoa (1987), conducted a study on full-face FRP flanged joints. They proposed two design methods which can be used safely for these flanges. The first one is based on the Taylor Forge method (Anonymous, 1979). and the second one is based on the method of composite materials. They conducted a 3D finite element analysis on FRP flanges with full-faced gasket and tried to correlate data obtained from experimental tests. The results obtained from the metallic design methods and the FE modeling of FRP flanges seem to have a good agreement with the experimental results. In their study, some problems of FRP bolted flange joints are discussed, such as a certain amount of convex distortion (pullback) that can be caused in hand lay-up flanges due to uneven curing of the resin. If the distortion is straightened by bolt load alone, there would be excessive stress at the junction of the flange and cylinder.\n\nBlach and Sun (1990), proposed a method for analyzing the stresses of fiber reinforced plastic flanged connections with full face gaskets based on classical laminates theory, shear deformation laminate theory and shell theory for the different components of the flange. This method is simplified by using a few assumptions and is based on rigorous mathematical analysis. Also, this method could not satisfy all of the physical constraints due to the complexity of the laminate problem. They claim that the analytical developed method is much more accurate than that obtained by using any of the greatly simplified customary design method based on metallic flanges. Unfortunately, the proposed method is not suitable for flange designers because the solution requires the use of infinite series expansion.\n\nSun, L. (1995) proposed two methods of stress analysis based on shear deformation laminated theory and classical lamination theory for the full-faced FRP bolted flange joints. In the first method which is based on the classical lamination theory, the transverse shear deformation is neglected. In the second method, the classical lamination theory is applied to the shell but the ring is modeled by using a formulation that accounts for transverse shear deformation. The method appears to represent an improvement over the approach that Waters et al. (1937) used in the derivation of the Taylor forge method, accounting for FRP material properties. As shown in figure 1. 10, in his analytical model, the flange is separated into two parts. The final solution is obtained by applying the boundary conditions and continuity conditions. Due to the poor\n\nmesh elements used in the numerical finite element model, the results obtained from the finite element model and analytical model are not in good agreement.\n\nFigure 1-10 Pipe and ring used in analytical model (Sun, L. 1995)\n\n1.5 Numerical Finite Element studies\n\nEstrada et al. (1997) used a finite element method to validate analytical developed models. Also, it is used to study the leakage behavior and to validate the ASME code formulation for other gasket materials and joint configurations. The analysis was carried out using two and three-dimension axisymmetric finite elements with an orthotropic material model. To perform the analysis, they used a commercial finite element package (ABAQUS). In their analyses, they showed that axisymmetric modeling can be used to analyze critical designs however the analysis did not capture the stress concentration. Figures 1.10 and 1.11 show the three-dimensional and axisymmetric finite element models that were developed in this study.\n\nBecause of using the option that allowed pressure to penetrate the space where contact was lost, it was possible to measure more accurately the leakage in the axisymmetric case than in the three-dimensional case. Finally, they claimed that the results from finite element analysis were in an excellent agreement with the analytical results as shown in figure 1.13 and 1.14.\n\nFigure 1-13 Distribution of radial displacement (Estrada 1997)\n\nFigure 1-14 Distribution of axial moments (Estrada 1997)\n\nKurz and Roos (2012) conducted a simulation using the finite element method to investigate the stresses and strains of an FRP flange. They developed a linear-elastic finite element model for FRP bolted flange joints. In this study, the material behavior was assumed to be linear elastic with an isotropic Young’s modulus of 11 GPa. According to this numerical study, the elastic equivalent stresses were shown for the initial tightening in a segment of the loose flange and the collar (figure 1.14). Under the washer, the material was compressed, resulting in a complex, multi-axial stress state. The FE model of a bolted flange connection with loose flanges and collars are depicted in figure 1.15.\n\nFigure 1-15 Results of the FE simulation (elastic equivalent stress) with highly loaded areas (dark) in the loose flange (left) and collar (right) (Kurz and Roos 2012)\n\nFigure 1-16 FE model of a bolted flange connection with loose flanges and collars (Kurz and Roos 2012)\n\nBlach and Sun (1995) compared the analytical results, with the finite element results of an FRP flanged connection, using 3-D anisotropic layered solid elements. Figure 1.17 depicts 15-degree section of the flange in the FE model. With the ANSYS software, they modeled the composite flange as layered elements. In the FE model, axial symmetry is used to model a 15-degree section of the flange (Figure 1.16). They observed that the results from the finite element method are very close to those of an analytical method. However, issues were reused with many assumptions made in each calculation. They concluded that the two proposed methods are not reliable due to the lack of sufficient experimental verification.\n\n\n\n\n\n1.6 Experimental studies\n\nKurz and Roos (2012) conducted an analytical and experimental evaluation of the mechanical behavior of floating type bolted flanged connections with glass reinforced plastic flanges. In order to analyze the deformation behavior due to creep-relaxation, they developed an instrumented test rig (Figure 1.19) which enabled the reproducing of the real behavior of an FRP bolted flanged joints. During the experimental investigation, the bolt force, the flange rotation, the strains at selected locations of the flange surface, the internal pressure and the temperature were monitored continuously. The test rig was completely vacuum-sealed to measure the leakage tightness of the bolted flange connection using helium mass spectrometry.\n\nThey also tested various gaskets made of rubber (EPDM) and PTFE of the bolted flange connection that was made of glass-fiber reinforced plastic flanges in compliance with DIN EN 13555. The results of an analytical design concept showed good agreement with the experiment results and the finite element simulation.\n\nFigure 1-20 Test rig for experimental investigations on bolted flange connections DN50 (without displacement transducers) (Kurz and Roos 2012)\n\nFollowing the design concept, the material reduction factors that lead to higher allowable bolt forces, can be neglected and therefore that accompanied by increased tightness and operational reliability of the plants.\n\nFinally, they compared the displacements due to the rotation of the loose flange as illustrated in figure 1.20 and showed an excellent agreement between all methods\n\nFigure 1-21 The displacements due to rotation of the loose flange (Kurz and Roos 2012)\n\nSun and Blach (1995) conducted an experimental investigation on FRP bolted flange joints with full-faced gasket. They attempted to demonstrate the effect of flange thickness on the mechanical properties of FRP flanges. Having different thicknesses at its ends, FRP flange was made of glass material and woven roving and was impregnated with the same resin. The polymer matrix is a vinyl ester. The vessel had a veil liner as a corrosive barrier. They used two kinds of 3 mm thick full-faced gasket. One was made of compressed asbestos and the other was made of synthetic rubber. The test parameters were:\n\n- Pressure (kPa) = 0, 138, 276, 414;\n- Bolt load (MPa) = 50, 100, 150;\n- Temperature = Room temperature.\n\nThey conducted several tests at both the bolt-up and operating conditions on a FRP flange joint.\n\nIn order to obtain a smaller flange width, they machined the flange after each test to reduce its outside diameter. They also discussed two analytical models for FRP flange based on Taylor Forge method but no quantitative comparisons were made. In addition, the authors proposed the use of finite element analysis for FRP flanges.\n\n1.7 Conclusion\n\nOver the last decades, a substantial research effort has been dedicated to the study of FRP bolted flange joints and characterization of composite flange behavior in different conditions. In general, a bolted flange joint is designed to connect pressure vessels and equipment without leakage (Nechache and Bouzid 2007). Sealing problems are encountered during operation of process equipment containing fluids when flanges are the convenient method of connection for reasons of fabrication, transportation, assembly, inspection, production and so on. In general, acceptable FRP bolted flange joint design must ensure that:\n\n1. The stress levels in the flange joint are below the strength of the composite material.\n2. The residual gasket load is sufficient to maintain the joint leak-tight.\n\nThe goals in bolted flanged joints are to keep a certain level of tightness and maintain reliability over a long period of time, especially at severe operating conditions such as elevated temperature and fluctuating pressure or when containing corrosive fluids.\n\nFRP materials are increasingly used by the industry because they provide strong resistance to chemical attack and have interesting mechanical properties. They have relatively long-life expectancy; cause less environmental concerns and offer low installation and maintenance costs. These qualities make FRP an attractive material for pressure vessels and piping components. The proper flange geometry should be designed to safely transfer the bolt loads to the gasket without overstressing the flange material. This problem should adequately be addressed to composite joints because of anisotropy behavior of composite materials which is depending on the materials from which FRP bolted flange joint is fabricated.\n\nAlthough the analysis of metal flanges has made enormous progress, the analysis of composite bolted flange joints remains uncomplete and its progress has been slow especially in the analytical domain. It is intuitively recognized that there is a problem of standardization in the manufacturing progress of FRP flanges so that an analytical tool can help improve structural integrity and pressure rating. In addition, the complex behavior of composites requires more efforts made by the authors on the analysis of composite flanges.\n\nAlthough a lot of emphases is put towards studying the material parameters and geometric involved, a complete comprehensive model is not in sight. For example, Sun's thesis (1995), which is focused on the behavior of FRP flanges by proposing an analytical and numerical study, but the results of the analytical part are not reliable due to some errors in his analytical model. In addition, the numerical part can be much better developed and accurate, since the available software allows handling of the problem better than two decades ago. According to the presented literature on FRP bolted flanged joints, it appears that most of the proposed analytical models are based on the metallic design. Any reliable flange design should encompass the anisotropic behavior of FRP materials to determine the load distribution in any part of the flange accurately.\n\n1.8 Research project objectives\n\nThe state of the art presented shows that the amount of research and articles on FRP bolted flange joints based on the anisotropic behavior of the composite flange is rare. Particularly, the number of studies FRP bolted flange joint analytically, numerically and experimentally is very limited. Moreover, the design calculations of composite bolted flanged joints are not adequately covered in the literature. As mentioned earlier, the material properties used in the FRP flange design calculations in ASME BPV Code Section X are those used for steel and the calculations are totally based on those for metallic joints (Taylor Forge method). In their current form, the design calculation procedures based on metallic methodology are not adequate. Some adjustments are required to account for anisotropy, flexibility, rotational limits, bearing stresses of FRP flanges and etc. This study aims to investigate these issues and propose an integrated methodology to analyze theoretically, numerically and experimentally the stresses of FRP bolted flange joints subjected to the real operating condition of initial tightening and pressurization. Therefore, the main objective of this research work is:\n\n- To develop an analytical solution to evaluate stresses and strains in FRP bolted flanged joints considering anisotropic material behavior for FRP flange without the hub.\n - Incorporate the hub in a new proposed analytical model to evaluate stresses and strains of FRP hubbed flanges.\n\nImplement a flexibility analysis in the model to account for the elastic interaction between the different bolted joint components. The current design method considers the flange to be rigid and therefore the force in the bolt do not change with the application of pressure.\n\nDevelop different finite element models using the program ANSYS® Mechanical and ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP), for comparison with the analytical results and conduct validation of separate components (flange ring, hub, shell).\n\nConduct experimental testing to validate the analytical and numerical models and compare the parameters such as bolt load, flange rotation, stresses and strains at different locations.\n\nCHAPTER 2\n\nANALYTICAL MODELING OF FRP BOLTED FLANGE JOINT\n\n2.1 Introduction\n\nIn spite of the increased use of FRP composites in bolted flange joints and the good knowledge of these structures and their material behavior, the procedure used for their design is based on that of metallic flanges without any consideration of anisotropy. There is a major concern to appropriately address the anisotropic behavior of composite materials in a flange design. As indicated previously, it is necessary to make a precise evaluation of the load redistribution in order to be able to predict the structural integrity and leak tightness of FRP bolted flange joints.\n\nThis chapter concentrates mainly on the development of an analytical model for the fiber reinforced plastic bolted flanged joints derived from lamination theory for composite materials, taking into account the anisotropic behavior of FRP bolted flanged joints. In order to use the lamination theory in the analysis of FRP flanges especially flanges with the hub, it is necessary to derive some equations from the basic principles.\n\nIn general, composite flanges are subdivided into three major categories, namely: ring flange, hub, and cylinder. This chapter presents an analytical model to treat FRP bolted joints integrity and tightness based on anisotropy and flexibility analysis of all joint elements including the gasket, bolts and flanges and we describe the procedure for each part of the flange in detail.\n\nThe objective of this analytical study is to obtain the equations of the radial displacements and the rotations of the flange as well as the equations giving the radial, longitudinal and hoop stresses at the inside and outside surface of the flange.\n\n2.2 Analytical model\n\nFRP full-faced flanges with gasket having a prolonged surface from the inner edge up to the outer side of the flange, are usually characterized by rigid behavior. The wide surface of the joint requires high stress on the bolts so that this type of flange is mostly used in low pressure applications. In addition, in the full-faced flange joints soft gaskets which do not require a large clamping pressure to ensure tightness are used.\n\nIn developing the analytical model of FRP bolted flange joints, one of the objectives was that the model follows the ASME code design philosophy, bearing always in mind two important factors that are leakage tightness and structural integrity.\n\nThis part presents a theoretical approach based on a model that takes into account the flexibility of the gasket, bolts, and flanges as well as the elastic interaction between the different components of the assembly.\n\nThe analytical model of the bolted joint consists of two phases related to the operating conditions:\n\n- Initial phase or phase i: in this first stage, the bolt-up of the flange is conducted resulting in the initial tightening of the flange. The tightening force compresses the two parts of the flange as well as the gasket and is characterized by a presumably uniform distribution of the contact pressure. Figure 2.1 (a) shows the flange in the initial phase.\n\n- Final phase or phase f: As illustrated in figure 2.1 (b), a pressure is applied on the inside of the vessel or pipe and consequently the flange; The inside pressure also creates a hydrostatic end effect which is represented by an axial stress acting on the flat surfaces at the end of the cylindrical shell.\n\nTo simplify the analytical model of FRP bolted flange joint the following assumptions are made:\n\n• The tightening torque during phase i is applied to the N bolts of the flange equally and simultaneously.\n\n• The tightening force resulting from the force on the N bolts is considered to act on a circle of constant radius of the flange known as the bolt circle radius. This assumption makes it possible to consider the flange as an axisymmetric case that simplifies the analysis.\n\n• A plane of symmetry is considered at the median plane of the joint as shown in figure 2.1 this simplifies the model to study one flange rather than the pair of flanges.\n\nFigure 2-1 Cross-section of FRP flange in (a) initial tightening phase, (b) pressurization phase\n\n2.3 Theoretical analysis for FRP bolted flange joints without the hub\n\nIn order to study FRP bolted flange joints analytically, first, we started to model FRP flange without the hub. FRP bolted flange joint is provided with a gasket that spreads on all its entire flat faces. For this type of flange with a full-face gasket, the centroid of a circular sector of unit width is considered to be the equilibrium pivot of the bolted joint. The model is thus considered symmetrical. The applied loads on each flange depend on the initial load on the bolts, the internal pressure and the reaction of the gasket.\n\nDue to the pre-tightening of the bolts, the gasket is considered to be compressed uniformly in the circumferential direction and the flanges rotate slightly around the gasket reaction diameter. When applying pressure from inside, the two flanges tend to separate from each other and results in the unloading of the gasket as well as an additional increase in the rotation of the flanges. However, in reality, the rotation may appear in both radial and tangential directions depending on the bolt spacing and the applied pressure. It is worth noting that the behavior of such assembly under the operating conditions, depends on many parameters (Bouzid 1994).\n\nThis model consists of three essential mechanical elements, flange, bolts, and gasket. Each element is represented by simple elastic spring of linear stiffness $k_g$, linear stiffness $k_b$, and rotational stiffness $k_f$ for the gasket, bolts, and flange respectively. The solution of the flange is obtained from classical lamination theory. Basic knowledge of lamination theory for composite materials can be found in Ashton (1969) and R.M. Jones (1980).\n\nIn order to study FRP bolted flange joint analytically, a flange without the hub is divided into two distinct parts which are linked together through the edge loads to satisfy equilibrium. Figure 2.2 (a) shows the flange in phase i or bolt-up and figure 2.2 (b) shows the flange in phase f or pressurization. Point 1 in the figure is considered as the junction point between the ring and shell.\n\n2.3.1 Analytical model of the shell (Cylinder theory)\n\nThe cylinder part of the FRP flange is modeled as an axisymmetric laminated shell which is subjected to internal pressure $p_0$ and edge loads $p_w$. The shell is considered as a long cylinder of semi-infinite length i.e. the length is greater than $\\pi/b$. The thin shell theory will apply for cases with a thickness-to-radius ratio less than or equal to 0.1. At the finite end, the shell is...\n\nsubjected to the discontinuity shear force $Q$ and edge moment $M$. The long thin cylinder equations for the displacements, rotation, bending moments, and shearing forces in terms of conditions at any locations $x$ are given by the theory of beams on elastic foundation. The analytical models of the shell in two phases of bolt-up and pressurization are shown in figure 2.3.\n\nAs illustrated in figure 2.3:\n\n$Q_1^i$ and $Q_1^f$ are the shear forces at the junction of the ring and the shell;\n\n$M_1^i$ and $M_1^f$ are the bending moment at the junction of the ring and the shell;\n\n$p_o$ is a pressure on the inside surface of the shell;\n\n$p_w$ is the effect of hydrostatic end pressure on the top surface of the shell;\n\n$N_x$ is the hydrostatic end force;\n\nDue to the axial symmetry that applies to the shell and its loading forces, none of the variables depends on the angle $\\theta$. Consequently, all the partial derivatives with respect to $\\theta$ in the equilibrium equations are equal to zero.\n\nAs shown in figure 2.4 the equilibrium equations for the shell in $x\\theta$ coordinate system can be derived as:\n\n$$N_x = cste \\quad (2.1)$$\n\n$$\\frac{dN_{x\\theta}}{dx} + \\frac{1}{r} \\frac{dM_{x\\theta}}{dx} = 0 \\quad (2.2)$$\n\n$$\\frac{d^2M_S}{dx^2} - \\frac{N_\\theta}{r} = -p_o \\quad (2.3)$$\n\nFigure 2-4 Shell element model\n\nThe relation between the forces and moments resultant and the strains in a thin laminate in \\(xy\\) coordinate system is:\n\n\\[\n\\begin{bmatrix}\nN_x \\\\\nN_y \\\\\nN_{xy} \\\\\nM_x \\\\\nM_y \\\\\nM_{xy}\n\\end{bmatrix} = \n\\begin{bmatrix}\nA_{s,11} & A_{s,12} & A_{s,16} & B_{s,11} & B_{s,12} & B_{s,16} \\\\\nA_{s,12} & A_{s,22} & A_{s,26} & B_{s,12} & B_{s,22} & B_{s,26} \\\\\nA_{s,16} & A_{s,26} & A_{s,66} & B_{s,16} & B_{s,26} & B_{s,66} \\\\\nB_{s,11} & B_{s,12} & B_{s,16} & D_{s,11} & D_{s,12} & D_{s,16} \\\\\nB_{s,12} & B_{s,22} & B_{s,26} & D_{s,12} & D_{s,22} & D_{s,26} \\\\\nB_{s,16} & B_{s,26} & B_{s,66} & D_{s,16} & D_{s,26} & D_{s,66}\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\varepsilon^0_x \\\\\n\\varepsilon^0_y \\\\\n\\gamma^0_{xy} \\\\\n\\kappa_x \\\\\n\\kappa_y \\\\\n\\kappa_{xy}\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\] \n\n(2.4)\n\nwhere: \\(A_{ij}, B_i\\) and \\(D_{ij}\\) are the stiffness coefficients and can be defined as follows:\n\n\\[\nA_{s,ij} = \\sum_{k=1}^{N} (Q_{ij})_k (z_k - z_{k-1})\n\\] \n\n(2.5)\n\n\\[\nB_{s,ij} = \\frac{1}{2} \\sum_{k=1}^{N} (Q_{ij})_k (z_k^2 - z_{k-1}^2)\n\\] \n\n(2.6)\n\n\\[\nD_{s,ij} = \\frac{1}{3} \\sum_{k=1}^{N} (Q_{ij})_k (z_k^3 - z_{k-1}^3)\n\\] \n\n(2.7)\n\nAccording to the symmetrical laminate shell:\n\n\\[\nA_{p,16} = A_{p,26} = 0\n\\]\n\n\\[\nA_{s,16} = 0\n\\]\n\n\\[\nA_{s,26} = 0\n\\]\n\n\\[\n[B] = 0,\n\\]\n\nThe stress resultants are further related to shell displacement:\n\n\\[\nN_x = cste = A_{s,11} \\frac{dw^0}{dx} - A_{s,12} \\frac{u}{r}\n\\] \n\n(2.8)\n\n\\[ N_\\theta = A_{s,12} \\frac{dw^0}{dx} - A_{s,22} \\frac{u}{r} \\] \n(2.9)\n\n\\[ M_x = -D_{s,11} \\frac{d^2 u}{dx^2} \\] \n(2.10)\n\n\\[ M_\\theta = -D_{s,12} \\frac{d^2 u}{dx^2} = -\\frac{D_{s,12}}{D_{s,11}} M_r \\] \n(2.11)\n\n\\[ M_{x\\theta} = -\\frac{D_{s,16}}{D_{s,11}} M_r \\] \n(2.12)\n\nCombining Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9), it is possible to express \\( N_\\theta \\) as a function of:\n\n\\[ N_\\theta = \\frac{u}{r} \\left( A_{s,22} - \\frac{A_{s,12}^2}{A_{s,11}} \\right) + \\frac{A_{s,12}}{A_{s,11}} N_x \\] \n(2.13)\n\nFrom Eqs. (2.10) and (2.13) the following is obtained:\n\n\\[ D_{s,11} \\frac{d^4 u}{dx^4} + \\frac{u}{r^2} \\left( A_{s,22} - \\frac{A_{s,12}^2}{A_{s,11}} \\right) + \\frac{A_{s,12}}{A_{s,11}} \\frac{N_x}{r} = p_o \\] \n(2.14)\n\nThe radial displacement of the shell after integration is given by:\n\n\\[ u = C_1 e^{\\beta_s x} \\cos(\\beta_s x) + C_2 e^{\\beta_s x} \\sin(\\beta_s x) + C_3 e^{-\\beta_s x} \\cos(\\beta_s x) + C_4 e^{-\\beta_s x} \\sin(\\beta_s x) \\] \n(2.15)\n\nwhere\n\n\\[ \\beta_s = \\left[ \\frac{A_{s,22} A_{s,11} - A_{s,12}^2}{4 r_s^2 D_{s,11} A_{s,11}} \\right]^{1/4} \\] \n(2.16)\n\nThe general solution after simplification of Eq. (2.15) is:\n\n\\[ u = e^{\\beta_s x} [C_1 \\cos(\\beta_s x) + C_2 \\sin(\\beta_s x)] + e^{-\\beta_s x} [C_3 \\cos(\\beta_s x) + C_4 \\sin(\\beta_s x)] \\] \n\n(2.17)\n\nThe integral constants \\( C_1, C_2, C_3 \\) and \\( C_4 \\) will be determined from the boundary conditions. Since the cylinder is considered as a long and infinite shell, the displacement of the shell is zero when \\( x \\) tends to infinity.\n\n\\[ \\lim_{x \\to +\\infty} u = 0 \\] \n\n(2.18)\n\nAnd therefore:\n\n\\[ \\lim_{x \\to +\\infty} \\frac{du}{dx} = \\lim_{x \\to +\\infty} \\Theta = 0 \\] \n\n(2.19)\n\nThis will result in:\n\n\\( C_1 = 0 \\) and \\( C_2 = 0 \\).\n\nSubstituting \\( C_1 \\) and \\( C_2 \\) in the Eq. (2.17), we get:\n\n\\[ u = e^{-\\beta_s x} [C_3 \\cos(\\beta_s x) + C_4 \\sin(\\beta_s x)] \\] \n\n(2.20)\n\nThe constants \\( C_3 \\) and \\( C_4 \\) are determined from the compatibility and boundary conditions: At \\( x = 0 \\), then, \\( M = M_j^n \\) and \\( Q = Q_j^n \\).\n\nTherefore, the displacement including the effect of pressure and rotation is given by:\n\n\\[ u = \\frac{1}{2\\beta_s^2 D_{s,11}} e^{-\\beta_s x} [Q_1^n \\cos(\\beta_s x) + \\beta_s M_1^n (\\cos(\\beta_s x) - \\sin(\\beta_s x))] + \\frac{A_{s,11} - \\frac{1}{2} A_{s,12}}{4\\beta_s^2 A_{s,11} D_{s,11}} p_o \\] \n\n(2.21)\n\n\\[ \\psi = \\frac{du}{dx} = \\frac{1}{2\\beta_s^2 D_{s,11}} e^{-\\beta_s x} \\left[ Q_1^u (\\cos(\\beta_s x) - \\sin(\\beta_s x)) + 2\\beta_s M_1^u (\\cos(\\beta_s x)) \\right] \\tag{2.22} \\]\n\n### 2.3.2 Analytical model of the flange ring (ring theory)\n\nFor the analytical analysis of FRP flanges, a number of theories were developed by Black (1994) and Sun (1995) but the theory based on the Kirchhoff-Love hypothesis can better characterize their behavior. In this theory, the transverse shear deformation is neglected and after deformation, the straight lines normal to the middle surface remain straight and undergo no thickness stretching.\n\n\n\nAs shown in this figure:\n\n- \\( F_B^t \\) and \\( F_B^f \\) are the tightening force that applied through the bolts;\n- \\( F_G^t \\) and \\( F_G^f \\) are the forces resulting from compressing the gasket;\n- \\( Q_1^t \\) and \\( Q_1^f \\) are the shear forces at the junction of the ring and the shell;\n\n$M_1^t$ and $M_1^{tf}$ are the bending moment at the junction of the ring and the shell;\n\n$p_o$ is a pressure on the inside surface of the ring;\n\n$N_x$ is the membrane force due to hydrostatic end effect;\n\nThe ring part of the composite flange is considered to be a circular ring subjected to a moment in the tangential direction and ring loads in the radial and axial directions on its free inner edge and balanced by simple support on its outer edge. The analytical model of the ring subjected to bolt-up and pressurization is shown in Figure 2.5. The ring part of the composite flange is considered to be a circular ring subjected to a moment in the tangential direction and ring loads in the radial and axial directions on its free inner edge and balanced by simple support on its outer edge. Therefore, the theory of a thick-walled cylinder must be used to obtain the radial displacement of the ring.\n\nAccording to the theory of thin plates, the transverse displacement $w$ of the ring in the x-direction subjected to a concentrated force can be expressed as follows:\n\n$$w(r) = \\frac{Fr^2}{8\\pi D_{p,11}} \\left( \\ln \\left( \\frac{r}{r_o} \\right) - 1 \\right) - C_2 \\ln \\left( \\frac{r}{r_o} \\right) - \\frac{C_1 r^2}{4} + C_3$$\n\n(2.23)\n\nThe rotation about a tangential axis of the ring is obtained from the derivation with respect to $r$ of $w$:\n\n$$\\psi(r) = \\frac{dw}{dr} = \\frac{Fr}{8\\pi D_{p,11}} \\left( 2 \\ln \\left( \\frac{r}{r_o} \\right) - 1 \\right) - \\frac{C_2}{r} - \\frac{C_1 r}{2}$$\n\n(2.24)\n\nwhere $F$ is the force applied to the ring. The constants $C_1$, $C_2$ and $C_3$ are determined from the following boundary conditions:\n\nat $r = r_l$, \\quad w = 0\n\n(2.25)\n\nat \\( r = r_i \\), \\quad M_r = M_1^n - \\frac{t_f}{2} Q_1^n \\tag{2.26}\n\nat \\( r = r_o \\), \\quad M_r = 0 \\tag{2.27}\n\nwhere n is equal to i for the bolt-up and f for the pressurization.\n\n\\[\nM_r = D_{p,11} \\frac{d^2 w}{dr^2} + \\frac{D_{p,12}}{r} \\frac{dw}{dr} \\tag{2.28}\n\\]\n\nThen the constants are obtained as follows:\n\n\\[\nC_1 = -\\frac{1}{4\\pi D_{p,11}(r_o^2 - r_i^2)(D_{p,11} + D_{p,12})} \\left[ (D_{p,12} - D_{p,11})(r_o^2 - r_i^2)F + 2(D_{p,12} + D_{p,11})r_i^2 \\log \\left( \\frac{r_i}{r_o} \\right) - 8\\pi r_i^2 D_{p,11} \\left( M_1^n - \\frac{t_f}{2} Q_1^n \\right) \\right] \\tag{2.29}\n\\]\n\n\\[\nC_2 = \\frac{r_o^2 r_i^2}{4\\pi D_{p,11}(r_o^2 - r_i^2)(D_{p,11} - D_{p,12})} \\left[ 4\\pi D_{p,11} \\left( M_1^n - \\frac{t_f}{2} Q_1^n \\right) - (D_{p,12} + D_{p,11}) \\log \\left( \\frac{r_i}{r_o} \\right) F \\right] \\tag{2.30}\n\\]\n\n\\[\nC_3 = \\frac{-r_i^2}{16\\pi D_{p,11}(r_o^2 - r_i^2)(D_{p,11}^2 - D_{p,12}^2)} \\left[ (D_{p,12}^2 - 3D_{p,11}^2 + 2D_{p,12}D_{p,11})(r_o^2 - r_i^2)F - 8\\pi r_i^2 (D_{p,11}^2 - D_{p,12}D_{p,11}) \\left( M_1^n - \\frac{t_f}{2} Q_1^n \\right) - 2r_o^2 (D_{p,12}^2 - D_{p,11}^2) \\log \\left( \\frac{r_i}{r_o} \\right) F - 4r_o^2 (D_{p,12}^2 + D_{p,11}^2 + 2D_{p,12}D_{p,11}) \\log^2 \\left( \\frac{r_i}{r_o} \\right) F - 16\\pi r_o^2 (D_{p,11}^2 - D_{p,12}D_{p,11}) \\log \\left( \\frac{r_i}{r_o} \\right) \\left( M_1^n - \\frac{t_f}{2} Q_1^n \\right) \\right] \\tag{2.31}\n\\]\n\nTherefore, substituting for the constant C’s Eq. (2.24) becomes:\n\n\\[\n\\psi(r) = \\frac{dw}{dr} = \\frac{rF}{8\\pi D_{p,11}} \\left( 2 \\log \\left( \\frac{r}{r_o} \\right) - 1 \\right) + \\frac{r}{8\\pi D_{p,11}(r_o^2 - r_i^2)(D_{p,11} + D_{p,12})} \\left( (r_o^2 - r_i^2)(D_{p,12} - D_{p,11})F + 2r_i^2 (D_{p,12} + D_{p,11}) \\log \\left( \\frac{r_i}{r_o} \\right) F - 8\\pi r_i^2 D_{p,11} \\left( M_1^n - \\frac{t_f}{2} Q_1^n \\right) \\right) +\n\\frac{r_o^2 r_i^2}{4\\pi r D_{p,11}(r_o^2 - r_i^2)(D_{p,11} - D_{p,12})} \\left( (D_{p,12} + D_{p,11}) \\log \\left( \\frac{r_i}{r_o} \\right) F - 4\\pi D_{p,11} \\left( M_1^n - \\frac{t_f}{2} Q_1^n \\right) \\right) \\tag{2.32}\n\\]\n\nIn order to obtain the displacement of the flange ring $u$ in the radial direction, the theory of thick-walled cylinder subjected to radial pressure is used. The displacement of the ring in different directions (r, $\\Theta$, and x) according to the classical theory of axisymmetric bending plate are given as follows:\n\n$$u^f(r,x) = u_0^f(r) + x\\psi(r) \\quad (2.33)$$\n\n$$v^f(r,x) = 0 \\quad (2.34)$$\n\n$$w^f(r,x) = w_0^f(r) \\quad (2.35)$$\n\nwhere $u^f, v^f$ and $w^f$ are the ring displacement in the r, $\\theta$ and x respectively. The subscript 0 refers to the midplane displacement of the ring.\n\nThe strain-displacement relationships in a cylindrical coordinate are as follows:\n\n$$\\varepsilon_r = \\frac{\\partial u}{\\partial r} \\quad (2.36)$$\n\n$$\\varepsilon_\\theta = \\frac{1}{r} \\frac{\\partial v}{\\partial \\theta} + \\frac{u}{r} \\quad (2.37)$$\n\n$$\\varepsilon_x = \\frac{\\partial w}{\\partial x} \\quad (2.38)$$\n\n$$\\varepsilon_{rx} = \\frac{1}{2} \\left( \\frac{\\partial u}{\\partial x} + \\frac{\\partial w}{\\partial r} \\right) \\quad (2.39)$$\n\n$$\\varepsilon_{\\theta x} = \\frac{1}{2} \\left( \\frac{\\partial v}{\\partial x} + \\frac{1}{r} \\frac{\\partial w}{\\partial \\theta} \\right) \\quad (2.40)$$\n\n$$\\varepsilon_{r\\theta} = \\frac{1}{2} \\left( \\frac{1}{r} \\frac{\\partial u}{\\partial \\theta} + \\frac{\\partial v}{\\partial r} - \\frac{v}{r} \\right) \\quad (2.41)$$\n\nThe definition of the linear strain tensor is:\n\n$$\\varepsilon_{ij} = \\frac{1}{2} \\left( u_{i,j} + u_{j,i} \\right) \\quad (2.42)$$\n\nAccording to the strain-displacement relation in a cylindrical coordinate system, the strains for these deformations are:\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_r = \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} + x \\frac{d\\psi}{dr}\n\\] \n(2.43)\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_\\theta = \\frac{u_0^f}{r} + x \\frac{\\psi}{r}\n\\] \n(2.44)\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_x = 0\n\\] \n(2.45)\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_{rx} = \\frac{1}{2} \\left( \\psi + \\frac{dw_0^f}{dr} \\right)\n\\] \n(2.46)\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_{\\theta x} = 0\n\\] \n(2.47)\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_{r\\theta} = 0\n\\] \n(2.48)\n\nThe principle of minimum total energy is used, in order to derive the governing equilibrium equations of the classic laminate plate theory. The strain energy for the circular plate is obtained from:\n\n\\[\nU = \\frac{1}{2} \\int_0^{2\\pi} \\int_{r_i}^{r_0} \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} (\\sigma_r \\varepsilon_r + \\sigma_\\theta \\varepsilon_\\theta + \\sigma_x \\varepsilon_x + 2 \\sigma_{r\\theta} \\varepsilon_{r\\theta} + 2 \\sigma_{rx} \\varepsilon_{rx} + 2 \\sigma_{\\theta x} \\varepsilon_{\\theta x}) dx \\, rdr \\, d\\theta\n\\] \n(2.49)\n\nBy integrating the above equation in respect to $\\theta$ and considering only non-zero terms of this equation, the strain energy within the plate becomes:\n\n\\[\nU = \\pi \\int_{r_i}^{r_0} \\left[ \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_r \\, dx + \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_x \\, dx + \\frac{u_0^f}{r} \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_\\theta \\, dx + \\frac{\\psi}{r} \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_\\theta \\, dx + \\psi \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_{rx} \\, dx + \\frac{dw_0^f}{dr} \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_{rx} \\, dx \\right] rdr\n\\] \n(2.50)\n\nThen, the in-plane force resultants are obtained:\n\n\\[ N_r = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_r \\, dx \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.51)\n\n\\[ N_\\theta = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_\\theta \\, dx \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.52)\n\nThe shear forces are:\n\n\\[ Q_{rx} = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_{rx} \\, dx \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.53)\n\nAnd the moments are:\n\n\\[ M_r = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_r x \\, dx \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.54)\n\n\\[ M_\\theta = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\sigma_\\theta x \\, dx \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.55)\n\nBy substituting for the stresses in Eq. (2.50), the strain energy in terms of loads is obtained:\n\n\\[ U = \\pi \\int_{r_1}^{r_0} u_0^f \\left( \\frac{d}{dr} N_r r + N_\\theta \\right) dr + \\pi \\int_{r_1}^{r_0} \\Psi \\left( \\frac{d}{dr} M_r r + M_\\theta \\right) dr + \\pi \\int_{r_1}^{r_0} \\Psi Q_{rx} r dr + \\pi \\int_{r_1}^{r_0} \\frac{d}{dr} w_0^f Q_{rx} r dr \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.56)\n\nThe work done on the ring by the different loads is given as:\n\n\\[ V = (p_o t 2\\pi r_i) u_A^f + (F_G 2\\pi r_G) w_G^f + (-F_B 2\\pi r_B) w_B^f + (-M_A 2\\pi r_i) \\Psi_A^f \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.57)\n\nThe work-energy theorem states that the net work done by the forces is equal to the change in its kinetic energy or the energy stored in the form of deformation in the system. Therefore:\n\n\\[ U = V \\] \n\n(2.58)\n\nThis may be written as:\n\n\\[\n\\pi \\int_{r_1}^{r_0} u_0^f \\left( \\frac{d}{dr} N_r r + N_\\theta \\right) dr + \\pi \\int_{r_1}^{r_0} \\psi \\left( \\frac{d}{dr} M_r r + M_\\theta \\right) dr + \\pi \\int_{r_1}^{r_0} \\psi Q_{rx} r dr + \\\\\n\\pi \\int_{r_1}^{r_0} \\frac{d}{dr} w_0^f Q_{rx} r dr = (p_o t \\pi r_i) \\times u_A^f + (F_G 2 \\pi r_G) \\times w_G^f + (-F_B 2 \\pi r_B) \\times w_B^f + (-M_A \\pi r_i) \\times \\psi_A^f\n\\]\n\n(2.59)\n\nThe equations of equilibrium are then obtained:\n\n\\[\n\\delta u_0^f : \\quad N_\\theta - \\frac{d(rN_r)}{dr} = 0\n\\]\n\n(2.60)\n\n\\[\n\\delta \\psi : \\quad M_\\theta + rQ_{rx} - \\frac{d}{dr}(rM_r) = 0\n\\]\n\n(2.61)\n\n\\[\n\\delta w_0^f : \\quad \\frac{d}{dr}(rQ_{rx}) = 0\n\\]\n\n(2.62)\n\nWith the following boundary conditions:\n\nAt \\( r = r_i \\):\n\n\\[\nrN_r = r_i(-p_o t + Q)\n\\]\n\n(2.63)\n\n\\[\nrM_r = r_i(M + \\frac{Qt}{2})\n\\]\n\n(2.64)\n\n\\[\nrQ_{rx} = -r_i F\n\\]\n\n(2.65)\n\nAt \\( r = r_0 \\):\n\n\\[\nN_r = 0\n\\]\n\n(2.66)\n\n\\[\nM_r = 0\n\\]\n\n(2.67)\n\n\\[\nw_0^f = 0\n\\]\n\n(2.68)\n\nBy considering Hooke’s law, we get:\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_r = \\frac{1}{E_r} (\\sigma_r - v_r \\sigma_\\theta) \\tag{2.69}\n\\]\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_\\theta = \\frac{1}{E_\\theta} (\\sigma_\\theta - v_\\theta \\sigma_r) \\tag{2.70}\n\\]\n\n\\[\n\\varepsilon_{rx} = \\frac{1}{2G_{rx}} \\sigma_{rx} \\tag{2.71}\n\\]\n\nwhere \\(E_r\\) and \\(E_\\theta\\) are Young's modulus in the radial and tangential directions; \\(v_r\\) and \\(v_\\theta\\) are the Poisson coefficients \\((E_r v_\\theta = E_\\theta v_r)\\); \\(G_{rx}\\) is the shear modulus in the plane r-x.\n\nThere as the stresses are obtained by:\n\n\\[\n\\sigma_r = Q_{rr} \\varepsilon_r + Q_{r\\theta} \\varepsilon_\\theta \\tag{2.72}\n\\]\n\n\\[\n\\sigma_\\theta = Q_{r\\theta} \\varepsilon_r + Q_{\\theta\\theta} \\varepsilon_\\theta \\tag{2.73}\n\\]\n\n\\[\n\\sigma_{rx} = Q_{rx} \\varepsilon_{rx} \\tag{2.74}\n\\]\n\nwhere the elastic coefficients \\(Q\\)'s are:\n\n\\[\nQ_{rr} = \\frac{E_r}{1-v_r v_\\theta} \\tag{2.75}\n\\]\n\n\\[\nQ_{r\\theta} = \\frac{E_r v_\\theta}{1-v_r v_\\theta} \\tag{2.76}\n\\]\n\n\\[\nQ_{\\theta\\theta} = \\frac{E_\\theta}{1-v_r v_\\theta} \\tag{2.77}\n\\]\n\n\\[\nQ_{rx} = 2G_{rx} \\tag{2.78}\n\\]\n\nTherefore, the plate forces and moments of Eqs. (2.51) to (2.55) can be expressed in terms of displacement and rotation:\n\n\\[ N_r = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\left[ Q_{rr} \\left( \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} + x \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} \\right) + Q_{r\\theta} \\left( \\frac{u_0^f}{r} + x \\frac{\\psi}{r} \\right) \\right] dx \\tag{2.79} \\]\n\n\\[ N_\\theta = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\left[ Q_{r\\theta} \\left( \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} + x \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} \\right) + Q_{\\theta\\theta} \\left( \\frac{u_0^f}{r} + x \\frac{\\psi}{r} \\right) \\right] dx \\tag{2.80} \\]\n\n\\[ M_r = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\left[ Q_{rr} \\left( \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} + x \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} \\right) + Q_{r\\theta} \\left( \\frac{u_0^f}{r} + x \\frac{\\psi}{r} \\right) \\right] x \\, dx \\tag{2.81} \\]\n\n\\[ M_\\theta = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\left[ Q_{r\\theta} \\left( \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} + x \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} \\right) + Q_{\\theta\\theta} \\left( \\frac{u_0^f}{r} + x \\frac{\\psi}{r} \\right) \\right] x \\, dx \\tag{2.82} \\]\n\n\\[ Q_{rx} = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} \\left[ \\frac{Q_{rx}}{2} \\left( \\psi + \\frac{dw_0^f}{dr} \\right) \\right] dx \\tag{2.83} \\]\n\nThen, these equations can be simplified to:\n\n\\[ N_r = \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} A_{p,11} + \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} B_{p,11} + \\frac{u_0^f}{r} A_{p,12} + \\frac{\\psi}{r} B_{p,12} \\tag{2.84} \\]\n\n\\[ N_\\theta = \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} A_{p,12} + \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} B_{p,12} + \\frac{u_0^f}{r} A_{p,22} + \\frac{\\psi}{r} B_{p,22} \\tag{2.85} \\]\n\n\\[ M_r = \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} B_{p,11} + \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} D_{p,11} + \\frac{u_0^f}{r} B_{p,12} + \\frac{\\psi}{r} D_{p,12} \\tag{2.86} \\]\n\n\\[ M_\\theta = \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} B_{p,12} + \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} D_{p,12} + \\frac{u_0^f}{r} B_{p,22} + \\frac{\\psi}{r} D_{p,22} \\tag{2.87} \\]\n\n\\[ Q_{rx} = \\frac{1}{2} \\left( \\psi + \\frac{dw_0^f}{dr} \\right) A_{p,16} \\tag{2.88} \\]\n\nwhere the stiffness coefficients for the ring are:\n\n\\[ (A_{p,11}, A_{p,12}, A_{p,22}) = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} (Q_{rr}, Q_{r\\theta}, Q_{\\theta\\theta}) \\, dx \\tag{2.89} \\]\n\n\\[ (B_{p,11}, B_{p,12}, B_{p,22}) = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} (Q_{rr}, Q_{r\\theta}, Q_{\\theta\\theta}) \\, x \\, dx \\tag{2.90} \\]\n\n\\[\n(D_{p,11}, D_{p,12}, D_{p,22}) = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} (Q_{rr}, Q_{r\\theta}, Q_{\\theta\\theta}) x^2 dx \\tag{2.91}\n\\]\n\n\\[A_{p,16} = \\int_{-\\frac{t}{2}}^{\\frac{t}{2}} (Q_{rx}) dx \\tag{2.92}\\]\n\nWhen the material properties are symmetrical with respect to the plate mid-plane then:\n\n\\[B_{p,11} = B_{p,12} = B_{p,22} = 0 \\tag{2.93}\\]\n\nThe forces and moments (2.84) to (2.88) can be simplified to:\n\n\\[N_r = \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} A_{rr} + \\frac{u_0^f}{r} A_{r\\theta} \\tag{2.94}\\]\n\n\\[N_\\theta = \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} A_{p,11} + \\frac{u_0^f}{r} A_{p,12} \\tag{2.95}\\]\n\n\\[M_r = \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} D_{p,12} + \\frac{\\psi}{r} D_{p,12} \\tag{2.96}\\]\n\n\\[M_\\theta = \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} D_{p,12} + \\frac{\\psi}{r} D_{p,11} \\tag{2.97}\\]\n\n\\[Q_{rx} = \\frac{1}{2} \\left( \\psi + \\frac{dw_0^f}{dr} \\right) A_{p,16} \\tag{2.98}\\]\n\nNow, the equilibrium Eqs. (2.60), (2.61) and (2.62) can be rearranged as follows:\n\n\\[\\delta u_0^f : r^2 \\frac{d^2 u_0^f}{dr^2} + r \\frac{du_0^f}{dr} - \\frac{A_{p,22}}{A_{p,11}} u_0^f = 0 \\tag{2.99}\\]\n\nWith the following boundary condition:\n\nAt \\(r = r_i, \\ rQ_{rx} = -r_i F \\tag{2.100}\\)\n\nThen\n\n\\[ r \\frac{d^2 \\psi}{dr^2} + \\frac{d\\psi}{dr} - \\frac{D_{p,22}\\psi}{D_{p,11}r} = -\\frac{r_1 F}{D_{p,11}} \\] \n\n(2.101)\n\nHence, equation (2.99) becomes:\n\n\\[ u_0^f = \\frac{(p_0 t - Q)(r_0)^{m_2-1}}{4(A_{p,12} + \\sqrt{A_{p,22}A_{p,11}})\\Delta} r^{m_1} + \\frac{(-p_0 t + Q)(r_0)^{m_1-1}}{4(A_{p,12} - \\sqrt{A_{p,22}A_{p,11}})\\Delta} r^{m_2} \\] \n\n(2.102)\n\nwhere:\n\n\\[ m_1 = \\sqrt{\\frac{A_{p,22}}{A_{p,11}}} \\]\n\n\\[ m_2 = -m_1 \\]\n\n\\[ \\Delta = (2r_o)^{m_1-1}(2r_1)^{m_2-1} - (2r_o)^{m_2-1}(2r_1)^{m_1-1} \\] \n\n(2.103)\n\nIn the case of equivalent elastic properties of the ring in the radial and tangential directions, we get:\n\n\\[ A_{p,22} = A_{p,11} \\]\n\n\\[ m_1 = -m_2 = 1 \\]\n\n\\[ \\Delta = \\frac{r_o^2 - r_1^2}{2r_o^2 r_1^2} \\]\n\nTherefore, the radial displacement of the ring is given by:\n\n\\[ u_0^f(r) = \\frac{(p_0 t - Q)r_o^2}{(A_{p,12} + A_{p,11})(r_o^2 - r_1^2)} \\times r + \\frac{(-p_0 t + Q)r_o^2 r_1^2}{4(A_{p,12} - A_{p,11})(r_o^2 - r_1^2)} \\times \\frac{1}{r} \\] \n\n(2.104)\n\n2.4 Theoretical analysis of FRP bolted flange joints with the hub\n\nThe analytical model of FRP bolted flange joint with the hub is illustrated in figure 2.6. In order to study FRP flange bolted flange joint analytically, a flange with the hub is divided into three distinct parts which are connected to one another. Figure 2.6 (a) shows the flange in phase $n=i$ or bolt-up and figure 2.6 (b) shows the flange in phase $n=f$ or pressurization. Point 1 in the figure is considered as the junction point between the ring and the shell and point 2 is considered as the junction point between hub and shell. It is important to note that the analytical approach for the ring and the shell of the FRP flange with the hub is the same as the model elaborated in section 2.3. Therefore, in this part, the analytical model of only the hub is developed and elaborated in detail based on the beam on elastic foundation theory applied to short thin cylinders. Nevertheless, for reiteration, the theories used for the shell and ring are the theory of the beams on an elastic foundation for long cylinders and the theory of thin plate under bending respectively.\n\nAs mentioned earlier, For FRP flanges with a full-face gasket the centroid of a circular sector of the unit width is considered to be in equilibrium in all directions. To simplify the analysis considerably, the thickness of the hub is assumed to be small compared to the radius, then the mid-surface line of the hub remains almost parallel to that for the shell. It is also fair to assume that the model is considered symmetrical. It is intuitively recognized that the applied loads on each flange depend on the initial load on the bolts, the internal pressure and the reaction of the gasket.\n\n2.4.1 Analytical model of the hub\n\nThe analytical model of the hub can be simplified by a thin cylinder subjected to an axisymmetric loading. Figure 2.7 depicts the analytical model of the hub at bolt-up and pressurization.\n\nFigure 2-6 Analytical model for the FRP flange with the hub (a) bolt-up (b) pressurization\n\nIn this model, the length of the hub is considered short less than $\\pi/\\beta$ and the thickness of the hub to its radius is less than 0.1 such that thin cylinder theory can be used. At the top and bottom surface of the hub, it is subjected to the discontinuity shear force $Q$ and moment $M$ in addition to the hydrostatic end force $N_x$.\n\nAs shown in figure 2.6:\n\n- $Q_1^i$ and $Q_1^f$ are the shear forces at the junction of the ring and the shell;\n- $M_1^i$ and $M_1^f$ are the bending moment at the junction of the ring and the shell;\n- $p_o$ is a pressure on the inside surface of the shell;\n- $N_x$ is the membrane force produced by the hydrostatic end force;\n\nSimilar to the shell analysis, due to the axial symmetry of the hub, none of the variables depends on the angle $\\theta$ and consequently, all the partial derivatives with respect to $\\theta$ are equal to zero.\n\nThe equilibrium equations of the hub can be derived as:\n\n\\[ N_x = \\text{cste} \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.105)\n\n\\[ \\frac{dN_{x\\theta}}{dx} + \\frac{1}{r} \\frac{dM_{x\\theta}}{dx} = 0 \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.106)\n\n\\[ \\frac{d^2M_x}{dx^2} - \\frac{N_\\theta}{r} = -p_o \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.107)\n\nThe relation between the stress resultants and strains are:\n\n\\[\n\\begin{pmatrix}\nN_x \\\\\nN_y \\\\\nN_{xy} \\\\\nM_x \\\\\nM_y \\\\\nM_{xy}\n\\end{pmatrix}\n=\n\\begin{bmatrix}\nA_{h,11} & A_{h,12} & A_{h,16} & B_{h,11} & B_{h,12} & B_{h,16} \\\\\nA_{h,12} & A_{h,22} & A_{h,26} & B_{h,12} & B_{h,22} & B_{h,26} \\\\\nA_{h,16} & A_{h,26} & A_{h,66} & B_{h,16} & B_{h,26} & B_{h,66} \\\\\nB_{h,11} & B_{h,12} & B_{h,16} & D_{h,11} & D_{h,12} & D_{h,16} \\\\\nB_{h,12} & B_{h,22} & B_{h,26} & D_{h,12} & D_{h,22} & D_{h,26} \\\\\nB_{h,16} & B_{h,26} & B_{h,66} & D_{h,16} & D_{h,26} & D_{h,66}\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\begin{pmatrix}\n\\varepsilon_x^0 \\\\\n\\varepsilon_y^0 \\\\\n\\gamma_{xy}^0 \\\\\nk_x \\\\\nk_y \\\\\nk_{xy}\n\\end{pmatrix}\n\\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.108)\n\nwhere:\n\n\\( A_{ij}, B_i \\) and \\( D_{ij} \\) are the stiffness coefficients and can be defined as follows:\n\n\\[ A_{h,ij} = \\sum_{k=1}^{N} \\left( Q_{ij} \\right)_k (z_k - z_{k-1}) \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.109)\n\n\\[ B_{h,ij} = \\frac{1}{2} \\sum_{k=1}^{N} \\left( Q_{ij} \\right)_k (z_k^2 - z_{k-1}^2) \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.110)\n\n\\[ D_{h,ij} = \\frac{1}{3} \\sum_{k=1}^{N} \\left( Q_{ij} \\right)_k (z_k^3 - z_{k-1}^3) \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.111)\n\nAccording to the symmetrical laminate shell:\n\n\\[ A_{p,16} = A_{p,26} = 0 \\]\n\n\\[ A_{h,16} = 0 \\]\n\\[ A_{h,26} = 0 \\]\n\\[ [B] = 0, \\]\n\nThe forces and moments resultant are further related to the shell displacement:\n\n\\[\nN_x = cste = A_{h,11} \\frac{dw^0}{dx} - A_{h,12} \\frac{u}{r}\n\\] \n(2.112)\n\n\\[\nN_\\theta = A_{h,12} \\frac{dw^0}{dx} - A_{h,22} \\frac{u}{r}\n\\] \n(2.113)\n\n\\[\nM_x = -D_{h,11} \\frac{d^2 u}{dx^2}\n\\] \n(2.114)\n\n\\[\nM_\\theta = -D_{h,12} \\frac{d^2 u}{dx^2} = -\\frac{D_{h,12}}{D_{h,11}} M_r\n\\] \n(2.115)\n\n\\[\nM_{x\\theta} = -\\frac{D_{h,16}}{D_{h,11}} M_r\n\\] \n(2.116)\n\nIt is possible to obtain \\( N_\\theta \\) in term of \\( N_x \\) such that: as:\n\n\\[\nN_\\theta = \\frac{u}{r} \\left( A_{h,22} - \\frac{A_{h,12}^2}{A_{h,11}} \\right) + \\frac{A_{h,12}}{A_{h,11}} N_x\n\\] \n(2.117)\n\nFrom equations (2.114) and (2.117) the following is obtained:\n\n\\[\nD_{h,11} \\frac{d^4 u}{dx^4} + \\frac{u}{r^2} \\left( A_{h,22} - \\frac{A_{h,12}^2}{A_{h,11}} \\right) + \\frac{A_{h,12}}{A_{h,11}} \\frac{N_x}{r} = p_o\n\\] \n(2.118)\n\nThe radial displacement of the shell after integration is:\n\n\\[ u = C_1 e^{\\beta_h x} \\cos(\\beta_h x) + C_2 e^{\\beta_h x} \\sin(\\beta_h x) + C_3 e^{-\\beta_h x} \\cos(\\beta_h x) + C_4 e^{-\\beta_h x} \\sin(\\beta_h x) \\quad (2.119) \\]\n\nThe general solution after simplification of the equation is:\n\n\\[ u = e^{\\beta_h x} [C_1 \\cos(\\beta_h x) + C_2 \\sin(\\beta_h x)] + e^{-\\beta_h x} [C_3 \\cos(\\beta_h x) + C_4 \\sin(\\beta_h x)] \\quad (2.120) \\]\n\nThe rotation \\( \\Theta \\), Moment M and shear forces Q are given as follows:\n\n\\[ \\Theta = \\frac{du}{dx} \\quad (2.121) \\]\n\n\\[ M_x = -D_{11} \\frac{d^2 u}{dx^2} \\quad (2.122) \\]\n\n\\[ Q = \\frac{dM_x}{dx} = -D_{11} \\frac{d^2 w}{dx^2} \\quad (2.123) \\]\n\nThe integral constants \\( C_1, C_2, C_3 \\) and \\( C_4 \\) will be determined from the boundary conditions.\n\nAt \\( x = 0 \\), then \\( M_x = M^n_i \\) and \\( Q = Q^n_f \\)\n\nAt \\( x = l_h \\), then \\( M_x = M^n_j \\) and \\( Q = Q^n_j \\)\n\n### 2.5 Axial compatibility:\n\nThe equations for compatibility requiring continuity of the rotation and radial displacement can be used with the equations of equilibrium to form a system of equations with nine unknowns for the pressurization state. The final bolt load \\( F_B^f \\) for the operating condition can be obtained from the geometric compatibility consideration in the axial direction that is the relation to the nut axial displacement that is equal during initial bolt-up and pressurization. Before applying the internal pressure, the bolt initial force \\( F_B^i \\), which is the required bolt load to satisfy both the requirements of seating and operating conditions, should be previously\n\ndefined and therefore is known. Consequently, our system of equations will be reduced by one unknown.\n\nFigure 2.8 illustrates the compatibility of displacement based on the axial distance traveled by the nut during the tightening process. It is to be noted that this distance is the sum of the displacement of the flange due to the rotation, the elongation of the bolt and the compression of the gasket all in the axial direction.\n\n\n\nThe nut axial displacement corresponding to the actual number of turns necessary to achieve the required preload remains unchanged between the initial pre-tightening state (i) and during the final pressurization state (f). As a matter of fact, this axial displacement does not change from the initial state or bolt-up to any other state including pressure, temperature, bending and creep loading. As shown in figure 2.8 the sum of the axial displacement of all parts of the bolted flange joints is involved. At the junction of the three parts of the flange, the\n\ndisplacements and rotations must be equal, based on the requirement of continuity. Therefore, the compatibility equations are as follows:\n\nThe radial displacements and rotations of the ring are equal to the radial displacements and rotations of the hub at point 1:\n\nInitial pre-tightening state (i)\n\n\\[\n\\psi_{1,p}^i = \\psi_{1,h}^i \\\\\nu_{1,p}^i = u_{1,h}^i\n\\]\n\nFinal pressurization state (f)\n\n\\[\n\\psi_{1,p}^f = \\psi_{1,h}^f \\\\\nu_{1,p}^f = u_{1,h}^f\n\\]\n\nThe radial displacements and rotations of the hub are equal to the radial displacements and rotations of the shell at point 2.\n\nInitial pre-tightening state (i)\n\n\\[\n\\psi_{2,h}^i = \\psi_{2,s}^i \\\\\nu_{2,h}^i = u_{2,s}^i\n\\]\n\nFinal pressurization state (f)\n\n\\[\n\\psi_{2,h}^f = \\psi_{2,s}^f \\\\\nu_{2,h}^f = u_{2,s}^f\n\\]\n\nConsidering the axial equilibrium\n\nInitial pre-tightening state (i)\n\n\\[ F_B^i = F_G^i \\] \n\n(2.132)\n\nFinal pressurization state (f)\n\n\\[ F_B^f = F_G^f + p_o A_p \\] \n\n(2.133)\n\nAnd according to the axial compatibility\n\n\\[ \\sum_{i=1}^{m} w_i^i = \\sum_{i=1}^{m} w_i^f \\] \n\n(2.134)\n\nor\n\n\\[ w_B^i + w_G^i + w_P^i = w_B^f + w_G^f + w_P^f \\] \n\n(2.135)\n\nSubstituting the displacements and rotations into (2.135), the following is obtained:\n\n\\[ \\frac{F_B^i}{K_B} + \\frac{F_G^i}{K_G} + 2(r_B - r_G) \\psi_{1,p}^i = \\frac{F_B^f}{K_B} + \\frac{F_G^f}{K_G} + 2(r_B - r_G) \\psi_{1,p}^f \\] \n\n(2.136)\n\nSubstituting equations (2.133) and (2.134) gives:\n\n\\[ F_B^f \\left( \\frac{1}{K_B} + \\frac{1}{K_G} \\right) = \\left( \\frac{1}{K_B} + \\frac{1}{K_G} \\right) F_B^i + 2(r_B - r_G)(\\psi_{1,p}^i - \\psi_{1,p}^f) + \\frac{A_p}{K_G} p_o \\] \n\n(2.137)\n\nAfter assembling the above equations, a system of 9 unknowns is obtained and it is possible to set these equations in a matrix form to solve for the unknowns.\n\n\\[ [U] = [C] \\backslash [V] \\] \n\n(2.138)\n\nwhere \\([C]\\) is a square matrix and \\([V]\\) is a vector. The matrix \\([U]\\) is a vector the elements of which are the unknowns and are the edges forces and moments, the radial displacements and the rotations of each junction.\n\nThe coefficients matrixes are defined as follows:\n\n\\[\n[C] = \\begin{bmatrix}\n-B_{11} & B_{12} & G_{11} & G_{12} & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n-B_{12} & B_{22} & G_{12} & G_{22} & 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 \\\\\n-G_{11} & G_{12} & B_{11} & B_{12} & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 \\\\\nG_{12} & -G_{22} & -B_{12} & -B_{22} & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 \\\\\n2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 2\\rho_h^4 D_{h,11} & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n\\frac{1}{2\\rho_s^4 D_{s,11}} & \\frac{1}{2\\rho_s^4 D_{s,11}} & 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n-1 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & -(L_{21} - L_{22}) & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & \\frac{t_f}{2} & 0 \\\\\n0 & 0 & \\frac{t_f}{2} L_{26} & -L_{26} & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & \\frac{r_B - r_G}{2\\pi r_m} L_{27} \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2(r_B - r_G) & \\frac{1}{\\kappa_B} + \\frac{1}{\\kappa_G}\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\]\n\n(2.139)\n\n\\[\n[V] = \\begin{bmatrix}\n-\\frac{A_{h,11} - \\frac{1}{2} A_{h,12}}{4\\rho_h^4 A_{h,11} D_{h,11}} p_o \\\\\n0 \\\\\n-\\frac{A_{h,11} - \\frac{1}{2} A_{h,12}}{4\\rho_h^4 A_{h,11} D_{h,11}} p_o \\\\\n0 \\\\\n-\\frac{A_{s,11} - \\frac{1}{2} A_{s,12}}{4\\rho_s^4 A_{s,11} D_{s,11}} p_o \\\\\n0 \\\\\n-(L_1 - L_2) t_f p_o \\\\\n-(r_G - r_f)(r_G^2 + r_f^2) \\frac{p_o}{4\\pi m} L_{27} \\\\\n\\left(\\frac{1}{\\kappa_S} + \\frac{1}{\\kappa_G}\\right) F_B^f + 2(r_B - r_G) \\psi_f l + \\frac{A_p}{\\kappa_G} p_o\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\]\n\n(2.140)\n\nTo simplify the derivations the following coefficients are defined:\n\n\\[\nL_{21} = \\frac{-r_I^2}{(r_o^2 - r_I^2)(A_{p,12} + A_{p,11})}\n\\] (2.141)\n\n\\[\nL_{22} = \\frac{-r_I r_o^2}{(r_o^2 - r_I^2)(A_{p,12} - A_{p,11})}\n\\] (2.142)\n\n\\[\nL_{23} = \\frac{r_I - 2r_I \\log\\left(\\frac{r_I}{r_o}\\right)}{8\\pi D_{p,11}}\n\\] (2.143)\n\n\\[\nL_{24} = -\\frac{(r_o^2 r_I + r_I^3)(D_{p,12} - D_{p,11}) + 2r_I^3 \\log\\left(\\frac{r_I}{r_o}\\right)(D_{p,11} + D_{p,12})}{8\\pi D_{p,11}(r_o^2 - r_I^2)(D_{p,11} + D_{p,12})}\n\\] (2.144)\n\n\\[\nL_{25} = \\frac{-r_o^2 r_I \\log\\left(\\frac{r_I}{r_o}\\right)(D_{p,11} + D_{p,12})}{4D_{p,11}\\pi(r_o^2 - r_I^2)(D_{p,11} - D_{p,12})}\n\\] (2.145)\n\n\\[\nL_{26} = L_{21} + L_{22}\n\\] (2.146)\n\n\\[\nL_{27} = L_{23} + L_{24} + L_{25}\n\\] (2.147)\n\nTo obtain the final bolt force \\( F_B^f \\) which depends on the flange parameters as well as the inside pressure, first the unknown vector \\([U^I]\\) has to be solved for the initial bolt-up condition with a known initial bolt force \\( F_B^i \\). The solution gives, in particular, the rotation of the flange in the initial tightening condition that used in the last row in \\([U^f]\\) of the final condition to solve for the bolt force \\( F_B^f \\).\n\n\\[ [U^i] = \\begin{bmatrix} Q_2^i \\\\ M_2^i \\\\ Q_1^i \\\\ M_1^i \\\\ u_2^i \\\\ \\psi_2^i \\\\ u_1^i \\\\ \\psi_1^i \\\\ F_B^i \\end{bmatrix} \\tag{2.148} \\]\n\n\\[ [U^f] = \\begin{bmatrix} Q_2^f \\\\ M_2^f \\\\ Q_1^f \\\\ M_1^f \\\\ u_2^f \\\\ \\psi_2^f \\\\ u_1^f \\\\ \\psi_1^f \\\\ F_B^f \\end{bmatrix} \\tag{2.149} \\]\n\n### 2.6 Stress calculation\n\nTo calculate the stresses and displacements for either the flange with the hub or without the hub, the solution of the two vectors \\( [U^i] \\) and \\( [U^f] \\) is conducted one after the other. The case of the flange without the hub could be treated as one with the hub having the same materials and thickness as the shell. In fact, these results make it possible to calculate the following parameters in the initial n=i and final n=f phases of the bolted flange joint:\n\n- \\( u^n(x) \\) Radial displacement\n- \\( \\psi^n(x) \\) Rotation\n- \\( M^n(x) \\) Bending moment\n- \\( Q^n(x) \\) Shearing force\n- \\( N_l^n(x) \\) Longitudinal force\n- \\( N_t^n(x) \\) Tangential force\n\n$\\sigma_{l,l}^n$ Longitudinal stress inside surface of the flange\n\n$\\sigma_{t,l}^n$ Tangential stress inside surface of the flange\n\n$\\sigma_{l,o}^n$ Longitudinal stress outside the surface of the flange\n\n$\\sigma_{t,o}^n$ Tangential stress outside the surface of the flange\n\n### 2.6.1 Hub laminate:\n\nEquations (2.150) to (2.153) below are used to calculate the displacement and stresses in the hub:\n\n$$F_{11}(\\beta_h x) = \\frac{1}{2} [\\cosh(\\beta_h x) \\sin(\\beta_h x) - \\sinh(\\beta_h x) \\cos(\\beta_h x)] \\quad (2.150)$$\n\n$$F_{12}(\\beta_h x) = \\sin(\\beta_h x) \\sinh(\\beta_h x) \\quad (2.151)$$\n\n$$F_{13}(\\beta_h x) = \\frac{1}{2} [\\cosh(\\beta_h x) \\sin(\\beta_h x) + \\sinh(\\beta_h x) \\cos(\\beta_h x)] \\quad (2.152)$$\n\n$$F_{14}(\\beta_h x) = \\cosh(\\beta_h x) \\cos(\\beta_h x) \\quad (2.153)$$\n\nSubstituting the above equations, the lamina displacement, rotation, moment and shear, and membranes forces in the hub can be determined from the following relations:\n\n$$u_h^n(x) = \\frac{Q_1^n}{2\\beta_h D_{h,11}} F_{11}(\\beta_h x) + \\frac{M_1^n}{2\\beta_h^2 D_{h,11}} F_{12}(\\beta_h x) + \\frac{\\psi_1^n}{\\beta_h} F_{13}(\\beta_h x) + u_1^n F_{14}(\\beta_h x) \\quad (2.154)$$\n\n$$\\psi_h^n(x) = \\beta_h \\left[ \\frac{Q_1^n}{2\\beta_h^2 D_{h,11}} F_{12}(\\beta_h x) + \\frac{M_1^n}{\\beta_h^2 D_{h,11}} F_{13}(\\beta_h x) + \\frac{\\psi_1^n}{\\beta_h} F_{14}(\\beta_h x) - 2u_1^n F_{11}(\\beta_h x) \\right] \\quad (2.155)$$\n\n$$M_h^n(x) = 2\\beta_h^2 D_{h,11} \\left[ \\frac{Q_2^n}{2\\beta_h^3 D_{h,11}} F_{13}(\\beta_h x) + \\frac{M_1^n}{2\\beta_h^2 D_{h,11}} F_{14}(\\beta_h x) - \\frac{\\psi_1^n}{\\beta_h} F_{11}(\\beta_h x) - u_1^n F_{12}(\\beta_h x) \\right] \\quad (2.156)$$\n\n\\[ Q_h^n(x) = 2\\beta_h^3 D_{h,11} \\left[ \\frac{Q_1^n}{2\\beta_h^3 D_{h,11}} F_{14}(\\beta_h x) - \\frac{M_1^n}{\\beta_h^2 D_{h,11}} F_{11}(\\beta_h x) - \\frac{\\psi_1^n}{\\beta_h} F_{12}(\\beta_h x) - 2u_1^n F_{13}(\\beta_h x) \\right] \\tag{2.157} \\]\n\n\\[ N_{h,l}^i(x) = 0 \\quad \\text{and} \\quad N_{h,l}^f(x) = \\frac{p_0 r_h}{2} \\tag{2.158} \\]\n\n\\[ N_{h,t}^n(x) = \\left[ \\frac{u_h^n(x)}{r_h} + \\frac{\\left( A_{h,11} \\frac{A_{h,12}}{2} \\right) p_0}{4\\beta_h^4 A_{h,11} D_{h,11} r_h} \\right] \\left( A_{h,12} - \\frac{A_{h,22}^2}{A_{h,11}} \\right) + \\frac{A_{h,12}}{A_{h,11}} N_{h,t}^n(x) \\tag{2.159} \\]\n\nThe longitudinal and tangential stresses at the inside and outside surface of the hub are given by:\n\n\\[ \\sigma_{h,l,i}^n(x) = \\frac{N_{h,l}^n(x)}{t_h} + \\frac{6M_h^n(x)}{t_h^2} \\tag{2.160} \\]\n\n\\[ \\sigma_{h,l,o}^n(x) = \\frac{N_{h,l}^n(x)}{t_h} - \\frac{6M_h^n(x)}{t_h^2} \\tag{2.161} \\]\n\n\\[ \\sigma_{h,t,i}^n(x) = \\frac{N_{h,t}^n(x)}{t_h} + \\frac{6D_{h,12} M_h^n(x)}{D_{h,11} t_h^2} \\tag{2.162} \\]\n\n\\[ \\sigma_{h,t,o}^n = \\frac{N_{h,t}^n(x)}{t_h} - \\frac{6D_{h,12} M_h^n(x)}{D_{h,11} t_h^2} \\tag{2.163} \\]\n\n### 2.6.2 Shell laminate\n\nEquations (2.164) to (2.167) must be used to calculate the displacement and stresses in the shell:\n\n\\[ f_1(\\beta_s x) = e^{-\\beta_s x} [\\cos(\\beta_s x)] \\tag{2.164} \\]\n\n\\[ f_2(\\beta_s x) = e^{-\\beta_s x} [\\cos(\\beta_s x) - \\sin(\\beta_s x)] \\tag{2.165} \\]\n\n\\[ f_3(\\beta_s x) = e^{-\\beta_s x} [\\cos(\\beta_s x) + \\sin(\\beta_s x)] \\] \n(2.166)\n\n\\[ f_4(\\beta_s x) = e^{-\\beta_s x} [\\sin(\\beta_s x)] \\] \n(2.167)\n\nSubstituting the above equations, the lamina displacement, rotation, moment and shear and membranes forces in the shell can be determined from the following relations:\n\n\\[ u_s^n(x) = \\frac{Q_2^n}{2\\beta_s^3 D_{s,11}} f_1(\\beta_s x) + \\frac{M_2^n}{2\\beta_s^2 D_{s,11}} f_2(\\beta_s x) \\] \n(2.168)\n\n\\[ \\psi_s^n(x) = \\beta_s \\left[ -\\frac{Q_2^n}{2\\beta_s^3 D_{s,11}} f_3(\\beta_s x) - \\frac{M_2^n}{\\beta_s^2 D_{h,11}} f_1(\\beta_s x) \\right] \\] \n(2.169)\n\n\\[ M_s^n(x) = 2\\beta_s^2 D_{s,11} \\left[ \\frac{Q_2^n}{2\\beta_s^3 D_{s,11}} f_4(\\beta_s x) + \\frac{M_2^n}{2\\beta_s^2 D_{s,11}} f_3(\\beta_s x) \\right] \\] \n(2.170)\n\n\\[ Q_s^n(x) = 2\\beta_s^3 D_{s,11} \\left[ \\frac{Q_2^n}{2\\beta_s^3 D_{s,11}} f_2(\\beta_s x) - \\frac{M_2^n}{\\beta_s^2 D_{s,11}} f_4(\\beta_s x) \\right] \\] \n(2.171)\n\n\\[ N_{s,l}^i(x) = 0 \\quad \\text{and} \\quad N_{s,l}^f(x) = \\frac{p_0 r_s}{2} \\] \n(2.172)\n\n\\[ N_{s,t}^n(x) = \\left[ \\frac{u_s^n(x)}{r_s} + \\frac{(A_{s,11} - A_{s,12}) p_0}{4\\beta_s^4 A_{s,11} D_{s,11} r_s} \\right] \\left( A_{s,22} - \\frac{A_{s,12}^2}{A_{s,11}} \\right) + \\frac{A_{s,12}}{A_{s,11}} N_{s,t}^n(x) \\] \n(2.173)\n\nThe longitudinal and tangential stresses at the inside and outside surface of the shell are given by:\n\n\\[ \\sigma_{s,l,i}^n(x) = \\frac{N_{s,l}^n(x)}{t_s} + \\frac{6M_{s}^n(x)}{t_s^2} \\] \n(2.174)\n\n\\[ \\sigma_{s,l,o}^n(x) = \\frac{N_{s,l}^n(x)}{t_s} - \\frac{6M_{s}^n(x)}{t_s^2} \\] \n(2.175)\n\n\\[ \\sigma_{S,t,l}^n(x) = \\frac{N_{S,t}^n(x)}{t_S} + \\frac{6D_{S,12}}{D_{S,11}} \\frac{M_t^n(x)}{t_S^2} \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.176)\n\n\\[ \\sigma_{S,t,o}^n(x) = \\frac{N_{S,t}^n(x)}{t_S} - \\frac{6D_{S,12}}{D_{S,11}} \\frac{M_S^n(x)}{t_S^2} \\] \\hspace{1cm} (2.177)\n\nCHAPTER 3\n\nNUMERICAL (FINITE ELEMENT) MODELING\n\n3.1 Introduction\n\nTo investigate the behavior of complicated structure like FRP flanges which is difficult to analyze all elements analytically one of the best techniques is the finite element model. FEM is a useful way to provide an acceptable prediction of the behavior of a complex structure. To get the highest accuracy, it requires creating a model with the fine meshing system by means of various elements, that reflects perfectly specifications of the system including the material properties, structures, and the assembly.\n\nThe presented numerical models for FRP bolted flange joints in this chapter are an attempt to validate the analytical model. Besides this, finite element analysis cannot duplicate experimental testing exactly, therefore, the experimental tests have been conducted on FRP bolted joints to validate the results obtained from experimental, analytical and numerical methods. In addition, to validate the analytical model, finite element analysis gives us an indication of the overall behavior and performance of FRP bolted joint.\n\nThis chapter describes the numerical procedure of the 3 different models of Fiber reinforced plastic flanges for two sizes of the flange with NPS 3 class 150 and NPS 12 class 150. To create and analyzed the finite element models, the program ANSYS® Mechanical 16.02 and ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP) 16.2 were used.\n\nThe three finite element models considered in this chapter are:\n\n1- Finite element model for the flange without the hub;\n2- Finite element model for the flange with the hub;\n3- Finite element model with ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP).\n\nEach finite element model of the bolted joint consists of two phases:\n\n- Initial tightening phase: the first stage is at the flange bolt-up following the initial tightening of the flange. The tightening force compresses the two parts of the flange as well as the gasket and it is represented by a uniform and horizontal distribution of the contact pressure.\n\n- Pressurization phase: A pressure is applied on the inside surface of the flange; the inside pressure also creates a pressure on the flat surfaces at the end of the shell of the flange.\n\n### 3.2 Applied loading\n\nThe loading consists of the hydrostatic end load, internal lateral pressure, and initial bolt forces. The initial gasket seating is provided by the pre-load in the bolts and is referred to as the seating condition. In this case, the gasket deforms filling the irregularities on the flange face in order to make a full contact over its entire surface. The bolt load change during pressurization can be obtained from the compatibility of displacement. In order to study the short-term behavior of FRP bolted joints, the bolt load is assumed to remain constant as in practice, by retightening the bolts, they maintain the required load to prevent leakage. It is worth noting that in the real case, creep and relaxation can happen in the flange and gasket. This issue of load relaxation is complex to consider because of the creep of the resin and woven roving of the composite material, the data of which are not available. In all models, the tightening forces are applied at the same time and they are identical. Therefore, this hypothesis allows us to consider the bolted flange joint model as axisymmetric, and just 1/4 and 1/12 can be modeled for the flange with NPS 3 and NPS 12 respectively.\n\n#### 3.2.1 Pretension load on bolts\n\nIn the FE model, the bolt force is applied as the pre-tension load and then the position is locked in the subsequent stage. The material properties of the bolts are given in table 3.1.\n\nTable 3-1 Material properties of the bolts\n\n| Properties | Value | Unit |\n|-----------------------------|-------|--------|\n| Young Modulus | 210 | GPa |\n| Poisson's ratio | 0.3 | |\n| Tensile yield strength | 250 | MPa |\n| Tensile ultimate strength | 460 | MPa |\n| Density | 7,850 | kg/m³ |\n\nTo get the proper sealing in the bolted flange joints assembly the following conditions must be met:\n\n- Sufficient compression force must be applied to fill the porosities on the face of the flanges.\n- A minimum compression force must be maintained on the joint during the operating condition to ensure the proper sealing of the joint.\n\nIn order to determine the required compressive force to satisfy the above conditions, the following equations are used:\n\n\\[\nW_{m2} = \\pi bGy\n\\] \n\n(3.1)\n\n\\[\nW_{m1} = \\frac{\\pi}{4} G^2 p_0 + 2b\\pi Gmp_0\n\\] \n\n(3.2)\n\nwhere \\( W_{m2} \\) and \\( W_{m1} \\) are the initial tightening bolt force and the operating bolt force respectively.\n\nThe minimum bolt force required to seal the bolted flange joint (\\( W_m \\)) is the maximum force between \\( W_{m2} \\) and \\( W_{m1} \\).\n\nThe pretension load on the bolts is determined from:\n\n\\[ S_b = \\frac{F_b}{A_b} \\] \\hspace{1cm} (3.3)\n\n\\[ A_b = \\pi r_v^2 \\] \\hspace{1cm} (3.4)\n\nwhere \\( S_b \\) is the tightening stress of the bolt, \\( F_b \\) is the bolt force and \\( A_b \\) is the bolt stress area.\n\nAccording to the ASME BPV Code, Sections X, it is possible to calculate the bolt stress area as follow:\n\n\\[ A_b = \\pi \\left[ \\left( \\frac{d_2}{2} + \\frac{d_3}{2} \\right) / 2 \\right]^2 \\] \\hspace{1cm} (3.5)\n\n\\[ d_3 = d_v - 1.2268pt \\]\n\\[ d_2 = d_v - 0.6495pt \\]\n\nThen\n\n\\[ A_b = \\pi \\left[ \\frac{2d_v - 1.8763pt}{4} \\right]^2 \\] \\hspace{1cm} (3.6)\n\nTable 3-2 Bolt stress and bolt force for the NPS 3 and 12 FRP bolted flange joint\n\n| Flange size | \\( A_b \\) (mm\\(^2\\)) | \\( F_b \\) (N) |\n|-------------|----------------------|---------------|\n| NPS 3 | 197.84 | 14580 |\n| NPS 12 | 388.15 | 10000 |\n\nIn ANSYS® Mechanical the torque load is applied through the pre-existing command called “bolt pretension”. To apply the axial bolt load as shown in figure 3.1, a special coordinate system is created at the center of the bolt. Then the bolt load is applied in two steps. In the first step, the pre-tightening bolt force is applied then it is locked to maintain the torque load for the subsequent steps.\n\n3.2.2 Internal pressure\n\nWhen the pre-tightening bolt force is applied to each bolt on the flange, the pressurization phase has begun. The pressure that is applied on the internal surface of the flanges with NPS 3 and 12 is 1.034 MPa (150 Psi) and 0.345 MPa (50 Psi). As shown in figure 3.2 the inside pressure creates a pressure on the top surface of the shell in the flanges. This stress that applies to the end of the flange is equal for both flanges and given by:\n\n\\[ p_w = \\frac{p_o A_p}{A_S} \\] \n\n(3.7)\n\n\\[ A_p = \\pi r_i^2 \\] \n\n(3.8)\n\n\\[ A_S = \\pi (r_i + t_s)^2 - A_p \\] \n\n(3.9)\n\nThen\n\n\\[ p_w = \\frac{p_o r_i^2}{(2r_i + t_s)t_s} \\] \n\n(3.10)\n\nwhere $p_o$ is the inside pressure, $r_f$ is the flange inside radius, $t_s$ is the thickness of the shell, $A_p$ is the inside surface area of the flange and $A_S$ is the cross-section area of the shell. The applied pressure in the flanges with NPS 3 and 12 are listed in table 3.3.\n\n\n\nFigure 3-2 Inside pressure $p_o$ and wall pressure $p_w$ at pressurization phase\n\nTable 3-3 Inside pressure and wall pressure for NPS 3 and 12 FRP flange\n\n| Flange size | $p_o$ (MPa) | $p_w$ (MPa) |\n|-----------------------------|-------------|-------------|\n| NPS 3 | 1.034 | 2.86 |\n| NPS 12 with the hub | 1.034 | 4.27 |\n| NPS 12 without the hub | 0.345 | 1.5 |\n\n### 3.3 Modeling of the gasket\n\nOne of the key factors in successful bolted joint simulation is the modeling of the gasket material. The gasket compression, especially in full-face flanges, has a strong influence on the flange rotation and leakage performance. In full-face flanges, the gasket is compressed...\n\nunevenly and in order to resist the fluid inside pressure, the bolts must be tight enough. In this model, the gasket deforms plastically under the flange surfaces, ensuring full contact over its entire area. The mechanical behavior of the gasket is represented by nonlinear loading and unloading curves obtained from load-displacement tests. Figure 3.3 depicted test data of a Teflon gasket that is used in this study. The geometry of the gasket for NPS 3 and 12 flanges are listed in table 3.4.\n\n\n\n**Figure 3-3 Gasket compression tests**\n\nFour critical steps are likely to occur during gasket compression from the initial tightening to pressurization. In composite flanges using the full-face width, the compression stresses of the joint are zero at the holes of bolts. As depicted in figure 2.8, flange bolt-up is conducted first by hand followed by tightening with a torque ranch where the gasket compression is achieved by a non-uniform distribution of the contact pressure. The flange joint is gradually pressurized and in general, a more pronounce trapezoidal distribution takes place. In this phase, the flange rotates while the inside region of the compressed gasket unloads. Therefore, the contact pressure follows a trapezoidal distribution with a minimum contact pressure at the inner radius.\n\nof the gasket and maximum contact pressure at the outer radius of the gasket. Usually, too much rotation will cause the loosening of the contact pressure at the bolt holes, in which case leakage will occur at this location.\n\nTable 3-4 Geometry of the gasket for the flange with NPS 3 and 12\n\n| Flange size | Inside diameter | Outside diameter | Thickness | Number of holes | Hole diameter | Hole circle |\n|-------------|----------------|------------------|-----------|-----------------|--------------|------------|\n| NPS 12 | 304.8 | 482.6 | 3 | 12 | 25.4 | 431.8 |\n| NPS 3 | 76.2 | 190.5 | 1.59 | 4 | 19.05 | 152.4 |\n\nIn order to simplify the numerical model, the gasket contact pressure distributions are considered to be triangular.\n\n### 3.4 Boundary conditions\n\nBecause of the axisymmetry, the boundary conditions applied to the finite element models are the symmetry conditions to the nodes that belong to both sides of the two axial planes of the flange triangular portion and to those that are in the plane that passes through the middle of the gasket thickness. As depicted in figure 3.4 the axial displacement in the middle of the gasket and the bolt is zero. The nodes of the flange symmetrical plane are free to move in the radial direction while their rotation about any radius is fixed.\n\nSince the flange is symmetrical in nature, the cyclic symmetry is applied at two sides of the cut section as shown in figure 3.5. The axial displacement at the plane that passes through the gasket mid-thickness and cuts the bolts in two parts is constrained; the flange face is expected to compress the gasket over the full face once the bolt load is applied. It is worth noting that the shell length should be long enough to eliminate the edge effects at top. This simplified\n\nmodel limits the CPU requirements and makes the calculations faster. A standard friction model was used to control sliding at the bolt-flange and gasket-flange interfaces. The coefficient of static friction of 0.7 for rough surface and 0.15 for a smoother surface.\n\n\n\n### 3.5 3D solid finite element models\n\nThe numerical Finite element analysis was conducted on 3 different models to compare the results obtained with the developed analytical FRP bolted flange model. The axisymmetric model assembly is made of three parts; the flange, the gasket ring, and the bolt. In the case of an assembly with an identical flange pair, because of symmetry with respect to a plane that passes through the gasket thickness, only one flange including half of the gasket thickness is modeled. To model the flange and bolts, 3D 8-node brick solid element (Solid185) was used. These elements are defined by three degrees of freedom per nodes and support plasticity, large deflection and high strain capabilities. In addition, the contact pairs which consist of contact elements (CONTACT174) and target segment elements (TARGE170) were defined the\n\ninterface between the flange, gasket, and bolts. The volume elements were used to model the existing space between the flange and the bolt. The flanged connection is assumed to be sufficiently far from the end enclosures of the vessel, such that the longitudinal and bending is limited only to its small adjacent portion of the vessel compared to the overall length. In order to conduct a direct comparison between the results obtained from the analytical model and numerical model, the two working conditions, initial pre-tightening (bolt-up) and pressurization, are analyzed.\n\n\n\n### 3.5.1 Finite element model for the flange with NPS 12 class 150\n\nTwo different finite element models of the NPS 12 class 150 and 50 of FRP bolted flanged joint were developed under the software ANSYS® Mechanical 16.02. As shown in figures 3.6 and 3.7, the first model is the flange without the hub and the second one is the flange with the hub. A linear static finite element analysis was performed with these two models. The 3D model includes three parts; the flange, the gasket, and the bolt. In the case of an assembly with an identical flange pair, because of symmetry with respect to a plane that passes through the mid gasket thickness, only one flange including half of the gasket thickness is modeled.\n\n188.8.131.52 Geometry of the flange\n\nFigure 3.8 and 3.10 illustrate the geometric features of the NPS 12 flanges with the hub and without the hub, that are valid for the class 150 and 50 respectively. The flange dimensions (table 3.5) were obtained from the ASME code section X. The thicknesses of the ring, hub, and shell are not definitive in the finite element model, depending on the arrangement of the laminate in each part of the FRP bolted flange joint. The arrangement of the laminate in the flange is elaborated in 184.108.40.206.\n\nThe flanged connection is assumed to be sufficiently far from the end enclosures of the vessel, such that the shear and bending loads are limited only to the small adjacent portion of the shell and do not influence the hub. FRP flanges with and without the hub are designed based on the geometry mentioned above and are drawn in Catia software. The generated models are then transferred directly to ANSYS. Figure 3.9 and 3.11 show the designed flanges with Catia for the NPS 12 FRP flanges.\n\nAccording to the geometry of the flange (table 3.5 and 3.6), the thickness of the ring is equal to FT which is 47.62 mm and 30 mm for the NPS 12 flange with the hub class 150 and the NPS 12 flange without the hub respectively.\n\nFigure 3-8 Geometry of the NPS 12 flange with the hub\n\nTable 3-5 Dimensions of the NPS 12 flange with the hub\n\n| Unit | Inside dia., D | Outside dia., A | Bolt circle, B | Bolt hole dia., C | Dia. spot facing | Bolts size dia. | No. of bolts | Flange and nozzle thickness, 1.034 MPa, 150 Psi |\n|------|----------------|-----------------|----------------|-------------------|-----------------|----------------|-------------|-----------------------------------------------|\n| mm | 304.8 | 482.6 | 431.8 | 25.4 | 57.1 | 22.2 | 12 | FT 47.6 NT 16.9 |\n| in | 12 | 19 | 17 | 1 | 2 ¼ | ¾ | 12 | 1 ¾ ¾ |\n\nFigure 3-9 Geometry of FRP flange with the hub modeled in Catia\n\nFigure 3-10 Geometry of the NPS 12 flange without the hub\n\nTable 3-6 Dimensions of the NPS 12 flange without the hub\n\n| Unit | Inside dia., D | Outside dia., A | Bolt circle, B | Bolt hole dia., C | Dia. spot facing | Bolts size dia. | No. of bolts | Flange and nozzle thickness, |\n|------|----------------|-----------------|----------------|-------------------|-----------------|-----------------|-------------|----------------------------|\n| | | | | | | | | 0.345 MPa, 50 Psi |\n| mm | 300 | 480 | 425 | 19 | 57.1 | 16 | 12 | FT |\n| In | 11.8 | 18.9 | 16.7 | 0.75 | 2.2 | 0.6 | 12 | NT |\n\nFigure 3-11 Geometry of FRP flange without the hub modeled in Catia\n\n220.127.116.11 Lamina properties\n\nFRP flanges that are used in this study are made out of laminates of E-glass fibers as a reinforcement and vinyl-ester as a resin. There are two types of laminates for this composite:\n\n1. Chopped strand mat: This laminate is fabricated by mixing the fibers randomly with the resin. The volume of the fiber in this laminate is 35% and the thickness of this ply is 1 mm.\n\n2. Woven roving: Continuous filaments of fiber wetted with the specified resin applied are wound in a systematic manner under controlled tension and cured on a mandrel or other supporting structure. This laminate is fabricated by interlacing the wetted fibers in a resin, passing in one direction with other fibers at a 90-degree angle to them. The volume of the fiber in this laminate is about 60% and the thickness of this ply is 0.9 mm.\n\nThe elastic, mechanical and physical properties of mat and woven roving plies are given by Hoa (1991) listed in Table 3.7.\n\nIn order to compare the analytical and numerical results of FRP bolted flange joints, the flange is divided into three major parts (ring, hub, and shell) and subsequently, each part has a different thickness and arrangement of plies but they are all composed of a mat and woven roving laminates. It is worth noting that in reality, FRP flange laminates are hand layered-up with midplane symmetry as shown in figure 3.12.\n\nTable 3-7 Mechanical, physical and elastic properties of the laminates\n\n| Properties | M (Chopped strand Mat) | R (Woven roving) | C (C-Glass veil) | Unit |\n|-----------------------------------|-------------------------|------------------|------------------|------|\n| Fiber volume | 30-35 | 50-60 | 10 | % |\n| Density | 1.38 | 1.71 | 1.25 | g/cm³|\n| Thickness | 0.97 | 0.99 | 0.61 | mm |\n| Young's modulus (X direction) | 7929 | 18791 | 4888 | MPa |\n| Young's modulus (Y direction) | 7929 | 18791 | 4888 | MPa |\n| Shear modulus | 2985 | 2654 | 1827 | MPa |\n| Poisson's ratio | 0.34 | 0.15 | 0.34 | |\n| Tensile yield strength (X direction) | 121 | 84 | 73 | MPa |\n| Tensile yield strength (Y direction) | 121 | 84 | 73 | MPa |\n| Compressive yield strength (X direction) | 95 | 66 | 42 | MPa |\n| Compressive yield strength (Y direction) | 95 | 66 | 42 | MPa |\n| Shear strength | 61 | 56 | 27 | MPa |\n\nAs mentioned previously, FRP flange is composed of three parts, ring, hub and shell, and due to different thickness, each part has a different arrangement of plies. There are two types of plies, mat and woven roving and the layer stacking sequence is symmetric for each part of the flange. The material and physical properties of the mat and the woven roving laminate are given in table 3.7. As mentioned before the thickness of the mat and woven roving layers is 0.9 mm and 1 mm respectively. In all FE models, the inner layer of the flange is installed against corrosion and because of its very small thickness, this layer is neglected in the numerical FE model.\n\nFigure 3-12 General laminate for the shell\n\nFigure 3.12 illustrates the general laminates of the shell. The laminate of the shell consists of 18 layers and the thickness of the shell is 17.1 mm.\n\nFor FRP flanges modeled in this study, the following assumptions are made:\n\n- Chopped strand mat and woven roving fabrics that are used in laminates are considered macroscopically homogeneous, elastically linear and orthotropic.\n\n• In all interfaces and junctions, it is assumed that there is perfect adhesion and bonding between layers.\n\n• The fibers are assumed to be evenly distributed and perfectly aligned in the woven roving layers with good adhesion in the fiber-matrix interface.\n\nGeneral laminate and the layer stacking sequence for the hub and ring of the NPS 12 flange with the hub are depicted in figures 3.14 and 3.15. The number of laminas in the hub is 44 and in the ring is 50 with a total thickness of the hub and the ring is 41.8 mm and 47.5 mm respectively.\n\nFigure 3-13 General laminate for the ring of the NPS 12 flange without the hub\n\n| Layer | Description | Thickness |\n|-------|----------------------|-----------|\n| 1 | Mat | 44 |\n| 2 | Woven roving | 43 |\n| 3 | Mat | 42 |\n| 4 | Woven roving | 41 |\n| 5 | Mat | 40 |\n| 6 | Woven roving | 39 |\n| 7 | Mat | 38 |\n| 8 | Woven roving | 37 |\n| 9 | Mat | 36 |\n| 10 | Woven roving | 35 |\n| 11 | Mat | 34 |\n| 12 | Woven roving | 33 |\n| 13 | Mat | 32 |\n| 14 | Woven roving | 31 |\n| 15 | Mat | 30 |\n| 16 | Woven roving | 29 |\n| 17 | Mat | 28 |\n| 18 | Woven roving | 27 |\n| 19 | Mat | 26 |\n| 20 | Woven roving | 25 |\n| 21 | Mat | 24 |\n| 22 | Woven roving | 23 |\n| 23 | Woven roving | 22 |\n| 24 | Mat | 21 |\n| 25 | Woven roving | 20 |\n| 26 | Mat | 19 |\n| 27 | Woven roving | 18 |\n| 28 | Mat | 17 |\n| 29 | Woven roving | 16 |\n| 30 | Mat | 15 |\n| 31 | Woven roving | 14 |\n| 32 | Mat | 13 |\n| 33 | Woven roving | 12 |\n| 34 | Mat | 11 |\n| 35 | Woven roving | 10 |\n| 36 | Mat | 9 |\n| 37 | Woven roving | 8 |\n| 38 | Mat | 7 |\n| 39 | Woven roving | 6 |\n| 40 | Mat | 5 |\n| 41 | Woven roving | 4 |\n| 42 | Mat | 3 |\n| 43 | Woven roving | 2 |\n| 44 | Mat | 1 |\n\nFigure 3-14 General laminate for the hub\n\n| Layer | Material | Thickness |\n|-------|----------------|-----------|\n| 1 | Woven roving | 49 |\n| 2 | Mat | 48 |\n| 3 | Woven roving | 47 |\n| 4 | Mat | 46 |\n| 5 | Woven roving | 45 |\n| 6 | Mat | 44 |\n| 7 | Woven roving | 43 |\n| 8 | Mat | 42 |\n| 9 | Woven roving | 41 |\n| 10 | Mat | 40 |\n| 11 | Woven roving | 39 |\n| 12 | Mat | 38 |\n| 13 | Woven roving | 37 |\n| 14 | Mat | 36 |\n| 15 | Woven roving | 35 |\n| 16 | Mat | 34 |\n| 17 | Woven roving | 33 |\n| 18 | Mat | 32 |\n| 19 | Woven roving | 31 |\n| 20 | Mat | 30 |\n| 21 | Woven roving | 29 |\n| 22 | Mat | 28 |\n| 23 | Woven roving | 27 |\n| 24 | Mat | 26 |\n| 25 | Woven roving | 25 |\n| 26 | Mat | 24 |\n| 27 | Woven roving | 23 |\n| 28 | Mat | 22 |\n| 29 | Woven roving | 21 |\n| 30 | Mat | 20 |\n| 31 | Woven roving | 19 |\n| 32 | Mat | 18 |\n| 33 | Woven roving | 17 |\n| 34 | Mat | 16 |\n| 35 | Woven roving | 15 |\n| 36 | Mat | 14 |\n| 37 | Woven roving | 13 |\n| 38 | Mat | 12 |\n| 39 | Woven roving | 11 |\n| 40 | Mat | 10 |\n| 41 | Woven roving | 9 |\n| 42 | Mat | 8 |\n| 43 | Woven roving | 7 |\n| 44 | Mat | 6 |\n| 45 | Woven roving | 5 |\n| 46 | Mat | 4 |\n| 47 | Woven roving | 3 |\n| 48 | Mat | 2 |\n| 49 | Woven roving | 1 |\n\nFigure 3-15 General laminate for the ring of the NPS 12 flange with the hub\n\n18.104.22.168 Meshing and contacts\n\nIn ANSYS® Mechanical, all parts of the flange are modeled using Solid185 element which is a 3D 8-node element and exhibits quadratic displacement behavior that has three degrees of freedom per node. This type of element supports plasticity, hyper-elasticity, and large deflection. Figure 3.16 shows the mesh of the model for the NPS 12 flange without the hub.\n\n\n\nThe mesh of the gasket is made with SOLID186 elements which are 3D 20-node similar elements to SOLID185. This element exhibits quadratic displacement behavior and has three degrees of freedom per node.\n\nOne of the fundamental building blocks of a good simulation to reproduce the real behavior of the bolted flange joint is employing the correct element of the contact surface in the FE model. In this model, the contact between the bolt and flange ring is to be simulated with a frictional surface having a coefficient of friction of 0.15. As to the other contact between the ring and\n\ngasket a coefficient of friction of 0.7 is used due to the surface roughness. The contact element used in the model is CONTACT174 having eight nodes and used in conjunction 3D target interface surface elements. The element TARGE170 is employed in this case and is associated with CONTACT174 elements.\n\nAs mentioned before in section 3.2.1 the bolt load is applied through the command “pretension”. In the numerical model, the element PRETS179 is involved in the application of bolt load pretension. This type of element can be used in a 2D or 3D model and has one degree of freedom that can be defined in a direction specified by the pretension force.\n\nIn the second step, the pressure on the inside surface of the flange was applied while the bolt pretention varies as a result of the flexibility of the bolted joint. During the pressurization phase, the pretension bolt load is locked to maintain the torque load on the bolts. The SURF154 elements used to simulate the hydrostatic end effect and they are defined by 8 nodes and are specific to surface in 3D FE models.\n\nFigure 3-17 Finite element model of the isotropic NPS 3 FRP flange\n\n3.5.2 Finite element model for the flange with NPS 3 class 150\n\nTwo different finite element models were developed to study the behavior of the NPS 3 class 150 FRP flange joint under the software ANSYS® Mechanical.\n\nThe two FE models considered in the study are:\n\n1- FE model with an isotropic behavior:\n In this model, the material behavior of FRP flange is assumed to be linear elastic with an equivalent isotropic elastic modulus equal to 13927 MPa. The corresponding linear elastic finite element model of the isotropic FRP flange is depicted in Figure. 3.17.\n\n2- FE model with an anisotropic behavior:\n This model was developed to introduce the real anisotropic behavior of FRP flange. This model is basically the same as the previous model. According to the manufacturer drawings the material properties of the composite are listed below:\n\n $E_L = 13445$ MPa\n $E_T = 14686$ MPa.\n $v_L = v_T = 0.28$\n\n $G_{LT} = 25442$ MPa.\n\nwhere $E_L$ and $E_T$ are the young’s moduli in longitudinal and tangential directions, $v_L$ and $v_T$ are the Poisson’s ratio in longitudinal and tangential directions, $G_{LT}$ is the shear moduli in L-T plane.\n\n22.214.171.124 Geometry of the flange\n\nFigure 3.18 and Table 3.8 illustrates the geometry and dimensions of the NPS 3 FRP flange with the hub. As mentioned earlier, the flanged connection is assumed to be sufficiently far from the end enclosures of the vessel, such that the longitudinal and bending has a local effect.\n\nTable 3-8 Geometry of the NPS 3 flange (ZCL Composite Co.)\n\n| Unit | Inside dia., D | Outside dia., A | Bolt circle, B | Bolt hole dia. | Dia. spot facing | Bolts size dia. | No. of bolts | Flange and nozzle thickness, 1.034 MPa, 150 Psi |\n|------|----------------|-----------------|----------------|----------------|------------------|----------------|-------------|-----------------------------------------------|\n| | | | | | | | | FT | Hub TH. | Hub HT. | NT |\n| mm | 76.2 | 190.5 | 152.4 | 19.05 | 36.58 | 15.87 | 4 | 20.65 | 15.42 | 54.33 | 6.35 |\n| in | 3 | 7.5 | 6 | 0.75 | 1.44 | 0.625 | 4 | 0.813 | 0.607 | 2.139 | 0.250 |\n\nThe flange dimensions that are listed in Table 3.8 were obtained from ZCL Dualam Inc. composite flange manufacturing company.\n\nFigure 3-18 Geometry of the NPS 3 flange with the hub\n\nSimilar to the FE model of NPS 12 FRP flange, the geometry of the NPS 3 flange is designed in Catia and transferred to ANSYS using IGES file format. Figure 3.19 depicts the designed NPS 3 FRP flange in Catia and ANSYS workbench.\n\n126.96.36.199 Mesh of flange and contacts\n\nThe FE mesh model of the NPS 3 FRP bolted flanged joint is shown in figure 3.20. The elements used in these models are the same as those used in 188.8.131.52. The flange is modeled using Solid185 elements and the gasket is modelled using Solid186 elements. The contact elements used between flange ring and bolt head and gasket are CONTA174 associated with TARGE170 elements. The element PRETS179 and SURF154 are used to apply the bolt load pretension and hydrostatic end effect.\n\n3.5.3 Finite shell element model ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP)\n\nThis model is composed of layered composites represented by shell elements. In this model, the mesh is generated using ANSYS Workbench while the composite layup with fiber orientation and material details were defined in ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP). ANSYS Composite PrepPost is an add-on module dedicated to the modeling of layered composite structures and provides all necessary functionalities for the analysis of layered composite\n\nstructures. In order to build a solid model out of shell elements in ACP, the extrusion method was used.\n\n\n\nIn this model, it is necessary to divide the bolted flange joint into two parts. The first part is the flange made from composite material and the rest is the group of parts like the bolts and gasket that are made from none-composite materials. The flange is defined in ANSYS ACP which is linked to the other parts in ANSYS Workbench. In ANSYS ACP, first, the composite fabrics including materials and the thickness of the layers as well as the assembly and element orientation of laminate are defined. Then, the ply sequence for the groups of elements in the composite is defined. Figure 3.21 shows the structure of the numerical model in ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP).\n\nAs shown in figure 3.21, in part B or ACP (Pre), the geometry of the flange, as well as the material properties of the laminas and the laminate arrangement and orientation of the flange, are defined. The non-composite parts such as bolts and gasket are modeled in parts D (Geometry) and E (Mechanical model). Then, by connecting parts B and E, the final model is\n\ngenerated in part F (Static structural). Finite element model for NPS 3 FRP bolted flange joint in ANSYS ACP is illustrated as an example in figure 3.22.\n\nFigure 3-21 Structure of the numerical model in ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP)\n\nFigure 3-22 Finite element model for NPS 3 FRP bolted flange joint in ANSYS ACP\n\n184.108.40.206 Lamina properties\n\nThere are three types of laminas used in this composite. The elastic, mechanical and physical properties of M for Chopped strand Mat, R for Woven roving and C for C-Glass veil are listed in table 3.7. The properties of Chopped strand Mat and Woven roving laminas are explained in details in 220.127.116.11.\n\nThe third material used in FRP flange composite is C-Glass veil which consists of fibers to reinforce plies and are resistant to corrosion. Thus, because of the high corrosion resistance, this type of ply is installed on the inside or outside surface of the composite flange that is in contact with the corrosive environment to protect the composite flange from chemical damages. The thickness of this ply is very small and has a very low proportion of fibers that is about 10% of carbon. According to Conlinsk, P. (2008), C-Glass veil is followed by two or three layers of chopped strand mat ply to increase the corrosion resistance of the flange.\n\n18.104.22.168 Flange laminates\n\nThe sequence of the layers used in the construction of the NPS 3 FRP flange laminate according to the company (ZCL Dualam Inc.) is as follows:\n\nFlange face sequence: CMM/2(MRMRM)/3(MRM);\n\nHub sequence: CMM/MRMM/3(MRM);\n\nShell sequence: CMM/MRMM.\n\nwhere \\( C = \\) C-Glass veil, \\( M = \\) Chopped strand mat, and \\( R = \\) Woven roving\n\nIt is worth noting that each layer has different material properties in three directions, therefore, the final result is a flange with anisotropy and multilayered composite behavior. The general laminate layouts of all parts of the NPS 3 FRP flange are shown in figures 3.23 to 3.25. The number of plies in the ring is 22 with a thickness of 20.65 mm, the number of plies in the hub is 16 with a thickness of 15.42 mm and the number of plies in the shell is 7 with a thickness of 6.34 mm. Figure 3.25 illustrates FRP flange laminate as modeled in ANSYS ACP.\n\nFigure 3-23 General laminate for the shell\n\nFigure 3-24 General laminate for the ring\n\nFigure 3-25 General laminate for the hub\n\nFigure 3-26 FRP flange laminate in ANSYS ACP\n\n22.214.171.124 Geometry of the flange\n\nThe geometry of the NPS 3 FRP flange is the same as that given in 126.96.36.199. In this model, ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP) is used to define layered composites represented by shell elements. The extrusion method is used to build a solid model out of shell elements in ACP environment. Figure 3.27 shows the geometry of the flange model in ANSYS ACP.\n\nAs shown in figure 3.28 the model of FRP flange begins with the shell model and after transferring the model to ANSYS ACP, the laminate is modeled according to the sequence of the layers and their thickness. The geometry of bolts and gasket is then added as shown in figure 3.29. As mentioned earlier the non-composite parts of FRP bolted flange joint are modeled separately.\n\nFigure 3-27 Geometry of the flange in ANSYS ACP\n\nFigure 3-28 Geometry of the flange in ANSYS geometry\n\n188.8.131.52 Meshing and contacts\n\nThe complete FE mesh of the NPS 3 FRP bolted flanged joint is shown in figures 3.30. The elements used in this model are the same as those used in 184.108.40.206. The flange is modeled with ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP) using a different type of element layers. Solid185 elements are used for the flange and Solid186 elements are used for the gasket. Contact elements of the type CONTACT174 associated with TARGET170 elements are employed to model the various contact surfaces between flange ring and bolt head and gasket. The element PRETS179 and SURF154 are used to apply bolt load pretension and hydrostatic end effect.\n\nFigure 3-29 Geometry of the bolts and gasket\n\nFigure 3-30 FE mesh model for the flange\n\nFigure 3-31 FE model mesh for bolts and gasket\n\nFigure 3-32 Final FE mesh model for the FRP bolted flange joint\n\nCHAPTER 4\n\nEXPERIMENTAL SET-UP\n\n4.1 Introduction\n\nThe relevant experimental tests used to carry out on real fiber reinforced plastic bolted flanged assemblies designed according to ASME BPV Code Section X as is described in this section. An experimental investigation conducted on a well-equipped test rig is a reliable approach to evaluate the proposed numerical and analytical model for the NPS 3 FRP bolted flange joint. The detailed explanation of the intricate mechanisms of the test bench used in the study of the bolted flange joint behavior with high-level instrumentation is vital.\n\nThe primary purpose of the designed experimental test stand was to measure the real behavior of the composite bolted flange joint. The existing Hot Blow Out Test Bench (HOBT) was adapted and equipped with accurate measurement devices such as strain gauges, LVDTs, thermocouples, and pressure transducers to measure the different parameters of FRP flange. This chapter elaborates the operational mechanisms of the HOBT rig and test procedure involved in this study.\n\n4.2 Bolted flanged rig\n\nThe HOBT test rig shown in figure 4.1, was used throughout the experimental investigation. This test rig is made of ANSI B16.5 NPS 3 Class 150 FRP full-face flanges used with a 1/16 Teflon gasket. The HOBT rig was initially designed and built for the Static and Dynamic Sealing Laboratory to perform hot blowout tests of Teflon gaskets used in with a metallic raised face bolted flange joint configuration. This test rig was modified to accommodate for the analysis of FRP bolted flange joint with full-faced gasket. As depicted in figure 4.1, the general configuration of this test rig is composed of 8 parts to carry out the stress analysis validation of FRP bolted flange joint. These parts are as follows:\n\nA. Proportional integral derivative (PID) controller;\nB. Data acquisition system;\nC. FRP flange with a cap;\nD. Strain gauges attached to the flange surface;\nE. Thermocouples;\nF. Bolt load measurement system;\nG. Pressurization system;\nH. Control panel of the pressurization system and leak detection.\n\nFigure 4-1 General configuration of HOBT test rig\n\nThe bottom flange of the rig is bolted to a solid shaft core that is welded to a supporting base in the form of a pedestal. As shown in fig 4.2 a 2000-Watt cartridge heater is inserted into the metal core to heat up the entire fixture from the inside surface to the outside surface of the flange. There are four thermocouples on the HOBT test rig one of which is connected to a\n\nproportional integral derivative (PID) controller which continuously monitors and controls the temperature. In order to measure the temperature lag between the flange and bolts, one thermocouple is installed one of the bolts. Another thermocouple is installed in the flange to measure the flange temperature at the vicinity of the gasket. There is also a removable insulation cover to reduce heat loss to the outside boundary and provides a uniform thermal distribution to the flange. The test rig includes the flanges made of FRP flanges. The pressurization system of the test rig is designed to apply internal gas pressure of up to 3.447 MPa (500 psi). The test rig is designed in such a way that the gasket load can easily be deduced from the measured bolt load.\n\n\n\n### 4.2.1 Bolt load measurement\n\nThe bolt load measurement system known as the extensometer is shown in figure 4.3. In order to tighten and seal the lower and upper mounting flanges, four UNB 5 / 8-18 (in) ASTM A193 bolts are used. The measurement of the load through the elongation of each bolt is achieved by\n\nthe extensometer which is connected to the ceramic tube and rod. As shown in the figure, the ceramic rod is attached to the steel rod that is inserted into the drilled hole at the center of the bolt. The ceramic rods are connected to a full-bridged strain gauged beam that picks up bolt stretch through a bending mechanism. The reason for using the ceramic rods to measure the bolt load and displacements is to perform the tests at high temperatures. By applying bolt torque, the relative movement between the bolt and the steel rod inside the bolt are picked up by the ceramic rod and tube that put the beam under bending to transmit the deformation to the strain gauges and thereby obtain the bolt force.\n\n\n\n### 4.2.2 Displacement and rotation measurements\n\nThe measurement of the gasket displacement is achieved at two diametrically opposite position using the extensometers that have been described previously. As shown in figure 4.4 there are two ball bearings which are used to transmit the axial compression from the metallic screws to the ceramic rods.\n\n4.2.3 The data acquisition system\n\nThe bolt load, axial displacement of the gasket, temperature, strains and time are measured and recorded through Agilent 34970a data acquisition system, National Instrument and PID controller that are connected to the computer under the LabVIEW program. Therefore, a special LabView program was developed to control and monitor the experiment parameters and record data from the various sensors. Appendix B describes the exposed panel of the LabVIEW to control the HOBT test rig and monitor data.\n\n4.3 FRP flange set-up\n\nTo evaluate the stresses three $45^\\circ$ strain rosettes were loaded to the outside surface of the FRP flange near the critical position of the hub to shell junction. A close view of the strain gauges bonded to the FRP flange is shown in figure 4.6. As shown in this figure, the three strain\n\nrosettes SG1, SG2 and SG3 are used to evaluate the longitudinal and tangential stress for comparison with the analytical and numerical models.\n\nFigure 4.7 depicted the $45^\\circ$ strain rosette aligned with the x-y axes. In order to convert the longitudinal strain from each strain gage into strain expressed in the x-y coordinates, the following equation is used:\n\n$$\\varepsilon_x = \\varepsilon_a$$ \\hspace{1cm} (4.1)\n\n$$\\varepsilon_y = \\varepsilon_c$$ \\hspace{1cm} (4.2)\n\n$$\\varepsilon_{xy} = \\varepsilon_b - \\frac{\\varepsilon_a + \\varepsilon_c}{2}$$ \\hspace{1cm} (4.3)\n\n\n\n4.4 Test procedure\n\nThe test procedure starts by introducing the dimension of FRP flange and gasket in the LabVIEW program along with the test conditions. A 1/16 Teflon full-face gasket is first placed on the top of the bottom flange, then the top flange is mounted on the gasket and is positioned to make sure that the two contact screws are in line with the extensometers to measure displacement. Afterward, the bolts are hand tightened. This point is considered as the zero references for bolt load and gasket displacement.\n\nAfter mounting and verifying the gasket and flange position, the next step is to apply the desired compressive load by tightening the nuts with a torque wrench. An initial bolt load of 3270 lb was applied gradually on each instrumented bolt based on the guidelines provided in the ASME code section X and the manufacturer recommendation. The detailed calculation of bolt load is explained in 2.1.11. Equation 4.4 gives the total bolt load according to the recommended torque for the NPS 3 in. FRP flange.\n\n\\[ T = K \\times P \\times D \\] \n\n(4.4)\n\nwhere: $T =$ tightening torque (in-lbs), $K =$ dynamic coefficient of friction, $P =$ total bolt load / number of bolts (lbf), $D =$ nominal bolt diameter (in).\n\nA special tightening procedure based on the criss-cross pattern was used to apply the required bolt load. The bolt torque sequence order followed is 1, 2, 3, 4 as illustrated in Figure 4.8. After applying the bolts loads, a gas pressure equal to 1.034 MPa (150 psi) is applied to the inside of FRP bolted flange joint through a regulator valve which is controlled by the LabView program.\n\nAll the measuring parameters such as the bolt force, the strains at selected locations of the flange hub surface, the temperature and internal pressure are continuously monitored through the data acquisition system and the LabView program. The room temperature is held constant around t 22° C during the test. It is worth noting that all measuring sensors were calibrated at this temperature.\n\nFigure 4-7 Torque sequence (SPEARS, 2014)\n\nCHAPTER 5\n\nRESULTS AND DISCUSSION\n\n5.1 Introduction\n\nIn order to validate the analytical model developed for FRP bolted flange joints, the stress distribution at the outside and inside surface of the flange as well as its radial displacements are compared to the results obtained from the experimental rig and the numerical finite element model. A MATLAB program was used to code the analytical model equations that were developed in chapter 2. This program and all data used in the analytical study are available in Appendix A.\n\nThis chapter is dedicated to present by the results obtained from the analytical model, the numerical finite element model and the experiments under the two operating conditions of bolt-up (pre-tightening) and pressurization (operating). It treats the three different types of flanges namely the NPS 3 FRP flange class 150, the NPS 12 FRP flange class 50 without the hub and the NPS 12 FRP flange class 150 with the hub. In addition, a comprehensive analysis, a comparison and a discussion of the results are provided.\n\n5.2 Results for the NPS 3 FRP flange\n\nIn this part, the experimental and analytical results of the NPS 3 FRP flange are presented and compared to the numerical results obtained with the three FE models of FRP flange joints with three different approaches; isotropy, anisotropy and shell element anisotropy composite using ANSYS ACP. The analytical results were obtained using the MATLAB program as indicated previously. It should be noted that the experimental results are limited to the stresses related to the outside surface of the flange as the stresses at the internal surfaces could not be measured due to the difficulty in getting the wires out of the flange when the latter was pressurized.\n\n5.2.1 Flange stresses\n\nIn figures 5-1 to 5-4, the longitudinal and tangential stress distributions at bolt-up are shown. Each graph shows five curves; three curves obtained from the different FE models and two other curves representing the experimental and analytical results. As mentioned before, the stresses at the internal surfaces could not be measured during the experimental testing however these stresses are shown in figures 5-2 and 5-4 for the other methods. A similar trend of the distribution of stress along the hub and cylinder between the FE models, analytical model and the experimental result is observed. The anisotropic FE model results are very close to the analytical results and experimental data.\n\n\n\nFigure 5-1 Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nThe graphs indicate that the results of the stress distribution at the outside surface of the flange obtained from the analytical model, experimental test and the anisotropic model are in good agreement with each other. Due to the stress concentration at the hub to flange ring junction, there is a significant difference with the average around 46% between ACP model and\n\nanalytical model. As anticipated like metallic bolted joints at bolt-up, the stresses in the cylindrical part of the FRP bolted joints far away from the hub and ring junction due to the lack of the inside pressure are nil.\n\nThe longitudinal and tangential stress distribution at 1.345 MPa inside pressure are shown in figures 5-5 to 5-9. In this case, the distributions of the longitudinal and tangential stresses at the outside surface of the flange during operation (figures 5-5 and 5-7) show a good agreement between the FE model, the analytical model, and the experimental data. A similar trend of the distribution of longitudinal and tangential stresses at the inside surface of the flange between the FE models are observed as indicated in figures 5-6 and 5-8. The graphs show that the FE anisotropic material model is more representative and the results are closer to the experimental data, as the difference observed between the two is less than 6%.\n\nFigure 5-2 Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nFigure 5-3 Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nFigure 5-4 Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nIn spite of the fact that the anisotropic and ACP model are in better agreement with the analytical and experimental result compared to isotropic model due to the high-stress concentration at the hub and flange ring junction, it is difficult to make a judgment at this location and such a study is out of the scope of this work. In addition, the difference observed at the ring and hub junction is related to the laminate junctions that realistically cannot be duplicated either by the analytical model or by the ANSYS ACP PrepPost model. It can be noted that in the ACP model, the connection between the hub laminate and ring laminate is difficult to model exactly like the real FRP flange. Consequently, some discrepancies are observed between the results obtained from the ACP model and the other FE models. In fact, the ACP model of the composite flange is not precise as the difficulty to define the exact number of layers used for each flange part, the angle of the fibers in composite and the exact material properties in the different directions of the composite. It is worth noting that because the FRP flange manufacturing processes are hand made and not automated and the manufacturing technique varies from one composite flange size to the other, it is difficult to have defined the exact material properties in the various directions of the flange.\n\nFigure 5-5 Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization\n\nFigure 5-6 Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization\n\nFigure 5-7 Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization\n\nAlthough in the cylindrical part of the flange, the tangential stress at the inner surface show around 15% difference at the hub to flange ring junction. The difference is even smaller far away from the junction as shown by the stress distribution at the inside and outside surfaces of the flange during pressurization. In general, the graphs show the importance of including material anisotropy in FE models of composite flanges. Comparing the tangential and longitudinal stresses obtained from ACP and other models based on anisotropy the difference is small as compared to the model with isotropic material behavior. Increasing the size of the flange will also lead to a larger result difference. Nevertheless, the importance of including material anisotropy to predict the stresses and strains in composite flanges is acknowledged.\n\nThe results obtained from different finite element models and the experimental test data points to the fact the analytical model is reliable and the methodology used to predict the stresses and strains in bolted flange joint is robust.\n\n5.2.2 Radial displacement\n\nThe radial displacement at the inside radius of the flange for bolt-up and at 1.345 MPa internal pressure is illustrated in figures 5-9 and 5-10. Each graph has four curves; three curves obtained from the three different FE models and one curve is obtained from the proposed analytical model. These figures show that the radial displacements all models follow a similar trend during bolt-up and pressurization. Furthermore, the anisotropic FE model and analytical model are in a good agreement, in particular, in the cylindrical part of the flange. Although the trend is the same, the ACP model tends to underestimate the displacements.\n\nFigure 5-9 Radial displacement of the flange during bolt-up\n\nThe highest difference is around 40% located at shell side when isotropic material properties of the flange are considered. Once again, the anisotropy of composite materials is important to estimate the radial displacement of the FRP flange. The anisotropic analytical developed model based on the laminated composite theory is justified.\n\n5.2.3 Gasket contact stress\n\nIn figure 5-11 the distribution of the gasket contact stress for the three different FE models are shown. In this graph, the gasket contact stress distribution is depicted as a function of the normalized gasket width. As anticipated and like in metallic flange joints, the maximum contact stress occurs at the gasket outside diameter and is caused by flange rotation that produces a higher flange axial displacement at the outer edge of the gasket. In general, the distribution of contact stress depends on two factors; the rotation of the flange and the nonlinear behavior of the gasket.\n\nThe graphs in figure 5-11 indicate that the critical stress occurs at the vicinity of the bolt and it would appear that the gasket stress distribution has a similar trend for all three FE models. However, in comparison with the metallic bolted flange joints (Black, 1994), the contact stresses in the gasket at the bolt location are much higher than those between bolts. This is expected since there is higher flexibility with FRP materials like other composite materials as compared to steel and other ferrous materials.\n\n5.3 Results for the NPS 12 flange without the hub\n\nIn this part, the analytical results are presented and compared to the numerical results obtained from the FE modeling of the NPS 12 FRP bolted flange joint with multilayered composites. Each graph gives compares the analytical to the numerical results. The analytical results are obtained through the MATLAB program for the NPS 12 FRP bolted flange joint the theory of which is detailed in chapter 2.\n\n5.3.1 Flange stresses\n\nLongitudinal and tangential stress distribution at the outside and inside surfaces of the flange for the two conditions of bolt-up and pressurization are illustrated in figures 5-12 to 5-20. From these figures, it can be stated that analytical results are consistently close to the numerical results.\n\nFigure 5-12 Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nFigure 5-13 Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nAs shown in the figures 5-12 to 5-16, during bolt-up, the stress distribution in the shell far from the flange ring is not significant.\n\nAs can be observed in figures 5-18 and 5-19 there is some slight difference around 14% in the stresses at the junction of the ring and shell. Although in the FE multi-layered composite model the junction of the ring and shell laminates are not adequately bonded together to ensure continuity there is a slight difference in longitudinal and tangential stress distributions between the analytical and numerical models. The stresses near the junction dramatically increased by 43% but the general behavior as a result of discontinuity is picked up by both models. Although the tendency is similar, the FE model lacks accuracy due to the ring and shell laminate bounding discrepancy.\n\nFigure 5-14 Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nFigure 5-15 Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nIn general, the graphs show a good agreement between the results of the analytical model and numerical model; this supports the robustness and accuracy of the proposed analytical model. In fact, the analytical approach and the FE model show the stress increase at the junction of the ring and the shell where the maximum stress concentration exists. Furthermore, a thorough investigation of the distribution of stresses in the specific laminate lay-up of the bolted flange joint with the hub will be conducted and presented in section 5.4.\n\nFigure 5-16 Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flang surface during pressurization\n\nFigure 5-17 Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization\n\nFigure 5-18 Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization\n\nFigure 5-19 Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization\n\n5.3.2 Radial displacement\n\nThe radial displacement of the flange during bolt-up and pressurization are depicted in Figure 5-20. The comparison between the results obtained from the analytical and FE models show a good agreement at all locations along the shell axial length of FRP flange. The difference observed between the analytical and numerical models is less than 9% and 5% during bolt-up and pressurization respectively. Obviously, the good agreement between the two models confirms the accuracy of the analytical approach of FRP bolted flange joint.\n\n5.4 Results for the NPS 12 flange with the hub\n\nIn this section, the results for the NPS 12 class 150 FRP bolted flange joints with the hub are presented. Comparisons of the longitudinal and tangential flange stresses and radial displacement obtained from the analytical and FE models are conducted with special focus on the hub region. FRP flange with the hub requires a more elaborate model that includes the three parts; shell, hub, and ring. The analytical results obtained from the MATLAB program for a bolted flange joint with the hub is available in Appendix A.\n\n5.4.1 Flange stresses\n\nThe longitudinal and tangential stress distributions at the inside and outside surface of the flange at bolt-up are illustrated in Figures 5-21 to 5-24. These figures show clearly that the\n\nanalytical and FE distributions at the inside and outside flange surfaces during bolt-up have the same tendency. In this case, the distributions of the longitudinal and tangential stresses are in a good agreement and the results are in concordance, with a difference of less than 4%. As anticipated during bolt-up, due to the lack of the pressure inside of FRP bolted flange joints, the stresses in the shell far away from the hub and shell junction are nil.\n\nFigures 5-25 to 5-28 present the longitudinal and tangential stress distributions after the application of internal pressure of 1.345 MPa. A similar stress distribution trend along the hub and cylinder length is observed in both the analytical and FE models. However, the FE numerical results show higher stress values at the outside flange surface near the junctions of the hub and the shell and the hub and ring flange (see figure 5-25 and 5-26). In comparing the analytical and numerical results near the junctions of the hub and the ring, the difference observed between the two is around 22% and 18% for the longitudinal stress distribution at the outside and inside flange surface respectively. Such differences are anticipated because these junctions are smoother and the laminates are not interconnected in the FE models. Moreover, the presence of the high local stresses in the composite flanges affects considerably the stress distribution particularly at the outside surface of the hub and shell. Since the material properties vary through the thickness of the composite flanges, there is an even distribution of stresses. Although in the junction of hub and ring, the longitudinal stress at inner and outer surfaces show around 20% maximum difference, the distributions very consistent (figures 5-25 and 5-26).\n\nFigure 5-21 Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nFigure 5-22 Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nFigure 5-23 Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nFigure 5-24 Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during bolt-up\n\nFigure 5-25 Longitudinal stress distribution at the outside flang surface during pressurization\n\nFigure 5-26 Longitudinal stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization\n\nFigures 5-27 and 5-28 show a relatively good agreement between the analytical and FE models during pressurization with a difference of less than 4% except in the junctions. Nevertheless, while the results of the tangential stresses at the inner and outer flange surface are shown to have the same trend, those at the hub show a slight discrepancy that is acceptable in the design since some simplifications were made at the junctions. Indeed as expected, at the junction of the hub and the shell where the maximum stress concentration exists, the stresses at this location increased drastically by around 92%. This phenomenon also occurs near the hub to the flange ring junction. It is to be noted that considering the small tapered portion of the hub that is not considered in the analytical model, the results would be affected. Nonetheless, the difference is not significant and is acceptable for design purposes.\n\nFigure 5-27 Tangential stress distribution at the outside flange surface during pressurization\n\nFigure 5-28 Tangential stress distribution at the inside flange surface during pressurization\n\n5.4.2 Radial displacement\n\nThe radial displacement results obtained from numerical and analytical models of FRP bolted flange joint with the hub at bolt-up and pressurization are compared in figure 5-29. As shown in the figures, there has not a similar trend but are in good agreement with each other. The difference observed between the analytical and numerical results is less than 3% and 5% during bolt-up and pressurization respectively.\n\nFrom these figures, the radial displacement of the shell is shown to be much higher than the flange ring and hub because these two structures are much stiffer.\n\nFigure 5-29 Radial displacement of the flange during bolt-up and pressurization\n\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nThe ability of FRP materials to resist in harsh and chemical environments and their comparatively high corrosion resistance has made them the best choice in pressure vessels and piping applications related to chemical, water, gas services, nuclear and petrochemical industries. A comprehensive study of the literature on FRP bolted flange joints was carried out. According to the literature, the current procedure used for the design of FRP flanges is a major concern because of their inappropriateness to address the anisotropic behavior of composite materials.\n\nThe main objective of this work was to address this need and develop an accurate analytical model to evaluate the stresses and strains of FRP bolted flange joints taking into consideration the anisotropy of the flange material.\n\nIn order to achieve the main objective of this study, a methodology for the analytical, numerical and experimental study was developed. The study is prominent in dealing with the behavior of FRP bolted flange assembly subjected to internal pressure. To allow verification of results, experimental and FE methods were used as complementary methods to validate the robustness of the developed analytical model.\n\nThe composite flange was divided into three structures, namely the shell, the hub, and the flange ring or plate. The developed analytical model of FRP flange is based on the theory of composite thin cylinders, the theory of thin plates subjected to transverse loading, and the short cylinder theory adapted for composite materials.\n\nThe proposed model was then validated by comparison with the results obtained from experimentation and finite element modeling. The novelty of this analytical model is to treat the integrity and tightness of FRP bolted joint taking into account the anisotropy material behavior and the flexibility of all joint elements including the gasket, bolts, and flanges.\n\nThe analytical approach has been developed for FRP bolted flange joints with and without the hub and is based on classical lamination theory for composites and the elastic interaction between all bolted joint assembly components. The developed analytical model presented in chapter 2 includes the flexibility of all parts of the bolted flange joint in both axial and radial direction. The complex design and geometry of FRP flanges make it difficult to develop general analytical studies for this kind of flange. Despite the complexity and rigorous mathematical analysis of the composite flanges, the developed analytical model successfully and accurately reproduced the real behavior of FRP bolted flange joints during bolt-up (or initial tightening) and pressurization (operating) conditions.\n\nExperimentation and numerical finite element modeling are the two-method used for validation of the proposed analytical model. The experimental tests were conducted on a well-equipped test bench that uses a NPS 3 class 150 FRP flange with a hub. Three different FE models for three different type of FRP flanges were modeled; an NPS 3 class 150 with a hub and an NPS 12 class 150 with and without the hub. The stress analysis and comparison are focused on the radial displacement and the tangential and longitudinal stresses at the inside and outside of the flange surfaces. The FE models were developed based on isotropy and anisotropy behavior of FRP materials and anisotropy shell element model using ANSYS PrepPost (ACP).\n\nThe stresses obtained from strain measurements in the hub and those from FEM considering anisotropy are reasonably well predicted by the analytical model. The maximum differences observed between the analytical model and experimental measurement and FE numerical models are as follows. In the case of NPS 3 class 150 FRP flange with a hub:\n\n- Tangential stress 19%;\n- Longitudinal stress 14%;\n- Radial displacement 6%.\n\nIn the case of NPS 12 FRP flange without the hub:\n\n- Tangential stress 13%;\n- Longitudinal stress 9%;\n\nRadial displacement 5%.\n\nIn the case of NPS 12 FRP flange with the hub:\n\nTangential stress 17%;\nLongitudinal stress 12%;\nRadial displacement 5%.\n\nIn addition, the work points to the fact that the reliability and accuracy of the FE model of FRP bolted flange joints strongly depends on the consideration of the anisotropy behavior of the flange FRP material. The study shows that isotropy material properties underestimate stresses by around 35%. From the results obtained by both numerical FE model and experimental investigation, the proposed analytical model for FRP flanges with and without the hub has proved to be efficient, accurate and reliable in predicting the longitudinal and tangential stress distribution on the flange surface and radial displacement of the flange. Furthermore, it can be deduced that the FE model which is developed for FRP flanges with and without the hub can explain with acceptable accuracy the stress distribution of FRP bolted flange joints even at the hub part of the flange as well as the junction of the ring and the hub where the maximum stress concentration exists.\n\nThe results of this investigation have led to this conclusion that the approach presented in this study provides a formulation consistent with the ASME BPV Code Section X standard, allowing an accurate, reliable and thorough design and evaluation of FRP bolted flange joints. However, additional experimental tests on FRP materials with different properties in the two longitudinal and tangential directions and larger diameter FRP flanges are required to confirm these findings.\n\nRECOMMENDATIONS\n\nAdditional experimental tests on larger diameter FRP flanges and other FRP materials with different properties in the two longitudinal and tangential directions could be conducted to further support and validate the accuracy and robustness of the analytical and numerical models for different FRP flange size.\n\nThe behavior of FRP materials is affected by the harsh environment and by temperature and humidity. Therefore, future work can be directed towards an investigation of FRP bolted flange joints when exposed to elevated temperature and high humidity. That study involves the use of a combination of experimental, analytical and numerical methods to analyze bolted flange joints made of composite materials from integrity and leak tightness standpoints.\n\nAnother major concern of FRP bolted flange joints is their long-term creep-relaxation behavior. The analytical model presented in this thesis could be extended to incorporate load relaxation caused by the creep of the composite flange. The investigation could also include the influence of thermal ratcheting caused by temperature thermal cycling of the composite flange on the bolt load drop.\n\nAnd finally, experimental studies on the leak rates of FRP bolted flange joints at the ambient and high temperature used with different gasket materials would be valuable work in the future. The current study could be extended to a wider range of application that includes polymeric flange joints and in particular those flanges made out of PVC and HDPE since these are increasingly used in domestic gas and water services.\n\nAPPENDIX A\n\nANALYTICAL PROGRAM FOR FRP BOLTED FLANGE JOINT\n\n%-----------------------------------------------%\n% ANALYTICAL PROGRAM FOR FRP BOLTED FLANGE JOINTS %\n% Flange NPS 3 %\n% Flange NPS 12 with the hub %\n% Flange NPS 12 without the hub %\n%-----------------------------------------------%\n\nclc;\nclear;\n\n% Notations\n% h: hub\n% s: shell\n% p: ring/plate\n\n%-----------------------------------------------%\n% Flange NPS 12 with the hub %\n%-----------------------------------------------%\n\nr_go = 241.3; % Outside gasket radius mm\nr_gi = 152.4; % Inside gasket radius mm\nd = 22.7; % bolt diameter\nd_h = 25.4; % bolt hole diameter\np_t = 2; % number of thread per mm\nl_h = 190.5; % hub length _mm_\nl_s = 300; % effective length of the shell _mm_\nr_i = 152.4; % flange/shell inner radius _mm_\nr_o = 241.3; % outer radius of the flange _mm_\nr_b = 215.9; % bolt circle radius _mm_\nt_f = 47.625; % thickness of the flange _mm_\nt_h = 41.8; % equivalent thickness of the hub _mm_\n\nt_s = 17.1; % thickness of the shell _mm_ (c)\nr_h = r_i+t_h/2; % hub mean radius mm_\nr_s = r_i+t_s/2; % inner radius of shell mm\nt_g = 3; % thickness of the gasket _mm\nE_g = 55; % compression modulus of gasket MPa\nl_b = 0.5*t_1.125*d+2*t_f+t_g; % initial bolt length _mm_\nP = 1.034; % internal pressure MPa\nnu_f = 0.2; % Poisson's ratio of flange\nE_b = 21000; % Young's modulus of bolts MPa\nS_b = 175.00; % bolt stress MPa\nn = 12; % Number of bolts\nnu_s = 0.3; % Poisson's ratio of shell\nnu_h = 0.3; % Poisson's ratio of joint element\n\n%---------------------------------------------------------------%\n% Flange NPS 12 without the hub\n%---------------------------------------------------------------%\n\nr_go = 495.3/2; % Outside gasket radius mm\nr_gi = 300/2; % Outside gasket radius mm\nd = 16; % bolt diameter\nd_h = 19; % bolt hole diameter\np_t = 2; % number of thread per mm\nl_h = 114.3; % hub length mm\nl_s = 147.6; % effective length of the shell mm\nr_i = 300/2; % flange/shell inner radius mm\nr_o = 495.3/2; % outer radius of the flange mm\nr_b = 425/2; % bolt circle radius mm\nt_f = 38.1; % thickness of the flange mm\nt_h = 27; % equivalent thickness of the hub mm\n\nt_s = 17; % thickness of the shell mm (c)\nr_h = r_i+t_h/2; % hub mean radius mm\nr_s = r_i+t_s/2; % inner radius of shell mm\nt_g = 3; % thickness of the gasket mm\nE_g = 55; % compression modulus of gasket MPa\nl_b = 0.5*1.125*d+2*t_f+t_g; % initial bolt length mm\np = 0.3450; % internal pressure MPa\nnu_f = 0.2; % Poisson's ratio of flange\nE_B = 210000; % Young's modulus of bolts MPa\nS_b = 175.00; % bolt stress MPa\nn = 12; % Number of bolts\nnu_s = 0.3; % Poisson's ratio of shell\nnu_h = 0.3; % Poisson's ratio of joint element\n\n%---------------------------------------------------------------%\n% Flange NPS 3\n%---------------------------------------------------------------%\n\nr_go = 7.5/2*25.4; % Outside gasket radius mm\nr_gi = 3/2*25.4; % Inside gasket radius mm\nd = 0.625*25.4; % bolt diameter mm\nd_h = 0.75*25.4; % bolt hole diameter mm\np_t = 11*25.4; % number of thread per mm\nl_h = 2.139*25.4; % hub length mm\nl_s = 7.048*25.4; % effective length of the shell mm\nr_i = 3/2*25.4; % flange/shell inner radius mm\nr_o = 7.5/2*25.4; % outer radius of the flange mm\nr_b = 6/2*25.4; % bolt circle radius mm\nt_f = 0.813*25.4; % thickness of the flange mm\nt_h = 0.607*25.4; % equivalent thickness of the hub mm\n\nt_s = 0.25*25.4; % thickness of the shell mm\nr_h = r_i+t_h/2; % hub mean radius mm\nr_s = r_i+t_s/2; % inner radius of shell mm\nt_g = 0.125*25.4; % thickness of the gasket mm\nE_g = 55; % compression modulus of gasket MPa\nl_b = 0.5*1.125*d+2*t_f+t_g; % initial bolt length mm\n\np = 1.034; % internal pressure MPa\nnu_f = 0.2; % Poisson's ratio of flange\nE_b = 210000; % Young's modulus of bolts MPa\nS_b = 175; % bolt stress MPa\nn = 4; % Number of bolts\nnu_s = 0.3; % Poisson's ratio of shell\nnu_h = 0.3; % Poisson's ratio of shell\n\n% -----------------------------------------------\n\n%Laminate Data for NPS 3\n\n% As=[21.5, 21.5, 3.38]*1000;\n% Bs=[0, 0, 0];\n% Ds=[5190, 5190, 825.3]*1000;\n%\n% Ah=[21.5, 21.5, 3.38]*1000;\n% Bh=[0, 0, 0];\n% Dh=[5190, 5190, 825.3]*1000;\n%\n% As=Ah;\n% Ds=Dh;\n%\n% Ap=[39.7, 39.7, 6.09]*1000;\n% Bp=[0, 0, 0];\n% Dp=[29484, 29484, 4615]*1000;\n\n%-----------------------------------------------\n\nA_b = n*pi*(d-0.9382/p_t)^2/4; % Bolt stress area mm^2\nA_br = n*pi*(d-1.22687/p_t)^2/4; % Bolt root area mm^2\nF_b = S_b*A_br; % bolt force _N_\nF_g = F_b; % gasket force _N_\n\nr_g = 2/3*(r_gi^2+r_go^2+r_gi*r_go)/(r_gi+r_go); % effective gasket radius _mm_\nr_g=r_gi+2/3*(r_go-r_gi)/2;\nA_p = pi*r_g^2;\n\nK_b = A_b*E_b/l_b; % bolt uniaxial stiffness _N/mm_\nA_g = pi*(r_go^2-r_gi^2); % gasket are mm^2\nK_g = A_g*E_g/t_g; % gasket uniaxial stiffness _N/m_\n\n%Shell laminate\nbeta_s = ((As(2)*As(1)-(As(3))^2)/(4*r_s^2*Ds(1)*As(1)))^(1/4);\nD_s = Ds(1);\n\n%Hub laminate\nbeta_h = ((Ah(2)*Ah(1)-(Ah(3))^2)/(4*r_h^2*Dh(1)*Ah(1)))^(1/4);\nD_h = Dh(1);\n\nB11=(sinh(2*beta_h*l_h)-sin(2*beta_h*l_h))/(2*((sinh(beta_h*l_h))^2-(sin(beta_h*l_h))^2));\nB12=(cosh(2*beta_h*l_h)-cos(2*beta_h*l_h))/(2*((sinh(beta_h*l_h))^2-(sin(beta_h*l_h))^2));\nB22=(sinh(2*beta_h*l_h)+sin(2*beta_h*l_h))/((sinh(beta_h*l_h))^2-(sin(beta_h*l_h))^2);\n\nG11 = - (cosh(beta_h*l_h) * sin(beta_h*l_h) -\n sinh(beta_h*l_h) * cos(beta_h*l_h)) / ((sinh(beta_h*l_h))^2 -\n (sin(beta_h*l_h))^2);\nG12 = -2 * sinh(beta_h*l_h) * sin(beta_h*l_h) / ((sinh(beta_h*l_h))^2 -\n (sin(beta_h*l_h))^2);\nG22 = 2 * (cosh(beta_h*l_h) * sin(beta_h*l_h) + sinh(beta_h*l_h) * cos(beta_h*l_h)) /\n ((sinh(beta_h*l_h))^2 - (sin(beta_h*l_h))^2);\n\nC_5 = 2;\nC_6 = 0;\nC_7 = 0;\nC_8 = 0;\n\nK = r_o / r_i;\n\nD0 = 2 * (r_o - r_i) / log(K);\nD0 = D0 - (d_h / (pi * 2 * r_b / n) * (D0 - 2 * d / log((2 * r_b + d) / (2 * r_b - d))));\n\nr_m = D0 / 2;\n\n% Plate theory\n\nL2 = (r_i * r_o^2) / ((r_o^2 - r_i^2) * (Ap(3) - Ap(1)));\nL1 = (r_i^3) / ((r_o^2 - r_i^2) * (Ap(3) + Ap(1)));\nL23 = (r_i - 2 * r_i * log(r_i / r_o)) / (8 * Dp(1) * pi);\nL24 = r_i * ((r_o^2 - r_i^2) * (Dp(3) - Dp(1)) + 2 * r_i^2 * log(r_i / r_o) * (Dp(1) + Dp(3))) /\n (8 * Dp(1) * pi * (r_o^2 - r_i^2) * (Dp(1) + Dp(3)));\nL25 = r_o^2 * r_i * log(r_i / r_o) * (Dp(1) + Dp(3)) /\n (4 * Dp(1) * pi * (r_o^2 - r_i^2) * (Dp(1) - Dp(3)));\nL20 = r_i^3 / ((r_o^2 - r_i^2) * (Dp(1) + Dp(3)));\nL22 = r_o^2 * r_i / ((r_o^2 - r_i^2) * (Dp(1) - Dp(3)));\nL26 = L20 + L22;\nL27 = L23 + L24 + L25;\n\nC_9 = 1 / K_b + 1 / K_g;\nC_10 = A_p / K_g;\n\nD = [\n B11 / (2 * beta_h^3 * D_h), B12 / (2 * beta_h^2 * D_h), G11 / (2 * beta_h^3 * D_h), G12 / (2 * beta_h^2 * D_h), -1, 0, 0, 0, 0 ...\n ;\n B12 / (2 * beta_h^2 * D_h), B22 / (2 * beta_h * D_h), G12 / (2 * beta_h^2 * D_h), G22 / (2 * beta_h * D_h), 0, -1, 0, 0, 0 ...\n ;\n G11 / (2 * beta_h^3 * D_h), G12 / (2 * beta_h^2 * D_h), B11 / (2 * beta_h^3 * D_h), B12 / (2 * beta_h^2 * D_h), 0, 0, -1, 0, 0 ...\n ;\n G12 / (2 * beta_h^2 * D_h), -G22 / (2 * beta_h * D_h), -B12 / (2 * beta_h^2 * D_h), -B22 / (2 * beta_h * D_h), 0, 0, 0, -1, 0 ...\n ;\n 1 / (2 * beta_s^3 * D_s), 1 / (2 * beta_s^2 * D_s), 0, 0, -1, 0, 0, 0, 0 ...\n ;\n -1 / (2 * beta_s^2 * D_s), -1 / (beta_s * D_s), 0, 0, 0, -1, 0, 0, 0 ...\n ;\n 0, 0, -(L1 - L2), 0, 0, 0, -1, t_f / 2, 0 ...\n ;\n 0, 0, t_f / 2 * L26, -L26, 0, 0, 0, -1, (r_b - r_g) / (2 * pi * r_m) * L27 ...\n ;\n 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, C_5 * (r_b - r_g), C_9];\n\nU = zeros(9,9);\n\nD(9,:) = 0;\nU(9) = P_b;\nD(9,9) = 1;\n\nCoefficient_Matrix = [D];\n\nResults = Coefficient_Matrix \\ U;\n\n% -----------------------------------------------\n\nP_1(1) = Results(1);\nM_1(1) = Results(2);\nP_2(1) = Results(3);\nM_2(1) = Results(4);\nu_h1(1) = Results(5);\ntheta_h1(1) = Results(6);\nu_h2(1) = Results(7);\nthetaf(1) = Results(8);\nFb_b(1) = Results(9);\n\n% -----------------------------------------------\n\nD(9,8) = C_5 * (r_b - r_g);\nD(9,9) = C_9;\n\nU = [- (Ah(1) - Ah(3)/2) / (4*beta_h^4*Ah(1)*Dh(1)) * p ; 0 ...\n - (Ah(1) - Ah(3)/2) / (4*beta_h^4*Ah(1)*Dh(1)) * p ; 0 ...\n - (As(1) - As(3)/2) / (4*beta_s^4*As(1)*Ds(1)) * p ; 0 ;\n -(L1-L2)*t_f*p ;\n (r_g-r_i)*(r_g^2+r_i^2)*p/(4*r_m)*L27 ...\n ; C_9*F_b + 2*(r_b-r_g)*thetaf(1) + C_10*p - (C_8)];\n\nCoefficient_Matrix = [D];\n\nResults = Coefficient_Matrix \\ U;\n\n% -----------------------------------------------\n\nP_1(2) = Results(1);\nM_1(2) = Results(2);\nP_2(2) = Results(3);\nM_2(2) = Results(4);\nu_h1(2) = Results(5);\ntheta_h1(2) = Results(6);\nu_h2(2) = Results(7);\nthetaf(2) = Results(8);\nFb_b(2) = Results(9);\n\nk=50;\n\n% -----------------------------------------------\n\n% Stress Calculation in the hub part\n% -----------------------------------------------\n\nSlih=zeros(k,2); % Longitudinal stress at the inside surface of the hub [MPa]\nSloh=zeros(k,2); % Longitudinal stress at the outside surface of the hub [MPa]\nStih=zeros(k,2); % Tangential stress at the inside surface of the hub [MPa]\nStoh=zeros(k,2); % Tangential stress at the outside surface of the hub [MPa]\nxh=zeros(k,1);\nu_h2sp=zeros(2,1);\nu_h=zeros(k,2) % Radial displacement [mm]\ntheta_h=zeros(k,2) % Rotation\nMh=zeros(k,2) % Moments [N.mm]\nOh=zeros(k,2) % Shear forces [N]\nNxh=zeros(k,2)\nNth=zeros(k,2)\n\nfor j=1:1:2\n u_h2sp(j)=u_h2(j)-(Ah(1)-Ah(3)/2)/(4*beta_h^4*Ah(1)*Dh(1))*p*(j-1);\n i=0;\n for x = 0:1:h/(k-1):l_h\n i=i+1;\n xhi(i)=x;\n F11= (cosh(beta_h*x) * sin(beta_h*x) - sinh(beta_h*x) * cos(beta_h*x))/2;\n F12= sin(beta_h*x) * sinh(beta_h*x);\n F13= (cosh(beta_h*x) * sin(beta_h*x) + sinh(beta_h*x) * cos(beta_h*x))/2;\n F14= cosh(beta_h*x) * cos(beta_h*x);\n\n u_h(i,j)=P_2(j)/(2*beta_h^3*Dh(1))*F11+ M_2(j)/(2*beta_h^2*Dh(1))*F12+\n thetah(j)/beta_h*F13+u_h2sp(j)*F14;\n % u_h(i,j)=(P_2(j)/(beta_h^3*Dh(1))*F11+ M_2(j)/(beta_h^2*Dh(1))*F12+\n 2*thetah(j)/beta_h*F13+2*u_h2sp(j)*F14);\n theta_h(i,j)=beta_h*(P_2(j)/(2*beta_h^3*Dh(1))*F12+\n 2*M_2(j))/(2*beta_h^2*Dh(1))*F13+thetah(j)/beta_h*F14-2*u_h2sp(j)*F11);\n\n Mh(i,j)=2*beta_h^2*Dh(1)*(P_2(j)/(2*beta_h^3*Dh(1))*F13+M_2(j)/(2*beta_h^2*Dh(1))*F14-thetah(j)/beta_h*F11-u_h2sp(j)*F12);\n Qhi,j)=2*beta_h^3*Dh(1)*(P_2(j)/(2*beta_h^3*Dh(1))*F14-\n 2*M_2(j))/(2*beta_h^2*Dh(1))*F11-thetah(j)/beta_h*F12-2*u_h2sp(j)*F13);\n\n Nxh(i,j)=p*(j-1)*r_h/2;\n Nth(i,j)=(u_h(i,j)+(Ah(1)-Ah(3)/2)/(4*beta_h^4*Ah(1)*Dh(1))*p*(j-1))/r_h(Ah(2)-(Ah(3))^2/Ah(1))+(Ah(3)/Ah(1)*Nxh(i,j));\n Slih(i,j) = Nxh(i,j)/t_h+6*Mh(i,j)/(t_h^2);\n Sloh(i,j) = Nxh(i,j)/t_h-6*Mh(i,j)/(t_h^2);\n Stih(i,j) = Nth(i,j)/t_h+6*Dh(3)/Dh(1)*Mh(i,j)/(t_h^2);\n Stoh(i,j) = Nth(i,j)/t_h-6*Dh(3)/Dh(1)*Mh(i,j)/(t_h^2);\n end\nend\n\n% -----------------------------------------------%\n% Stress Calculation in the shell part\n% -----------------------------------------------%\n\nSlis=zeros(k,2); % Longitudinal stress at inside surface of the shell [MPa]\nSlos=zeros(k,2); % Longitudinal stress at outside surface of the shell [MPa]\nStis=zeros(k,2); % Tangential stress at inside surface of the shell [MPa]\nStos=zeros(k,2); % Tangential stress at outside surface of the shell [MPa]\nxs=zeros(k,1);\nu_s=zeros(k,2) % Radial displacement [mm]\ntheta_s=zeros(k,2) % Rotation\nMs=zeros(k,2) % Moments [N.mm]\nQs=zeros(k,2) % Shear forces [N]\nNx_s=zeros(k,2)\nNts=zeros(k,2)\n\nRs = r_i+t_s/2;\nfor j=1:1:2\ni=0;\nfor x = 0:l_s/(k-1):l_s\n i=i+1;\n xs(i)=x;\n\n f1= exp(-beta_s*x) * cos(beta_s*x);\n f2= exp(-beta_s*x) * (cos(beta_s*x)-sin(beta_s*x));\n f3= exp(-beta_s*x) * (cos(beta_s*x)+sin(beta_s*x));\n f4= exp(-beta_s*x) * sin(beta_s*x);\n\n u_s(i,j)= P_l(j)/(2*beta_s^3*Ds(1))*f1+ M_l(j)/(2*beta_s^2*Ds(1))*f2;\n % u_s(i,j)=(P_l(j)/(beta_s^3*Ds(1))*f1+ M_l(j)/(beta_s^2*Ds(1))*f2);\n theta_s(i,j)= beta_s*(-P_l(j)/(2*beta_s^3*Ds(1))*f3-2*M_l(j)/(2*beta_s^2*Ds(1))*f1);\n\n Ms(i,j)=2*beta_s^2*Ds(1)*(P_l(j)/(2*beta_s^3*Ds(1))*f4+M_l(j)/(2*beta_s^2*Ds(1)))*f3);\n Qs(i,j)=2*beta_s^3*Ds(1)*(P_l(j)/(2*beta_s^3*Ds(1))*f2-2*M_l(j)/(2*beta_s^2*Ds(1))*f4);\n\n Nx_s(i,j)=p*(j-1)*r_s/2;\n Nts(i,j)=(u_s(i,j)+(As(1)-As(3))/2)/(4*beta_s^4*As(1)*Ds(1))*p*(j-1))/r_s*(As(2)-(As(3))^2/As(1))+As(3)/As(1)*Nx_s(i,j);\n Slis(i,j) = Nx_s(i,j)/t_s+6*Ms(i,j)/t_s^2;\n Slos(i,j) = Nx_s(i,j)/t_s-6*Ms(i,j)/t_s^2;\n Stis(i,j) = Nts(i,j)/t_s+6*Ds(3)/Ds(1)*Ms(i,j)/t_s^2;\n Stos(i,j) = Nts(i,j)/t_s-6*Ds(3)/Ds(1)*Ms(i,j)/t_s^2;\nend\nend\n\n% ---------------------------------\n% Stress Calculation in the Flange\n% ---------------------------------\n\nxx=[xh xs+l_h];\n\ni=1;\nSli{i,:}=[Slih{i,:} Slis{i,:}];\nSlo{i,:}=[Sloh{i,:} Slos{i,:}];\nSti{i,:}=[Stih{i,:} Stis{i,:}];\nSto{i,:}=[Stoh{i,:} Stos{i,:}];\n\nfigure(1);\nplot(xx,Sli(1,:), 'b*-',xx,Slo(1,:), 'r-^',xx,Sti(1,:),'m--o',xx,Sto(1,:),'k-.s')\nlegend ('longitudinal inside','longitudinal outside','tangential inside','tangential outside','Location','SouthEast')\nset(findobj(gca,'type','line'),'MarkerSize',5)\ngrid on\ntitle('Variation of stresses with length (Bolt-up)')\nxlabel('axial position from ring, mm')\nylabel('Stress, MPa')\n\ni=2;\nSli{i,:}=[Slih{i,:} Slis{i,:}];\nSlo{i,:}=[Sloh{i,:} Slos{i,:}];\nSti{i,:}=[Stih{i,:} Stis{i,:}];\nSto{i,:}=[Stoh{i,:} Stos{i,:}];\n\nfigure(2);\nplot(xx,Sli(2,:), 'b*-',xx,Slo(2,:), 'r-^',xx,Sti(2,:),'m--o',xx,Sto(2,:),'k-.s')\nlegend ('longitudinal inside','longitudinal outside','tangential inside','tangential outside','Location','SouthEast')\nset(findobj(gca,'type','line'),'MarkerSize',5)\ngrid on\ntitle('Variation of stresses with length (Pressurization)')\nxlabel('axial position from ring, mm')\nylabel('Stress, MPa')\n\nu=[uh us];\n\nfigure(3);\nplot(xx,u(1,:), 'b*-',xx,u(2,:),'r-^')\nlegend ('bolt up','Pressurization','Location','SouthEast')\nset(findobj(gca,'type','line'),'MarkerSize',5)\ngrid on\ntitle('Variation of displacement')\nxlabel('axial position from ring, mm')\nylabel('Displacement, mm')\n\nAPPENDIX B\n\nLabVIEW program\n\nFigure B-1 LabView graphical interface\n\nFigure B-2 LabView graphical interface\n\nFigure B-3 LabView graphical interface\n\nFigure 5-4 LabView graphical interface\n\nFigure 5-5 LabView graphical interface\n\nFigure 5-6 LabView graphical interface\n\nFigure 5-7 VI hierarchy of the developed program\n\nAnonymous, (1979). *Modem Flanges Design*, Taylor Forge Inc., Engineering Department Bulletin No. 502, Chicago.\n\nASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sections X, (2016) *Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels*. 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Designing with Fiber Reinforced Materials*, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, pp. 7-10.\n\nMackerle J., (2003). *Finite Element Analysis of Fastening and Joining: A Bibliography (1990-2002)*, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, Volume 80 (4), pp. 253-271.\n\nNational Bureau of Standards Voluntary Product Standard, PS 15-69, Custom Contact Molded Reinforced Polyester, Chemical-Resistant Process Equipment.\n\nNechache A, Bouzid A., (2007). *Creep Analysis of Bolted Flange Joints*, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 84, 185–194\n\nNechache A., Bouzid A., (2003). *The Determination of the Load Changes in Bolted Gasketed Joints Subjected to Elevated Temperatures*, in Proceedings of the ASME-PVP Conference, PVP2003–1883, Cleveland, Ohio, pp. 139–148.\n\nNassar, S. A., Abboud, A., (2009). *An Improved Stiffness Model for Bolted Joints*. ASME Journal of Mechanical Design, 131 (12), pp. 121001-11.\n\nRoy A. Parisher, Robert A., (2011). *Rhea Pipe Drafting and Design, Chapter 4*, Flange basics.\n\nRudolph S., (2004). *Theory and Analysis of Plates, Classical and Numerical Methods*, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004, 1024p.\n\nRosato D. V., Grove C. S., (1964). *Filament Winding*, Wiley, New York.\n\nSun L., (1995). *Bolted Flanged Connections Made of Fiber Reinforced Plastic Materials*, Ph.D. Dissertation, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.\n\nTakaki, T. (2004). *Effects of Flange Rotation on the Sealing Performance of Pipe Flange Connections*, Paper Presented at the Proceedings of the ASME/JSME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, San Diego, CA, USA.\n\nTimoshenko, (1930). *Theory of plate and shells*, NY, J. Wiley.\n\nTsai S.W., (1987). *Composite Design. Think composites*, Dayton, Ohio, USA, third edition.\n\nZahavi E., (1993). *A Finite Element Analysis of Flange Connections*, ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 115:327-330."}}},{"rowIdx":204786,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"\n\n14 April 1944\n\nSUBJECT: Transmittal of Missing Air Crew Report.\n\nTO: Commanding Officer, 451st Bombardment Group (H) APO 520, US Army.\n\n1. Transmitted herewith Missing Air Crew Report of Crew #451-3-23, assigned to this Squadron, reported missing in action as of 12 April 1944 on mission over Zagreb, Yugoslavia.\n\n| RANK | NAME | ASN |\n|--------|--------------------|---------|\n| 2nd Lt | BERGMANN, RAY W. | O-684247|\n| 2nd Lt | CURTMAN, KEITH (WAI)| O-693009|\n| 2nd Lt | BLACKMAN, KENT G. | O-694315|\n| Flt O | BUCHER, GEORGE H. | T-143700|\n| S/Lt | Hirsch, Charles A. | 3243514 |\n| S/Sgt | Lindsay, Elmer T. | 14248710|\n| S/Sgt | Cameron, Maurice R.| 11110693|\n| S/Sgt | Douglas, John R. | 18020016|\n| Sgt | Mackey, Ronald R. | 35843501|\n| Sgt | Gordon, Marvin H. | 15377276|\n\n2. Subject personnel are battle casualties as defined by paragraph 2, Section II, Circular 10, NATUSA, date, 24 January 1944.\n\n3. Battle casualty Report forwarded your headquarters 13 April 1944.\n\nFor the Squadron Commander:\n\n[Signature]\n\n1st Lt., Air Corps,\nAdjutant.\n\n1 incl:\nIncl 1 - MSG Sgt, LT WARD, 2 Crew\n14 Apr 44 w/2 incl (Joint)\n\nU.S. CONFIDENTIAL Equals British CONFIDENTIAL\n\n360.33 Let Ind. C-FM/ars\nHQ 461st Bomb Up (H), A.F.O.C. #520, U.S. Army 24 April 1944.\n\nTO: Commanding General, 49th Wing, A.F.O. #520, U.S. Army.\n\nBattle Casualty report forwarded your headquarters 15 April 1944.\n\nFor the Commanding Officer:\n\nC. E. Campbell Jr.,\nWDP, USA,\nAss't. Adjutant.\n\n1 Incl:\nMAC Rpt., Lt. Bergmann & Crew.\n14 Apr 44 w/2 Inols (quad).\n\n360.33 2nd Ind. C-FM-10\nHEADQUARTERS 49TH BOMB WING (H), APO 520, 26 April 1944.\n\nTO: Commanding General, Fifteenth Air Force, APO 520, U.S. Army.\n\n1 Incl: n/e\n\nAG 360.33 3rd Ind. GF-hm/gow\nHQ, FIFTEENTH AIR FORCE, APO 520, 30 April 1944.\n\nTO: Sg, AFORUSA, APO 524. Attn: Casualty Branch, AGD.\n\n1. Personnel included in attached MAC Report were processed on consolidated HCR No.1-57, dated 20 April 1944, which was forwarded to the 30th MHU 20 April 1944.\n\nFor the Commanding General:\n\nHarold B. Healy,\nMajor, AG,\nAssistant AG.\n\n1 Incl:\nIncl 1 (dup).\n\n| Name | Status | Contact Information |\n|-----------------------|--------|----------------------------------------------------------|\n| 2nd Lt. Ray E. Bowers | POW | Mrs. Margaret Bowers, (Mother) Route Number Three, Box 350, Grants Pass, Oregon. |\n| 2nd Lt. Keith Gurrans | POW | Mrs. Ray E. Gurrans, (Mother) 900 North A Drive, Arkansas City, Kansas. |\n| 2nd Lt. Kent S. Kinloch | POW | Mr. Charles L. Kinloch, (Father) Post Office Box 174, Robinson, Illinois. |\n| Flight Officer George R. Roegge | POW | Mrs. Marie A. Roegge, (Mother) Bettendorf, Iowa. |\n| 2/Lt. Charles A. Hirsch | POW | Mrs. Sally Hirsch, (Mother) Smoker Road, Hempstead, Long Island, New York. |\n| Sgt. James T. Rhodes | POW | Mrs. Joelle N. Rhodes, (wife) Route Number Two, Gander, North Carolina. |\n| 2/Lt. Maurice R. Sasseran | POW | Mrs. Rita Cameron, (wife) 68 Reservoir, North Attleboro, Massachusetts. |\n| 2/Lt. John R. Douglas | POW | Mrs. John A. Douglas, (Father) Route Number One, Chelsea, Oklahoma. |\n| Sgt. Ronald R. Mackay | POW | Mr. and Mrs. Noble Mackay, (Parents) Box 197, Lebanon, Indiana. |\n| Sgt. Marvin H. Gortin | POW | Mrs. Marjorie Gordon, (wife) Bristolville, Ohio. |\n\n| DATE: 4/12/44 1200 | U.S.A. 116 | ME 1375 |\n|-------------------|------------|---------|\n| PLACES: near Kiseljak | 2nd.Lt. CHEFFAN, Keith | 0-691009 |\n| 30 km SW. Sarajevo | 2nd.Lt. BLACKMAN, Kent G. | 0-691315 |\n| TYPE: Liberator | 2nd.Lt. BORRE, George A. | 0-723700 |\n| 725 (HB) 451 Group | 2nd.Lt. BERGHAN, Roy William | 0-642447 captured |\n| BAZE: Nanduria | S/Sgt. HIRSCH, Charles A. | 1242941 |\n| TARGET: Air Force Command South East | S/Sgt. GARRISON, Maurice A. | 11110493 |\n| | S/Sgt. DOUGLAS, John R. | 18320016 |\n| | Sgt. MACKIE, RENEE Ronald R. | 35548911 |\n| | Sgt. SIMMONS, Elmer T. | 11149710 |\n| | Sgt. GORDON, Marvin R. | 13577276 |\n\n| NAME | RANK | SERIAL NUMBER | CAPT'ED | WOUNDED | DEAD | PLACE OF INTERROGATION |\n|---------------|------------|---------------|---------|---------|------|------------------------|\n| CHAPMAN | 2nd Lt. | 0-693008 | captured | | | Bataan Death March |\n| BLACKMAN | 2nd Lt. | 0-684215 | captured | | | same |\n| BORGE | 2nd Lt. | 0-137000 | captured | | | same |\n| BURSHAM | 2nd Lt. | 0-684547 | captured | | | same |\n| HIRSCH | 1st Sgt. | 33428814 | captured | | | Bataan Death March |\n| GAZZANO | 1st Sgt. | 11110893 | captured | | | same |\n| DOUGLAS | 1st Sgt. | 18030016 | captured | | | same |\n| MACKAY | Sgt. | 35548891 | captured | | | same |\n| HUMPHREY | Sgt. | 14149710 | captured | | | same |\n| GORDON | Sgt. | 1537276 | captured | | | same |\n\n**REMARKS:**\nBataan Death March, 25 November 1944, v. 2.\n\nCONFIDENTIAL\n\nSCALE 1:500,000\n\nApproximate position last sighted\n\n41-2410\n\nHVAR\n\nKORCULA\n\nCONFIDENTIAL\n\nBy: NARA NARA Date: 1973\n\nName of crew member: BORGE, George R.\nRank: 2/0\nSerial number: 3-38760\nPosition: Crew (Bomber) 2nd Lt. (Fighter) Bombardier.\n\nDid he bail out? Yes\nWhere? Near Sarajevo, Yugo.\nIf not, why not?\nLast contact or conversation just prior to or at time of loss of plane:\nUninjured and in good shape\nWas he injured? No\nWhere was he when last seen? He was in prison camp (Stalag 7A) April 29, 1945, and in good shape at time of liberation from said camp.\nAny hearsay information: No\nIt is in agreement with the temperament of the men that he would have been one of the ones who left the camp after liberation, to make his way on his own against the advice and orders of ranking officers in charge. However, I have no evidence to this affect.\nSource:\nAny explanation of his fate based in part or wholly on supposition:\nThe above information is entirely supposition. I knew the man well and do not think it at all unlikely.\n\nTotal number of missions of above crew member: One\nDates and destinations if possible: April 12, 1944; destination, somewhere in Yugoslavia, near Sarajevo.\n\nName of crew member: BIRCH, Charles A.\nRank: S/Air\nSerial number: 2568024\nPosition: Crew (Bomber) Flight Engineer (righter): Upper Turret.\n\nDid he bail out? Yes\nWhere? Near Sarajevo, Yugo.\nIf not, why not?\nLast contact or conversation just prior to or at time of loss of plane:\nIn good shape; uninjured.\nWas he injured? No\nWhere was he when last seen? Moosburg Germany, prison camp stalag 7A, at time of liberation, 29 April, 1945.\nAny hearsay information: No\nSource:\nAny explanation of his fate based in part or wholly on supposition:\nNo. He was in good shape at the time of our liberation. I did not see him after this time.\nTotal number of missions of above crew member: One\nDates and destinations if possible: 12 April, 1944; destination, somewhere in Yugo, near Belgrad and Sarajevo.\n\n1. Your name: Keith Curfman \n Rank: 2nd Lt. \n Serial No.: 0-693009\n\n2. Organization: 400Bg Op Commander Eaton \n Rank: Col \n Sqn CO Davis \n Rank: Maj \n (full name) \n (full name)\n\n3. What year: 1944 \n month: April \n day: 12 \n did you go down?\n\n4. What was the mission: Bombing \n target: Merhalling yds. Near Belgrade, Yugoslavia \n time: 12:40 \n altitude: 18,000 \n route scheduled: Direct from Foggia \n route flown: Same\n\n5. Where were you when you left formation? Approximately 30 min in Yugo.\n\n6. Did you bail out? Yes\n\n7. Did other members of crew bail out? Yes, all of them\n\n8. Tell all you know about when, where, how each person in your aircraft for whom no individual questionnaire is attached bailed out. A crew list is attached. Please give facts. If you don't know, say: \"No Knowledge\". All members bailed out. All were uninjured and in good mental shape. Used bomb bays and rear escape hatch. No one injured going out.\n\n9. Where did your aircraft strike the ground? No knowledge\n\n10. What members of your crew were in the aircraft when it struck the ground? (Should cross check with 8 above and individual questionnaires) None\n\n11. Where were they in aircraft?\n\n12. What was their condition?\n\n13. When, where, and in what condition did you last see any members not already described above?\n\n14. Please give any similar information on personnel of any other crew of which you have knowledge. Indicate source of information. I saw all members of the crew at different times in prison camps Stalag Luft 3, and Stalag 7a. They were all uninjured and in good shape with the exception of Page who was our waist gunner. He had been operated on for appendicitis just before our removal from Stalag Luft 3 to Moosburg. I never saw him after that.\n\n(Any additional information may be written on the back)\n\nName of crew member: BOEGE, George R.\nRank: W/0\nSerial number: T-35700\nPosition: Crew (Bomber) Aircraft (fighter): Bombardier.\n\nDid he bail out? Yes\nWhere? NEAR SARAJEVO, YUGOSLAVIA\nIf not, why not?\nLast contact or conversation just prior to or at time of loss of plane: N/A\n\nWas he injured? No\nWhere was he when last seen? ITALY 7-A. MESSERBERG, APRIL 1945.\nAny hearsay information: (PLEASE SIR I DON'T KNOW WHAT IS WRONG. OUR BOMBARDIER AND UPPER TURRET GUNNER WAS IN THE PRISON CAMP WITH ME UNTIL JAN. 25, 1944. I PERSONAL SAW BOTH OF THEM IN APRIL 1945. BOTH WERE RECAPTURED ON APRIL 29, 1945 AT STALAG VII A. I WAS THERE & SAW THEM.)\nSource:\nAny explanation of his fate based in part or wholly on supposition: None\nIT'S FOR SURE I KNOW HE IS IN THE STATES AND ALIVE!\n\nTotal number of missions of above crew member: 146\nDates and destinations if possible: 1944-1945\n\nName of crew member: HIRSCH, Charles A.\nRank: S/Sgt.\nSerial number: 38429514\nPosition: Crew (Bomber) **X** Upper Turret.\n\nDid he bail out? Yes\n\nWhere? NEAR SARAJEVO, YUGOSLAVIA\n\nIf not, why not? L\n\nLast contact or conversation just prior to or at time of loss of plane: NONE\n\nWas he injured? NO\n\nWhere was he when last seen? STABAO T-F, MESSERG GERMANY APRIL 1945\n\nAny hearsay information: NONE\n\nSource:\n\nAny explanation of his fate based in part or wholly on supposition: NONE\n\nAS FAR AS I KNOW HE IS IN THE STATES, YOUR OBLIGENT.\n\nTotal number of missions of above crew member: ONE\n\nDates and destinations if possible:\n\n1. Your name: John R Douglas\n Rank: 5/Star\n Serial No.: 18020016\n\n2. Organization: 451 Gp Commander\n Rank: Sqn CO Davis\n Rank: MAT\n (full name)\n\n3. What year: 1944\n month: April\n day: 12\n did you go down?\n Sec. no.:\n (full name)\n\n4. What was the mission, target, altitude, route scheduled,\n (full name)\n\n5. Where were you when you left formation? I Don't Know!\n\n6. Did you bail out? Yes.\n\n7. Did other members of crew bail out? Yes.\n\n8. Tell all you know about when, where, how each person in your aircraft for whom no individual questionnaire is attached bailed out. A crew list is attached. Please give facts. If you don't know, say: \"No Knowledge\". I DON'T KNOW. I WAS LUCKY OUR TAIL GUNNER WENT OUT FIRST AND I FOLLOWED.\n\n9. Where did your aircraft strike the ground? I Don't Know.\n\n10. What members of your crew were in the aircraft when it struck the ground? (Should cross check with 8 above and individual questionnaires) NONE. WE ALL DIED.\n\n11. Where were they in aircraft?\n\n12. What was their condition?\n\n13. When, where, and in what condition did you last see any members not already described above? I SAW ALL 10 CREW MEMBERS AT 500 FT. IN APRIL 1944. THE WAS DRUNK! HE DIDN'T KNOW.\n\n14. Please give any similar information on personnel of any other crew of which you have knowledge. Indicate source of information.\n\n(Any additional information may be written on the back.)\n\n6-3862, AF\n\nName of crew member: BOEGE, George R.\nRank: WO\nSerial number: T-123700\nPosition: Crew (Bomber) Bombardier.\n\nDid he bail out? Yes\nWhere? Near Sarajevo, Yugoslavia\nIf not, why not?\n\nLast contact or conversation just prior to or at time of loss of plane:\nBoege was sixth to bail out the bomb bay, following Hirsch.\n\nWas he injured? No\nWhere was he when last seen? In prison camp at Stalag VII A, Moosburg, Ger.\n\nAny hearsay information:\nMy latest information is that Boege is discharged and married living in Davenport, Iowa.\n\nSource: Friends of San Antonio District P.O.\nAny explanation of his fate based in part or wholly on supposition:\n\nTotal number of missions of above crew member: One\nDates and destinations if possible:\n\nName of crew member: BIRCH, Charles A.\nRank: 5/Air\nSerial number: 32438614\nPosition: Crew (Bomber) Navigator/Observer Upper Turret.\n\nDid he bail out? Yes\nWhere? Near Sarajevo, Yugoslavia\nIf not, why not?\nLast contact or conversation just prior to or at time of loss of plane:\nI pulled off his flak vest. He was trying to leave the plane.\nWas he injured? No\nWhere was he when last seen? In prison camp at Stalag VII A, Moosburg.\nAny hearsay information: None\n\nSource:\n\nAny explanation of his fate based in part or wholly on supposition: None\n\nTotal number of missions of above crew member: Five\nDates and destinations if possible:\n\n1. Your name: Kent Gordon Blackman Rank: 1st Lt. Serial No.: 0-698345\n\n2. Organization: 457th BG Commander: Edson (P) Rank: Col. Sqn CO: Davis (P) Rank: Major\n\n3. What year: 1944, month: April, day: 12, did you go down?\n\n4. What was the mission: Bombing, target: Ligny, Vosges, target time: 12:45 (Z), altitude: 21,000 feet, route scheduled: Same as scheduled\n\n5. Where were you when you left formation? About one half hour before I.P.\n\n6. Did you bail out? Yes\n\n7. Did other members of crew bail out? Yes\n\n8. Tell all you know about when, where, how each person in your aircraft for whom no individual questionnaire is attached bailed out. A crew list is attached. Please give facts. If you don't know, say: \"No Knowledge\".\n All crew members bailed out safely and in usual emergency order. Nose compartment crew each bailed out the same way because of a faulty nose wheel escape hatch.\n\n9. Where did your aircraft strike the ground? No Knowledge\n\n10. What members of your crew were in the aircraft when it struck the ground? (Should cross check with # above and individual questionnaires) None\n\n11. Where were they in aircraft?\n\n12. What was their condition?\n\n13. When, where, and in what condition did you last see any members not already described above?\n\n14. Please give any similar information on personnel of any other crew of which you have knowledge. Indicate source of information. None\n\n(Any additional information may be written on the back)\n\n8-24-62, AF\n\nName of crew member: BOSSE, George R.\n\nRank: N/A\n\nSerial number: 74890\n\nPosition: Crew (Bomber) 2nd Flight (Fighter): Bombardier.\n\nDid he bail out? Yes\n\nWhere? Near Sajro\n\nIf not, why not?\n\nLast contact or conversation just prior to or at time of loss of plane: Called crew gave order to bailout\n\nWas he injured? No\n\nWhere was he when last seen? At location of prison camp\n\nAny hearsay information:\n\nSource:\n\nAny explanation of his fate based in part or wholly on supposition: Supposed him to be still in captivity\n\nTotal number of missions of above crew member: One\n\nDates and destinations if possible: Tokyo, April 12, '45\n\nName of crew member: SIRGACH, Charles A.\nRank: 2/Lt.\nSerial number: 47-10384\nPosition: Crew (Bomber) or Pilot (Fighter): Upper Turret.\n\nDid he bail out? Yes\nWhere? Near Jagreb\nIf not, why not?\nLast contact or conversation just prior to or at time of loss of plane: 200000\nWas he injured? No\nWhere was he when last seen? At briefing camp\nAny hearsay information:\nSource:\nAny explanation of his fate based in part or wholly on supposition: Singapore\nTotal number of missions of above crew member: 44+\nDates and destinations if possible: Japan April 12 44\n\n6-3961, AF\n\n1. Your name: Longley, Ray W. Rank: 1st Lt. Serial No.: 0-484247\n\n2. Organization: 45th Gp Commander, Col. Smith. Rank: Col. Sqn CO Davis. Rank: Lt. Col.\n\n3. What year: 44 month: April day: 12 did you go down? Yes\n\n4. What was the mission: Target, target time: 1200 altitude: 20,000 route scheduled: 5th Course route flown: 1st Course\n\n5. Where were you when you left formation: 20 min short of target\n\n6. Did you bail out? Yes\n\n7. Did other members of crew bail out? Yes\n\n8. Tell all you know about when, where, how each person in your aircraft for whom no individual questionnaire is attached bailed out. A crew list is attached. Please give facts. If you don't know, say: \"No Knowledge\". They bailed out success fully, landed near the 14th Bomb Group then later landed up in 33rd Camp.\n\n9. Where did your aircraft strike the ground? I believe it flew up first, I don't know what caused the explosion to occur.\n\n10. What members of your crew were in the aircraft when it struck the ground? (Should cross check with 8 above and individual questionnaires) None\n\n11. Where were they in aircraft?\n\n12. What was their condition?\n\n13. When, where, and in what condition did you last see any members not already described above? Shortly after 1200 hrs, second in fair shape.\n\n14. Please give any similar information on personnel of any other crew of which you have knowledge. Indicate source of information. 2nd Gp Lt. Smith, Sgt. 1st Lt. of 1-45th Gp came up with me shortly after their ship shot down at 1200. To our knowledge, all others present.\n\n(Any additional information may be written on the back)\n\n6-3862, AF\n\nMeldung über den Abschuss eines US-amerikanischen Flugzeuges\n\nAbschuss und Zeit: 12.4.44, 12.00\nAbschussort: B. Kieseljar\nFlugzeugtyp: Liberator\nMeldende Dienststelle: Lw. Kdo. Südost\n\nBesatzung:\n\n| Name und Vorname: | Dienstgrad | Erk.-Nr.: | Verbleib: |\n|-------------------|------------|-----------|-----------|\n| GURGAN Keith | 2/Lt. 0-693009 | gef. Stalag-Luft 3 |\n| BLACKMAN Kent G. | 2/Lt. 0-694315 | gef. Stalag-Luft 3 |\n| ROYER George V. | 2/Lt. 0-123700 | gef. dito |\n| BERGMAN Roy William | 2/Lt. 0-684247 | gef. dito |\n| HERSCH Charles A. | S/Sgt. 32429514 | gef. Stalag-Luft 4 |\n| CAMERON Maurice A. | S/Sgt. 11110693 | gef. Stalag-Luft 4 |\n| DOUGLAS John R. | S/Sgt. 18020016 | gef. dito |\n| MACKBY Ronald R. | Sgt. 35548591 | gef. dito |\n| REEDS Elmer T. | Sgt. 14149710 | gef. dito |\n| GORDON Marvin H. | Sgt. 15377276 | gef. dito |\n\nBemerkungen:\nDULAG-LUFT, den 25.11.44, v.S.\n\nS 5837/44 Heidelberg Gutelei.org Druckerei GmbH. V. 44"}}},{"rowIdx":204787,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Memorandum\n\nTo: Mayor and City Council\n\nFrom: Roger Krieger\n\nDate: May 10, 2023\n\nRe: Dalton Creek Plat Approval – File LP 2021-2\n\nFinal approval of the first phase of the Dalton Creek Subdivision submitted by Two Old Boys LLC is before the Council for approval pursuant to DPMC 17.28.040(C)(5), which provides “the City Council shall determine whether conditions imposed when the preliminary plat was approved have been met or bonded and the requirements of state law and this title have been satisfied by the subdivider. And, if the City Council determines that the above conditions have been met and have approved the plat, the mayor shall thereupon cause the original drawing to be sign and transmitted to the County Treasurer’s office”.\n\nAttached for your information is the application packet, final plat drawings, SEPA Determination and staff report, along with a copy of the original Findings of Fact and conditions by the Commission. This information was previously provided in February, 2022, as a status report to you after completion of the appeal period from the previous Planning Commission adoption of the preliminary plat.\n\nThis plat and improvements for Phase 1 have received all the engineering approvals and inspection and testing procedures required by the City during the project development work which has spanned over the past few months since the preliminary plat approval. This plat is complete in form, dedications, restrictions and signature blocks for approval. In addition, all as-built drawings have been received, fees collected and a warranty bond posted for the period of one year by the Contractor as required within the ordinance.\n\nA specific motion of the Council is required to: 1) approve the Dalton Creek Phase 1 Final Plat, that is located in a portion of the SE ¼ of the NW ¼ of Section 11, Township 28 North, Range 42 East, W.M., City of Deer Park, Spokane County, Washington, 2) to accept all easements, dedications, restrictions and rights-of-way as shown, and 3) to accept all improvements completed within the subdivision for continued maintenance by the City of Deer Park.\n\nFINAL PLAT DALTON CREEK ADDITION PHASE 1, LP2021-2\nA PORTION OF THE SE ¼ OF THE NW ¼ OF SECTION 11,\nTOWNSHIP 28 NORTH, RANGE 42 EAST, T.M.\nSTEWART COUNTY, GEORGIA\nNOVEMBER 2022\n\nSECTION 11, TOWN, RANGE\nTOWNSHIP 28, RANGE 42, T.M.\n\nTYPICAL LOT SETBACK DETAIL\n\n| Lot 17 | Street frontage 35'-0\" - common lot (20) |\n|--------|------------------------------------------|\n| Lot 18 | Street frontage 35'-0\" - common lot (20) |\n| Lot 19 | Street frontage 35'-0\" - common lot (20) |\n\nBASE\nLot 17: 35'-0\" - common lot (20)\nLot 18: 35'-0\" - common lot (20)\nLot 19: 35'-0\" - common lot (20)\n\nSECTION INDEX\n\nSUSPENDED CERTIFICATE\n\nIN THE STATE OF GEORGIA, COUNTY OF STEWART, BE IT KNOWN that I, the undersigned, do hereby certify that the above plat is a true and correct plat of the subdivision described in the attached description. The plat is prepared in accordance with the requirements of the Georgia Land Surveying Act and the rules and regulations promulgated thereunder by the Board of Registration of Land Surveyors of the State of Georgia. The plat is approved by the Board of Registration of Land Surveyors of the State of Georgia and is hereby certified to be a true and correct plat of the subdivision described in the attached description.\n\nDated: August 12, 2022\n\nANNIE L. PHILLIPS\nPUBLIC NOTARY\nSTATE OF GEORGIA\nCOUNTY OF STEWART\nMy commission expires: April 16, 2023\n\nRECORDING OF THIS PLAT IS NOT REQUIRED BY LAW. SHEET 1 OF 3\n\nINTERNATIONAL SURVEY GROUP\nP.O. Box 154, Hinesville, Georgia 31310\n(912) 351-4111\n\nFINAL PLAT DALTON CREEK PHASE 1\nSection 11, Town, Range, T.M.\n\nRECORDING OF THIS PLAT IS NOT REQUIRED BY LAW. SHEET 1 OF 3\n\nFINAL PLAT DALTON CREEK ADDITION PHASE 1, LP2021-2\n\nA PORTION OF THE SE 1/4, NE 1/4 OF SECTION 14,\nTOWNSHIP 28 NORTH, RANGE 48 EAST, W.M.,\nSPokane County, Washington, November 2022\n\nPARCEL 28111.0035\n\nFUTURE PHASE\n\nPARCEL 28111.0035\n\nSOUTH COLVILLE ROAD\n60' RIGHT OF WAY\n\nDALTON CREEK ADDITION PHASE 1 LINE TABLE\n\n| Lot | Block | Area (Acres) | Area (Sq. Ft.) |\n|-----|-------|--------------|----------------|\n| | | | |\n\nDALTON CREEK ADDITION PHASE 1 CORNER TABLE\n\n| Corner | Description | Coordinates |\n|--------|-------------|-------------|\n| | | |\n\nLEGEND\n\n- Right of Way\n- Street\n- Building\n- Parking\n- Landscaping\n- Tree Planting\n- Other\n\nSCALE: 1\" = 100'\n\nFINAL PLAT DALTON CREEK PHASE 1\n\nOwner Name: The Old West, LLC\nAddress: 1234 Main St., Spokane, WA 99201\nPhone: (509) 555-1234\nEmail: email@example.com\n\nSurveyor: John Smith, PLS\nDate: November 20, 2022\nScale: 1\" = 100'\nDrawing Number: 28111-0035\nSheet 2 of 3\n\nCopyright © 2022 by The Old West, LLC. All rights reserved.\n\nCity of Deer Park, Washington\n\nOfficial Zoning Map\n\n- Residential 2A (R-2A)\n- Residential 2B (R-2B)\n- Residential 3A (R-3A)\n- Residential 3B (R-3B)\n- Manufactured Home Subdivision (MHS)\n- Manufactured Home Park (MHP)\n- Multi-Family (MF)\n- Central Commercial (CC)\n- Diversified Commercial (CD)\n- Mixed Use (MU)\n- Cemetery (CEM)\n- Business Park (BP)\n- Light Industrial (LI)\n- Public/Quasi-Public (P/Q/P)\n\nUrban Growth Boundary\n\nMunicipal Boundary\n\n1 - Runway Protection Zone\n2 - Inner Safety Zone\n3 - Inner Turning Zone\n4 - Outer Safety Zone\n5 - Sideline Safety Zone\n6 - Traffic Pattern Zone\n\nMap Projection: WA State Plane North, NAD 83-HARN\nMap Produced: July 2018\nTown Net Coverage by Land Use: Residential TA & 2A-N, Commercial Hospital [H], Commercial General Neighborhood [CN], Commercial Recreational [CR], Commercial Recreation [CR]\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 1999-23\nDate of Adoption: September 15, 1999.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2004-018\nDate of Adoption: April 16, 2004.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2005-019\nDate of Adoption: June 1, 2005.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2007-051\nDate of Adoption: August 1, 2007.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 1\nDate of Adoption: April 16, 2008.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2008-050\nDate of Adoption: April 16, 2008.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2008-061\nDate of Adoption: July 16, 2008.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2009-040\nDate of Adoption: August 5, 2009.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2010-038\nDate of Adoption: May 5, 2010.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2011-072\nDate of Adoption: October 11, 2011.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2012-037\nDate of Adoption: September 13, 2012.\n\nAs Amended by Ordinance No. 2017-074\nDate of Adoption: December 12, 2017.\n\nContact Simonsen on file with CityMeasure\n\nNorthwest County\n\nCITY OF DEER PARK\nDEER PARK MUNICIPAL CODE CHAPTER 17.28\n\nAPPLICATION FOR\nPRELIMINARY LONG SUBDIVISION\n\nDate Received: 13 Aug 2021 File Number: LP 2021-2\nDate Accepted: 6/23/21 By: Sh\nTotal Fees: $1,985 Receipt Number: TR 42990\n\nA. GENERAL INFORMATION\n\nName of Applicant: Two Old Boys LLC % Mecanna Engineering\nMailing Address: 9401 E. Appleway, Spokane Valley, WA 99006\nPhone: 509-954-6604 Fax:\nIf the applicant is not the property owner, include written authorization from the\nowner for the applicant to serve as the owner’s representative.\nName of Legal Owner: Two Old Boys LLC\nMailing Address: 702E. Big Meadows Rd., Chantilly, WA 99003\nPhone: 509-489-6100 Fax:\n\nSite Area of Proposed Project (Acres or Square Feet): 34.39 ACRES\nArea of Adjacent Lands Owned or Controlled: 28112-4099 (3.2AC) 9096 (1.903) 9094 (15AC) 9012 (5AC)\nAssessor’s Parcel Numbers of Proposed Project: 28112-0099, 28111-0095, 28111-0093\nAssessor’s Parcels of Adjacent Lands Owned or Controlled: 28112-4099, 9096, 9094 &’ 9012\nStreet Address of Proposed Project: UNASSIGNED ADDRESS\nComprehensive Plan Designation: MULTI-FAMILY RESIDENTIAL & SINGLE FAMILY RESIDENTIAL R2A\nExisting Zoning: PARCEL 28111-0097 (MU) 28111-0095 (R2A) &’ 28111-0093 (R2A)\nProposed Zoning: NO CHANGE IN ZONING\nExisting Use of Property: Single Family ___; Manufactured Home ___;\nDuplex ___; Multifamily ___; Commercial ___; Industrial ___;\nOther (Describe) OPEN LAND\nProposed Use of Property: Single Family X; Manufactured Home ___;\nDuplex ___; Multifamily ___; Commercial ___; Industrial ___;\nOther (Describe)\nList Previous City Actions Involving This Property: UNKNOWN\n\nB. LEGAL INFORMATION\n\nLocation of Proposed Project: EAST OF SOUTH COLVILLE ROAD TO CITY LIMITS\nSection: 11 Township: 28N Range: 42E\nName of Public Street(s) Providing Access: S. Colville Road\nWidth of Property Fronting on Public Street(s): 658'\n\nLegal Description (attach legal description stamped by Licensed Surveyor and include legal description for entire area to be subdivided on the preliminary long plat):\n\nSEE ATTACHED:\n\nIf you do not hold title to the property, what is your interest in it? YES, OWNER\n\nExplain why you feel the proposed project is warranted: THE LACK OF HOUSING IN THE AREA, AND PROVIDE A SAFE LIVING ENVIRONMENT, AND GREAT PLACE TO LIVE.\n\nWhat impact will the proposed subdivision have on adjacent properties? THIS PROJECT WILL BE A GREAT FIT FOR THE LOCAL AREA, WITH ITS LAYOUT AND AESTHETICS.\n\nWhat measures do you propose to mitigate the project’s impacts on surrounding land uses? THIS PROJECT WILL BE BUILT IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE CITY OF DEER PARK STANDARDS AND ZONING CODES TO MITIGATE THE PROJECT’S IMPACTS.\n\nC. PRELIMINARY LONG PLAT GENERAL INFORMATION\n\nNumber of Lots: 46 lots 86 lots Gross Area: 34.39 ACRES\n\nAverage Lot Size: 8,011 SF 8,591 SF Net Density*: 5.4 LPA (R2A) 3.4 LPA (R2A)\n\nSmallest Lot Size: 7,025 SF 10,000 SF Minimum Frontage: 50' (R2A) 60' (R2A)\n\n* Net Density is lots per acre excluding public street area.\n\nProposed Source of Water: Public System X; Private System ____\n\nOther (Describe) _______________________________________________________\n\nProposed Means of Sewage Disposal: Public System X; Septic Tank and Drainfield ____\n\nOther (Describe) _______________________________________________________\n\nUtility Companies Providing Service to This Project:\n\nElectricity: Austin Phone: CenturyLink\n\nNatural Gas: Austin Other: __________________\n\nDo you (or the legal owner) have any plans for future additions, expansions, or other further activity related to this proposal? Yes X; No ___; If “Yes”, Explain: _____________________________\n\nD. PRELIMINARY LONG PLAT IMPROVEMENT INFORMATION\n\nProposed Street Improvements:\n\n| Area (Sq. Ft.) | Right-of-Way Width (Feet) | Roadway Width (Feet) |\n|----------------|---------------------------|----------------------|\n| Private Driveway | _______ | _______ |\n| Private Street | _______ | _______ |\n| Public Street | 214,013 SQFT 46' | 38' |\n\nDescribe Type of Surface for Each of the Above: 2\" S. COLVILLE RD 60' ROW, ROADWAY 40' 4\" HMA (ASDOT) 2\" ON-SITE STREETS 46' ROW, ROADWAY 38' 3\" HMA CL Y2 PG 64-2-8\n\nEstimated Time Period Expected for Complete Development of the Subdivision: PHASE I SPRING 2022 TO FALL 2022 PHASE II & III UNKNOWN\n\nIs phasing of the finalization of the long plat proposed? Yes: X; No: _____. If “Yes”, show phasing on the preliminary long plat map.\n\nIs dedication of land for public use contemplated (parks, etc.)? Yes: ___; No: X. If \"Yes\", describe:\n\nE. SURVEYOR VERIFICATION\n\nI, the undersigned, a Licensed Land Surveyor, have completed the information requested. The legal description and preliminary plat have been prepared by me, or under my supervision, in accordance with the requirements of the City of Deer Park Zoning and Subdivision regulations and the laws of the State of Washington.\n\nSignature: ___________________________ Date: 08-09-21\nName (Print): Todd J. Emerson\nAddress: 67010 N. TAMARAC LANE\nNINE MILE FALLS, WA 99026\nPhone: 509-710-3200 Registration No.: PLS 38037\n\nF. APPLICANT/PROPERTY OWNER AUTHORIZATION\n\nI, the undersigned, swear or affirm, under penalty of perjury, that the above responses are made truthfully and to the best of my knowledge. I further swear or affirm that I am the owner of record of the area proposed for the long subdivision identified herein or, if not the owner, attached herewith is written permission from the owner authorizing my actions on his/her behalf.\n\nSignature: ___________________________ Date: 6/17/2021\nName (Print): WILLIAM M BATES\nAddress: 702 E BIG MEADOWS\nCHATTANOOGA, WA 99025\nPhone: 509-991-5163\n\nState of Washington )\nSS\nCounty of Spokane )\n\nSigned and sworn or affirmed before me on this 17th day of June, 2021, by William M. Bates\n\nNotary Public in and for the State of Washington\nResiding at: Spokane\nMy Appointment Expires: 8/12/22\n\nToo Old Boys Legal Description:\n\nThe North Half of the Southwest Quarter of the Northeast Quarter AND the South Half of the Northwest Quarter of the Southeast Quarter of the Northeast Quarter AND that portion of the Northeast Quarter of the Southeast Quarter of the Northwest Quarter lying East of Colville (Dalton) Road.\n\nAll in Section 11, Township 28 North, Range 42 East of the Willamette Meridian in Spokane County, Washington.\n\nSubject to and Together with any existing easements, covenants, conditions, rights, reservations, restrictions, or encumbrances of record or in view.\n\nPRELIMINARY PLAT\nTOO OLD BOYS\nIN SECTION 11, T28N R42E, WM\nDEER PARK, WA\n\nSITE DATA TABLE\n| PARCEL NUMBER | 38110007 |\n|---------------|----------|\n| SITE ADDRESS | 6101-6109 FOSTER ST, DEER PARK, WA 98526 |\n| OWNER | TOO OLD BOYS LLC |\n| AGENCY | DEER PARK CITY OF |\n| PROJECT | RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT |\n| ENGINEER | HILLMAN ENGINEERS |\n| OFFICIALS | DEER PARK CITY OF |\n\nPROJECT CONTACTS\nOWNER: TOO OLD BOYS LLC\nCONTACT: TODD J. EMERSON\nPHONE: (206) 701-2320\nEMAIL: firstname.lastname@example.org\n\nLEGAL DESCRIPTION\nThe lots and parcels shown on this plat are subject to the provisions of the City of Deer Park, Washington, and the State of Washington. The plat is for the purpose of subdividing the property described above into individual lots and parcels.\n\nSURVEYOR'S CERTIFICATION\nI, Todd J. Emerson, PLS #3007, hereby certify that the foregoing plat was prepared by me or under my direction in conformance with the Surveying and Recording Act at the request of the City of Deer Park.\n\nPreliminary Plat\nEMERSON SURVEYING\nTODD J. EMERSON, PLS #3007\nDEER PARK, WA 98526\n(206) 701-2320\n\nTypical Lot Setback Detail\nAll setbacks are measured from the centerline of the street or the edge of the lot.\n\nFINDINGS OF FACT, CONCLUSIONS OF LAW, AND DETERMINATION\n\nCITY OF DEER PARK\nTWO OLD BOYS LLC SUBDIVISION PLAT\nAPPLICATION NO. LP 2021-2\n\nIn regards to the findings requirements of Chapter 17.28 of the Deer Park Municipal Code, the Infrastructure Concurrency management regulations of Chapter 17.28 of the Deer Park Municipal Code, and the consistency determinations required in Chapter 19.04 of the Deer Park Municipal Code, the Planning Commission of the City of Deer Park hereby finds and concludes the following with respect to Preliminary Long Plat Application No. LP 2021-2:\n\n1. Application LP 2021-2 was submitted on August 13, 2021, for a subdivision of a portion of land identified as a Replat the N1/2 of the SE1/4 of the NE1/4, and the S1/2 of the NW1/4 of the SE1/4 of the NE1/4 and that portion of the NE1/4 of the SE1/4 of the NW1/4 Lying East of Colville (Dalton) Road, all in Sec. 2, T28N, R42E, W.M., and more particularly identified as Spokane County Tax Parcels 28112.0097, 28111.0095 & 28111.0093. The existing parcel size is approximately 35.14 acres and the proposed subdivision would, (1) create 40 lots of higher density two family residential development, a net density of approximately 5 lots to the acre, with lot size ranging from 8,076 square feet to 11,207 square feet. (2) create 85 lots of low density single family residential development, a net density of approximately 4.5 lots to the acre, with lot size ranging from 10,008 square feet to 11,801 square feet.\n\n2. The proposed development is in conformance with the adopted Comprehensive Plan (including Parks and Recreation Element of the plan) and is identified as Single and Two Family Residential land use and was further specified within the State Environmental Policy Act review checklist. The proposed preliminary plat and uses of the property are in compliance with the land use designation, policies and densities in the comprehensive plan.\n\n3. The proposed development is in conformance with the City’s adopted Zoning Regulations in terms of density and intensity, and other pertinent zoning requirements in that the Multi-family Residential zoning classification proposed parcels have lot areas at or exceeding the minimum required in the MF zone and the Residential 2A zoning classification proposed parcels have lot areas at or exceeding the minimum required in the Residential 2A zone which both allow for single family housing. And as conditioned herein, all proposed parcels will have public street frontage in accordance with the Subdivision and Zoning Titles of Deer Park Municipal Code.\n\n4. The proposed development is located in an undeveloped area that has single family residential land use allowed within the boundaries of the parcels of the subdivision and public notification boundaries. Additional lands to the South are currently undeveloped and are located within jurisdiction of Spokane County and outside the\n\nUrban Growth Boundary of the City and therefore regulated by the County. Lands to the North of the site are currently undeveloped lands with the City of Deer Park and lands to the West are partially developed Residential lands and available for future development.\n\n5. The proposed development is bordered on the West by S. Colville Avenue, and will be the only access route to the development. Full width Frontage improvements to S. Colville Avenue shall be completed with Phase 1 from the current extension of improvements on S. Colville Avenue to the Southern boundary of lots fronting S. Colville Avenue and Southern City Limits line. Full width improvements shall mean improvements as shown on the proposed Preliminary Plat dated 10/18/2021 from Emerson Surveying and titled Colville Road (Collector Street) Roadway Section and shall provide a minimum of 40 feet of traveled width, curbing/gutter and sidewalks along both sides of the street, water and wastewater utility extensions, storm water collection and disposal and street lighting.\n\n6. Recognizing the conditions required herein and the City of Deer Park development standards, appropriate provisions have been made to ensure the public health, safety and general welfare, and therefore, the public use and interest will be served by the proposed Two Old Boys LLC Subdivision Plat, Phases 1, 2, 3 & 4.\n\n7. A threshold determination and environmental review pursuant to RCW 43.21C, the State Environmental Policy Act, was completed and a Mitigated Determination of Nonsignificance (MDNS) was issued on May 17, 2021.\n\n8. The Deer Park Planning Commission held a duly noticed public hearing on the proposed subdivision on January 10, 2022, and closed the hearing and public comment period at the end of the hearing.\n\n9. The subdivision proposal is generally consistent with RCW 58.17, promoting the public health, safety and general welfare in accordance with standards established by the state and the City of Deer Park. The City has considered the provision of adequate public facilities as cited in RCW 58.17.110(2). More specifically:\n a. Public rights-of-way\n b. Potable water\n c. Sanitary wastewater disposal\n d. Storm water drainage\n e. Parks and recreation facilities\n f. Play grounds\n g. Schools and playgrounds\n h. Pedestrian walkways and sidewalks\n\n**DECISION**\n\nBased upon the above noted Findings of Fact and Conclusions, the Planning Commission for the City of Deer Park does hereby determine the following:\n\nPreliminary Long Plat Application Number LP 2021-2 (Two Old Boys LLC Subdivision) is hereby **approved subject to compliance with the following conditions noted below.** Unless otherwise noted, the applicant and/or sponsor, prior to final approval Phase 1\n\nthrough 4, shall accomplish the conditions of approval. This decision is final unless appealed in writing, consistent with adopted appeal procedures.\n\nThe following conditions shall be binding on the “Applicant”, which shall include owner or owners of the property, heirs, assigns and successors:\n\n1. The residential construction and future development of this property shall comply with the Multi-family and Single Family Residential 2A Zoning District. Additionally, if or where easements are provided that are used for pedestrian sidewalks, the minimum setback distance from any back of sidewalk to proposed front of any portion of the buildings or garages where vehicles may be parked shall be 25 feet, to provide clear parking areas for vehicles to not block the public sidewalks.\n\n2. The Final Plat in all 4 phases, shall be designed substantially in conformance with the Preliminary Plat Map of record as identified as Emerson Surveying – Preliminary plat, dated October 18, 2021, and other materials submitted with the application. No increase of density or number of lots shall occur without an application for alteration, completed and approved.\n\n3. The Community Service Director, Planning Director or designee shall review the proposed final plat map and other documents to ensure compliance with the completed findings of fact, conclusions, and conditions of approval.\n\n4. All existing or required easements for access, utilities or other purposes shall be designated and their purpose noted and shown on the face of the final plat map. Written approval of the proposed utility easements by the appropriate utility provider shall be submitted with the final plat map. The Developer is responsible for all necessary utility adjustments, relocations, or improvements as required for completion of the project.\n\n5. The final plat map must contain Street names and addresses as designated by the Planning Department.\n\n6. The final plat maps for phase 1 & 3 adjacent to S. Forest Street, shall have the following notes on the face of the final plat map.\n a. No single family parcels shall be permitted access driveways along any lot frontage of S. Colville Avenue or S. Forest Street.\n\n7. All material used for roadway construction or improvements shall comply with the materials specifications and compaction requirements of the WSDOT manual entitled STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD, BRIDGE, AND MUNICIPAL CONSTRUCTION (latest edition).\n\n8. The Development shall require erosion and runoff control measures during construction to inhibit erosion and prevent silt and other materials from being\n\ncarried off-site. Further, an approved Construction Stormwater General Permit pursuant to Department of Ecology regulations shall be provided to the City prior to work commencing on the project. The erosion/sedimentation control measures shall be consistent with the current Spokane Regional Stormwater Manual.\n\na. The erosion and runoff control measures shall be approved by the City’s Consultant Engineer and must be in place prior to any clearing, grading or construction.\n\nb. A temporary erosion and sedimentation control (TESC) plan prepared by a Washington State Licensed Engineer shall be prepared and clearly depicted on the construction drawings and shall be maintained during all phases of construction and shall comply with the manufacturer’s specifications for installation.\n\nc. All erosion and runoff measures shall be removed from the site when the site is stabilized and it has been determined by the design engineer that they are no longer necessary.\n\nd. Measures must be taken to avoid the deposition of dirt and mud from unpaved surfaces on paved surfaces. If tracking or spills occur on paved surfaces, measures must be taken immediately to clean the site.\n\ne. Dust emissions during construction and excavation projects must be controlled. This may require the use of water sprays, tarps, sprinklers or suspension of work during certain weather conditions.\n\n9. As part of construction drawings for the overall development and in order to mitigate potential impacts to ground water the developer shall prepare a site-specific geotechnical report identifying in-situ soil conditions, soil transmissivity, subsurface flow paths and related parameters used to demonstrate that downstream properties will not be impacted by increased flow impacts resulting from the construction of proposed improvement on the subject site. Further, prior to final approval of construction documents for the overall development, the Developer shall submit a final stormwater drainage report prepared by a Washington State licensed engineer for review and approval. The report shall address the water quantity, quality and conveyance systems to the detail required by the Consultant City Engineer and in compliance with the Stormwater Management Manual for Eastern Washington and the Spokane Regional Stormwater Manual. The stormwater report and drainage plans shall be approved by the City prior to construction of improvements and Final Plat approval.\n\nFurther, specific attention shall be noted within the report for the existing drainage way(s) traversing the parcel form the North to South of the parcel and drainage onto property within Spokane County. Final review and approval of the drainage plans shall be received prior to submittal of the drainage report and plans to the City and shall further require at the proposed Phases 1, 2 and 3 of the plat, a surety posted for 100% of the estimated construction and inspection costs, prior to approval of the Final Plat of each phase. Specific third-party inspection and testing services shall be procured for any storm water disposal systems proposed onto Spokane County controlled lands by the subdivision’s development sponsor.\n\nand the submittal and approval of a certification package as defined in the Spokane County Standards for Road and Sewer Construction shall be provided prior to final plat approval.\n\nIf stormwater management plans include use of Tract’s within the plat, place the following note on the final plat:\n\nTract(s) as shown on the final plat and part of the drainage conveyance system for the plat contain stormwater drainage systems designed to control runoff originating from streets and other impervious areas within the development. The Drainage Plan for this development was prepared and authorized by Two Old Boys LLC, a copy of which is on file with the City of Deer Park. It shall be the responsibility of the owners of the Tracts as identified on the Final Plat and their successors to hereafter maintain the stormwater drainage system in the originally designed condition by the formation of and ownership by a Subdivision Homeowners’ Association with covenant provisions pertaining to ownership, maintenance and operation of the storm water facilities and tracts in a form approved by the Community Services Director containing a provision identifying the City as a third party beneficiary of the stormwater related provisions.\n\nIf stormwater management plans include use of curb side swales within the plat and located behind or between the sidewalk that is adjacent to the curb, place the following note on the plat:\n\nSwales as provided and shown on the easements within the final plat and are part of the drainage conveyance system for the plat contain stormwater systems designed to control runoff originating from streets and other impervious areas within the development. The Drainage Plan for this development was prepared and authorized by Two Old Boys LLC, a copy of which is on file with the City of Deer Park. It shall be the responsibility of the owners of the Lots containing drainage swales within border easements as identified on the Final Plat and their successors to hereafter maintain the stormwater drainage system in the originally designed condition which includes planted grass and irrigation systems at time of building permit issuance and final issuance of occupancy certificates for the individual permitted parcels.\n\n10. Prior to any construction activity on S. Colville Avenue, or any construction activities on the subject property, a professional engineer, licensed in the State of Washington, shall submit:\n a. A final road and drainage plan for approval by the City of Deer Park and utility providers servicing the area for development. Further, S. Colville Avenue street improvements shall be designed to Collector Street classification within the City system, whereas the remaining streets within the development shall be designed to Local Access classifications.\n b. A wastewater system design shall be provided and constructed to provide service to each lot in this development and shall be connected to the\n\nexisting sanitary sewer system in a manner consistent with adopted city standards. Easements for the collection system to tie into (construction and permanent maintenance) the improvements within the Habitat for Humanity development to the West of S. Colville Avenue shall be provided with plans submittals for approval.\n\nc. A water system design shall be provided and constructed to provide service to each lot in this development and shall be connected to the current termination on S. Colville Avenue and extend to the Southern right of way line of proposed L Street.\n\nThree (3) complete sets of construction documents and specifications for each phase shall be provided to the City and all utility providers for review. Said plans shall show all proposed improvements including roadway grades and contours, street signage (stop, names and no parking), stormwater systems, sanitary sewer, domestic water and fire protection, power, electrical distribution and ornamental street light specifications and layout, natural gas and telecommunication systems and comply with standards adopted by the City of Deer Park.\n\n11. Prior to any construction activity on a city street or within the proposed development, a traffic control plan including potential road closed / detour plan for SR 395, shall be submitted to WSDOT and the City for approval prior to work within the public right-of-way.\n\n12. During construction, the applicant shall comply with the WSDOT manual and City of Deer Park regulations pertaining to construction inspections, including but not limited to:\n\na. Proper construction inspection of all public utility installation of water, wastewater and storm water.\n\nb. Proper construction inspection of all public street improvements, including the compaction of utility trenches and road subgrade, testing of compaction and gradation of base course, and pavement by a qualified licensed testing agency.\n\nc. Prior to placement of any surfacing material on the roadway, it will be the responsibility of the applicant/contractor to provide density test reports certified by a licensed testing agency. All material used for fill shall comply with the materials specifications and compaction requirements of the soils reports.\n\n13. Prior to any construction activity the developer shall provide a construction calendar that addresses all phases of the proposed work. The City shall maintain services of their engineering consultant for full time construction observation for all phases of the construction project, and these service fees shall be deposited to the City by the Developer prior to work commencing, at the fees negotiated between the Consultant Engineer and the City. The applicant shall deposit with the City prior to construction the total amount of dollars as negotiated based on\n\nthe proposed construction calendar plus 15% contingency, and any refunds / charges incurred will be settled prior to approval of the final plat for each phase.\n\n14. Prior to any development work commencing, the Developer shall contact the City to schedule a pre-construction meeting for entities involved with the construction project.\n\n15. As-built plans for all improvements, prepared to City standards shall be submitted to the City prior to final plat approval. In addition, stormwater disposal facilities Operation and Maintenance manuals shall be provided to the City for all facilities developed to control and dispose of water from the public way, and shall be the responsibility of the Plat applicant to provide to homeowner associations or other owners of the Tracts of land proposed for stormwater detention and disposal.\n\n16. A final plat, meeting all requirements of this title shall be submitted to the Community Services Director for approval pursuant to 17.28.030(G) for Phase 1 of the development. Phase 2 through 4 development approval phases shall be based on the completion date of subsequent phases for the overall development.\n\n17. Pursuant to 17.28.040(C), all fees associated with the final plat approval for each phase shall be paid to and/or reimbursed to the City prior to the City processing the final plat approval. These fees shall include, but may not be limited to all fees and costs incurred by the City as a result of the utilization of non-City employee service providers, including engineering fees, legal fees, and any other fees that are incurred by the City to process, consider, examine, evaluate, approve, and uphold the activities of the applicant associated with the application and public improvements constructed pursuant thereto. These fees shall be paid and/or reimbursed to the City in full prior to final approval of each phase of the subdivision. In addition, all final plat fees specifically established on a per lot basis pursuant to City Resolution, all traffic mitigation fees established by the City pursuant to Chapter 10.28 DPMC, and water rights transfer fees established by the City pursuant to Chapter 13.12 DPMC shall be paid prior to final plat approval of each phase of the subdivision.\n\n18. All lots shall be graded to drain in accordance with the building code. In addition, a note shall be placed on the face of the final plat stating:\n\nProperty owners within this plat shall be held responsible for keeping open and maintaining the surface path of natural or man made drainage flow over and across their respective properties. There may exist properties located uphill and adjacent to and within this subdivision which periodically discharge stormwater runoff onto individual lots within this plat. Stormwater runoff from nearby uphill properties should be expected, and during snow melt periods or wet seasons the lots may be subjected to higher amounts of stormwater runoff than what is normally observed or anticipated. Because stormwater runoff from adjacent properties has\n\ndischarged onto this plat prior to development, stormwater runoff will likely continue to do so after the development.\n\n19. Mailbox cluster locations (NBU’s) shall be incorporated into lot development plans and within easements provided on the lots but behind the back of sidewalks for the locations identified with potential conflict. NBU’s locations shall have prior concurrence by the Postal Service Manager for Deer Park, prior to submittal of engineering construction documents for review.\n\n20. A current title insurance policy certificate (dated not more than 30 days prior to the recording date of the final plat) issued by a title company shall be provided, confirming that title of the land is the proposed final plat is vested in the name(s) of the owner(s) who appear on the certificate.\n\n21. A spill prevention and pollution control plan shall be provided to the City of Deer Park prior to any construction activity on the site.\n\n22. Construction activities including the transportation of equipment and materials to the site shall comply with noise ordinance provisions of the City, including working days and holidays. Grading activities shall be performed, where feasible, in a manner which utilizes natural noise barriers adjacent to existing residential areas. Construction equipment shall have adequate mufflers, exhaust systems and spark arrestors, and excavation sites shall be watered on a regular basis and comply with Spokane Regional Clean Air requirements.\n\n23. Building permits may be granted before all improvements are completed if all of the following conditions are met:\n a. No use or occupancy of residences is permitted.\n b. The access roadway is provided with a minimum 6” gravel base course, so placed as to permit an additional 2” of gravel top course to protect the structural integrity of the road base.\n c. The developer assumes all responsibility for damage to improvements during any building phase.\n\n24. The proposed Neighborhood Park area at approximately 1.3 acres is being set aside in an interior area of the proposed development and is being built with the development of Phase 2 and accessed from proposed K and L Streets. A park plan shall be provided with submittal of final engineering documents for Phase 2 that provides play areas and features, water and wastewater service line for a restroom, sidewalks around the perimeter of the areas and along street frontages and a full irrigation system approved by the Parks Maintenance division of the City. The park shall be deeded to the City in fee for natural open space and park purposes in perpetuity and be completed for continued operations and maintenance by the City in conjunction with final platting of Phase 2 of the development.\n\n25. All house plans shall be subject to approval by the Planning Commission or designee and shall be based on current adopted city codes at the time of the building permit application and compliment the neighborhood’s current setting.\n\n26. Timing of improvements and completion of Phases shall be in compliance with the Subdivision ordinance of the City. Extensions for completion of phases may be considered by the Planning Commission, but all phases shall be completed within 10 years or additional application and SEPA reviews shall be required and materials amended to ordinance provisions of the time.\n\n27. The developer shall obtain comprehensive liability insurance, naming the City as additionally insured, for off-site damage to adjoin properties which might result during construction activities, including water flow, earth movements or dust caused by the development activities.\n\nAdopted this 24th day of January 2022\n\nPlanning Commission Chair Person\n\nATTEST:\n\nPlanning Director\n\nCity of Deer Park\nFindings of Fact, Conclusions of Law, and Determination\nRegarding Two Old Boys LLC Long Plat Applications No. LP-2021-2\n\nMITIGATED DETERMINATION OF NONSIGNIFICANCE (MDNS)\n\nDescription of Proposal: McCanna Engineering – Two Old Boys LLC Subdivision LP 2021-2, a subdivision of 34.38 acres into 117 Single Family residential building lots for the purpose of constructing residential buildings per the existing zoning classification of the parcel and including utility infrastructure and off site street improvements.\n\nProponent: Too Old Boys LLC, attn: Bowie McCanna, Project Engineer, McCanna Engineering, 9401 E. Appleway Blvd, Spokane Valley, WA 99206.\n\nLocation of proposal, including street address, if any: The site of this Subdivision is on Tax Parcel numbers 28112.0097, 28111.0095 & 28111.0093, with additional construction work on adjacent parcels 28112.9098, 28111.9096, 28111.9094, and 28112.0094, and that portion of S. Colville Avenue Lying West and North of the proposed subdivision, within a portion of Section 11, Township 28N, Range 42E, W.M. Spokane County, and more generally described as located in the Southerly portion of the City Limits of Deer Park adjacent to S. Colville Avenue and North of the BNSF Railroad line, within the City Limits of Deer Park.\n\nLead Agency: City of Deer Park\n\nThreshold Determination: The lead agency for this proposal has determined that with the mitigation measures identified herein, this proposal would not have a probable and unavoidable significant adverse impact on the environment. An environmental impact statement (EIS) is not required under RCW 43.21C.030(2)(c). This decision was made after review of a completed environmental checklist and other information on file with the lead agency. This information is available to the public on request. However, we have identified impacts by the proposed project that requires mitigation. In addition to the requirement that the development must comply with all City of Deer Park zoning and development regulations, the following conditions of approval of the permit decision apply:\n\n(B)(1) Earth: In order to mitigate for potential earth impacts, the Applicant shall implement Best Management Practices per Department of Ecology for Stormwater Pollution Prevention Controls and to prevent erosion during and after construction. Refer to the Stormwater Manual for Eastern Washington. In addition, placement of excess fill materials for disposal outside the project limits and outside the City Boundary of the City of Deer Park, shall require permitting from Spokane County and shall be provided with submittal of future engineering documents for the project.\n\n(B)(2) Air: In order to mitigate air impacts, the Applicant shall implement dust control measures to reduce fugitive dust emissions during construction both on and off site. A Construction Plan and approval shall be acquired from Spokane Regional Clean Air Agency prior to work commencing.\n\n(B)(3)(b) Ground Water: In order to mitigate for potential impacts to ground water the Applicant shall prepare a final storm water drainage report to accompany final drainage designs for the onsite and offsite basins identified within the initial checklist and drainage analysis and to demonstrate that downstream properties will not be impacted by increased flow impacts resulting from the construction of proposed improvement on the subject site. In addition, any and all approvals by Spokane County for location of storm water systems within the County shall be provided with submittal of future drainage engineering documents. Further, all new drywells and other injection wells must be registered with the Underground Injection Control program (UIC) at the Department of Ecology prior to use and discharge from the well(s) must comply with the ground water quality requirements (non-endangerment standard) at the top of the ground water table.\n\n(B)(14)(16) Transportation / Utilities: In order to mitigate for roadway and utility extensions to be dedicated to City in the future both on site and the off site improvements to S. Colville Avenue, a Professional Engineer (P.E.) licensed in the State of Washington, shall submit road, utility and storm drainage construction plans and a drainage report that conform to the current version of the City of Deer Park Standards, the 2010 and later versions of the Spokane County Road Standards, the 2008 Spokane Regional Stormwater Manual, and all applicable federal, state, and local regulations and laws that are in effect at the time of the plan submittal or at the time of the development permit applications. The final road, utility and storm drainage plans and drainage report shall receive the City Consultant Engineer’s acceptance prior to release of any associated Grading, Building or Right-of-way Permit.\n\nXX This MDNS is issued under WAC 197-11-340(2) and WAC 197-11-350; the lead agency will not act on this proposal for fourteen (14) days from the date below. Written comments must be submitted by June 3, 2021.\n\nResponsible Official:\n\nName: Timothy Verzal\nPosition/Title: Mayor – City of Deer Park\nPhone: (509) 276-8802\nAddress: 316 East Crawford, P.O. Box F, Deer Park, WA. 99006-0228\n\nDate Issued: 5/17/2021 Signature: Timothy Verzal\n\nTo Appeal a Decision – An agency or person may appeal the City’s procedural compliance with WAC Chapter 197-11 (SEPA) for issuance of this MDNS. Appeal of the final MDNS must be made to the Hearing Examiner within 14 days of the date the MDNS is final. The MDNS is final when the City issues the land use permit in the form of subdivision approval.\n\nTO: Deer Park Planning Commission\n\nRE: Two Old Boys LLC - LP 2021-2\n\nTYPE: Planning Commission Approval\n\nPREPARED BY: Roger Krieger\n\nDATED: January 4, 2022\n\nLOCATION: Approximately 1100 S. Colville Avenue\n\nGENERAL INFORMATION\n\nApplicant: Two Old Boys LLC, Attn: Bo McCanna, Project Engineer, McCanna Engineering, Spokane Valley, WA.\n\nStatus of Applicant: Owner – Agent of applicant\n\nParcel Owner: Two Old Boys LLC\n\nRequested Action/Purpose: Approval of Long Plat 2021-2, a Replat the N1/2 of the SE1/4 of the NE1/4, and the S1/2 of the NW1/4 of the SE1/4 of the NE1/4 and that portion of the NE1/4 of the SE1/4 of the NW1/4 Lying East of Colville (Dalton) Road, all in Sec. 2, T28N, R42E, W.M., and more particularly identified as Spokane County Tax Parcels 28112.0097, 28111.0095 & 28111.0093.\n\nSize: 35.14 Acres.\n\nPhysical Characteristics: Land is sloping from NE to SW, with potential drainage way and surface water runoff across the parcel and to be collected and routed through the parcel with drainage facilities and easements to parcels owned by the LLC and located within Spokane County.\n\nDevelopment Characteristics: (1) Subdivision into 40 lots of higher density two family residential development, a net density of approximately 5 lots to the acre, with lot size ranging from 8,076 square feet to 11,207 square feet. (2) Subdivision into 85 lots of low density single family residential development, a net density of approximately 4.5 lots to the acre, with lot size ranging from 10,008 square feet to 11,801 square feet. All lots sized to accommodate single and two family residential dwellings as stated in the State Environmental Review Checklist and permitted within the zoning classifications of the parcel.\n\nTransportation: The proposed subdivision will be accessed from construction of an interior roadway system accessed from S. Colville Avenue and in the future could extend to a Southern Extension of S. Weber Avenue. Overall distribution of traffic is expected to be 15% East using Crawford Avenue, 5% North on US 395, all traffic going South from the site on US 395 is expected to use East H Street and S. Main Street, and all intersections continue to function at a high level of service from traffic generated by the project.\n\nParking: Residential zoning requirements include two off street parking spaces per unit. In addition, traffic mitigation fees to be collected at final plat submission for the plat. The City Street would be limited parking with restrictions during the overnight hours.\n\nExisting Zoning: Residential 2A – Eastern parcels 28111.0093 and .0095. Multifamily Residential – Western parcel 28112.0097.\n\nSurrounding Use/Zoning:\n- North: Developed land, Multi-family and Residential zoned R3A.\n- West: Developed land, residential R3A zoned..\n- South: Undeveloped land, within Spokane County.\n- East: Undeveloped land, zoned Public.\n\nComprehensive Plan Designations: Single Family and Multi-Family Residential.\n\nEnvironmental Documentation: A Mitigated Determination of Nonsignificance for the project was issued May 17, 2021, by the City. Specific mitigation measures were identified within the decision and additional comments received from Washington State Department of Ecology were noted, no other comments were received from review agencies. Mitigation measures are identified within conditions recommended below for approval.\n\n**ANALYSIS**\n\nThe original final application submittals for subdivision were received on August 13, 2021, which included the preliminary application for subdivision along with a Project-State Environmental Policy Act Checklist. Prior to the submittal date and from approximately 2011, staff review comments and responses and/or changes to the plat have been completed as well as completion of a Mitigated Determination of Non-Significance. A result of the reviews and additional discussions with the applicants provided for the re-submittal of all documents for acceptance by the City on August 23,\n\n2021. The SEPA review determination and draft MDNS was submitted to the applicant for concurrence with approval received from the applicant on May 17, 2021 to proceed. The MDNS was published on May 17, 2021, and upon completion of response time, a notice for adoption of the draft MDNS was completed June 3, 2021, starting an appeal time period, and request for subdivision documents to proceed to hearing stages. On October 25, 2021, a Determination of Completeness issued, scheduling the hearing date as December 13, 2021. Unfortunately, the notification periods as required by City Ordinance were not met and notifications not distributed which required a rescheduling of the hearing until January 10, 2022. All required notifications to adjacent parcel owners, sign posting and publication in the newspaper of record have been completed as required by ordinance.\n\nThe parcel of land is located East of S. Forest Avenue at the Southern end of the City Limits of Deer Park, in portions of Section 11, T.28N., R.42E., Willamette Meridian, Spokane County, and as noted above carries the zoning classification of Residential 2A, allowing single family residential structures on a minimum lot size of 10,000 square feet, and Multi-family which can be used for two family residential structures on a minimum lot size of 6,000 square feet.\n\nThe subject parcel has no improvements to the site other than S. Colville Avenue in its current condition of 22 feet of paved width. Improvements planned including those off site include: Roadway construction to match existing S. Colville Avenue, which provides 40 feet of driving surface, curbs, drainage and sidewalks from the current end of the improved street across the frontage of this subdivision, walkways on both sides of the street. Water line extension and crossings from the current terminus of the water main on S. Colville Avenue to the Southern proposed entry road to the subdivision. Wastewater extension across and through lands owned by the Habitat for Humanity Development located to the West of S. Colville Avenue. Utility extensions as required for providers in the area of power, natural gas and communications. In addition, conceptual Offsite Drainage and Stormwater Management Plans have been prepared in response to drainage issues identified by Staff in development meetings. Recognizing the conditions as recommended below and the City of Deer Park development standards, appropriate provisions have been identified to ensure the public health, safety and general welfare, and therefore the public use and interest will be served by the proposed preliminary plat.\n\nA threshold determination and environmental review pursuant to RCW 43.21C, the State Environmental Policy Act, and Chapter 16.04 of the Municipal Code, was completed and a Mitigated Determination of Non-Significance (MDNS) was issued on May 17, 2021.\n\nIf conditions are adopted as noted below, the proposed Preliminary Plat would be in compliance with Chapter 17.28 and Chapter 16 of the Deer Park Municipal Code.\n\nDENSITY: The Zoning Code of the City allows for residential use (single family dwellings) as permitted within the R2A Zone of the City, which allows for lot size of 10,000 square feet, with a minimum of 50 feet of lot frontage along a City Street, except for cul-de-sacs where the frontage is normally measured at the front setback line. The\n\nproposed development is in conformance with the low density residential designation of the Land Use Elements and with current zoning standards of the City. Further, the Zoning Code of the City on the Western most parcels allows for multi-family residential use (including duplex dwellings under provisions of the R3A Zone of the City), Which allows for lot size of 6,000 square feet, with a minimum of 50 feet of lot frontage along a City Street. Additionally, access restrictions to existing City street system, fencing location and rear or secondary street frontage yard requirements for lots fronting any portion of S. Colville Avenue are required to eliminate direct access from the rear or sides of the parcel and will be listed a plat restrictions on the face of the plat.\n\nSTREET / SIDEWALK DEVELOPMENTS: The roadway providing access to the site does not have any current pedestrian facilities, but will be added across the frontage of the parcel of S. Colville Avenue on both sides of the street, concurrent with the first phase of development completed with the plat. The discussion of numbers and placement of sidewalks is specified in section 17.28.050(B)(10) of the Subdivision ordinance. The section requires sidewalks to be placed on both sides of the roadways for the subdivision and at a minimum width of 5 feet. However, the section also allows reduction of the sidewalk width from 5 feet to 3 feet, if clear passing spaces are provided at 200 foot intervals. The street rights of way within the plat will be provided with sidewalks of 5 feet in width on both sides, and also be provided with sidewalks along the existing frontage of S. Colville Avenue concurrent with the phasing plans proposed.\n\nRoadway sections are noted on the plat as specified in section 17.28.050(B)(10) of the subdivision ordinance. The streets within the plat are designated as local access street with right of way widths of 46 feet, and pavement width of 38 feet. S. Colville Avenue will receive improvements along the frontage of the development in Phase 1 and each of the proposed roadway sections are shown on plans sheets 1.\n\nOPEN SPACE / PARKS: A proposed Neighborhood Park area at approximately 1.3 acres is being set aside in an interior area of the proposed development and is being built with the development of Phase 2 and accessed from proposed K and L Streets, and is within the areas identified within the parks plan for green space and development. A park plan is to be provided with submittal of initial engineering documents for Phase 2 that provides play areas and features, restroom and sidewalks around the perimeter of the areas and along street frontages. The park will be completed and dedicated to the City for continued operations and maintenance in conjunction with final platting of Phase 2 of the development.\n\nPOSTAL DELIVERY: The U.S. Postal Service will now only provide mail to residential areas with Neighborhood Box Units (NBU’s). The NBU is a cluster of mailboxes strategically located to serve several home sites. The mailbox clusters must be situated in close proximity to the dwelling units served and they require design approval by both municipal and postal authorities and fit behind the walkways on the City street system.\n\nCOMMISSION PROCESS: The Planning Commission through development of “findings of facts, recommendation and conclusions” has the authority to rule on the\n\nabove and grant a platting variance to the issues raised through the hearing process. Conditions for consideration are:\n\n- The granting of a platting variance will not be detrimental to the public safety, or welfare, or injurious to adjacent property.\n- The tract to be subdivided is of such unusual size and shape or topographical conditions that the strict application of this title will result in undue and substantial hardship to the owner of the property.\n\nWith discussion of the proposed subdivision along with any platting variances that may be raised as noted above, the public hearing process and requirements are met.\n\nNotice of public hearing on the matter were mailed to adjacent parcel owners, signs were installed identifying the land use action and notification in the newspaper of record was completed prior to stated deadlines for notification to the public. In addition, comments were solicited from Fire District #4, Avista Utilities, Qwest, and the Comcast cable TV system. To date only comments on the storm water plans for the subdivision from Spokane County, either through the individual utility mailings or SEPA process have been received.\n\nThe purpose and scope of the public hearing is for the Commission to inquire into the public use and interest proposed to be served by the establishment of the subdivision and dedication, determine if provisions are made for, but not limited to, the public health, safety, and general welfare, for open spaces, drainage ways, streets, alleys, and other public ways, water supplies, sanitary wastes, parks, playgrounds, sites of schools and playgrounds, and shall consider all other relevant facts, including sidewalks, bikeways, and other planning features that assure safe walking and riding conditions for students who walk or ride a bicycle to and from school, and determine whether the public interest will be served by the subdivision and dedication.\n\n**RECOMMENDATION**\n\nDevelopment of Findings of Facts with conditions noted following in support of the request, Commission approval and recommendation to the City Council for adoption at the next meeting of the Commission.\n\n1. All lots shall be graded so that the graded pad areas drain directly to their own street frontage at a 2 percent minimum grade and/or to non-erosive drainage devices on the parcel.\n2. Mailbox cluster locations (NBU’s) shall be incorporated into lot development grading plans and within easements provided on the lots but behind the back of sidewalks.\n3. Storm water drainage facilities shall comply with the Spokane Regional Stormwater manual for the impervious surfaces created, and requirements of Spokane County as it relates to flow of water off-site and onto adjacent parcels within Spokane County.\n4. A wastewater system design shall be constructed to provide service to each lot in this development and shall be connected to the existing sanitary sewer.\n\nsystem located within the Habitat for Humanity owned lands located Westerly of the development site.\n\n5. A water system design shall be constructed to provide service to each lot in this development and shall be connected to the existing water utility mains located North of the boundary of the proposed subdivision. Further extension of water mains within the development and to the Eastern boundary of the future phase shall be completed during the subsequent phase and for the future connection of City water to the East of the proposed subdivision.\n\n6. Construction activities including the transportation of equipment and materials to the site shall comply with noise ordinance provisions of the City, including working days and holidays. Grading activities shall be performed, where feasible, in a manner which utilizes natural noise barriers adjacent to existing residential areas. Construction equipment shall have adequate mufflers, exhaust systems and spark arrestors, and excavation sites shall be watered on a regular basis and comply with Spokane Regional Clean Air requirements.\n\n7. In order to mitigate for potential earth impacts, the Applicant shall implement Best Management Practices per Department of Ecology for Stormwater Pollution Prevention Controls and to prevent erosion during and after construction. Refer to the Stormwater Manual for Eastern Washington.\n\n8. In order to mitigate air impacts, the Applicant shall implement dust control measures to reduce fugitive dust emissions during construction both on and off site. A Construction Plan and approval shall be acquired from Spokane Regional Clean Air Agency prior to work commencing.\n\n9. In order to mitigate for potential impacts to ground water the Applicant shall prepare a site-specific geotechnical report identifying in-situ soil conditions, soil transmissivity, subsurface flow paths and related parameters to use used to demonstrate that downstream properties will not be impacted by increased flow impacts resulting from the construction of proposed improvement on the subject site. Additionally, the report shall identify drywell outflow rates, the infiltration rates, the quantity of fines, drywell compatibility in the swale locations and potential subsurface flow impacts on the proposed homes. Further, all new drywells and other injection wells must be registered with the Underground Injection Control program (UIC) at the Department of Ecology prior to use and discharge from the well(s) must comply with the ground water quality requirements (non-endangerment standard) at the top of the ground water table.\n\n10. In order to mitigate for potential impacts to the water and wastewater system of the City, the developer shall submit plans and profiles of the proposed water and existing sanitary sewer improvements prepared by a registered civil engineer to the City for review and approval.\n\n11. In order to mitigate for roadway and utility extensions to be dedicated to City in the future, a Professional Engineer (P.E.) licensed in the State of Washington, shall submit road, utility and storm drainage construction plans and a drainage report that conform to the current version of the City of Deer Park Standards, the 2010 and later versions of the Spokane County Road Standards, the 2008 Spokane Regional Stormwater Manual and updates, and\n\nall applicable federal, state, and local regulations and laws that are in effect at the time of the plan submittal or at the time of the development permit applications.\n\nThe final road, utility and storm drainage plans and drainage report shall receive the City Consultant Engineer’s acceptance prior to release of any associated Grading, Building or Right-of-way Permit. Roadway improvements for existing and adjacent streets systems to include S. Colville Avenue shall be provided with curbing and drainage improvements to the existing roadway with pedestrian walkways per plan. Offsite improvements to be sequenced with Phase 1 of the development.\n\n12. All City incurred engineering review fees and construction observation costs, and construction costs for streets, utility mains, storm drain systems, utilities and ornamental street light costs for installation shall be provided by the developer at his expense.\n\n13. In order to mitigate and provide for parks and open spaces, the Neighborhood Park space or open space area shall be deeded to the City in fee for natural open space and park purposes in perpetuity, and shall encompass the areas in approximate detail to the Preliminary Plat – Future Park area. All water and wastewater service shall be provided to the tract of land, and shall be provided with improvements noted, including restroom, pathway, play structures, green space with permanent irrigation systems and other features as otherwise advised by a licensed landscape architect and soils engineer and as approved and accepted by the City Maintenance Supervisor.\n\n14. All fees pertaining to subdivisions required by the Municipal Code to be paid prior to approval of the final plat map by the City Council, and shall be based on the fees which are in effect at such respective times.\n\n15. The developer shall provide all necessary on-site easements for public and private utility systems.\n\n16. Development on the parcels shall be in compliance with provisions of the Multi-family (MF and R3A) and Residential 2A requirements of the zoning code. Additionally, if or where easements are provided that might be used for pedestrian sidewalks, the minimum setback distance from any back of sidewalk to proposed front of building shall be 25 feet, to provide clear parking areas for vehicles to not block the sidewalks. Further, specific plat restrictions will be noted on the plat stating no access to the rear or side of any lots fronting S. Colville Avenue and setbacks for fencing or structures shall comply with rear or side yard setback requirements listed within section 18.23.050 Yards and 18.94 Clear View Triangle and Fencing.\n\n17. All house plans shall be subject to approval by the Planning Commission or designee and shall utilize wood, stone, brick and other natural materials to compliment the neighborhood’s current setting.\n\n18. Timing of improvements and completion of Phases shall be in compliance with the Subdivision ordinance of the City. Extensions for completion of phases may be considered by the Planning Commission, but all phases shall\n\nbe completed within 10 years or additional application and SEPA reviews shall be required and materials amended to ordinance provisions of the time.\n\n19. The developer shall obtain comprehensive liability insurance, naming the City as additionally insured, for any off-site damage to adjoining properties which might result during construction activities, including water flow, earth movements or dust caused by the development activities.\n\n**ATTACHMENTS**\n\n1. Two Old Boys Addition Subdivision application 2021-2.\n2. Public Hearing Notice, Vicinity Map & Preliminary Plat Map of Two Old Boys Addition.\n3. City of Deer Park Zoning Map.\n4. City of Deer Park Comprehensive Plan Map – Park Needs.\n5. Mitigated Determination of Nonsignificance"}}},{"rowIdx":204788,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"The Bendectin Litigation: A Case Study in the Life Cycle of Mass Torts\n\nJoseph Sanders\n\nFollow this and additional works at: https://repository.uchastings.edu/hastings_law_journal\n\nPart of the Law Commons\n\nRecommended Citation\nJoseph Sanders, The Bendectin Litigation: A Case Study in the Life Cycle of Mass Torts, 43 Hastings L.J. 301 (1992).\nAvailable at: https://repository.uchastings.edu/hastings_law_journal/vol43/iss2/2\n\nThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Journals at UC Hastings Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Hastings Law Journal by an authorized editor of UC Hastings Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact email@example.com.\n\nThe Bendectin Litigation: A Case Study in the Life Cycle of Mass Torts\n\nby\nJOSEPH SANDERS*\n\nTable of Contents\n\nI. Introduction .................................................. 303\nII. Case Congregations ........................................... 305\n A. Beyond the Individual Case ............................. 305\n B. Case Congregations and Mass Torts .................... 307\n C. A Note on Case Studies ................................. 310\nIII. Bendectin Background ...................................... 311\n A. The Firm ............................................... 311\n B. The Drug .............................................. 312\n (1) Thalidomide ....................................... 313\n (2) MER/29 ............................................. 315\n (3) Bendectin .......................................... 317\nIV. The Science ................................................ 321\n A. Background ............................................ 321\n (1) In Vitro Studies ................................... 322\n (2) In Vivo Studies .................................... 322\n (3) Epidemiological Studies ........................... 326\n a. The Primacy of Epidemiology? .................... 328\n b. Causal Inference ................................ 329\n B. The Bendectin Studies ................................ 331\n\n* Professor of Law, University of Houston Law Center; B.A. 1966; J.D. 1969; Ph.D. 1974, Northwestern University. This Article is a revised version of a paper originally given at the Law and Society Meetings in Berkeley, California in June 1990. The research for the Article was supported by the University of Houston Environmental Liability Law Program. The Article would not have been possible without the assistance of the following University of Houston law students who work for the Environmental Law Liability Program: Michael Brown, Bill Robbins, Michael Rose, Lisa Salzman, and especially Terry Salem and Randall Terrell. The Environmental Law Liability Program is indebted to Marion Merrell Dow for its willingness to provide transcripts and other materials from the Bendectin cases. Herbert Kritzer and Michael Rustad also provided valuable materials. I wish to thank W. Glenn Forrester, Marc Galanter, Richard Lempert, Barry Nace, Al Schretter, the student editors of the Hastings Law Journal, and especially Michael Green for helpful comments on earlier drafts.\n\n[301]\n\n| Section | Page |\n|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|\n| (1) In Vitro Studies | 331 |\n| (2) In Vivo Studies | 333 |\n| (3) Epidemiological Studies | 339 |\n| a. Background | 339 |\n| b. The Evolution of Bendectin's Epidemiological Research | 341 |\n| c. The Increase in Statistical Sophistication and Power | 342 |\n| d. The End of Research | 345 |\n| (4) The Life Cycle of the Bendectin Science | 347 |\n| V. The Law | 348 |\n| A. Mobilization | 349 |\n| (1) The \"First Plaintiff\" Problem | 349 |\n| (2) Merrell's Preventive Efforts | 354 |\n| B. The Caseload and Trial Load | 359 |\n| C. Rationing Law | 362 |\n| (1) Procedural Rationing | 362 |\n| (2) Substantive Rationing | 372 |\n| a. Trial Court Opinions | 372 |\n| b. Appellate Court Opinions | 375 |\n| (i) Oxendine | 379 |\n| (ii) Richardson | 380 |\n| (iii) Brock | 382 |\n| (iv) Ealy | 383 |\n| c. A Defense Bias? | 384 |\n| VI. The Larger Context | 386 |\n| A. Substantive Rationing and the Judge-Jury Relationship | 386 |\n| B. Substantive Rationing in the School Desegregation Cases | 390 |\n| VII. Conclusion: Case Congregations and the Interaction of Macro and Micro Processes | 391 |\n| VIII. Appendices | 394 |\n\nOne precedent creates another. They soon accumulate and constitute law. What yesterday was fact, today is doctrine.\n\nJunius\n\nI. Introduction\n\nIn an important recent article on prodefendant developments in products liability during the late 1980s, James Henderson and Theodore Eisenberg discuss areas of products liability law in which, during the early 1980s, new plaintiff breakthroughs had seemed imminent.\\(^2\\) One of these areas involved \"[t]he imposition of liability on manufacturers of prescription drugs and other toxic substances based solely on epidemiological evidence of causal links between those products and plaintiffs' injuries . . . .\"\\(^3\\) Among the products believed most likely to lead to such a breakthrough was the drug Bendectin, a widely prescribed morning sickness remedy alleged to cause birth defects in the children of mothers who had taken it. Given the sympathetic early reaction of several courts to plaintiffs' presentation of epidemiological proof of causation,\\(^4\\) the expectation that Bendectin cases would produce the next breakthrough for plaintiffs was more than reasonable.\\(^5\\) Yet, as Henderson and Eisenberg note, by the end of the decade early plaintiff victories were replaced by general defeat, \"now mak[ing] it unlikely that Bendectin-related claims have a promising future.\"\\(^6\\)\n\nWhat occurred in the intervening years to lead to this altered assessment? This Article addresses the question through an in-depth examination of the legal and scientific history of Bendectin. While Henderson and Eisenberg use the Bendectin litigation as an example of general trends in products liability law, the cases can be understood at a micro level as well. The failure of the Bendectin cases to usher in a new era of causal proof based solely on statistical data is due as much to factors specific to the drug as it is to large-scale changes in tort law. The Bendectin cases are not simply a random group of otherwise independent\n\n---\n\n1. Dedication to the English Nation, The Letters of Junius [1769-1771], reprinted in Familiar Quotations 1001 (John Bartlett ed., 13th ed. 1955).\n2. James A. Henderson, Jr. & Theodore Eisenberg, The Quiet Revolution in Products Liability: An Empirical Study of Legal Change, 37 UCLA L. Rev. 479 (1990).\n3. Id. at 486.\n4. See, e.g., Oxendine v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 506 A.2d 1100, 1107-14 (D.C. 1986) (testimony of expert witness that drug used during pregnancy caused child's birth defects sufficient to carry case to jury where testimony was based on four different types of scientific studies).\n5. Henderson & Eisenberg, supra note 2, at 491.\n6. Id.\n\nproducts liability cases that happen to involve the same drug. Rather, they are a collection of cases that, over time, have interacted in varied ways. Robert Emerson\\textsuperscript{7} and, more recently, Marc Galanter\\textsuperscript{8} have discussed the nature of these interactions. Like other mass torts, the cases concerned with Bendectin are usefully thought of as a unit—the Bendectin Cases. This “congregation” of cases, to use Galanter’s term,\\textsuperscript{9} has a beginning, a middle, and apparently a rapidly approaching end.\n\nThe topic of this Article is the life cycle of the Bendectin Cases. In Part II, I review Emerson’s and Galanter’s thoughts as to how the existence of a congregation affects the way individual cases are processed and resolved. Part III provides some background on Bendectin and its manufacturer, Merrell Dow. The Bendectin litigation, like that of most mass torts, revolves around a body of scientific evidence employed to demonstrate that the product does or does not cause the harm alleged. Part IV surveys the science on Bendectin, examining it from a congregation perspective as well. In Part V the attention turns to the law and legal process surrounding Bendectin. I examine plaintiff and defense efforts to mobilize resources and fight for position in the early stages of the congregation. After presenting an overview of the Bendectin litigation’s life cycle, this Part concludes by discussing how the judiciary procedurally and substantively rations adjudicatory resources to large congregations such as the Bendectin Cases.\n\nThe Article concludes with some general thoughts about the relationship between judicial rationing and case congregations and the ways in which case studies such as this one help us understand the larger trends in tort law uncovered by Henderson and Eisenberg. In the Bendectin Cases, the judiciary has played a much more active role in rationing its resources than anticipated by Galanter. I discuss the factors that compel the judiciary in this direction when it is confronted with congregations of mass tort cases. Efficiency, stability, and consistency become relatively more important as a congregation matures, and the judiciary becomes more willing to intervene in the fact-finding process to achieve these goals. Case congregation analysis also helps explain the trend in products liability cases observed by Henderson and Eisenberg. The micro processes that create incentives for procedural and substantive rationing cumulatively create a macro effect of greater judicial willing-\n\n\\textsuperscript{7} See Robert M. Emerson, Holistic Effects in Social Control Decision-Making, 17 LAW & SOC’Y REV. 425 (1983).\n\n\\textsuperscript{8} See Marc Galanter, Case Congregations and Their Careers, 24 LAW & SOC’Y REV. 371 (1990) [hereinafter Galanter, Case Congregations].\n\n\\textsuperscript{9} Id. at 371.\n\nness to intervene in the trial process, and this in turn tends to generate prodefendant outcomes.\\textsuperscript{10}\n\n\\section*{II. Case Congregations}\n\nIn a common-law system the individual case is usually the primary unit of analysis. In keeping with the doctrine of stare decisis, lawyers strive to differentiate the present case from adverse precedents and align it with favorable ones. The tendency is to view each prior case as standing on its own—a unique combination of law and fact. Likewise, the disposition of each current case is thought to be governed by the idiosyncratic combination of lawyers, jurors, and judges who develop and decide it.\n\nEven when cases are aggregated, it is most frequently according to legal principle or doctrine. Cases are viewed as links in a chain of conceptual development, as pieces in the precedent puzzle. From this perspective, the individual case remains the basic unit of analysis. The case is put into a larger picture as a brick is put into a wall; one discrete entity is combined with others to construct a larger edifice. Because the case is the law's basic unit of analysis and because each case is factually and procedurally distinct, we are easily led to adopt this narrow perspective.\n\nMore often than we might suppose, however, the study of the legal process will benefit from a different perspective. As Emerson has observed, this is most surely true of those circumstances in which the parties themselves do not \"examine and dispose of cases as discrete units, treating each on its own merits independently of the properties and organizational implications of other cases.\"\\textsuperscript{11}\n\n\\subsection*{A. Beyond the Individual Case}\n\nEmerson describes three \"holistic\" frameworks that shape the way legal actors approach each individual case.\\textsuperscript{12} First, there are \"case streams,\" against which individual cases often are assessed by reference to what is \"normal\" for the stream.\\textsuperscript{13} Those who must routinely process similar cases develop typification procedures that help them to channel normal cases into the proper stream and allow them to devote extra attention to abnormal cases.\\textsuperscript{14}\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n \\item[10.] See Henderson & Eisenberg, \\textit{supra} note 2, at 491.\n \\item[11.] Emerson, \\textit{supra} note 7, at 425.\n \\item[12.] \\textit{Id.} at 427.\n \\item[13.] \\textit{Id.} at 426.\n \\item[14.] See generally Richard Lempert \\& Joseph Sanders, \\textit{An Invitation to Law and Social Science} 43-58 (1986) (explaining components of typification process); H. Lau-\n\\end{itemize}\n\nSecond, there are \"caseloads.\" Legal actors are influenced by the number of cases they are required to process. When, as frequently occurs, caseloads overwhelm resources, decisions must be made regarding the time and energy to devote to each case. The focus is not on the individual case, but on the actor's responsibility for an entire caseload. Caseload effects are most apparent when cases that admittedly deserve attention are nevertheless given little or none because other cases are considered more serious.\n\nWhen legal actors on both sides of a case face like caseloads and case streams, as in the criminal courts, they may well move beyond a process of comparison, into active horse-trading of case outcomes. Emerson gives as an example a typical multiple case bargaining session between prosecutor and defense attorney (reported by Feeley):\n\nAfter they have discussed a few, the prosecutor might say rhetorically, \"Jesus, I've already given you three nolles today, do you want me to go out of business?\"... Conversely, the prosecutor might hear a defense attorney plead, \"You've put me through the wringer this morning; give me a break on this one!\"\n\nThird, Emerson notes the holistic effects of sequence and precedent. Cases that are recognized as \"first cases\" will be treated differently from later ones. For example, the first offense a teacher encounters in a school year may be treated more harshly than later infractions because the teacher wants to \"set a precedent\" by making an example of the offender. In this situation the first case is the most important, but this will not always be true. For instance, the legal actors might simply be unaware that a case is first or that the sequence of cases to come will prove important. At some point, however, the parties may recognize\n\n15. Emerson, supra note 7, at 426.\n16. Id.\n17. Id. at 445 (quoting Malcolm Feeley, The Process Is the Punishment: Handling Cases in a Lower Criminal Court 192-93 (1979)).\n18. Id. at 427 (citing Gerald Levy, Ghetto School: Class Warfare in an Elementary School (1970)).\n19. There are situations where only one party may view a case as part of a congregation. A defendant searching for the best case to take up on appeal may view a group of cases as a congregation, while each plaintiff sees its case in isolation. This broader perspective allows the defendant to \"play for rules\" in the appellate process (that is, to obtain a favorable appellate opinion, allowing the party to win future cases). This is one of the advantages Galanter attributes to parties who repeatedly litigate an issue. Marc Galanter, Why the \"Haves\" Come Out\n\nthey are involved in a sequence of cases and that earlier trial verdicts and settlements have important consequences for those coming later.\\textsuperscript{20}\n\nEach of these case aggregations reflects Emerson's basic point that since the work of legal actors sometimes focuses on a larger whole, the individual case is not always the most appropriate unit of analysis.\\textsuperscript{21} In most of the examples discussed by Emerson, each aggregation's individual cases are related to each other only because of the organizational structure of the legal system. They are connected procedurally and structurally, but are factually discrete. In some situations, the connection goes beyond procedure and organization to substance. When this occurs, substance and legal organization interact, creating even stronger relationships among cases.\n\nB. Case Congregations and Mass Torts\n\nOne area in which substantive interrelationships occur involves the mass tort. \"Mass tort\" is a slippery phrase. Here I mean injury to multiple parties allegedly caused by a single product or event. One frequent type of mass tort involves an event such as an airplane crash.\\textsuperscript{22} Perhaps less frequent in number, but often involving many more actual and potential plaintiffs are mass torts involving toxic substances or defective products. These product-caused mass torts include injuries resulting from exposure to substances such as asbestos and Agent Orange,\\textsuperscript{23} as well as injuries caused by products such as the Ford Pinto, Firestone 500 tires, or the Dalkon Shield.\\textsuperscript{24} A third group of product-related mass tort\n\n\\textit{Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change}, 9 \\textsc{Law \\& Soc'y Rev}. 95, 98-103 (1974) [hereinafter Galanter, \\textit{Limits of Legal Change}].\n\n\\textsuperscript{20} A failure to recognize early on that a case or set of cases is the first in a large congregation can prove expensive for defendants if they settle the early cases for substantial sums or if they lose at trial; jury verdicts and settlement values of first cases are likely to become the baseline from which all future bargaining begins. This occurred with respect to the asbestos cases. \\textit{See} Francis McGovern, \\textit{Toward a Functional Approach for Managing Complex Litigation}, 53 U. \\textsc{Chi. L. Rev}. 440, 488 (1986). Past judgments are also playing a role in the Dalkon Shield bankruptcy proceedings. Under the Dalkon Shield Claimants' Trust Plan, claimants who elect Option III and show that the Shield caused their injury will be offered settlement amounts based on historic settlement values. 4 \\textsc{Toxics L. Rep. (BNA)} No. 36, at 1034 (Feb. 14, 1990). For a general discussion of this and other ways of establishing the monetary value of cases in mass tort situations see \\textsc{Mark Peterson, New Tools for Reducing Civil Litigation Expenses} (1983).\n\n\\textsuperscript{21} Emerson, \\textit{supra} note 7, at 454.\n\n\\textsuperscript{22} Roger H. Transrud, \\textit{Joinder Alternatives in Mass Tort Litigation}, 70 \\textsc{Cornell L. Rev}. 779, 780-81 (1985) [hereinafter Transrud, \\textit{Joinder Alternatives}].\n\n\\textsuperscript{23} \\textit{Id.}\n\n\\textsuperscript{24} \\textit{See generally} Sandra Kinghorn, Corporate Harm—A Structural Analysis of the Criminogenic Elements of the Corporation (1984) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan) (reviewing the history of each of these mass torts).\n\ncases arises from exposure to drugs such as Thalidomide, DES, and Bendectin.\\textsuperscript{25} While there are many differences between these various types of mass torts,\\textsuperscript{26} all are characterized by the fact that their component cases share a single underlying type of harm; further, all the parties to the litigation recognize this fact.\n\nA mass tort is a physical event, but it is also a social construct. The cases are quickly recognized as a group by the parties, the courts, and frequently by the public at large. The term “asbestos cases” or “Dalkon Shield cases” comes to have meaning outside the courthouse as well as within it. Not only are the cases arising from a mass tort connected substantively and procedurally, they have this important additional property: ultimately they share a common legal fate.\\textsuperscript{27}\n\nIn this respect, mass tort cases are an example of what Galanter calls a case congregation; that is, “a group of cases that . . . share common features, that are shaped by a common history, that are subject to shared contingencies, and that lean into a common future.”\\textsuperscript{28} The central observation about case congregations is that they have \\textit{careers}; that over time, the volume and nature of cases change in an orderly fashion according to particular qualities of the congregation.\\textsuperscript{29}\n\nGalanter discusses several general factors that influence case careers. First, there is the volume of underlying activity that gives rise to certain types of cases. For example, the number of selective service cases filed in the federal courts mirrored the progress of the Viet Nam War. As the War ended so did the “draft” cases.\\textsuperscript{30}\n\nSecond, there are several ways in which the legal system itself influences the career of a case congregation, at both an individual and a more holistic level. At the individual case level, early cases can generate \\textit{mobilization} efforts by potential claimants and \\textit{preventive measures} by potential defendants that ultimately alter the volume and the outcome of further suits (sometimes by altering the level of the underlying activity).\\textsuperscript{31} Thus, as Galanter points out, confronted with the ruling in\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n \\item \\textsuperscript{25} Trangsrud, \\textit{Joinder Alternatives}, supra note 22, at 780-81.\n \\item \\textsuperscript{26} For example, toxic tort claims usually seek compensation for chronic injuries and diseases, whereas product claims usually seek recompense for traumatic injuries.\n \\item \\textsuperscript{27} This does not mean, of course, that every case in the congregation has the same outcome. The outcome of an individual case is influenced by, among other factors, where it occurs in the life-cycle and whether it is swept into procedural rationing devices such as class actions.\n \\item \\textsuperscript{28} Galanter, \\textit{Case Congregations}, supra note 8, at 372.\n \\item \\textsuperscript{29} \\textit{Id.} at 373.\n \\item \\textsuperscript{30} \\textit{Id.} at 374 fig. 1.\n \\item \\textsuperscript{31} \\textit{Id.} at 379-84.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nTarasoff v. Regents of the University of California, that under certain circumstances therapists have a duty to protect third parties from violence at the hands of their patients, therapists have responded by \"giving more warnings, initiating more involuntary hospitalizations and taking more notes.\"\n\nOn a more holistic level, the cases begin to interact with and affect each other. When cases become known as a collection, parties begin to share information and to coordinate efforts. These coordination networks are qualitatively different from the mobilization and prevention activities discussed above because they specifically involve intercase activities. Occasionally, coordination becomes institutionalized. For example, information on school desegregation efforts was shared among several special organizations, including the NAACP, the Legal Defense Fund, the Lawyer's Committee for Civil Rights Under Law, and the Harvard Center for Law and Education.\n\nCoordination networks represent one way in which parties may respond to a case congregation. Courts also respond to groups of cases. A fundamental holistic response of the courts is rationing. The most extreme type of rationing is exemplified by worker's compensation statutes, which attempt to close the courts to most work-related injury claims. Less dramatic rationing efforts involve class actions, special masters, and similar devices.\n\nA third holistic effect is depletion. As the easy cases are resolved, a smaller and smaller group of cases, in which it becomes increasingly difficult for plaintiffs to prevail, is left behind. Depletion is most obvious in disasters such as airplane crashes, in which there is a known finite number of victims; but it occurs in other situations as well, especially\n\n32. 13 Cal. 3d 177, 529 P.2d 553, 118 Cal. Rptr. 129 (1974) (depublished), vacated and modified, 17 Cal. 3d 425, 551 P.2d 334, 135 Cal. Rptr. 14 (1976).\n\n33. Galanter, Case Congregations, supra note 8, at 380. See Daniel Givelber et al., Tarasoff, Myth and Reality: An Empirical Study of Private Law in Action, 1984 Wis. L. Rev. 443, 472-83.\n\n34. Marc Galanter, Lawyers' Litigation Networks, (unpublished paper presented to the Conference on the Frontiers of Research on Litigation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, September 20, 1985) [hereinafter Galanter, Litigation Networks].\n\n35. Galanter, Case Congregations, supra note 8, at 387.\n\n36. Mark Chesler et al., Social Science in Court: Mobilizing Experts in the School Desegregation Cases 17-18, n.16 (1988).\n\n37. Galanter, Case Congregations, supra note 8, at 385.\n\n38. See, e.g., Peter Schuck, The Role of Judges in Settling Complex Cases: The Agent Orange Example, 53 U. Chi. L. Rev. 337, 347-48 (1986).\n\n39. Galanter, Case Congregations, supra note 8, at 388.\n\nwhere defendants begin to take preventive measures to thwart future claims.\\textsuperscript{40}\n\nFinally, there are what Galanter calls \\textit{outcome-stabilization} effects.\\textsuperscript{41} Liability determinations and damage awards become more predictable as more and more cases are tried. In the area of mass torts, perhaps the most developed theory of outcome stabilization is Francis McGovern's \"cyclical theory of mass torts.\"\\textsuperscript{42} According to McGovern:\n\nIn the early stages of the cycle, defendants tend to win more cases than plaintiffs because of strategic and informational superiority. If the litigation has any merit, however, plaintiffs will eventually develop successful information and strategies and win an extremely high percentage of the cases tried. Next, the plaintiffs will bring cases for trial that stretch the envelope of viable plaintiffs too far, and defendants will create more effective counterstrategies, resulting in a reduced percentage of plaintiff victories. Eventually, after full aggregation and dissemination of information, crystallization of the law, and thorough development of strategies, there will be a rough equilibrium of trial results. Remaining variations will then be due to jury demographics, attorney caliber, and random events during trials. Although perhaps it is counter-intuitive, settlements will also reflect this equilibrium: the average settlement amount will be virtually identical to the average jury verdict. The variance, however, will be substantially different. Settlements for similarly situated plaintiffs will be extremely similar; verdicts will vary in accordance with idiosyncracies of the trial process.\\textsuperscript{43}\n\nAs this theory suggests, the careers of some case congregations resemble a life cycle. Early on there are a few immature cases. Slowly, a mature and substantial body of litigation develops and a period of relative stability ensues. Finally, there is a period of decline, as depletion and rationing cause the cases to move out of the legal system. This Article examines the life cycle of a particular case congregation: the Bendectin Cases.\n\nC. A Note on Case Studies\n\nBecause this Article explores hypotheses about the careers of case populations through a detailed examination of one particular congregation of mass tort cases, some initial observations about such an enterprise are in order. From one perspective, the case study is an inherently weak form of hypothesis testing. Many unique features of the Bendectin Cases have influenced the way the congregation has developed. It is difficult to\n\n\\textsuperscript{40} \\textit{Id.}\n\\textsuperscript{41} \\textit{Id.} at 389.\n\\textsuperscript{42} \\textit{See} McGovern, \\textit{supra} note 20, at 482.\n\\textsuperscript{43} \\textit{Id.} (footnotes omitted).\n\ndisentangle these idiosyncratic features from the underlying processes. Thus, the analysis of a single congregation of cases, no matter how detailed, cannot alone support acceptance or rejection of general hypotheses about case careers.\n\nFrom another perspective, however, the case study is a particularly useful methodology for examining the careers of case congregations. It forces us to remain close to the evidence, and more importantly, it allows us to adopt the perspective the parties had as they worked toward an understanding of what they had on their hands.\\textsuperscript{44} Case congregations are “cultural categories created by an act of labeling.”\\textsuperscript{45} Unlike the first disciplinary problem of the school year, in which scenario the teacher knows a priori that this is the first of a relatively well defined population of cases, some first mass tort cases arise while yet unlabeled. The process by which the contours of a congregation of cases are defined is crucial to the ultimate development of the congregation. This definitional work cannot be studied easily from a more general point of view. The case study approach offers the opportunity to observe the micro processes through which macro changes in litigation rates occur.\\textsuperscript{46}\n\nIII. Bendectin Background\n\nA. The Firm\\textsuperscript{47}\n\nThe William S. Merrell Company, based in Cincinnati, Ohio, was one of the oldest “ethical” (prescription) pharmaceutical companies in the United States. In 1938 it was acquired as a wholly-owned subsidiary by Vick Chemical, a recently formed Delaware Corporation. Vick’s product line was aimed at the symptomatic relief of the common cold (Vicks Vapo-rub). Fearing a cure for the cold was at hand, it acquired William S. Merrell for its prescription drug line. Bendectin was developed during the time William S. Merrell was a subsidiary of Vicks. In 1960 the Vick Chemical Company changed its name to Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (Vick had been founded by the Richardson family). A few\n\n\\textsuperscript{44}. See generally Barney G. Glaser & Anselm L. Strauss, \\textit{The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research} (1967) (arguing for theories “grounded” in the details of particular events).\n\n\\textsuperscript{45}. Galanter, \\textit{Case Congregations}, supra note 8, at 373.\n\n\\textsuperscript{46}. Joseph Sanders, \\textit{The Interplay of Micro and Macro Processes in the Longitudinal Study of the Courts: Beyond the Durkheimian Tradition}, 24 \\textit{LAW \\& SOC’Y REV.} 241, 248-54 (1990).\n\n\\textsuperscript{47}. This history comes from personal correspondence from W. Glenn Forrester, attorney for Marion Merrell Dow, to Joseph Sanders, (Aug. 23, 1990) (on file with author) and from Carol Loomis, \\textit{Richardson-Merrell Unswallows a Pill}, \\textit{FORTUNE}, Jan. 12, 1981, at 54-56.\n\nyears later, the William S. Merrell Company was merged into Richardson-Merrell and ceased to exist as a separate entity.\n\nIn 1981 a new company, Richardson-Vicks, became an independent, publicly held corporation. It received all of Richardson-Merrell's business and assets except its ethical pharmaceutical business. Richardson-Vicks kept such products as Clearasil, NyQuil, Lavoris, and Oil of Olay. All shares of what remained of Richardson-Merrell, including Bendectin, were sold to Dow Chemical Company for $260 million. Dow was apparently the high bidder among a number of potential buyers, including G.D. Searle. At this time, Richardson-Merrell's name was changed to Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. In a sense, the 1981 transaction undid Vick's 1938 acquisition of Merrell, as it once again separated the prescription and non-prescription parts of the company. One result of these transactions was to spin off the parts of Richardson-Merrell that were least threatened by litigation, and sell the rest to Dow.\n\nDow Chemical became the parent of a subsidiary with outstanding claims involving a number of products, including Bendectin, Thalidomide, MER/29, DES, and the DPT vaccine. It was Bendectin that presented the most serious threat to the new Merrell Dow. Paul Oreffice, Dow Chemical's chief executive, said the Bendectin suits were a \"sobering negative,\" but were adjusted for in Dow's bid.48 (At the time, Dow itself was embroiled in major products liability litigation involving Agent Orange.)\n\nMost recently, in 1989 Merrell Dow merged with Marion Laboratories and became a wholly-owned subsidiary of Marion. Marion's name was changed to Marion Merrell Dow. Currently, Dow Chemical owns almost 67% of Marion Merrell Dow's stock.\n\nThe checkered corporate history of Merrell has created several different named defendants in the Bendectin litigation. For simplicity, I refer to the defendant as Merrell, the one word that has always been a part of the corporate name of Bendectin's manufacturer.\n\nB. The Drug\n\nBendectin and the Bendectin litigation must be understood in light of two other drugs with which the Merrell Corporation was associated during the time Bendectin was being developed and sold: Thalidomide and MER/29. The obvious harm caused by these two drugs set the stage for allegations that Bendectin, too, was a product that never should have been marketed.\n\n48. Loomis, supra note 47, at 55.\n\n(1) Thalidomide\n\nThalidomide was first synthesized in West Germany in 1953 by Ciba. Because the drug had no pharmacologic effect on laboratory animals, the company discarded it.\\textsuperscript{49} Another West German firm, Chemie Grünenthal, then began to explore its uses. Because the drug's molecular structure suggested it might be useful as a sedative, Grünenthal experimented with it as an anticonvulsive for epileptics. The drug failed to prevent convulsions, but did work as a hypnotic, providing a deep, natural sleep without a hangover. In 1960 the drug was given the trade name Contergan and became the favorite sleeping pill in West Germany, available over the counter to anyone. The drug was combined with other ingredients, including aspirin, to form compounds for colds, coughs, flu, headaches, and asthma. In liquid form it was widely used to sedate children. And as an antiemetic it was used for nausea during pregnancy.\\textsuperscript{50}\n\nThalidomide was marketed around the world, and was usually sold without prescription. Merrell's Canadian branch sold the drug as Kevadon. Merrell obtained rights to market it in the United States under the same trade name and applied for FDA approval in September 1960. Shortly thereafter, the first reports of trouble began to surface in Germany; patients complained of tingling hands, atrophy of the thumb, and other forms of peripheral neuropathy. As a consequence, the drug was made available only by prescription.\\textsuperscript{51} In the summer of 1961 German doctors first observed that an increasing number of babies were being born with arm and leg deformities.\\textsuperscript{52} The full extent of the disaster began to unfold. Ultimately, Thalidomide proved to be one of the most potent human teratogens ever found.\\textsuperscript{53}\n\nIn the United States, large-scale disaster was narrowly averted. The Food Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938\\textsuperscript{54} required the seller of a new drug\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item[49.] Max Sherman & Steven Strauss, \\textit{Thalidomide: A Twenty-Five Year Perspective}, 41 \\textit{Food Drug Cosm. L.J.} 458, 459 (1986).\n\\item[50.] \\textit{Id.} at 460.\n\\item[51.] \\textit{Id.}\n\\item[52.] \\textit{Id.;} Helen B. Taussig, \\textit{A Study of the German Outbreak of Phocomelia}, 1180 \\textit{JAMA} 1106 (1962).\n\\item[53.] Sherman & Strauss, \\textit{supra} note 49, at 461. A teratogen is \"[a] substance that produces abnormalities in the embryo or fetus by disturbing maternal homeostasis or by acting directly on the fetus in utero.\" \\textit{A Dictionary of Epidemiology} (John M. Last ed., 2d ed 1988)). Sometimes the term is used in a narrower sense to describe substances that produce a disruption during gestation that results in malformation of the fetus. Jennie Kline & Zena Stein, \\textit{Circumstances of Exposure and Reproductive Consequences, in Epidemiology and Health Risk Assessment} 256, 262 (Leon Gordis ed., 1988).\n\\item[54.] 21 U.S.C. §§ 301-392 (1938).\n\\end{itemize}\n\nto present convincing scientific evidence of the drug's safety.\\textsuperscript{55} Merrell presented the existing data and was allowed to begin clinical investigation, but not widespread sale of Thalidomide. Approval might quickly have followed had it not been for the tenacity of Dr. Frances Kelsey, a physician and pharmacologist at the FDA who took notice of the earlier German reports of adverse neuropathic effects. She also noted that the drug was prescribed for morning sickness; from her earlier work with quinine on a malaria project in World War II, she was acutely aware of the pharmacological differences between fetuses and adults.\\textsuperscript{56} She therefore requested more information from Merrell and withheld FDA approval.\\textsuperscript{57}\n\nCircumstances and the FDA saved Merrell from disaster, but just barely.\\textsuperscript{58} Moreover, Merrell did not come away with completely clean hands. While awaiting FDA approval, Merrell had distributed the drug for investigational use. The company engaged in what might charitably be called extremely lax behavior. While Thalidomide was still under review by the FDA, 2,500,000 tablets were distributed and given to nearly 20,000 individuals, including 624 pregnant women.\\textsuperscript{59} Ultimately, at least ten American babies were born with defects attributed to Thalidomide.\\textsuperscript{60}\n\n\\textsuperscript{55} \\textit{Id.} § 355.\n\n\\textsuperscript{56} Sherman & Strauss, \\textit{supra} note 49, at 461.\n\n\\textsuperscript{57} \\textit{Id.} Ironically, the FDA's primary concern was that Thalidomide might cause peripheral neuropathy in adults, not birth defects in infants. One of the most active human teratogens known had produced no teratogenic effects in mice, rats, or hamsters. \\textit{Id.} Teratogenic effects of Thalidomide are observable in monkeys and rabbits, but finding an appropriate animal model is not always an easy task. \\textit{See id.} at 464.\n\n\\textsuperscript{58} Richard E. McFadyen, \\textit{Thalidomide in America: A Brush with Tragedy}, 11 \\textit{CLIO MEDICA} 79 (1976). Sherman and Strauss note that even today a product like Thalidomide might slip through the FDA's safety net. \\textit{Sherman & Strauss, supra} note 49, at 464-65. If a suitable animal model could not be found to indicate the potential for fetal injury, tests on human subjects would not uncover the danger because current regulatory policy excludes women in the first trimester of pregnancy from randomized trials of new drugs. They conclude that \"[u]nder current FDA policy the only way to prevent another thalidomide disaster is to forbid pregnant women from taking any but the most essential medications—a mode of prevention well known and readily applicable before the 1962 regulations were instituted.\" \\textit{Id.} at 465.\n\n\\textsuperscript{59} \\textit{McFadyen, supra} note 58, at 86.\n\n\\textsuperscript{60} Today, the exact way in which Thalidomide affects humans is still not entirely clear. \\textit{Sherman & Strauss, supra} note 49, at 462. Moreover, the birth defects associated with the drug are largely indistinguishable from birth defects arising from other causes. \\textit{Id.; Janet McCredie, Mechanism of the Teratogenic Effect of Thalidomide}, 2 \\textit{MED. HYPOTHESES} 63, 63 (1976). The conclusion that Thalidomide causes these defects rests on the clinical evidence showing an overwhelmingly greater likelihood of defects among children of women who ingested the product in the early weeks after conception. The best estimates of what now is largely an unknowable figure is that if Thalidomide is taken between 35 and 50 days after menstruation, the risk of malformation is over 50%. W. Lenz, \\textit{Malformations Caused by Drugs in Pregnancy}, 112 \\textit{AM. J. DISEASES CHILDREN} 99, 105 (1966); \\textit{Sherman & Strauss, supra} note 49, at 462.\n\nMerrell reached settlements with victims in the United States and Canada ranging from $100,000 to $999,000.\\textsuperscript{61}\n\n(2) MER/29\n\nThe second drug that is important to the Bendectin story is MER/29. Merrell designed MER/29 to reduce the level of cholesterol in the bloodstream. Between 1956 and 1959, tests were conducted on animals (rats, dogs, and monkeys) and humans to explore its therapeutic and toxicologic effects. In June 1959 Merrell applied to the FDA for permission to market the drug. The application was approved in April 1960, and Merrell subsequently promoted MER/29 as the first drug to lower cholesterol safely. In fact, the drug was anything but safe. In December 1961, when the drug had been used by approximately 400,000 individuals, Merrell mailed a letter approved by the FDA to all practicing physicians. This so-called \"Dear Doctor\" letter warned for the first time that MER/29's potential side effects included cataracts, baldness, and severe dermatitis. In April 1962 Merrell voluntarily withdrew the drug from the market. The withdrawal followed an FDA inspection of Merrell's records that revealed the FDA had received incorrect animal data from the firm. The following month, the FDA suspended the new drug application for MER/29 based upon the clinical experience showing its danger to humans.\\textsuperscript{62}\n\nThe following year Merrell, its parent Richardson-Merrell, and three of Merrell's scientists were indicted under the federal False Writing Statute\\textsuperscript{63} for withholding data from the FDA.\\textsuperscript{64} For example: the FDA had not been told that two laboratory dogs had developed cataracts, even though this fact was noted on their autopsy sheets;\\textsuperscript{65} results of tests on monkeys had been altered; and falsified data had been presented to the FDA.\\textsuperscript{66} The defendants, including Dr. Evert van Maanen, Merrell's director of biological sciences, entered nolo contendere pleas. The firms\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item[61.] Gina B. Kolata, \\textit{How Safe is Bendectin?}, 210 SCIENCE 518, 519 (1980). At least one case, McCarrick v. Richardson Merrell, went to trial in Los Angeles. 15 Jury Verdict Weekly No. 38, at 43-44 (Sept. 17, 1971); 14 AM. TRIAL LAW ASS'N NEWSL. 410 (1971). In 1984, over twenty years after they had begun, Merrell settled the last of the Thalidomide cases. Francis J. Flaherty, \\textit{Last Thalidomide Suits Settle to End Legal Era}, NAT'L L.J., July 30, 1984, at 30.\n\\item[62.] Paul Rheingold, \\textit{The MER/29 Story—An Instance of Successful Mass Disaster Litigation}, 56 CAL. L. REV. 116, 117-120 (1968) [hereinafter Rheingold, \\textit{The MER/29 Story}].\n\\item[63.] 18 U.S.C. § 1001 (1963).\n\\item[64.] Rheingold, \\textit{The MER/29 Story}, supra note 62, at 120-21.\n\\item[65.] \\textit{Id.} at 119.\n\\item[66.] \\textit{Id.}; John Braithwaite, \\textit{Corporate Crime in the Pharmaceutical Industry} 60-62 (1984).\n\\end{itemize}\n\n(Merrell and Richardson-Merrell) were fined a statutory maximum of $80,000, and the scientists received suspended sentences.\\textsuperscript{67}\n\nIn part, the defendants' pleas may have been an attempt to limit the use of the criminal trial record in civil suits. Nonetheless, the first civil suits were filed in 1961 and filings continued throughout the decade, peaking in 1964. While MER/29 gave rise to many suits, each alleged injury was relatively minor in comparison to those allegedly caused by Thalidomide and Bendectin. According to one estimate, at least 5000 people were harmed by MER/29, and over 1500 suits eventually were filed.\\textsuperscript{68} Merrell won most of the early cases, in 1964 and 1965, but plaintiffs prevailed in several subsequent cases in 1966 and 1967.\\textsuperscript{69} These plaintiff victories increased the value of untried cases—it is estimated that Merrell ultimately paid over $200 million in damages.\\textsuperscript{70}\n\nThe MER/29 episode gained widespread publicity. Numerous books and articles were written about both the product and the company that developed it. None was complimentary, and many vilified Merrell.\\textsuperscript{71} The company became one of the principal bad guys in an industry of bad guys.\n\nMerrell's experience with these two earlier drugs set the stage for the Bendectin episode. While the litigation surrounding Thalidomide and MER/29 is not legally relevant to the Bendectin litigation, it did make Merrell a likely target for litigation. To employ a criminal law metaphor, Merrell had one prior and on another occasion had been found lurking around the scene of a crime. The MER/29 episode in particular raised questions concerning Merrell's testing program.\\textsuperscript{72} When hints of trouble emerged concerning Bendectin, many in the plaintiff's bar must have concluded that, with respect to this firm, where there was smoke there must be fire.\n\n\\textsuperscript{67} Rheingold, \\textit{supra} note 62, at 121.\n\n\\textsuperscript{68} \\textit{Id.}\n\n\\textsuperscript{69} \\textit{Id.}\n\n\\textsuperscript{70} See Kolata, \\textit{supra} note 61, at 519.\n\n\\textsuperscript{71} E.g., Ralph A. Fine, \\textit{The Great Drug Deception: The Shocking Story of MER/29 and the Folks Who Gave You Thalidomide} (1972); John Fuller, \\textit{200,000,000 Guinea Pigs} (1972); Philip Knightley et al., \\textit{Suffer the Children: The Story of Thalidomide} (1979); Milton Silverman, \\textit{The Drugging of the Americas} (1976); Sanford Ungar, \\textit{Get Away With What You Can, in In the Name of Profit} (Robert Hellbronnner ed., 1973).\n\n\\textsuperscript{72} Braithwaite, \\textit{supra} note 66, at 60-65.\n\n(3) Bendectin\n\nIn 1953 Dr. Raymond Charles Pogge, director of medical research at Merrell, came up with the idea of using pyridoxine (Vitamin B-6) to create an antinausea medicine to combat morning sickness among pregnant women.\\textsuperscript{73} After preliminary discussions with others at Merrell, including Dr. Margaret Higgins Morson and D.B. Bowles, Dr. Pogge proposed a drug made up of three ingredients, each of which had been marketed separately: dicyclomine hydrochloride (an antispasmodic); doxylamine succinate (an antihistamine acting as an antinauseant); and pyridoxine hydrochloride.\\textsuperscript{74} The new drug was named Bendectin. Prior to the Bendectin formulation, each ingredient had been prescribed singly, and each alone had no recorded adverse effect on humans.\n\nBendectin was first marketed in 1956.\\textsuperscript{75} In the United States, it was available only by prescription.\\textsuperscript{76} In 1976, the drug was reformulated to eliminate the first ingredient, dicyclomine hydrochloride, because it was found not to add anything to the efficacy of the formulation.\\textsuperscript{77} The possibility that Bendectin might be a teratogen apparently was first brought to\n\n\\textsuperscript{73} The information regarding Bendectin's creation is taken from the testimony of Dr. Pogge, Trial Transcript at 1513-1532, Richardson v. Richardson-Merrell, 649 F. Supp. 799 (D.D.C. 1986) (No. 83-3505) (deposition testimony of Dr. Pogge), \\textit{aff'd}, 857 F.2d 823 (D.C. Cir. 1988), \\textit{cert denied}, 110 S. Ct 218 (1989), and from the court's opinion in Lynch v. Merrell Nat. Lab., 830 F.2d 1190, 1191 (1st Cir. 1987).\n\n\\textsuperscript{74} Dicyclomine hydrochloride had been marketed under the name Bentyl. Doxylamine succinate had been marketed under the name Decapryn. It is still marketed (though not by Merrell) as Unisom, an over-the-counter sleeping aid. \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. 1212, 1230 (S.D. Ohio 1985), \\textit{aff'd sub nom. In re Bendectin Litig.}, 857 F.2d 290 (6th Cir. 1988), \\textit{cert denied}, 488 U.S. 1006 (1989). Pyridoxine is Vitamin B6.\n\n\\textsuperscript{75} Milan Korcok, \\textit{The Bendectin Debate}, 123 CAN. MED. ASS'N J. 922, 923 (1980).\n\n\\textsuperscript{76} \\textit{Id}. Bendectin is also known by the trade names Debendox, Lenotan, and Merbental, and is available in many other countries. \\textit{Id}. In both Canada and Britain the drug was available over the counter, although usually dispensed by prescription. \\textit{Id}.\n\n\\textsuperscript{77} U.S. DEPT' HEALTH, EDUC. & WELFARE, ADVISORY COMM., THE BENDECTIN PEER GROUP REPORT (1975). This finding was based primarily on two studies. The first was a four-way comparison of dicyclomine and doxylamine singly and in combination, versus a placebo in 716 patients. The main effect of dicyclomine alone was greater than the placebo, but not statistically significant. The effect of dicyclomine in the presence of doxylamine showed similar results—a marginal but not statistically significant increase in efficacy when compared to doxylamine alone.\n\nThe second study was a double-blind eight-way comparison of all three ingredients and their combinations with a placebo in 2300 patients. While the study demonstrated the efficacy of three ingredient Bendectin when compared to the placebo, it failed to demonstrate any dicyclomine contribution. Doxylamine again was the major component, demonstrating a significant effect on every response variable including physician assessments of patient nausea, patient self-reports of nausea, eating habits, and daily activities. The study also demonstrated for the first time in double-blind experimental conditions that pyridoxine did have a significant effect on maternal self-reports of nausea when compared with all combinations lacking this\n\npublic attention in 1969. Dr. Donald Paterson, a physician in British Columbia filed a drug evaluation report (\"DER\") with the Canadian Food and Drug Directorate and wrote a letter to the editor of the *Canadian Medical Association Journal* questioning Bendectin's safety.\\(^{78}\\) The same year, Merrell forwarded to the FDA physician reports of limb reductions associated with the use of Bendectin, and physician letters questioning the drug's safety appeared in the *British Medical Journal*.\\(^{79}\\)\n\nQuestions concerning the safety of Bendectin and whether it, like Thalidomide, was a teratogen continued to accumulate; by the mid-1970s, the FDA had on file over ninety physician reports noting defects among children whose mothers had taken Bendectin.\\(^{80}\\) By the end of the decade, personal injury suits had been filed, the first going to trial in January 1980.\\(^{81}\\) In 1980, following a number of reports in the popular press that Bendectin was unsafe\\(^{82}\\) and under pressure from Congress to investigate the drug,\\(^{83}\\) the FDA conducted a two-day hearing as to its teratogenic effect. The FDA's conclusion, based on the report of its Fertility and Maternal Health Drug Advisory Committee, was that \"available data do not demonstrate an association between birth defects and\n\n---\n\n**drug. Pyridoxine also had a marginally significant effect on physician evaluations of nausea ($p=.08$). See also Korcok, supra note 75, at 923.**\n\n78. Thomas H. Bleakley & J. Douglas Peters, *Bendectin, Trial*, May 1980, at 56, 58.\n\n79. Id.\n\n80. Id. Several DERs were published simultaneously in 1978. See Dian Donnai & R. Harris, *Unusual Fetal Malformations After Antiemetics in Early Pregnancy*, 1 BRIT. MED. J. 691 (1978); Kathleen Frith, *Fetal Malformation After Debendox Treatment in Early Pregnancy*, 1 BRIT. MED. J. 925 (1978); S. Mellor, *Fetal Malformation After Debendox Treatment in Early Pregnancy*, 1 BRIT. MED. J. 1055 (1978); C.J.G. Menzies, *Fetal Malformation After Debendox Treatment in Early Pregnancy*, 1 BRIT. MED. J. 925 (1978); Richard W. Smithells & Sheila Sheppard, *Fetal Malformation After Debendox Treatment in Early Pregnancy*, 1 BRIT. MED. J. 1055-56 (1978). But see J.F. Corey & N.M. Newman, *Debendox and Limb Reduction Deformities*, 1 MED. J. AUSTL. 417 (1981) (DER published several years later concluding Debendox had no adverse effects).\n\n81. See Mekdeci v. Merrell Nat'l Lab., 711 F.2d 1510, 1516 (11th Cir. 1983). *Mekdeci* was originally filed in June 1977, well before any other cases. The plaintiff's mother had actively sought a reason for her son's defect and, on the basis of her own research, determined that it was caused by Bendectin. *Id.* *Mekdeci* is discussed in detail infra notes 204-22 and accompanying text.\n\n82. Mark Dowie & Carolyn Marshall, *The Bendectin Cover-Up*, MOTHER JONES, Nov. 1980, at 42; *New Thalidomide-Type Scandal—Experts Reveal... COMMON DRUG CAUSING DEFORMED BABIES*, NAT'L ENQUIRER, Oct. 9, 1979.\n\n83. See, for example, a letter from California Representative Don Edwards to Jere Goyan, FDA commissioner, expressing his \"strongest concern over the FDA's inaction regarding the drug Bendectin.\" The congressman concluded, \"I believe that . . . the substantial amount of new evidence linking Bendectin to fetal malformations mandate [sic] the immediate removal of this harmful drug from the marketplace.\" Letter from Representative Edwards to FDA Commissioner Jere Goyan (May 7, 1980) (on file in the offices of the Environmental Law Liability Program, University of Houston Law Center).\n\nBendectin, . . . but [the drug] should be used only when conservative treatment fails.\"84 The drug was allowed to remain on the market. Nevertheless, in response to the increasing number of lawsuits and the decline in sales caused by negative publicity, Merrell voluntarily withdrew Bendectin from the market in 1983.85 The litigation has continued to the present. Thus far, over 2100 Bendectin claims have been made against Merrell. This figure includes almost 1700 suits brought by children who suffer from a wide variety of birth defects,86 allegedly because their\n\n84. DEP'T HEALTH & HUMAN SVCS. NEWS, Oct. 7, 1980. In response to the question, \"[d]o the animal and human data reviewed by you and presented to you support the conclusion that Bendectin is associated with an increased risk for human birth defects?\" the Advisory Committee answered: \"No, the data presented to date do not demonstrate an association of increased risk for human birth defects with the use of Bendectin. The committee notices with concern two studies that suggest an association between Bendectin and certain anomalies. Therefore, a residual uncertainty regarding a possible relationship does exist.\" FDA, UNEDITED ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS SUBMITTED TO THE FERTILITY AND MATERNAL HEALTH ADVISORY COMMITTEE (Sept. 15, 1980).\n\n85. For a brief history of the circumstances leading up to the drug's withdrawal, from one critical of this result, see David Williams, How Nader Campaign Killed a Beneficial Drug, HUM. EVENTS, January 14, 1984, at 10-11. At the time, the withdrawal met with widespread criticism. An editorial in the Wall Street Journal concluded:\n\n[T]here's something terribly askew with a legal system that cannot distinguish between a thalidomide and a Bendectin. Let us hope that the withdrawal of Bendectin is not a harbinger of other products being driven from the market by legal costs, even when the weight of medical evidence suggests they haven't been at fault.\n\nWALL ST. J., June 15, 1983, at 34. Bendectin's fate has influenced the development of case law in the products liability area. For example, the California Supreme Court cited the withdrawal of Bendectin as one reason why it should reject a design defect analysis in prescription drug cases, declaring instead that all prescription drugs are unavoidably unsafe products as described in comment k of section 402A of the Second Restatement of Torts. Brown v. Superior Ct., 44 Cal. 3d 1049, 1064, 751 P.2d 470, 479, 245 Cal. Rptr. 412, 421 (1988). The court commented:\n\nThe possibility that the cost of insurance and of defending against lawsuits will diminish the availability and increase the price of pharmaceuticals is far from theoretical . . . . For example, according to defendant E.R. Squibb & Sons, Inc., Bendectin, the only antinauseant drug available for pregnant women, was withdrawn from sale in 1983 because the cost of insurance almost equalled the entire income from sale of the drug. Before it was withdrawn, the price of Bendectin increased by over 300 percent.\n\nId. at 1064, 751 P.2d at 479, 245 Cal. Rptr. at 421 (citations omitted).\n\n86. Over 800 claims were disposed of at a single common issues trial in Ohio in 1985 (the Common Issues Trial). The jury in the Common Issues Trial was asked to consider whether Bendectin causes eight different categories of birth defects:\n\n1. Musculoskeletal Defects: Defects in the muscles, bones and cartilage of a child, including limb defects.\n2. Central Nervous System Defects: Defects in the brain, spinal cord and nerves.\n3. Heart Defects: Defects in the heart and circulatory system.\n4. Head Defects: Defects in the head and face.\n5. Respiratory Defects: Defects in the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.\n6. Gastrointestinal Defects: Defects in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.\n\nmothers used the drug during pregnancy.\\textsuperscript{87} Because every state presumably has childhood disability provisions in its statute of limitations,\\textsuperscript{88} new suits may be brought into the next century.\\textsuperscript{89}\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n \\item Genitourinary Defects: Defects in the reproductive organs, kidneys, ureters, urethra, and bladder.\n \\item Death: Includes spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, and neonatal deaths resulting from life-threatening birth defects.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\textit{In re} Richardson-Merrell, Inc., “Bendectin” Prods. Liab. Litig., 624 F. Supp. 1212, 1267, app. D (S.D. Ohio 1985), \\textit{aff’d sub nom. In re Bendectin Litig.}, 857 F.2d 290 (6th Cir. 1988), \\textit{cert. denied}, 488 U.S. 1006 (1989). A report to plaintiffs’ counsel by the lead counsel committee in June 1984 reported the following breakdown of types of injuries represented in the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}:\n\n| Injury Type | Number |\n|--------------------------------------------------|--------|\n| Unilateral Limb Defects Involving the Arm | 71 |\n| Unilateral Limb Defects Involving the Leg | 21 |\n| Bilateral Limb Defects Involving the Arm | 17 |\n| Bilateral Limb Defects Involving the Leg | 25 |\n| Quadrilateral Limb Defects | 18 |\n| Musculoskeletal Defects | 13 |\n| Central Nervous System Defects | 35 |\n| Congenital Heart Defects | 35 |\n| Cleft Lip/Cleft Palate | 17 |\n| Ear and Eye Deformities | 28 |\n| Facial Deformities | 3 |\n| Respiratory Defects | 7 |\n| Gastrointestinal Defects | 13 |\n| Genitourinary Defects | 14 |\n| Deaths | 7 |\n\nMaterials Prepared by Plaintiff’s Lead Counsel Committee for January Meeting with all Plaintiffs’ Counsel with respect to Common Issues of Liability Trial § 8 (June 11, 1984) (on file in the offices of the Environmental Liability Law Program, University of Houston Law Center).\n\nAs the report indicates, although claims have been based upon many types of injuries, the majority involved musculoskeletal defects—specifically limb reductions. As I discuss below, this tendency is much more pronounced when only those individual cases that have gone to trial are examined. \\textit{See infra} notes 318-20 and accompanying text.\n\n\\textsuperscript{87} Letter from Alfred Schretter, attorney for Merrell-Dow, to Sanford Gaines (August 9, 1989) (on file in the offices of the Environmental Law Liability Program, University of Houston Law Center). For nearly identical figures as to the child-plaintiff cases see U.S. GEN. ACCT. OFF., PRODUCT LIABILITY: EXTENT OF “LITIGATION EXPLOSION” IN FEDERAL COURTS QUESTIONED 35 (January 1988) [hereinafter GAO, “LITIGATION EXPLOSION” QUESTIONED].\n\n\\textsuperscript{88} \\textit{E.g.}, TEX. CIV. PRACT. & REM. CODE. ANN. § 16.001 (West 1986 & Supp. 1991).\n\n\\textsuperscript{89} Because of these disability provisions, the Bendectin Cases have a “long tail”: a long period between the time when a product is distributed in the market and the time after which a suit may not be brought. Some have argued that the long tails of many products liability claims have led to an unravelling of insurance markets. \\textit{E.g.}, George L. Priest, \\textit{The Current Insurance Crisis and Modern Tort Law}, 96 YALE L.J. 1521, 1582-90 (1987). Insurance companies have responded to long-tailed risks by being less willing to write “occurrence” policies covering all injuries that occur during a time period. Instead, they have turned to “claims-made” policies that cover only claims made while the policy is in effect. This, in turn, has led the attorneys general of several states to sue a number of insurance companies. \\textit{See} Joseph Sanders & Craig Joyce, “Off to the Races”: The 1980s Tort Crisis and the Law Reform Process, 27 Hous. L. Rev. 207, 215 n. 33 (1990).\n\nWith this background in place, the next two Parts of this Article examine the science and the law surrounding the Bendectin litigation. In each Part, the primary objective is to take a \"life cycle\" perspective. Neither the science nor the law is analyzed as a collection of autonomous studies or cases, but rather as part of a larger, interactive whole. As shall become clear, both the science and the law have been fundamentally altered by their interaction with each other.\n\nIV. The Science\n\nScience is discussed first because it was, in a sense, a leading indicator of what was to happen in the Bendectin trials. To know the science was, to some extent, to be able to predict what would come. On the other hand, the law, especially as reflected in appellate opinions, was a lagging indicator—a reflection of what already had occurred.\n\nA. Background\n\nBendectin was already in the marketplace when Merrell experienced problems with Thalidomide and later with MER/29. In part because Bendectin was comprised of existing drugs, the compound had not undergone substantial testing when introduced.\\textsuperscript{90} At that time, FDA standards did not require testing for teratogenicity, and Merrell did not test Bendectin for teratogenicity until after the Thalidomide disaster in 1961.\\textsuperscript{91} Indeed, the Thalidomide disaster acted as an important catalyst for reformation of the Food and Drug Act.\\textsuperscript{92}\n\nIn the aftermath of that disaster, Merrell began investigating the safety of Bendectin. As is typical, early research involved \\textit{in vitro} and \\textit{in vivo} studies. Later, when questions arose regarding Bendectin's safety,\\textsuperscript{93} new \\textit{in vivo} studies were undertaken, and researchers conducted a series of epidemiological studies assessing Bendectin's effect on human fetuses. Because the relative probative value of various types of data became a determining factor in the Bendectin cases, the next sections provide an overview of each type of research: \\textit{in vitro}, \\textit{in vivo}, and epidemiological.\\textsuperscript{94}\n\n\\textsuperscript{90} Trial transcript at 20-21, Mekdeci v. Merrell Nat'l Lab., No. 77-255 (M.D. Fla. Jan. 30, 1980) (testimony of Dr. Pogge).\n\n\\textsuperscript{91} \\textit{Id.} at 42.\n\n\\textsuperscript{92} \\textit{Id.} at 56-57; Sherman & Strauss, \\textit{supra} note 49, at 463-64.\n\n\\textsuperscript{93} See \\textit{supra} notes 78-83 and accompanying text.\n\n\\textsuperscript{94} In addition to using these three types of studies, toxicologists also draw inferences regarding a drug's effects from its structure. If the molecular structure of a suspect compound is similar to that of a known teratogen, there is some reason to suspect that the compound will have similar effects. C.T.G. King et al., \\textit{Antihistamines and Teratogenicity in the Rat}, 147 J. PHARMACOLOGY & EXPERIMENTAL THERAPEUTICS 391-98 (1965); Michael Green, Expert\n\nFollowing this, I discuss the scientific findings and how they changed as the Bendectin litigation matured.\n\n(1) In Vitro Studies\n\nIn vitro studies expose single cells, organs, or even whole embryos maintained in a culture to some substance and examine the biochemical events.\\textsuperscript{95} Organ cultures of embryonic limb buds are the most frequent subjects of in vitro studies testing for teratogenicity.\\textsuperscript{96} Experiments indicate that embryonic mouse limbs developing in a culture exhibit pathological responses to several teratogens similar to those developing in vivo.\\textsuperscript{97} An important advantage of in vitro studies is cost.\\textsuperscript{98} There also is an as yet unrealized longer term advantage: by using animal and human cell cultures, in vitro studies allow direct comparisons across species of the effects of cell and organ exposure to drugs. Ultimately, such comparisons may enable us to make better cross-species extrapolations of in vivo study results.\\textsuperscript{99} There are, however, many aspects of teratogenicity that cannot be investigated through in vitro studies, and extrapolation to live animals, not to mention humans, is difficult at best.\n\n(2) In Vivo Studies\n\nIn vivo studies examine the effects of a drug on various animal species thought to be similar to humans in their response to certain drugs.\\textsuperscript{100} Different protocols are employed depending on the type(s) of injuries for\n\n\\textsuperscript{95} Stuart Freeman et al., \\textit{Post-Implantation Embryo Culture for Studies of Teratogenesis}, in \\textit{BIOCHEMICAL TOXICOLOGY: A PRACTICAL APPROACH} 83, 102 (K. Snell & B. Mullock eds., 1987).\n\n\\textsuperscript{96} Jeanne Manson et al., \\textit{Teratology Test Methods for Laboratory Animals}, in \\textit{PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TOXICOLOGY} 141, 159 (A. Wallace Hayes ed., 1982).\n\n\\textsuperscript{97} \\textit{Id.}\n\n\\textsuperscript{98} One article, which discusses the procedures of in vitro tests for teratogens using rat embryo cell cultures, estimates that one technician can test between 250 and 300 compounds per year. O.P. Flint, \\textit{An In Vitro Test for Teratogens Using Cultures of Rat Embryo Cells}, in \\textit{IN VITRO METHODS IN TOXICOLOGY} 339, 356 (C.K. Atterwill & C.E. Steele eds., 1987).\n\n\\textsuperscript{99} G.B. Leslie & P. Johnson, \\textit{Introduction to IN VITRO METHODS IN TOXICOLOGY}, supra note 98, at 1, 3. See infra notes 106-23 and accompanying text for a discussion of the problems that currently attend extrapolation from in vivo animal testing results to humans.\n\n\\textsuperscript{100} Robert E. Menzer, \\textit{Selection of Animal Models for Data Interpretation}, in \\textit{TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND HUMAN RISK: PRINCIPLES OF DATA INTERPRETATION} 133 (R. Tardiff & J. Rodricks eds., 1987) [hereinafter \\textit{TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND HUMAN RISK}].\n\nwhich one is testing. Today the protocols for teratogenic effects testing are fairly well standardized\\textsuperscript{101} and call for tests on at least two species at two dose levels.\\textsuperscript{102} For each species a minimum N consists of two test groups and one control group, each containing twenty rodents or ten rabbits. Because of the nonnormal distribution of teratological events, nonparametric tests are often employed, with the litter, not the fetus, as the unit of analysis.\\textsuperscript{103} The percentage of fetuses affected within a litter is the basic estimate of statistical effect.\\textsuperscript{104} By the mid-1970s, around the time Bendectin's safety came into question, approximately 2000 chemicals (mostly drugs) had been tested for teratogenic effects. Of those tested, approximately one third had shown some teratogenic effect.\\textsuperscript{105}\n\nPerhaps the central issue with respect to \\textit{in vivo} teratology studies is the degree to which the results can be extrapolated from animals to humans.\\textsuperscript{106} Because many substances produce an adverse effect in only a small percentage of organisms when ingested at a rate similar to that encountered in the environment or prescribed by a physician, it takes a large number of animal subjects to detect a given substance's effects with any reliability. Smaller samples would generate an unacceptably large number of false negatives (failure to detect an effect when it exists). Thus, animals are generally administered high doses of the drug in hopes of maximizing the incidence of effects.\\textsuperscript{107} If there is a positive result,\n\n\\begin{footnotesize}\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item See, e.g., Ian Nisbet & Nathan Karch, Chemical Hazards to Human Reproduction 74 (1983); Manson et al., \\textit{supra} note 96, at 141-84, 156-57. Advisory Committee on Protocols for Safety Evaluation: Panel on Reproduction, U. S. Food & Drug Admin., Report on Reproduction Studies in Safety Evaluation of Food Additives and Pesticides Residues, 16 Toxicology & Applied Pharmacology 264 (1970).\n\\item Testing for teratogenicity requires that drugs be administered during the critical period encompassing organogenesis, the time when cells and tissues migrate and associate to form organ rudiments. It is during this period that the fetus is most vulnerable to structural defects. Manson et al., \\textit{supra} note 96, at 143. In humans, organogenesis occurs from the third to the eighth week of fetal development. In rodents, it occurs earlier and lasts for fewer days. \\textit{Id}. For example, organogenesis occurs between days 6 and 15 for rats and between days 6 and 18 for rabbits. Organization for Economic Cooperation & Dev., OECD Short Term and Long Term Toxicology Groups (1979).\n\\item Typical tests are the Mann-Whitney $U$-test for two groups and the Kruskal-Wallis test for comparisons among more than two groups. Manson et al., \\textit{supra} note 96, at 156. For a general discussion of appropriate statistical analyses for toxicological studies see Shayne C. Gad & Carrol S. Weil, Statistics for Toxicologists, in Principles and Methods of Toxicology, \\textit{supra} note 96, at 273.\n\\item Manson et al., \\textit{supra} note 96, at 179.\n\\item James L. Schardein, Drugs as Teratogens 5 (1976).\n\\item World Health Org., Principles and Methods for Evaluating the Toxicity of Chemicals: Part 1, at 35-41 (1978).\n\\item While dose-response effects are generally important in determining the toxicity of drugs, this relationship is quite complex in the case of teratogenic effects. For example, high dose rates may increase fetal death and resorption and thus decrease the number of observed\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{footnotesize}\n\ntoxicologists must then extrapolate a predicted incidence at a more realistic lower rate. Unfortunately, there is no single agreed upon extrapolation model for dose-rate effects, and competing models generate widely differing predictions at low response rates.\\textsuperscript{108} Extrapolation is particularly difficult in the case of teratogenic effects.\\textsuperscript{109}\n\nOnce a dose rate extrapolation has been made, a second extrapolation is necessary to adjust across species.\\textsuperscript{110} Again, unfortunately, there is no uniformly accepted formula for the adjustment. Two common formulas respectively compare either the body weight or the surface area of the animal with the corresponding human measurement.\\textsuperscript{111} The use of these different scaling factors can lead to widely divergent estimates of effects on humans.\\textsuperscript{112}\n\nFinally, it is important to emphasize the different role animal studies play when they are used to regulate risk versus when they are used to\n\n\\textsuperscript{108} Howard Latin, \\textit{Good Science, Bad Regulation, and Toxic Risk Assessment}, 5 YALE J. ON REG. 89, 98 (1988). For example, carcinogenic effects often are measured on a dose scale that defines a base dose rate as the dose necessary to produce cancer in 50% of a sample of test animals. David S. Salsburg, \\textit{Statistics and Toxicology: An Overview, in Scientific Considerations in Monitoring and Evaluating Toxicological Research} 123, 127-29 (Edward J. Gralla ed., 1981) [hereinafter \\textit{Scientific Considerations}]. Several statistical models, including log-normal, log-logistic, and single-hit models are used to extrapolate to lower dose rate effects. All of the extrapolation models produce similar estimates when the dose rate is relatively close to 50%, but they produce widely divergent results at low doses. For instance, at a dose that is 1/1000 of the 50% dose, the single-hit model gives an estimated response rate 200 times greater than the log-normal model. OSHA Generic Cancer Policy, 45 Fed. Reg. 5001, 5184-5185 (1980).\n\n\\textsuperscript{109} Hogan and Hoel note that when compared to carcinogenic or mutagenic effects, teratogenic effects are “perhaps the most difficult to address in terms of species extrapolation and quantitative risk assessment.” Michael D. Hogan & David G. Hoel, \\textit{Extrapolation to Man, in Principles and Methods of Toxicology}, \\textit{supra} note 96, at 711, 724. The biologic mechanisms underlying teratogenic responses are poorly understood, partly because the basic unit of the experiment is not really one organism, but two—the mother and her offspring. \\textit{Id}. This greatly increases the difficulty of extrapolating from high to low dose rates.\n\n\\textsuperscript{110} James P. Leape, \\textit{Quantitative Risk Assessment in Regulation of Environmental Carcinogens}, 4 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 86, 98-99 (1980). Implicit in these formulas is an assumption that animals and humans respond similarly to the substance.\n\n\\textsuperscript{111} For example, the National Academy of Sciences estimated the incidence of cancer in humans exposed to Saccharin using different formulas to extrapolate from animal data. A body-weight scale predicted 210 cases per million people exposed. A surface-area scale predicted 1200 cases. A third formula using a total lifetime dose conversion scale predicted 5200 cases per million. \\textit{Id}. In general, comparisons between cancer risk estimates based on extrapolations from animal data and actual human epidemiological data indicate that estimates have been accurate for only half the substances examined. See Jack L. Landau & W. Hugh O’Riordan, \\textit{Of Mice and Men: The Admissibility of Animal Studies to Prove Causation in Toxic Tort Litigation}, 25 IDAHO L. REV. 521, 547-548 (1988-89).\n\nprove causation in a tort case. When testing a new drug, the critical question is whether there might be a teratogenic effect in humans even though no effect is detected in test animals.\\textsuperscript{112} (Recall that Thalidomide did not produce effects in rats or hamsters.)\\textsuperscript{113} When we move from the laboratory to the courtroom, however, the question changes subtly. In the courtroom the crucial issue becomes whether a known effect in a test animal is probative of causation in humans. On the first question, a 1980 FDA report indicated that of thirty-eight compounds known to produce human birth defects, all but one have produced a positive result in at least one animal species and 80% are positive in more than one species.\\textsuperscript{114} Thus, the Thalidomide experience notwithstanding, negative \\textit{in vivo} tests on two species are relatively strong evidence that a drug will be safe for humans.\n\nAs to the second question, the answer appears to be that the relationship is weaker and somewhat dependent on the species used to prove causation.\\textsuperscript{115} According to the FDA study, of 165 compounds for which no human teratologic effects had been reported only 28% appeared negative in all animal species tested, and 50% appeared negative in multiple species.\\textsuperscript{116} On the other hand, over 41% of the compounds appeared to be positive in more than one animal species.\\textsuperscript{117} In a species-by-species analysis, the FDA found that a negative response to substances for which human teratologic effects have not been reported was observed only 35% of the time in mice and hamsters, 50% in rats, 70% in rabbits, and 80% in monkeys.\\textsuperscript{118} Compounding the problem of what to make of positive\n\n\\textsuperscript{112}. Because there are no commonly accepted models for extrapolation, one technique is to employ some arbitrary safety factor when scaling up to humans. Hogan & Hoel, \\textit{supra} note 109, at 711-12. For example, one technique for establishing safe doses for humans is to find the maximum dose level that may be administered without causing an observed effect in animals and then multiply this by a safety factor of 100 to determine a \"safe level\" for humans. \\textit{Id.}; Landau & O'Riordan, \\textit{supra} note 111, at 536. There appears to be no theoretical basis for choosing a factor of 100. Landau & O'Riordan, \\textit{supra} note 111, at 536 n.66.\n\n\\textsuperscript{113}. \\textit{See supra} note 57.\n\n\\textsuperscript{114}. Nisbet & Karch, \\textit{supra} note 101, at 98 (citing 45 Fed. Reg. 69, 823). The FDA reports that known or suspected human teratogens produced positive teratologic responses 85% of the time in mice, 80% in rats, 60% in rabbits, 45% in hamsters, and only 30% in monkeys. \\textit{Id.}\n\n\\textsuperscript{115}. \\textit{Id.} at 105.\n\n\\textsuperscript{116}. \\textit{Id.} (citing 45 Fed. Reg. 69, 823)\n\n\\textsuperscript{117}. \\textit{Id.}\n\n\\textsuperscript{118}. \\textit{Id.} For similar results, see Edward J. Calabrese, \\textit{Principles of Animal Extrapolation} 237-38 (1983); Gary P. Carlson, \\textit{Factors Modifying Toxicity}, in \\textit{Toxic Substances and Human Risk}, \\textit{supra} note 100, at 47, 49. These results are subject to an important qualification. It is impossible to be certain that any of the compounds that appear not to be teratogenic or carcinogenic in humans are, in fact, completely without teratogenic or carcinogenic effect. Leape, \\textit{supra} note 110, at 92. A relatively rare human effect may not have\n\nanimal findings is, again, the problem of dosage. At sufficiently high dose levels most, perhaps all, substances are teratogenic in some animals.\\textsuperscript{119} If the question is whether a finding that a substance is teratogenic in mice constitutes strong evidence it is teratogenic in humans, the answer is no.\\textsuperscript{120}\n\nThese limitations on our ability to extrapolate from animal research to humans create what Weinberg has called “trans-scientific” uncertainty: uncertainty concerning an issue that can be put in scientific terms but for which scientific proof is unavailable.\\textsuperscript{121} As Brennan notes, “we accept that animal carcinogens are human carcinogens as a matter of policy; this proposition cannot be proven given our present understanding of carcinogenesis.”\\textsuperscript{122} A similar statement could be made about \\textit{in vivo} studies showing teratogenesis.\\textsuperscript{123}\n\n(3) Epidemiological Studies\n\nA third type of scientific research involves epidemiological studies of human subjects.\\textsuperscript{124} Epidemiological studies compare the incidence of birth defects among those exposed and those not exposed to a drug. There are two general ways of making such comparisons: cohort studies and case-control studies. Cohort studies compare the incidence of de-\n\n\\textsuperscript{119} Bernard A. Schwetz, \\textit{Monitoring Problems in Teratology}, in \\textit{SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS}, \\textit{supra} note 108, at 180. As one author notes: “Most teratologists accept the principle that any agent can be shown to be teratogenic in an animal providing enough is given at the right time. For instance, both sodium chloride and sucrose have been shown to produce animal teratogenicity.” Thomas H. Shepard, \\textit{Human Teratogenicity}, 33 \\textit{ADVANCES IN PEDIATRICS} 225, 227 (1986).\n\n\\textsuperscript{120} Nevertheless, rodents are particularly attractive candidates for \\textit{in vivo} testing, in part because of their relatively low cost and ease of handling. Bernard L. Oser, \\textit{The Rat as a Model for Human Toxicological Evaluation}, 8 \\textit{J. TOXICOLOGY & ENVTL. HEALTH} 521, 522 (1981).\n\n\\textsuperscript{121} Alvin Weinberg, \\textit{Science and Trans-Science}, 10 \\textit{MINERVA} 209 (1972).\n\n\\textsuperscript{122} Troyen Brennan, \\textit{Helping Courts With Toxic Torts: Some Proposals Regarding Alternative Methods for Presenting and Assessing Scientific Evidence in Common Law Courts}, 51 \\textit{U. PITTS. L. REV.} 1, 23 (1989).\n\n\\textsuperscript{123} One commentator notes that there is often a period between the time when animal studies indicate a substance may be dangerous and the time when epidemiological studies indicate whether it is, in fact, dangerous to humans. Wendy E. Wagner, Note, \\textit{Trans-Science in Torts}, 96 \\textit{YALE L.J.} 428, 432-34 (1986). She proposes that during the interim period liability standards be revised so as to facilitate plaintiff recovery. \\textit{Id.} at 442-49.\n\n\\textsuperscript{124} Still another source of information about a drug’s effects are the previously mentioned DERs filed by physicians when they observe some adverse effect associated with the drug. Though DERs are helpful in bringing potential problems to the attention of the manufacturer and regulators, their usefulness as a source of systematic data on the effects of a drug is severely limited by their anecdotal nature.\n\nfects in groups of persons exposed to the drug to the incidence in groups of persons not exposed.\\textsuperscript{125} Case-control studies match a group of persons who have the defect in question (\"cases\") against another group that does not have it (\"controls\"). The two groups then are compared with regard to the frequency of exposure to the drug.\\textsuperscript{126} Epidemiological studies typically measure risk by using the concepts of \\textit{relative risk},\\textsuperscript{127} \\textit{odds ratio},\\textsuperscript{128} and \\textit{attributable risk}.\\textsuperscript{129}\n\nEpidemiological studies also vary in the way they collect their data—prospectively or retrospectively. All case-control studies are re-\n\n\\textsuperscript{125}. Leon Gordis, \\textit{Estimating Risk and Inferring Causality in Epidemiology, in Epidemiology and Health Risk Assessment}, supra note 53, at 51, 52.\n\n\\textsuperscript{126}. \\textit{Id.}; Michael Dore, \\textit{A Commentary on the Use of Epidemiological Evidence in Demonstrating Cause-In-Fact}, 7 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 429, 432 & n.22 (1983).\n\n\\textsuperscript{127}. The relative risk is the risk of defect in exposed individuals divided by the risk of defect in those not exposed. Gordis, \\textit{supra} note 125, at 52. For example, imagine that 20% of mothers in a particular area ingested Bendectin during pregnancy. If we drew a sample and found that of 1000 children whose mothers were exposed to Bendectin, 60 have a defect, while of 4000 children whose mothers were not exposed to Bendectin, 160 have a defect, the relative risk associated with Bendectin ingestion would be \\((a/(a + b)) / (c/(c + d)) = (60/(60 + 940)) / (160/(160 + 3840)) = .06/.04 = 1.5\\).\n\n\\textsuperscript{128}. The odds ratio is the cross-product in a \\(2 \\times 2\\) table. In a cohort study examining exposed and unexposed individuals, it equals the ratio of the odds of injury if the person was exposed, to the odds of injury if the person was not exposed. \\textit{Id.}\n\n\\begin{center}\n\\textbf{Odds Ratio in a Cohort Study}\n\\end{center}\n\n| Injured | Not Injured |\n|---------|-------------|\n| Exposed | a | b |\n| Not Exposed | c | d |\n\n\\[\\frac{a}{b} = \\frac{ad}{bc}\\]\n\n\\textit{Id.} at 53 fig. 5-1. For example, using the data from the preceding note, the odds ratio would be \\(\\frac{ad}{bc} = \\frac{(60 \\times 3840)}{(940 \\times 160)} = 1.53\\).\n\nIn a case-control study comparing a group of cases (people with the injury) to a group of controls (people without the injury), the odds ratio is the ratio of the odds that the cases were exposed to the odds that the controls were exposed. \\textit{Id.} at 52.\n\n\\begin{center}\n\\textbf{Odds Ratio in a Case-Control Study}\n\\end{center}\n\n| CASES | CONTROLS |\n|-------|----------|\n| (Injury) | (No Injury) |\n| History of Exposure | a | b |\n| No History of Exposure | c | d |\n\n\\[\\frac{a}{c} = \\frac{ad}{bc}\\]\n\n\\textit{See id.} at 53 fig. 5-2. Note that cohort and case-control studies differ in how they are conducted, but not in how the odds ratio is computed.\n\nWith case-control studies we know the risks of exposure, but we usually do not know the risk of injury. The odds ratio is a good approximation of relative risk when, with respect to their history of exposure, both the cases and the controls are representative of the population from which they are drawn, and when the disease or defect is rare in the population. \\textit{Id.} at 52, 54 fig. 5-3; see HAROLD KAHN, \\textit{AN INTRODUCTION TO EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS} 46 (1983).\n\n\\textsuperscript{129}. Attributable risk is an assessment of the differences in the risks of exposed and unexposed populations. It is calculated by subtracting the level of risk of the unexposed population (the background risk) from the level of risk of the exposed population. Gordis, \\textit{supra} note 125, at 53-54. Thus, if the background risk of contracting cancer is 25% while the risk for those who spend a lifetime employed at a commercial nuclear reactor is 28%, the attributable risk of working at the site is 3%.\n\nrospective; indeed, the term \"retrospective study\" is sometimes used as a synonym for case-control study. Similarly, the term \"prospective study\" is sometimes used as a synonym for cohort study, even though some cohort studies do collect data retrospectively.\\textsuperscript{130} An important limitation of all studies using retrospectively collected data is that the data may be affected by recall bias.\\textsuperscript{131} Mothers who have children with birth defects, for example, are likely to search their pasts carefully, trying to find the cause of their child's injury. Consequently, they are more likely to recall the drugs ingested during pregnancy than are mothers of healthy children. The dangers of bias presumably increase with the passage of time. Researchers employ a number of strategies in an attempt to overcome these dangers.\\textsuperscript{132}\n\na. The Primacy of Epidemiology?\n\nBecause epidemiological studies are done on human subjects, they are sometimes thought to be the preferred evidence of environmental risk.\\textsuperscript{133} As Erdreich notes, at least in situations where the proposed effect of a drug does not have a long latency period, \"descriptive epidemiologic data . . . will settle the uncertainty associated with even the best animal data.\"\\textsuperscript{134} Occasionally, epidemiological evidence has been said to trump all other types of information. Thus, Judge Weinstein, in his opinion granting summary judgment against opt-out plaintiffs in the \\textit{Agent Orange Case}, said the epidemiological studies \"are the only useful studies having any bearing on causation. All the other data supplied by the parties rests on surmise and inapposite extrapolations from animal studies and industrial accidents.\"\\textsuperscript{135}\n\n\\textsuperscript{130}. \\textsc{Kahn}, supra note 128, at 39-40.\n\n\\textsuperscript{131}. Recall bias is but one of many sources of potential bias in epidemiological research. For a useful discussion, see David L. Sackett, \\textit{Bias in Analytic Research}, 32 \\textsc{J. Chronic Diseases} 51, 56 (1979).\n\n\\textsuperscript{132}. In one study of Bendectin, for example, the researchers conducted an in-depth interview with each mother and in most cases corroborated the interview results with exposure information in the mother's obstetric record. Sally Zierler & Kenneth Rothman, \\textit{Congenital Heart Disease in Relation to Maternal Use of Bendectin and Other Drugs in Early Pregnancy}, 313 \\textsc{New Eng. J. Med.} 347, 347-48 (1985).\n\n\\textsuperscript{133}. Michael L. Dourson & Jerry F. Stara, \\textit{Regulatory History and Experimental Support of Uncertainty (Safety) Factors}, 3 \\textsc{Reg. Toxicology \\& Pharmacology} 224, 234 (1983).\n\n\\textsuperscript{134}. Linda Erdreich, \\textit{Combining Animal and Human Data: Resolving Conflicts, Summarizing the Evidence}, in \\textsc{Epidemiology and Health Risk Assessment}, supra note 53, at 197, 198.\n\n\\textsuperscript{135}. \\textit{In re Agent Orange Prod. Liab. Litig.}, 611 F. Supp. 1223, 1231 (E.D.N.Y. 1985), \\textit{aff'd}, 818 F.2d 187 (2d Cir. 1987), \\textit{cert. denied sub nom. Lombardi v. Dow Chem. Co.}, 487 U.S. 1234 (1988).\n\nOn the other hand, epidemiological studies do have limitations. Not infrequently, they contain methodological or data collection shortcomings that undermine their findings. Thus, some experts would disagree with Judge Weinstein's conclusion that he could disregard *in vivo* studies and other types of evidence that contradict epidemiological findings.\\(^{136}\\) Moreover, when epidemiological findings are inconsistent or unclear, the animal studies take on greater importance. Even if an epidemiological study indicates that there is a correlation between a product and a defect, the question remains whether the product caused the problem.\n\nb. Causal Inference\n\nBecause we often may not understand the mechanisms by which a drug causes human injury, epidemiological correlation alone does not constitute proof of causation. Epidemiologists have developed a set of additional criteria to assist in determining whether an injury is the result of exposure to a particular product.\\(^{137}\\)\n\nThe first criterion is temporal order. Cause precedes effect. If the effect came before the cause, there can be no causal relationship. Ambiguity as to causal order undermines the ability to make causal arguments.\n\nSecond, there is the strength of association. The stronger the statistical association (usually measured by relative risk or the odds ratio) and the greater the level of statistical significance (usually measured by a chi square test) the more willing epidemiologists are to attribute a causal relationship.\\(^{138}\\)\n\n\\(^{136}\\). See Erdreich, *supra* note 134, at 198; cf. Peter Schuck, *Agent Orange on Trial: Mass Toxic Disasters in the Courts* 279 (1986); Bert Black & David Lilienfeld, *Epidemiological Proof in Toxic Tort Litigation*, 52 FORDHAM L. REV. 732, 776 (1984); Dore, *supra* note 126, at 436; Kristine L. Hall & Ellen K. Silbergeld, *Reappraising Epidemiology: A Response to Mr. Dore*, 7 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 441, 448 (1983); Richard E. Hoffman, *The Use of Epidemiologic Data in the Courts*, 120 AM. J. EPIDEMIOLOGY 190, 192 (1984).\n\n\\(^{137}\\). Mervyn Susser, *Epidemiology, Health and Society: Selected Papers* 69-80 (1987); Erdreich, *supra* note 134, at 203; Thomas H. Shepard, *Human Teratogenicity*, 33 ADVANCES PEDIATR. 225, 230-34 (1986).\n\n\\(^{138}\\). Herein lies the complex question of when it is appropriate to reject the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the treatment and the effect. For a general statistical discussion of calculating relative risks, chi squares, and confidence intervals see Kahn, *supra* note 128, at 3-10. The literature on the role statistical evidence and statistical significance should play in legal assessments of liability is voluminous. Among the more interesting articles are: Bert Black, *A Unified Theory of Scientific Evidence*, 50 FORDHAM L. REV. 595 (1988); Black & Lilienfeld, *supra* note 136; Harold Ginzberg, *Use and Misuse of Epidemiologic Data in the Courtroom: Defining the Limits of Inferential and Particularistic Evidence in Mass Tort Litigation*, 12 AM. J. L. & MED. 423 (1986); Steve Gold, *Causation in Toxic Torts: Burdens of Proof, Standards of Persuasion, and Statistical Evidence*, 96 YALE L.J. 376 (1986); Ora Fred Harris, Jr., *Toxic Tort Litigation and the Causation Element: Is There Any Hope of*\n\nThe third criterion is the specificity of the relationship. There can be specificity in the causes and in the effects. Perfect specificity is achieved when a cause is a necessary and sufficient condition for one sole effect. If exposure to a certain product leads to a \"signature disease,\" as is the case with asbestosis, causal inferences are easier. But as causes come to have multiple results and as effects come to have multiple sources, causal arguments become indeterminate. Not infrequently, causal hypotheses have been attacked because a cause has multiple effects.\\textsuperscript{139} Almost all epidemiologists agree, however, that while lack of specificity in the effects of a cause may make a causal relationship indeterminate, it does not disprove the existence of such a relationship.\\textsuperscript{140} Similarly, while specificity in the causes of a given effect strengthens the plausibility of a causal relationship the absence of specificity alone does not refute the existence of a causal relationship.\\textsuperscript{141}\n\nFourth, there is consistency on replication. Multiple replications, especially when they use a variety of methods and are done in a variety of circumstances, support causal arguments by diminishing the probability that results are spurious or the product of methodological flaws. Whenever it is impossible to implement an experimental design fully, unmeasured confounding factors threaten the accuracy of the results.\\textsuperscript{142}\n\nFinally, there is the coherence of the evidence. A finding is more likely to support a causal interpretation when it fits within a known body of facts or an existing theoretical framework. One type of coherence is biological plausibility; that is, an understanding of the mechanisms through which a cause may lead to an effect. Another type of coherence that increases the plausibility of a causal relationship is a finding of a dose-response relationship; that is the higher the dose, the greater the response.\\textsuperscript{143}\n\n\\textit{Reconciliation?}, 40 Sw. L.J. 909 (1986); David Kaye, \\textit{Is Proof of Statistical Significance Relevant?}, 61 Wash. L. Rev. 1333 (1986); David Kaye, \\textit{Statistical Significance and the Burden of Persuasion}, \\textit{Law & Contemp. Probs.}, Autumn 1983, at 13; Richard Lempert, \\textit{Statistics in the Courtroom: Building on Rubinfeld}, 85 Colum. L. Rev. 1098 (1985).\n\n\\textsuperscript{139} The best known example of this type of argument involves the correlation between cigarette smoking and disease, because smoking does not cause a specific ailment.\n\n\\textsuperscript{140} Sussler, \\textit{supra} note 137, at 79.\n\n\\textsuperscript{141} Sussler notes that as knowledge accumulates specificity may be improved because we come to a clearer understanding of the differences between previously undifferentiated causes or effects. \\textit{Id.} at 87. For example, as we come to appreciate the differences in the types of asbestos fibers we may be able to make more specific statements about the relationship of these fibers to certain diseases. Moreover, as specificity improves, so may strength of association. Here as elsewhere, the criteria for making causal inferences overlap.\n\n\\textsuperscript{142} See Thomas D. Cook & Donald T. Campbell, \\textit{Quasi-Experimentation: Design & Analysis for Field Settings} 37-94 (1979).\n\n\\textsuperscript{143} Manson et al., \\textit{supra} note 96, at 150. The lack of a linear dose-response relationship\n\nThe history of the Bendectin litigation has been marked by questions concerning the relative probative value of each type of evidence and the causal inferences that can be drawn from statistical correlations.\n\nB. The Bendectin Studies\n\nAgainst this background, the next sections present the Bendectin research. The purpose here is not to determine whether Bendectin is a teratogen; rather, it is to examine the flow of science over the life cycle of the Bendectin litigation. In mass tort cases, the importance of the science cannot be overemphasized. Without *in vitro*, *in vivo* and epidemiological findings, and experts prepared to present them, the plaintiff has no case. In order to understand the litigation, something first must be known about the science. Further, there are two other issues suggested by the idea of a congregation of cases. First, the science, like the law, of a case congregation develops and matures; the science also experiences a life cycle.\\textsuperscript{144} We should expect that the science will be relatively poorly developed in the early stages of litigation, but that over time the mobilization efforts of the parties will produce a richer body of scientific evidence.\n\nThis leads to the second point: We should anticipate that the science itself is influenced by the legal process. As the congregation of cases grows and matures, it creates its own gravity field, attracting and distorting the science that comes near it.\\textsuperscript{145} In turn the science affects the law. Ultimately, science and law interact in complex ways to produce unique patterns of development in various case congregations. In the following three sections, I show how the science developed in the Bendectin Cases.\n\n(1) *In Vitro* Studies\n\nWhile probably all Bendectin cases have contained some testimony on *in vitro* research, the number of studies on point is limited. In a recent letter published in the *Journal of the American Medical Association*, Dr.\n\n\\textsuperscript{144} See Michael Green, \\textit{The Paradox of Statutes of Limitations in Toxic Substances Litigation}, 76 CAL. L. REV. 965, 975 (1988) (arguing that knowledge of the dangerousness of toxic substances generally improves with time).\n\n\\textsuperscript{145} In this regard, Sackett notes that research may be susceptible to what he calls the \"hot stuff bias\": \"When a topic is hot, neither investigators nor editors may be able to resist the temptation to publish additional results, no matter how preliminary or shaky. . . .\" Sackett, \\textit{supra} note 131, at 61. For a period of time in the 1980s, Bendectin was hot stuff. \\textit{See infra} text accompanying notes 198-99.\n\nStuart Newman cites six *in vitro* studies that examine Bendectin or its antihistamine component, two of which were published in 1989.\\textsuperscript{146}\n\nCompared to *in vivo* or epidemiological research, *in vitro* studies are the least accessible to the lay person. Summarizing the findings is difficult. One study that is damaging with respect to Bendectin's safety is by Budroe, Shaddock, and Casciano, who conclude that Doxylamine may be a weak DNA-damaging agent.\\textsuperscript{147} Hassell and Horigan report that Bendectin inhibits limb bud mesenchyme cell differentiation.\\textsuperscript{148} Dr. Newman interprets the other studies as indicating doxylamine also curtails the formation of embryonic cartilage.\\textsuperscript{149} The authors of these studies, however, apparently do not conclude that their research indicates that Bendectin or doxylamine is teratogenic.\\textsuperscript{150} Cumulatively, the evidence suggests that Bendectin's antihistamine component may have some adverse effects on embryonic cell development, but there is relatively little research, and the findings are not clear cut.\n\nThis circumstance is not surprising since the purpose of most of these studies is not to prove or disprove that Bendectin causes specific types of developmental defects in animals or children. Instead, most appear to have a different purpose: to study a group of known teratogens alongside a group of known nonteratogens and determine whether the\n\n\\textsuperscript{146} Stewart A. Newman, \\textit{Bendectin—Birth Defects Controversy}, 264 JAMA 569, 569 (1990) (letter to the editor). As the journal editor noted, Dr. Newman has provided expert advice and testimony (for plaintiffs) in Bendectin cases. For a listing of the *in vitro* studies, see Appendix B.\n\n\\textsuperscript{147} John D. Budroe et al., \\textit{A Study of the Potential Genotoxicity of Methapyrilene and Related Antihistamines using the Hepatocyte/DNA Repair Assay}, 135 MUTATION RES. 131, 136-37 (1984).\n\n\\textsuperscript{148} John R. Hassell & Elizabeth A. Horigan, \\textit{Chondrogenesis: A Model Developmental System for Measuring Teratogenic Potential of Compounds}, 2 TERATOGENESIS, CARCINOGENESIS, AND MUTAGENESIS 325, 331 (1982). Using a unit of measure called the \"teratogenic potential,\" they found Bendectin inhibited cell differentiation at a dose of .05 mg/ml. This dose was approximately 1.5 orders of magnitude smaller than the amount of caffeine necessary to produce a similar effect (2.3 mg/ml). On the other hand, the Bendectin dose was 3.5 orders of magnitude larger than the amount of vitamin A required to produce a similar effect (.000013 mg/ml). \\textit{Id.} at 330. Hassell and Horigan do not express an opinion in the article as to whether Bendectin is dangerous to humans when taken at normal therapeutic doses.\n\n\\textsuperscript{149} Newman, \\textit{supra} note 146, at 569.\n\n\\textsuperscript{150} See, e.g., M. Guntakatta et al., \\textit{Development of a Mouse Embryo Limb Bud Cell Culture System for the Estimation of Chemical Teratogenic Potential}, 4 TERATOGENESIS, CARCINOGENESIS, AND MUTAGENESIS 349, 362 (1984) (\"responses observed for each of these chemicals . . . were statistically insignificant\"); J.Y. Renault et al., \\textit{Limb Bud Cell Culture for In Vitro Teratogen Screening: Validation of an Improved Assessment Method Using 51 Compounds}, 9 TERATOGENESIS, CARCINOGENESIS, AND MUTAGENESIS 83, 88-89 (1989) (\"[i]n contrast with . . . patterns of specific inhibitory activity [produced by two known teratogens], treatment with Doxylamine (succinate), a known nonteratogen, resulted in a concomitant inhibition of proliferation and differentiation . . . signifying nonspecific toxicity\").\n\nprocedure used in the study is in fact able to differentiate the two groups of drugs. If a procedure is able to distinguish known teratogens from known nonteratogens then it will be a better predictor as to whether a new compound will in fact be teratogenic in humans. To return to the distinction developed earlier between studies used to regulate risk versus studies used to prove causation in a tort case, the primary goal of most of these *in vitro* studies appears to have been the development of techniques that will be most helpful in regulating risk.\n\nPerhaps this is why, in comparison to the *in vivo* and epidemiological research discussed below, relatively little Bendectin-specific *in vitro* research has occurred. As a consequence, the *in vitro* data is second best evidence when used in the courtroom to demonstrate that Bendectin is a teratogen.\n\n(2) *In Vivo* Studies\n\nIn the aftermath of the Thalidomide disaster, the first *in vivo* tests of Bendectin were conducted by Merrell employees in 1963, using rabbits and rats. The principal investigator, Dr. Robert Staples, concluded that the study did not reveal teratogenicity. However, he noted some malformations in rabbits given the highest doses, and therefore recommended further research be conducted at higher dose rates. In 1966 and 1967 further tests were done on the individual components of Bendectin by two other Merrell employees, Drs. James Newberne and John Gibson. These results were published in 1968. Since that time there have been surprisingly few published *in vivo* studies designed to explore the teratogenic effect of Bendectin or its constituent ingredients. Table 1\n\n---\n\n151. See supra notes 112-20 and accompanying text.\n\n152. Hagan v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 697 F. Supp. 334, 338 (N.D. Ill. 1988). Merrell did not immediately follow up on this recommendation, nor did it submit the findings to the FDA until three years later. This type of behavior on Merrell's part helped fuel speculation by plaintiffs that if they only dug deeply enough, they would find a cover-up. Id.\n\n153. See John P. Gibson et al., Teratology and Reproduction Studies with an Antinauseant, 13 TOXICOLOGY & APPLIED PHARMACOLOGY 439, 441 (1968).\n\n154. Table 1 is found in appendix A. For a listing of the *in vivo* studies, see Appendix C.\n\npresents a summary of the published studies, plus two unpublished ones, in chronological order.\n\nThe table is useful for indicating the development of the literature. The first thing to note is the erratic nature of the research—bursts of activity separated by several years during which no research occurred. In fact, the pattern reflects the regulatory purpose of most *in vivo* studies and, later, the demands of the Bendectin litigation. The early 1967 research represents Merrell's response to Thalidomide. It was followed by a long period of quiet. The mid-1970s work reflects the impact of the epidemiological effectiveness study that found two ingredient Bendectin to be as effective as the three ingredient version. Subsequently, Merrell conducted *in vivo* studies to test the safety of the new formulation on animals. The final and largest wave of studies, from the early 1980s to date, reflects the need for new evidence regarding the drug's safety, driven largely by the interest in and demand for information resulting from the Bendectin litigation.\n\nThe table is somewhat misleading as an indicator of the total volume of animal research. Gibson's 1968 study reported on six separate experiments that had examined the effects of doxylamine succinate, dicyclomine hydrochloride, and three ingredient Bendectin on rats and rabbits. Because these all were done in the same laboratory by Merrell employees, however, they are inherently suspect. Studies 3 and 4 were also done in Merrell's laboratories. They were designed to examine the\n\n---\n\n155. With regard to the number of mothers in experimental and control groups (column 3), it should be noted that the total number of fetuses examined may be much larger depending on the species. For example, in the rat study by Tyl et al., the 116 experimental animals and 53 controls produced a total of 2007 fetuses. Rochelle W. Tyl et al., *Developmental Toxicity Evaluation of Bendectin in CD Rats*, 37 TERATOLOGY 539, 546 (1988). Recall from the earlier discussion that the preferred analysis focuses on the percentage of fetuses within litters that have a defect. *See supra* text accompanying notes 103-104. The relatively greater cost of rabbit and monkey studies is in part a function of the smaller litter sizes of these species.\n\n156. Several additional unpublished studies should be mentioned as well. Merrell conducted a number of studies, most, but not all of which are summarized in Gibson's 1968 article. *See* Gibson, *supra* note 153, at 440. In addition, there are studies by Roll & Matthiaschk (1981), Roll (1982) (testing Bendectin on rats), and McClure (1982) (a small monkey study showing no effect). Tyl et al. *supra* note 155, at 540. Table 1 does not include these studies.\n\n157. *See supra* note 77 and accompanying text.\n\n158. In all these experiments the authors interpreted the results as indicating no effect, although there does appear to be both a higher incidence of contracted tendons in rabbits receiving high doses of Bendectin and a higher incidence of focal hematomas in rats receiving high doses of dicyclomine hydrochloride. Additionally, no statistical analyses are presented for any of this study's findings. Plaintiff's experts have challenged the way those who conducted the study coded certain animals and have claimed that if the data had been coded correctly, these studies would indicate that Bendectin causes birth defects.\n\nteratogenic effects of the two ingredient Bendectin formulation. In addition, studies 6, 7, 9, and 10 were all conducted in a single laboratory at the University of California, Davis by Hendrickx and colleagues. Papers 6 and 7 are, in fact, only abstracts of work in progress that is fully reported in 9 and 10. If Hendrickx's studies are counted as one piece of research, there turn out to be only six separate research projects in the published literature, and one of these (study 5, involving chicken eggs) is only marginally an *in vivo* study.\n\nSeveral of the studies report some relationship between the drug and a teratogenic effect,\\textsuperscript{159} although the authors are generally cautious about attributing causation.\\textsuperscript{160} The research on monkeys concludes that two ingredient Bendectin causes heart defects.\\textsuperscript{161} One rabbit study (study 8) concludes that doxylamine succinate causes limb and skeletal defects.\\textsuperscript{162} The rat studies find, at most, minor teratogenic effects.\\textsuperscript{163} Several studies\n\n\\textsuperscript{159.} See infra app. A, tbl.1, col. 5.\n\n\\textsuperscript{160.} See infra app. A, tbl. 1, col. 9. Their caution is explained by a variety of factors: the relationship is not statistically significant; the defect is one frequently found in the particular strain of animal used; the effect is produced because of the drug's maternal toxicity; or there are other, fortuitous explanations for the result.\n\n\\textsuperscript{161.} The first epidemiological study to show a teratogenic effect in humans also involved heart defects. See infra note 183. The defects exhibited by the monkeys (ventricular septal defects) apparently are temporary. Bendectin causes a delay in the closure of the ventricular septa, but it closes spontaneously by full term. The defect is not detectable in newborn monkeys. A.G. Hendrickx et al., Evaluation of Bendectin Embryotoxicity in Non-Human Primates: Double-Blind Study in Term Cynomolgus Monkeys, 32 TERATOLOGY 191, 194 (1985).\n\n\\textsuperscript{162.} Because the most seriously injured plaintiffs have suffered limb defects, the rabbit studies are particularly relevant to the Bendectin litigation. Dr. McBride, the researcher who found these defects, has been a central expert witness for plaintiffs in these cases. He has also been at the center of considerable controversy, including serious charges of misconduct surrounding research on a different drug, scopolamine. See Andrew Skolnick, Key Witness Against Morning Sickness Drug Faces Scientific Fraud Charges, 26 JAMA 1468, 1468 (1990).\n\n\\textsuperscript{163.} While the Tyl study did show a dose-related skeletal defect (reduced number of ossified caudal vertebral centra), on the basis of an analysis of covariance (\"ANCOVA\"), the authors concluded that this and other fetal defects are best understood as the consequence of reduced fetal body weight. Tyl, supra note 154, at 550-51. In general, the authors interpret the defects detected in this study as the byproduct of maternal and developmental toxicity resulting from the very high doses of Bendectin given to the experimental rats. The lowest dose rate in the study (200 mg/kg/day) is approximately 300 to 600 times the therapeutic dose taken by pregnant women. The highest dose rate was 800mg/kg/day. At this rate, Bendectin caused profound maternal toxicity.\n\nTyl also reports that Roll and Matthiassch conducted an experiment in 1981 finding teratogenic effects (diaphragmatic hernia) in rats; but that Roll was unable to replicate the results in the same laboratory. Id. at 540.\n\nGibson's 1975 study indicates a relationship between Bendectin and dilated kidney pelvis and subcutaneous hematomas. Both are said to be common to the strain of rat used in the study, and the latter defects generally disappear within a few days in newborn rats. John Gibson, Teratology Study With A New Antinauseant Formulation in Rabbits 3 (1975) (unpublished study, on file with author).\n\nfind that high dose rates of Bendectin do produce maternal toxicity, and this in turn injures the fetus.\\textsuperscript{164}\n\nOne would expect that as the Bendectin litigation matured, so too should the quality of the \\textit{in vivo} evidence have improved, allowing the parties and the courts to reach a consensus regarding the drug's teratogenicity. And there is some evidence that the quality of the research did improve over time. Early studies rarely utilized any statistical analysis of experimental results, while later ones employed some rather sophisticated analytic tools.\\textsuperscript{165} Additionally, the sample sizes of the studies have grown, and dose rates have been increased.\\textsuperscript{166} Both of these methodological changes increase a study's ability to detect minor defects. On the other hand, the limited number of \\textit{in vivo} studies, which employed a variety of test animals and tested a variety of component drugs, makes it difficult to draw any conclusions as to whether Bendectin has a specific teratogenic effect on humans.\n\nHow to account for the relatively limited number of \\textit{in vivo} studies, as well as their relatively late appearance? The small number of studies cannot be explained by a direct depletion effect. While Bendectin is no longer available as a prescription drug, it remains available for laboratory studies. Indeed, the most recent research occurred subsequent to Merrell's withdrawal of Bendectin from the market. Nevertheless, the volume of published work is thin. Why?\n\nIn part, the answer is found in the relationship of this research to all Bendectin research and to the ongoing litigation surrounding the product. While \\textit{in vivo} studies in general are cheaper to conduct than epidemiological studies, with respect to a particular drug the relative advantage is lessened. Large scale epidemiological studies can be used to investigate a wide variety of drugs simultaneously. Most of the epidemiological research on Bendectin, for instance, uses data sets collected for more general purposes. Animal studies, by contrast, must focus on the drug in question. Consequently, there has been less interest in mobilizing the resources necessary to conduct Bendectin-specific \\textit{in vivo} experiments.\n\nThis has proven especially true since Bendectin was removed from the market. Further study of the drug is of limited interest to people who are not in some way involved with Bendectin as a legal, as well as scien-\n\n\\textsuperscript{164} See Tyl et al., supra note 155, at 550.\n\n\\textsuperscript{165} See id.\n\n\\textsuperscript{166} Tyl's 1988 rat study involved over 2000 fetuses, some of whose mothers had been exposed to Bendectin at levels nearly three orders of magnitude greater than human therapeutic doses.\n\ntific, issue. In other words, Merrell's decision to remove Bendectin from the market did lessen demand for animal research. This fact is reflected in the sponsorship of the published studies that do exist. Five separate research projects are listed in Table 1 (Gibson, Khera, McBride, Hendrickx, and Tyl). The first (Gibson) was sponsored and conducted by Merrell. The second (Khera) was done to explore the teratogenicity of pyridoxine; it did not directly involve Bendectin. The third (McBride) was independent. Hendrickx's work began independently, but the research reported in the second 1985 article was funded by Merrell.\\textsuperscript{167} Tyl's study, the largest and most sophisticated \\textit{in vivo} study to date, was undertaken by the National Toxicology Program at the specific request of the FDA's Bureau of Drugs.\\textsuperscript{168} Given the fact that Merrell was, by far, more interested in such research than any other entity, its decision to drop Bendectin naturally led to a decrease in animal studies of the drug's teratogenicity.\n\nIf those not involved in the litigation had little interest in new research, neither did the parties themselves have strong incentives to conduct new studies. Once litigation began, Merrell's incentive to continue its own research was substantially diminished. New studies done by Merrell scientists in Merrell laboratories were, from the company's point of view, a lose-lose proposition. If they showed an effect, the studies would be used against the company in subsequent litigation. If they failed to show an effect, their persuasiveness would be seriously limited by the fact that Merrell had conducted them. Any slight technical flaw in the design or execution of the experiment would be exploited by plaintiffs to undermine Merrell's findings.\\textsuperscript{169} A similar analysis would apply to research funded by Merrell, especially if it was conducted by someone who had previously testified on the firm's behalf.\\textsuperscript{170}\n\n\\textsuperscript{167} Hendrickx, \\textit{supra} note 161, at 194.\n\n\\textsuperscript{168} Tyl, \\textit{supra} note 155, at 540.\n\n\\textsuperscript{169} Typically, this has happened with earlier Merrell animal studies. \\textit{See In Re Bendectin Litig.}, 857 F.2d 290, 318 (6th Cir. 1988), \\textit{cert. denied sub nom. Hoffman v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals}, 488 U.S. 1006 (1989). In more recent trials, Merrell has relied much less on its own animal or epidemiological studies, in part because it then does not have to defend them. For example, in \\textit{Hagaman v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals}, No. 84-2202-5, 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 6124 (D. Kan. Jun. 26, 1987), Merrell moved to exclude the videotape deposition of Isalene Smock, whose testimony cast doubt on an early Merrell epidemiological study. The court granted the motion, stating: \"In their brief, plaintiffs indicate that this deposition will be offered because defendant relies heavily upon the Bunde-Bowles study. Defendant has indicated that it does not intend to rely upon the study at trial. Accordingly, the court cannot find any relevance in showing the videotape to the jury.\" \\textit{Id.} at *28.\n\n\\textsuperscript{170} The most noteworthy example of this problem in the Bendectin Cases arose with respect to the epidemiological research done by Professor Richard Smithells for Merrell. Plaintiffs were able to obtain a letter from Professor Smithells to Dr. Mark Hoekenga, an\n\nIn this respect it is interesting to note that while the Hendrickx study, which was funded by Merrell, did involve some risk of an adverse finding, from the firm's perspective it had the benefit that it was conducted by a non-Merrell employee who had previously concluded Bendectin causes heart defects in monkeys. Merrell thus could hope to make effective use of a negative finding in court. Even so, the researchers used a double-blind design so as to minimize the potential that the study might appear biased.\\textsuperscript{171} Even this strategy, however, did not shield Merrell from the suggestion that because they funded the study its results were suspect.\\textsuperscript{172}\n\n\\textsuperscript{171} Hendrickx, \\textit{supra} note 161, at 191.\n\n\\textsuperscript{172} The first Hendricks study had found that when fetuses from three species were sacrificed after approximately two-thirds of their gestation period, those whose mothers had taken Bendectin were more likely than those whose mothers had not to exhibit interventricular septal defect (the membrane separating the two sides of the heart, the septum, is not completely closed). The second study, funded by Merrell, replicated the first study on one species but did not sacrifice the fetuses until normal term. By then there was no apparent effect of Bendectin exposure; apparently the membrane spontaneously closes by term. \\textit{Id.} at 194.\n\nThe following exchange took place between plaintiff's lawyer and plaintiff's expert, Adrian Gross, with respect to the Hendrickx studies:\n\nQ: All right. Let's talk about who pays for some of these things, then, Doctor. Let's look at the Hendrickx study.\n\nA: The first one was done under the sponsorship of the government with a grant from the NIH.\n\nQ: And the second one?\n\nA: That was paid for by Merrell.\n\nQ: Let me show you what's been marked as Exhibit 231. Have you seen this before?\n\nA: I think I have.\n\nQ: Can you tell us what—whose letterhead it's on?\n\nA: Merrell Research Center.\n\nQ: Turn to the second page of that.\n\nA: Yes, I have it.\n\nQ: Is there a reference there to the Hendrickx study?\n\nA: Yes.\n\nQ: Hendrickx monkey study?\n\nA: Right.\n\nQ: The category is what?\n\nA: Defense.\n\nIt is not only the existence of litigation that alters the incentives to conduct *in vivo* research; so too does the existence of a large body of epidemiological data diminish the market for animal research. Inevitably, the direct evidence on human effects provided by the epidemiological evidence diminishes the demand for *in vivo* studies insofar as they are designed to answer the question of whether a drug causes harm to humans. Although there is considerable disagreement about the proper role of *in vivo* studies in answering that question, many would agree they are less probative than epidemiological evidence. As the following discussion shows, the Bendectin litigation and epidemiology eventually interacted in a way that seriously undermined the worth of animal studies. Increasingly, courts simply refused to rely on or even to admit *in vivo* evidence. Considering the declining demand for *in vivo* research, it is not surprising that the supply has been limited.\n\n(3) Epidemiological Studies\n\nThe epidemiological evidence stands at the center of the Bendectin cases. As noted earlier, a number of judges and scientists have argued that a coherent body of epidemiological evidence trumps other information.\\(^{173}\\)\n\na. Background\n\nI have found and examined thirty-nine published epidemiological studies that discuss Bendectin.\\(^{174}\\) Table 2\\(^{175}\\) summarizes these studies.\\(^{176}\\)\n\n---\n\nQ: Defense. How much in thousands— \nA: How much money? \nQ: Is it listed there? Would you read that? \nA: 200 and—excuse me. Let me get my eye helper here. 248.5. \nQ: In thousands? \nA: Yes. \nQ: That's just phase one, though, isn't it, Doctor? \nA: I'm sorry. \nQ: That's just phase one of the study, isn't it? \nA: Yes. Phase two was— \nQ: What about phase two? \nA: $60,000. \nQ: So over $300,000 for defense? \nA: Yes, that's true.\n\nTrial Transcript at 54-55, Havner v. Merrell Dow, Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 41 Prod. Safety & Liab. Rep. (BNA) No. 19, at 1134 (D. Tex. Oct. 11, 1991).\n\n173. See supra notes 133-36 and accompanying text. \n174. These studies were found by reading Bendectin trial transcripts and exhibits, searching for articles on Bendectin in MEDLINE, a CD/ROM index to medical publications and periodicals, and collecting the references cited in each discovered article. \n175. Table 2 is found in appendix A.\n\nIn this section, I briefly discuss the epidemiological findings on Bendectin and then examine how the research changed over time.\n\nWhat do these studies show concerning the teratogenic effects of Bendectin? Needless to say, much of the litigation in this and other drug cases centers on varying interpretations of the epidemiological findings.\\textsuperscript{177} However, as with the \\textit{in vivo} studies, two summary facts are worth reporting: (1) the authors' conclusions about the drug; and (2) whether the study contains any objective indication that Bendectin has adverse effects.\n\nIn no study did the authors clearly conclude that Bendectin does have teratogenic effects. In six studies, the authors report at least one significant correlation between Bendectin and some adverse effect and conclude that while their findings alone are insufficient to support an attribution of causation, one may exist.\\textsuperscript{178} In the remaining thirty-three studies, the authors either draw no conclusion or conclude that there is no statistical relationship.\n\nApart from the author's own conclusions, a second measure of Bendectin's effect is the odds ratio or the relative risk reported in the study.\\textsuperscript{179} For each study, I have attempted to extract the \"most important\" odds ratio or relative risk.\\textsuperscript{180} Either by using the statistic reported\n\n\\textsuperscript{176} Three known studies have been excluded from Table 2. One, M.M. Adams & J. Mulinaro, \\textit{A Case-Control Study of Bendectin and Ventricular Special Defects (Abstract)}, 31 \\textsc{Teratology} 61A (1985), is a brief abstract, and lacks sufficient information to be coded. The authors report that they found three ingredient Bendectin to be correlated with a nonsignificant increased incidence of birth defects, but that the two ingredient version was significantly related to a decrease in defects. No explanation is offered for this seemingly contradictory finding. Another study, Robert L. Brent, \\textit{Bendectin and Interventricular Septal Defects}, 32 \\textsc{Teratology} 317 (1985), does report some data comparing Bendectin sales over time with the number of reported ventricular septal defects. However, this publication is primarily an editorial discussing Hendrickx's monkey studies. A third study, Leslie L. Robinson et al., \\textit{Maternal Drug Use and Risk of Childhood Nonlymphoblastic Leukemia Among Offspring}, 63 \\textsc{Cancer} 1904 (1989), is excluded because it does not concern birth defects. It does report a relative risk of 1.75 associated with the use of Bendectin or other morning sickness medication ($P = 0.06$), and also indicates a significant elevation in risk associated with increased duration of usage. \\textit{Id.} at 1906.\n\n\\textsuperscript{177} In a later paper, I will discuss the ways in which attorneys and experts for both Merrell and plaintiffs interpreted the data.\n\n\\textsuperscript{178} The six studies are numbered 16, 23, 25, 26, 29, and 33 in Table 2. (A list relating the number to a particular database appears in Appendix E.) Eskenazi and Bracken come closest to saying Bendectin is a teratogen. They conclude that \"these data suggest that the material use of Bendectin is strongly associated with the occurrence of pyloric stenosis in the infant. Whether this is a direct causal relationship is unclear.\" Brenda Eskenazi & Michael Bracken, \\textit{Bendectin (Debendox) as a Risk Factor for Pyloric Stenosis}, 144 \\textsc{Am. J. Obstetrics & Gynecology} 919, 924 (1982).\n\n\\textsuperscript{179} For a description of these two measurements, see \\textit{supra} notes 127-28.\n\n\\textsuperscript{180} \"Most important\" is a slippery term. Where the study reports a significant correlaor by calculating an odds ratio based on the raw data published, it was possible to extract one or both measures in twenty-six of the thirty-nine studies. In general, odds ratios and relative risks are not strictly comparable—either with each other or across studies. But one crude type of comparison that can be made is whether the statistic is greater or less than 1. An odds ratio or relative risk greater than one indicates that children whose mothers took Bendectin are more likely to have suffered a defect than those whose mothers did not. An odds ratio or relative risk of less than one indicates the opposite. If Bendectin truly has no effect, given a large number of equally valid studies, half should produce statistics greater than one and half should result in measures of less than one.\\textsuperscript{181} With regard to the twenty-six studies for which I was able to extract a value, in thirteen the most important measure is greater than one and in twelve it is less than one. One study reports a relative risk of exactly one.\\textsuperscript{182}\n\nb. The Evolution of Bendectin's Epidemiological Research\n\nWhile the aggregate findings of the studies are critical to the ultimate disposition of the Bendectin Cases as a group, the key point for this analysis is that the studies, like the case law, evolved over time. In the early years, the epidemiological research tended to parallel the \\textit{in vivo} research. A number of investigations were conducted in the early 1960s, partly in response to the Thalidomide disaster. Then the epidemiological research virtually ceased for a number of years. In the late 1970s, a\n\n\\textsuperscript{181} William L. Hays, \\textit{Statistics for Psychologists} 192-204 (1963).\n\n\\textsuperscript{182} Very similar conclusions were drawn by Sheffield and Batagol in their review of the data. They present either odds ratios or relative risks for a total of 22 case-control and cohort studies. Of these, 11 had ratios below one and 11 had ratios above one. Leslie J. Sheffield & Ron Batagol, \\textit{The Creation of Therapeutic Orphans—Or, What Have We Learnt From the Debendox Fiasco?}, 143 \\textit{Med. J. Austl.} 143, 144 (1985).\n\nMeta-analysis offers a more sophisticated and rigorous method of combining the findings of many studies. \\textit{See generally Frederic M. Wolf, Meta-Analysis: Quantitative Methods for Research Synthesis} (1986). I am aware of only one published meta-analysis of the Bendectin studies. \\textit{See Thomas R. Einarson et al., A Method for Meta-Analysis of Epidemiological Studies}, 22 \\textit{Drug Intelligence & Clinical Pharmacy} 813 (1988). Einarson et al. included 17 studies in a meta-analysis examining whether first-trimester Bendectin ingestion caused any birth defect. The overall odds ratio was calculated to be 1.01, $X^2 = 0.05$, $p = .815$. They also conducted separate meta-analyses for cohort and case control studies. For cohort studies ($N = 12$) the ratio was 0.95, $X^2 = 0.66$, $p = .418$. For case control studies ($N = 5$) the ratio was 1.27, $X^2 = 2.71$, $p = 0.10$. \\textit{Id.} at 820. The authors conclude that these meta-analyses confirm previous subjective analyses that Bendectin is not associated with human teratogenic outcomes. \\textit{Id.} at 822.\n\nnumber of new studies were published, although it is important to note that most of them did not target Bendectin specifically. Rather, they reported the results of broad epidemiological studies of drugs taken during pregnancy, including Bendectin and its constituent ingredients.\n\nA turning point in the epidemiological research occurred in 1979 with the publication of the first article suggesting an association of Bendectin with birth defects.\\textsuperscript{183} The study was important for several reasons: It was published in one of the leading American journals on epidemiology; the analysis was relatively sophisticated; and the senior author, Kenneth Rothman, was a professor in the Department of Epidemiology in the Harvard School of Public Health. With the publication of the Rothman study, Bendectin, like Thalidomide and MER/29 before it, became epidemiologically suspect.\n\nTo demonstrate the importance of the Rothman study, I have coded the thirty-nine studies as either pre- or post-1979; the results are contained in Table 3.\\textsuperscript{184} As the table indicates, prior to 1979 most of the studies focused on teratogenicity in general, not Bendectin in particular. The Rothman finding, plus the emerging litigation concerning Bendectin, generated study after study of this particular drug. With this increased focus came an increase in the sophistication and the power of the studies.\n\nc. The Increase in Statistical Sophistication and Power\n\nTable 4\\textsuperscript{185} indicates that studies rarely reported more than a basic Chi-square statistic prior to 1980, but uniformly began to report more after that date. Most importantly, they began to report confidence intervals for estimates and started to control for other factors through the use of multiple regression techniques, most frequently logistic regression.\\textsuperscript{186}\n\nAs time passed, the \\textit{power} of individual studies also increased. The power of a study is its ability to detect a difference of some given magnitude.\n\nEpidemiological studies, like all statistical analyses, are vulnerable to two types of errors. Type I errors occur if we reject the null hypothesis when in fact it is true. In terms of this discussion, we would conclude Bendectin causes birth defects when in fact it does not. Scientists, being conservative, generally try to minimize Type I errors; that is, they de-\n\n\\textsuperscript{183} See Kenneth Rothman et al., \\textit{Exogenous Hormones and Other Drug Exposures of Children with Congenital Heart Disease}, 109 AM. J. EPIDEMIOLOGY 433, 435 (1979).\n\n\\textsuperscript{184} Table 3 is found in appendix A.\n\n\\textsuperscript{185} Table 4 is found in appendix A.\n\n\\textsuperscript{186} See generally John Aldrich & Forrest Nelson, \\textit{Linear Probability, Logit and Probit Models} (1984).\n\ncline to find a causal relationship unless it is unlikely that the observed results occurred by chance.\n\nTraditionally and typically, the null hypothesis will not be rejected unless the probability that a result occurred by chance is less than one in twenty, or sometimes less than one in one-hundred. The Greek letter Alpha is by custom used to designate this criterion. In other words, if the probability of a result occurring by chance must be less than one in twenty, Alpha must be less than .05.\n\nType II errors occur if we fail to reject the null hypothesis when in fact it is false. In terms of this discussion, we would conclude that Bendectin does not have a teratogenic effect when in fact it does. Science has traditionally been less concerned with this type of error. Nevertheless, we would like to minimize the probability of this error (by custom designated as Beta) as well. From the plaintiff's point of view, reducing Type II errors is at least as important as reducing Type I errors. The probability that we will reject the null hypothesis when some specific alternative hypothesis is true is called the power of the test, and is equal to 1 minus Beta.\n\nGiven some level of Alpha, Beta is a function of several factors, one of the most important being the sample size of treatment and control groups. Ceteris paribus, the larger the sample the lower the Beta value. It is thus worth investigating whether sample sizes increased substantially before or after the Rothman study. However, in examining relative sample size it is necessary to distinguish between cohort and case-control studies. Because the power of a given test is contingent upon the sample size of both the treatment and control groups, case-control studies can achieve low Betas with much smaller samples than can cohort studies. This is the case because birth defects are relatively rare in the population. Thus, cohort studies exploring rare events require a large number of total cases in order to obtain a significant number of individuals who have experienced an injury. Case-control studies begin with a large number of injuries, and thus need far fewer cases.\n\nFor example, assume that some birth defect occurs in 1 out of 1000 cases among children who were not exposed to Bendectin, and that 50% of all prospective mothers take Bendectin during their pregnancy. If we set Alpha at .05, in order to be able to detect a relative risk of 2.0 among the children of Bendectin takers 90% of the time (Beta = .10) we would need an N of 177 in a case-control study, but we would need an N of 31,444 in a cohort study. If we wished to detect a relative risk of 1.2 90% of the time, the case-control N would have to be 2535, while the\n\nCohort study N would be an enormous 576,732 cases.\\textsuperscript{187} Consequently, in examining sample sizes before and after 1979, it is important to distinguish between cohort and case-control studies. Within the Bendectin epidemiological research, was there an increase in Ns in either type of study or a shift from cohort to case-control studies?\n\nThe answer is that, while sample sizes did not change, the types of studies did. There has been a trend toward relatively more case-control studies after 1979 (38% before, 48% after). Moreover, the nature of the case-control studies has changed substantially. I have coded each case-control study for the nature of the cases, that is the type of defect they represented. Early studies adopted a shotgun approach, in which the cases were any type of birth defect. Three of the five case-control studies conducted before 1979 were of this type. After 1979, however, the case-control studies tended to test for specific types of birth defects. Of the ten post-Rothman case-control studies, seven tested whether Bendectin caused one or more specific defects.\\textsuperscript{188} Two looked for congenital heart defects—the type of defect correlated with Bendectin in the Rothman study.\\textsuperscript{189} One looked for pyloric stenosis.\\textsuperscript{190} Four studies examined the\n\n\\textsuperscript{187} On the other hand, if a phenomenon occurs frequently in the population, the relative advantage of case-control studies is essentially eliminated. If a defect occurs in one out of ten cases in the population, using the same assumptions as in the text, we would still need an N of 177 to detect a two-fold increase in relative risk 90% of the time in a case-control study. On the other hand, to have the same probability of detecting this effect in a cohort study we would need an N of only 266, not 31,433. \\textit{KAHN}, \\textit{supra} note 128, at 54.\n\n\\textsuperscript{188} The seven are: Jose Cordero et al., \\textit{Is Bendectin a Teratogen?}, 245 JAMA 2307 (1981); Diana Elbourne et al., \\textit{Debendox Revisited}, 92 BRIT. J. OBSTETRICS & GYNAECOLOGY 780 (1985); J.S. Vivian Golding & J.A. Baldwin, \\textit{Maternal Anti-nauseants and Clefts of Lip and Palate}, 1983 \\textit{HUMAN TOXICOLOGY} 63; Janet McCredie et al., \\textit{Doxylamine/dicyclomine/pyridoxine and Congenital Limb Defects}, 140 MED. J. AUSTL. 525 (1984); Allen Mitchell et al., \\textit{Birth Defects Related to Bendectin Use in Pregnancy: I. Oral Clefts and Cardiac Defects}, 245 JAMA 2311 (1981) [hereinafter Mitchell et al., \\textit{Bendectin I}]; Allen Mitchell et al., \\textit{Birth Defects in Relation to Bendectin Use in Pregnancy: II. Pyloric Stenosis}, 147 AM. J. OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY 737 (1983) [hereinafter Mitchell et al., \\textit{Bendectin II}]; Sally Zierler & Kenneth Rothman, \\textit{Congenital Heart Disease in Relation to Maternal Use of Bendectin and Other Drugs in Early Pregnancy}, 313 NEW ENG. J. MED. 347 (1985).\n\nThe most recent case control study, David J. Erickson, \\textit{Risk Factors for Birth Defects: Data From the Atlanta Birth Defects Case-Control Study}, 43 TERATOLOGY 41, 43-44 (1991), does not report data for specific defects and, therefore, was not counted among the seven that report on specific defects. It should be noted, however, that the author of the study offers to send cross-tabulations reporting the relationship of Bendectin to 92 types of birth defects to anyone who requests the information. \\textit{Id}. at 41.\n\n\\textsuperscript{189} See Mitchell et al., \\textit{Bendectin I}, \\textit{supra} note 188; Zierler & Rothman, \\textit{supra} note 188.\n\n\\textsuperscript{190} This study, by Mitchell et al., failed to replicate the results of the study by Eskenazi et al., in which the authors found a significant correlation between Bendectin and pyloric stenosis. \\textit{See} Mitchell et al., \\textit{Bendectin II}, \\textit{supra} note 188, at 741 (comparing the two studies).\n\neffect of Bendectin use on oral clefts,\\textsuperscript{191} and two looked for limb defects.\\textsuperscript{192}\n\nThis trend toward focused case-control studies makes sense. Known teratogens tend to produce certain types of defects.\\textsuperscript{193} Thus, if Bendectin were a teratogen, it would be unlikely to produce a similar increase in all types of defects. Moreover, these focused studies also allowed for relatively powerful analyses. With case sample sizes ranging from the 90s to over 300\\textsuperscript{194} they were unlikely to miss an effect if exposure created a relative risk of 2 or greater.\\textsuperscript{195}\n\nIn sum, from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s the quantity and quality of the epidemiological evidence on Bendectin improved dramatically. The research focused on the drug and used increasingly sophisticated methods to control for confounding factors. Specifically, it used a combination of increased sample size, a shift to case-control studies, and a focus on particular types of defects to greatly increase the power of the research. During this period, the probability of making either Type I or Type II errors was significantly reduced.\n\nd. The End of Research\n\nSuddenly, in 1985 with nearly three dozen studies in print, epidemiological research on Bendectin came to a virtual halt.\\textsuperscript{196} As noted earlier, \\textit{in vivo} research experienced a similar, contemporaneous decline.\\textsuperscript{197} Figure 1 shows the number of \\textit{in vivo} and epidemiological studies published each year from the early 1960s to the present.\n\n\\textsuperscript{191} See Cordero et al., \\textit{supra} note 188; Elbourne et al., \\textit{supra} note 188; Golding & Baldwin, \\textit{supra} note 188; Mitchell et al., \\textit{Bendectin I}, \\textit{supra} note 188.\n\n\\textsuperscript{192} See Cordero et al., \\textit{supra} note 188; McCredie et al., \\textit{supra} note 188.\n\n\\textsuperscript{193} Robert Brent, \\textit{Methods of Evaluating the Alleged Teratogenicity of Environmental Agents}, in \\textit{TREATGEN UPDATE: ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED BIRTH DEFECT RISKS} 199, 200-01 (John Sever & Robert Brent, eds. 1986); Shepard, \\textit{supra} note 119, at 223.\n\n\\textsuperscript{194} The number of cases—as distinguished from the number of controls—ranged from a low of 93 in Elbourne et al., \\textit{supra} note 188, at 780, to a high of 325 in Mitchell et al., \\textit{Bendectin I}, \\textit{supra} note 188, at 737. The number of controls was usually larger than the number of cases, sometimes substantially so. For example, there were over 3000 controls in the first study by Mitchell et al. \\textit{Id}.\n\n\\textsuperscript{195} The advantage case-control studies have in detecting rare effects is offset, however, by the fact that these studies must match cases and controls based on some criteria. Inevitably there is a question whether the matching failed to control for some confounding factor that explains observed differences between the groups.\n\n\\textsuperscript{196} As far as I know, there is only one post-1985 epidemiologic study (Erickson) specifically focused on Bendectin. That study includes Bendectin among 105 exposure-risk factor variables that have been thought to cause birth defects. Aggregating across all defects, the odds ratio associated with Bendectin is 0.87. Erickson, \\textit{supra} note 188, at 46.\n\n\\textsuperscript{197} See infra app. A, tbl. 1.\n\nThe figure illustrates two phenomena. First, and most important, it clearly shows that the science was driven by the law. The study of Bendectin became a hot topic and substantial resources were mobilized to study it. This mobilization can be understood at several levels. Because Bendectin was a hot topic, articles on the subject were relatively likely to find their way into print.\\textsuperscript{198} Careerist concerns may have caused academics to select topics that would lead to publication in prestigious journals. Moreover, the federal government, through the FDA, encouraged research by offering grants to fund the study of Bendectin's effects. Finally, the Bendectin litigation itself generated research, as parties encouraged and even funded work on Bendectin.\\textsuperscript{199} Legal needs gave shape and direction to the epidemiological study of teratogenic effects. The volume and sophistication of studies focusing specifically on Bendectin was, in large part, the result of the litigation.\n\n\\textsuperscript{198} See Sackett, \\textit{supra} note 131, at 51.\n\n\\textsuperscript{199} Plaintiffs' expert witnesses conducted a number of reanalyses of both the \\textit{in vivo} and epidemiological evidence. See, e.g., Trial Transcript at 965-86, \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. 1212 (S.D. Ohio 1985) (MDL No. 486) (testimony of Dr. Swann), \\textit{aff'd sub nom. In re Bendectin Litig.}, 857 F.2d 290 (6th Cir. 1988), \\textit{cert denied}, 488 U.S. 1006 (1989). It does not appear, however, that any of this work was ever published in a refereed journal.\n\nSecond, Figure 1 demonstrates the relatively sudden cessation of studies in the mid-1980s. Galanter's hypotheses about holistic effects can be extended to explain the decline of scientific investigations as well as case congregations. Because Bendectin was removed from the market in 1983, and because its sales had plummeted in the preceding year or two, there eventually were no new data bases to exploit. By withdrawing the product from the market Merrell created an epidemiological depletion effect as well as the intended case depletion effect.\n\nIt would be a mistake, however, to attribute the decline of Bendectin studies entirely to depletion effects. Two other factors were also at work. The scientific community seems to have reached something close to a consensus concerning the drug. While no study can remove all residual uncertainty regarding Bendectin's safety, if the drug is a teratogen, it is a relatively mild one (having effects too subtle to be measured reliably with existing techniques). As a result, many felt that Bendectin had been overstudied. There arose the desire to ration Bendectin studies and save limited resources to study other drugs. As Lewis Holmes notes in an influential essay:\n\nWhile we can always wish for more and better studies, two issues must be borne in mind. First, well-designed and extensive epidemiologic studies are expensive. Where will the funds to support these studies come from in this period of limited funding? Second, in view of the extensive data cited above on Bendectin and the limited data available on many other commonly used drugs one can argue that well-designed studies of other drugs would be of greater value to the public at this time.\\footnote{200}\n\n(4) \\textit{The Life Cycle of the Bendectin Science}\n\nThe preceding analysis of the research regarding Bendectin demonstrates that the science has followed a life cycle of its own. There was a substantial mobilization of resources devoted to the study of Bendectin, much of it apparently in response to the litigation and concomitant political pressure. The quantity and quality of epidemiological research increased dramatically in the 1980s, to the point where people like Holmes concluded that we knew more about the teratogenic potential of this drug.\n\n\\footnote{200}{Lewis B. Holmes, \\textit{Teratogen Update: Bendectin}, 27 \\textsc{Teratology} 277, 280-81 (1983). Holmes, however, cannot be called a completely disinterested observer. In January 1983 Merrell Research Center provided Dr. Holmes with a grant of $147,318 to fund proposed research on \"The Use of Major and Minor Malformations to Evaluate the Putative Teratogenic Effects of Bendectin.\" Letter from J.W. Newberne, Vice President, Drug Safety Assessment at Merrell Research Center, to Ronald W. Lamont-Havers, Deputy to the General Director for Research Policy and Administration, Massachusetts General Hospital (Jan. 27, 1983) (on file with the Houston Environmental Law Liability Program).}\n\nthan nearly any other. The extent of the epidemiological literature stands in contrast to the paucity of *in vivo* studies. In part, this may be understood as a consequence of the fact that there were few if any basic science questions to be answered through the study of Bendectin, and as a legal resource the *in vivo* studies were of increasingly little value in the face of a mounting body of epidemiological evidence. In a sense, epidemiology drove out animal studies.\n\nFinally, in the mid-1980s came the end of new epidemiological studies as well.\\footnote{201} The combination of depletion effects and an emerging scientific consensus that if Bendectin has any teratogenic effects they are virtually undetectable by existing methods together led to the cessation of research. The leading indicator, published scientific articles, had stabilized at an essentially prodefendant conclusion. But while the science was winding down, the law was just getting into full swing. It is to the development of the law in this congregation of cases that this Article now turns.\n\n\\section*{V. The Law}\n\nIn this Part, I focus upon the legal aspects of the Bendectin congregation. The first section examines the early stages of the life cycle, describing plaintiffs' efforts to mobilize resources and the problems the \"first plaintiff\" faces in a mass tort case. It also examines the defendant's efforts to avoid early adverse precedents that would facilitate other plaintiffs' efforts in future cases. Finally, it notes the importance of the battle in the early cases to establish the \"going rate\" for injuries.\n\nThe second section examines the flow of Bendectin filings and trials over time. As we shall see, the number of filings grew through 1985, but then collapsed in the aftermath of a defense victory in the \\textit{Common Issues Trial} in Ohio.\\footnote{202} The number of trials, however, continued to grow over the next two years, but then quickly began to diminish, and today most litigation seems to be behind us. A depletion effect has in fact occurred. As Galanter notes, however, depletion is not simply a product of the underlying rate of injury. It is also a product of the legal experience of a congregation of cases in court.\\footnote{203}\n\n\\begin{footnotesize}\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item Only one animal study and two epidemiological studies were published after 1985. \\textit{See infra} app. A, tbls. 1, 2.\n\\item \\textit{In re} Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig., 624 F. Supp. 1212 (S.D. Ohio 1985), \\textit{aff'd sub nom. In re} Bendectin Litig., 857 F.2d 290 (6th Cir. 1988), \\textit{cert. denied}, 488 U.S. 1006 (1989).\n\\item Galanter, \\textit{Case Congregations}, \\textit{supra} note 8, at 388.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{footnotesize}\n\nThe third section examines this experience. It turns away from the behavior of the parties and concentrates on the behavior of the judiciary. Of primary interest is the judiciary's efforts to ration legal resources. In the Bendectin Cases, the judiciary's efforts have followed a two-part process: first, the use of traditional consolidation devices; and second, the willingness to make and act upon independent determinations regarding the scientific evidence. As we shall see, in attempting to ration resources, the courts are confronted with a dilemma: how are they to maximize judicial efficiency without unduly subverting the interest of individual plaintiffs in a full and fair trial of their lawsuits? Before addressing this thorny problem, I turn to the early stages of Bendectin's legal life cycle.\n\nA. Mobilization\n\nWhen parties begin litigation concerning a new product, they start without scientific or legal resources. The first task is to begin to mobilize these resources. This difficult task falls disproportionately on the \"first plaintiff\" who must connect an injury with a product, find a lawyer who will represent her and then amass sufficient scientific evidence to prove the product causes the injury in question.\n\n(1) The \"First Plaintiff\" Problem\n\nDavid Mekdeci, like many plaintiffs to follow, was born with a limb defect; his consists of malformed and missing fingers and a missing pectoral muscle.\\(^{204}\\) From the beginning, David and his parents faced many aspects of the first plaintiff problem. No lawyer came knocking on the Mekdeci's door asking to take their case. Instead, David's mother, Elizabeth Mekdeci, made extensive efforts to discover possible causes of his defects. After several years of talking to medical experts and reading documents and government studies, she became convinced that one of the drugs she had taken during pregnancy had caused David's injury. Ultimately, she contacted Melvin Belli, a famous San Francisco plaintiff's personal injury lawyer, and persuaded him to take the case. He also referred the Mekdecis to Florida counsel. As the case developed, based on the time of ingestion and other evidence, the Mekdecis and their lawyers focused most of their attention on Bendectin.\\(^{205}\\) A complaint naming Merrell as defendant was filed on behalf of David and his parents in\n\n\\(^{204}\\) This defect is commonly called Poland's Syndrome although plaintiffs' experts have disagreed with this diagnosis.\n\n\\(^{205}\\) Mekdeci v. Merrell Nat'l Lab., 711 F.2d 1510, 1516 (11th Cir. 1983). Shortly before the trial began, Mr. Belli informed the other counsel that he would not personally appear, and left the local attorneys to try the lawsuit. *Id.* at 1516.\n\nJune 1977. In January 1980, approximately five years after David's birth, *Mekdeci v. Merrell Nat'l Lab.* went to trial in United States District Court in Orlando, Florida.\n\nThe trial lasted two months, and after three days of deliberation, the jury reported itself to be \"hopelessly deadlocked.\"206 After receiving further instructions from the court, it returned a verdict awarding the \"plaintiff\" $20,000, the amount the parties had stipulated to as the parent's medical expenses. The jury wrote \"nothing\" as the amount of compensatory damages due David individually.207 The plaintiffs sought a new trial on the damages question only, but the trial judge declared the jury's award to be a compromise verdict and ordered a new trial.208 The jury's uncertainty, reflected in the apparent compromise verdict, also reflects another aspect of the first plaintiff problem: the difficulty of amassing sufficient scientific evidence to prove the case.\n\nCompared to plaintiffs, defendants generally have a substantial early advantage. Their financial resources are much greater. They can hire counsel who are experienced in the defense of defective pharmaceuticals against personal injury claims and who are well connected to governmental agencies. They have ready access to nearly all the safety data concerning their product. All these advantages inured to Merrell's benefit in the *Mekdeci* case. The company committed unlimited resources to Bendectin's defense, hiring Lawrence E. Walsh and the firm of Davis Polk & Wardwell as defense counsel. Moreover, after its experiences with Thalidomide and MER/29, Merrell probably had as much experience as any firm in defending prescription drugs in court.\n\nNotwithstanding these advantages, defendants may be confronted with some first case problems similar to those of the first plaintiff. The defendant, too, must confront the relative lack of evidence and the considerable uncertainty that permeates such early litigation. The defendant's legal staff most likely is not yet organized to mount a defense of the particular product. And if the firm is insured, the case might be turned over to the insurer's counsel who may lack the familiarity with pharma-\n\n---\n\n206. *Id.* at 1515.\n207. *Id.* at 1514.\n208. The Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals held that the trial court had not abused its discretion in ordering a new trial. *Id.* at 1515. Comments by jurors after the case seem to support this position. The London Times quoted two of the *Mekdeci* jurors as to their feelings about Judge Hoffman's new trial order. One juror, Grover Ashcraft, said \"I resent him (Hoffman) saying that we didn't know what we were doing. He's giving us a black eye.\" Davin Light, *US Judge Orders Debendox Retrial*, *THE SUNDAY TIMES* (London), May 18, 1980, at 8. But another juror, Cora Newtz, agreed with the order. She did not believe the evidence against Bendectin was sufficient: \"All my daughters took Bendectin all the time they were pregnant, and all their children are perfect.\" *Id.*\n\nceutical defense and ease of access to the safety data that the defendant presumably enjoys. In sum, like plaintiffs, defendants do not begin with any particular expertise in litigating the product's safety. Indeed, in the earliest stages of mass tort litigation, the defendants may not even appreciate that they have something out of the ordinary on their hands. The first suit is not necessarily like the teacher's first occasion for sanctioning a wayward student at the beginning of the school year. The parties may not know that this is the first of a large congregation of cases. Bendectin had been on the market for nearly twenty years when litigation began, and at the time of the *Mekdeci* suit it had been nearly a decade since the Thalidomide disaster. It might well not have been immediately obvious to Merrell, upon the initial filing of the *Mekdeci* case, that this was the first of a series of cases.\n\nIn the case of Bendectin, however, Merrell's appreciation that it faced a potential tidal wave of litigation must have come very early on. It recently had experienced the Thalidomide and MER/29 episodes and must have known it was a suspect firm in the eyes of many, especially the plaintiffs' personal injury bar. Perhaps the first clear signal that *Mekdeci* would be the first of many was the hiring of Melvin Belli. Mr. Belli's stock-in-trade is widespread publicity. Even before *Mekdeci* came to trial, he was searching out additional potential clients.\\(^{209}\\) By the time of the trial, the stakes were known to be high. Like the plaintiffs, however, the defendant was hampered by a relative lack of hard evidence on the teratogenicity of Bendectin.\n\nThe trial court's ruling that the first *Mekdeci* verdict was the result of compromise led to a new trial in the Winter of 1981. This time, the result was a jury verdict for the defendant. The plaintiffs appealed, claiming, in part, that they had been afforded inadequate representation by their counsel. The Mekdeci's attorneys had repeatedly attempted to withdraw, apparently for a combination of reasons, including their belief that the case was not strong on the facts, their lack of financial resources, and the difficulty of working with Mrs. Mekdeci.\\(^{210}\\)\n\nAs this history suggests, part of the Mekdecis' problem was that their counsel were poorly prepared and underfinanced. The local attorneys were relatively inexperienced in this type of litigation and knew little about Bendectin. The solution to the Medkecis' first plaintiff problems would have been to invest resources in discovery and experts in order to develop the case.\\(^{211}\\) But the Mekdecis' counsel were always\n\n\\(^{209}\\) See infra note 217.\n\n\\(^{210}\\) *Mekdeci*, 711 F.2d at 1516-19.\n\n\\(^{211}\\) Because of the inevitable costs of discovery and expert witnesses, substantial rebadly undercapitalized. Indeed, funds became so tight that much of the second trial was tried on the record of the first trial, without the benefit of live expert witnesses. Only a last minute infusion of $25,000 from Mr. Belli kept the second trial going.\\textsuperscript{212}\n\nThe Mekdecis repeatedly stated to the trial judge that in spite of these difficulties, they wanted the second trial to go forward with existing counsel. On appeal, however, they argued that the trial court had erred by refusing to grant requests for continuance. Nevertheless, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the judgment below, leaving the Mekdecis with the cold comfort that if they felt they had been inadequately represented, their remedy was a malpractice suit against their attorneys, not a new Bendectin trial.\\textsuperscript{213}\n\nCounsels' desire to withdraw from the \\textit{Mekdeci} case was not motivated entirely by funding problems and the difficulty of working with Mrs. Mekdeci. They were also drawn by the prospect of \"better\" claims,\\textsuperscript{214} especially claims where the specific causation question\\textsuperscript{215}\n\n\\textsuperscript{212} \\textit{Mekdeci}, 711 F.2d at 1519. The inability of an initial set of plaintiffs' attorneys to fund mass tort litigation has occurred in other cases. In the Agent Orange litigation, the original team of plaintiffs' counsel ran out of funds, and after brief negotiations, a new set of lawyers took control of the plaintiff steering committee by investing $250,000 each in litigation expenses. In total, the second set of attorneys put up almost $1.5 million. John C. Coffee, Jr., \\textit{The Regulation of Entrepreneurial Litigation: Balancing Fairness and Efficiency in the Large Class Action}, 54 U. CHI. L. REV. 877, 901 (1987).\n\n\\textsuperscript{213} \\textit{Mekdeci}, 711 F.2d at 1523.\n\n\\textsuperscript{214} By looking for a \"better\" case than \\textit{Mekdeci}, the lawyers were behaving like \"repeat players,\" thinking of this particular case as only one of many. \\textit{See} Galanter, \\textit{Limits of Legal Change}, supra note 19, at 100. In hindsight, their judgment that this was not the best case to try first appears to have been correct.\n\n\\textsuperscript{215} The cause-in-fact question in many such mass tort situations can be divided into two parts, general and specific causation. General causation addresses the question of whether the substance is capable of causing any injury. Specific causation addresses the question of whether a particular plaintiff's injury was caused by exposure to the drug or product. A substantial number of Bendectin plaintiffs have lost on the specific causation issue because they have been unable to show that the mother took Bendectin during the critical period of fetal development.\n\nThere is, however, a more fundamental specific causation question in the Bendectin cases. If the relative risk of a Bendectin-induced birth defect is shown to be less than 2, then a plaintiff presenting no other causal evidence than the ingestion of Bendectin could be said to have failed to show by a preponderance of the evidence that Bendectin caused the specific birth defect. The specific causation problems posed by toxic tort and mass tort cases have produced a large literature on how the courts ought to deal with this question. \\textit{See} Richard Delgado, \\textit{Beyond Sindell: Relaxation of Cause-In-Fact Rules for Indeterminate Plaintiffs}, 70 CAL. L. REV. 881 (1982); Harris, \\textit{supra} note 138, at 909; Glen O. Robinson, \\textit{Probabilistic Causation}\n\nwould be less troublesome—apparently Mrs. Mekdeci had taken a large number of drugs during pregnancy.\\textsuperscript{216} The lawyers were also drawn to the prospect of more claims and the possibility that they could mobilize a large number of Bendectin cases.\\textsuperscript{217} In this vein, the appellate court in \\textit{Mekdeci} noted:\n\nIn a statement that perhaps shed more light than intended on the attorneys' motivations in the Mekdeci case, [plaintiff's attorney Allen] Eaton recounted numerous problems in the Mekdeci lawsuit and said, \"that being the case, we have a group of people—a group of attorneys who have agreed that, in order to start afresh and develop the issues\n\n\\textit{and Compensation for Tortious Risk}, 14 J. LEGAL STUD. 779 (1985); David Rosenberg, \\textit{The Causal Connection in Mass Exposure Cases: A 'Public Law' Vision of the Tort System},\" 97 HARV. L. REV. 849 (1984); Christopher H. Schroeder, \\textit{Corrective Justice and Liability for Increasing Risk}, 37 UCLA L. REV. 439 (1990); Kenneth W. Simons, \\textit{Corrective Justice and Liability for Risk-Creation: A Comment}, 38 UCLA L. REV. 113 (1990); Ernest J. Weinrib, \\textit{Causation and Wrongdoing}, 63 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 407 (1987). Because courts have usually found for Merrell on the general causation question, except for the \"time of ingestion\" cases, the specific cause issue is not well developed in these cases.\n\n216. Belli was quoted by the London \\textit{Sunday Times} as saying, \"Our client is too demanding and too hard to work with. Her's wasn't that good a case, and we want to get on with the 200 other Debendox cases we are preparing.\" Edward Burke, \\textit{The Brawl Over Bendectin}, NAT'L L.J., Apr. 6, 1981, at 1, 12.\n\n217. An advertisement placed in the \\textit{San Francisco Chronicle} by Melvin Belli in January and February 1980 reads:\n\n\\begin{center}\nBENDECTIN \\\\\nTAKEN \\\\\nFor Morning Sickness \\\\\nCausing Malformed Children \\\\\nWe have a number of these cases and we are trying one now in Federal Court, Florida. We need your help for epidemiological and statistical purposes. If you have any information, please call or write: \\\\\nMelvin M. Belli, Belli Building \\\\\nSan Francisco, CA. 94111 (415) 981-1849\n\\end{center}\n\n\\textit{Id.} at 1. The same article in the \\textit{National Law Journal} quotes Douglas Peters, a lawyer retained by Mrs. Mekdeci to represent her against her previous lawyers, as saying:\n\nHere you had a bunch of lawyers sensing a very big case and sitting down and dividing up the pie before there was any pie to divide. Then after trumpeting the case and gathering in excess of 100 other Bendectin cases, things began to go wrong and everybody scrambled to cut their losses.\n\n\\textit{Id.} at 12.\n\nThe rush to mobilize clients is a recurring feature of many mass tort cases. Similar efforts have been noted in the Agent Orange, Bhopal, Dalkon Shield, and asbestos litigation. \\textit{Coffee, supra} note 212, at 886. As Coffee notes, in each of these situations the normal relationship between client and attorney is reversed. The attorney is no longer the agent of the client. The mass tort plaintiff, even more than the ordinary tort plaintiff, confronts substantial \"agency costs\" that make it very difficult to control plaintiffs' counsel. \\textit{Id.} at 885; John C. Coffee, Jr., \\textit{Rethinking the Class Action: A Policy Primer on Reform}, 62 IND. L.J. 624, 628 (1980). As \\textit{Mekdeci} suggests, this problem is especially acute in the early stages of a mass tort when counsel have particularly strong incentives to behave opportunistically, pursuing their own agendas rather than that of the client.\n\nproperly, that the Koller case in our opinion represents perhaps the cleanest case of all the cases and the clearest one. We have a nurse here who ingested Bendectin, and only Bendectin. She ingested it during the critical period. And little Anne Koller has no arms and she has only a left leg which has a club foot on it. We figure this was a clear case in order to litigate the issues properly.\\textsuperscript{218}\n\nAs the preceding discussion indicates, when a potential mass tort arises, plaintiffs' lawyers quickly organize. Plaintiff litigation networks have played an increasingly important role in mass tort cases.\\textsuperscript{219} Rheingold notes there have been networks in the following areas: Swine Flu; Dalkon Shield; Agent Orange; MER/29; Birth Control Pills; Asbestos; DES; Ford Transmission; and of course, Bendectin.\\textsuperscript{220} Moreover, there is a substantial benefit to being a leader of the litigation network; an advantage that apparently was recognized by counsel for the Mekdecis.\\textsuperscript{221} As Rheingold notes, \"A mere 5% of the recovery in the thousands of cases filed, and to be filed, dance like sugar plums in the heads of lead counsel-to-be.\"\\textsuperscript{222} The Mekdeci case, then, was plagued not only by a lack of prior mobilization, but also by concurrent efforts to mobilize other cases.\n\nFollowing Mekdeci, the next case did not go to trial until three years later, in the spring of 1983.\\textsuperscript{223} Then there was a twenty-one month hiatus before the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}, about which I shall say more below. Over that period of time, lawyers representing plaintiffs made progress toward mobilizing resources and coordinating activities, driven in large part by the coordination of discovery imposed by the federal judiciary under the Multi-District Litigation Act.\\textsuperscript{224}\n\n\\textbf{(2) Merrell's Preventive Efforts}\n\nAfter Mekdeci, only one additional case came to trial on its own without being either swept into the unified multidistrict discovery in\n\n\\textsuperscript{218}. Mekdeci v. Merrell Nat'l Lab., 711 F.2d 1510, 1518 (11th Cir. 1983) (quoting Koller v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 80-1258 (D.D.C. Jan 25, 1983)). The Mekdecis' counsel asked the Mekdecis to agree to a continuance of their case so that \\textit{Koller} could go to trial first. The Mekdecis refused. Letter from Michael Green to Joseph Sanders (Jan. 5, 1991) (on file with author); Michael D. Green, Bendectin: A Case Study in Mass Toxic Substances Litigation 60 (Oct. 29, 1990) (unpublished manuscript, on file with author).\n\n\\textsuperscript{219}. See Rheingold, \\textit{The MER/29 Story}, supra note 62, at 123; see generally Paul D. Rheingold, \\textit{The Development of Litigation Groups}, 6 AM. J. TRIAL ADVOC. 1 (1982) [hereinafter Rheingold, \\textit{Litigation Groups}].\n\n\\textsuperscript{220}. Rheingold, \\textit{Litigation Groups}, supra note 219, at 14.\n\n\\textsuperscript{221}. See the court's comments in \\textit{Mekdeci}, 711 F.2d at 1516.\n\n\\textsuperscript{222}. Rheingold, \\textit{Litigation Groups}, supra note 219, at 3.\n\n\\textsuperscript{223}. Oxendine v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 506 A.2d 1100 (D.C. App. 1986).\n\n\\textsuperscript{224}. 28 U.S.C.A. § 1407 (West Supp. 1991).\n\nOhio or delayed while the Ohio case proceeded. The one other case, *Oxendine v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals*, went to trial in May 1983. The one month *Oxendine* trial resulted in a plaintiff's verdict for $750,000. The trial judge granted judgment n.o.v. (or judgment notwithstanding the verdict) in favor of Merrell, finding the verdict to be against the great weight of the evidence. The District of Columbia Court of Appeals reversed, saying this was an abuse of discretion, and reinstated the verdict. On remand, Merrell filed a motion for a new trial on the ground that one of the plaintiff's experts, Dr. Done, had testified falsely at trial. After an evidentiary hearing, the trial judge granted the motion in February 1988. In August 1989 the District of Columbia Court of Appeals again reversed, ruling that the trial judge erred in granting a new trial and reinstated the original verdict. Defendant's petition for a writ of certiorari was denied in 1990, presumably drawing the case to a close seven years after it was tried. Currently, *Oxendine*\n\n225. 506 A.2d 1100 (D.C. App. 1986).\n\n226. *Id.* at 113. As the comments of one of the Mekdecis' lawyers indicate, see supra text accompanying note 218, in the early years of litigation many plaintiffs' lawyers looked to *Koller* as the best test case, in part because, unlike *Mekdeci*, *Koller* presented no uncertainty as to whether some other drug taken during pregnancy could have caused the injury. But as previously noted, *Mekdeci* was tried first. And in the meantime, *Oxendine* arose quickly. It was filed and resolved within a matter of months. *Koller*, on the other hand, became completely bogged down after the trial judge removed plaintiff's counsel because of allegations (later retracted) by plaintiff's counsel's secretary that the plaintiff had lied in stating she had taken Bendectin, and because counsel had shared with the press several DERs the judge had ruled were inadmissible at trial. *Koller v. Richardson-Merrell Inc.*, 737 F.2d 1038 (D.C. Cir. 1984), vacated, 472 U.S. 424 (1985). Subsequent appeals of the actions took several years, ending in the United States Supreme Court. See id. By the time the issue was resolved, the Bendectin Cases had matured and *Koller* was but a footnote. For a description of these events see David Lauter, *Plaintiffs' Firm Removed From Bendectin Lawsuit*, NAT'L L.J., Jan. 24, 1984, at 4; David Lauter, *Bendectin Trial Disintegrates: Allegations of Misconduct Mar 'Perfect Case,'* NAT'L L.J., Feb. 21, 1983, at 1. In August 1990 the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia affirmed a dismissal of the Kollers' case against Merrell. *Koller v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc.*, 5 Toxics L. Rep. (BNA) No. 16, at 528 (D.C. Cir. Sept. 19, 1990), *cert denied*, 111 S. Ct. 1391 (1991).\n\n227. *Oxendine*, 506 A.2d at 1114.\n\n228. The original trial judge had recused himself subsequent to the reversal of his judgment n.o.v. On remand, a new judge granted the motion for a new trial. *Oxendine v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals*, 563 A.2d 330, 332 (D.C. 1989), *cert. denied*, 110 S. Ct. 1121 (1990).\n\n229. *Id.*\n\n230. As of midsummer 1991, however, the plaintiff had still not been able to collect on the judgment. The District of Columbia Court of Appeals recently held that the trial court may not enter an enforceable and appealable \"final judgment\" on the compensatory damages claim while the question of punitive damages still remains to be tried. *Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. v. Oxendine*, 593 A.2d 1023, 1023 (D.C. 1991).\n\nis one of only three verdicts against Merrell that has not been overturned by a trial or appellate court.\\textsuperscript{231}\n\nMerrell's relentless efforts to overturn the \\textit{Oxendine} verdict were driven in part by its desire to avoid an adverse judgment. But the efforts also reflect the fact that \\textit{Oxendine} does not stand alone, but rather as one of the Bendectin cases. The stakes in these appeals reach far beyond \\textit{Oxendine} itself. Merrell is a \"repeat player\" playing for rules and outcomes in future cases.\\textsuperscript{232} \\textit{Oxendine} blemishes a near-perfect record of defense outcomes. It singlehandedly serves as an incentive for plaintiffs to continue to litigate while acting as an important barrier to Merrell's efforts to obtain summary judgment, directed verdict, or judgment n.o.v. based on collateral estoppel-type arguments in future cases.\\textsuperscript{233} Even if\n\n\\textsuperscript{231} The second is Raynor v. Richardson Merrell, No. 83-3506, 1987 WL 8518, at *1 (D.D.C. Mar. 5, 1987). In \\textit{Raynor}, a jury returned a verdict of $300,000 against Merrell in May 1987. As of November 1991, Merrell's post-trial motions for judgment n.o.v. and a new trial were still pending before the trial judge. Letter from Glenn Forrester to Joseph Sanders (Oct. 19, 1990) (on file with author); Telephone Interview with Barry Nace, Plaintiffs' Attorney in \\textit{Raynor} (Dec. 9, 1991). Given the D.C. Circuit's opinions in \\textit{Richardson v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc.}, 857 F.2d 823 (D.C. Cir. 1988) (discussed infra notes 331-39), and Ealy v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 897 F.2d 1159 (D.C. Cir.), \\textit{cert. denied}, 111 S. Ct. 370 (1990), it is difficult to imagine that, absent new evidence as to the teratogenicity of Bendectin, the \\textit{Raynor} verdict can survive an appeal. (\\textit{Ealy} is discussed \\textit{infra} notes 343-45 and accompanying text.)\n\nThe third surviving plaintiffs' verdict is Havner v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 41 Prod. Safety & Liab. Rep. (BNA) No. 19, at 1134 (D. Tex. Oct. 11, 1991). In September 1991 a jury in Corpus Christi, Texas returned a verdict for $3.75 million in compensatory and $30 million in punitive damages. Merrell has announced its intention to appeal. \\textit{Id}. As yet, there is no appellate opinion in the case. \\textit{Id}.\n\nIn addition to these three cases, there is a plaintiff's verdict in Blum v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 560 A.2d 212 (1989), that was overturned by a middle level appellate court in Pennsylvania on the ground that the verdict was returned by an 11 person jury in violation of the Pennsylvania constitution. \\textit{Id}. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court has granted an appeal, 590 A.2d 755 (1991), but as yet, there is no opinion.\n\n\\textsuperscript{232} See Galanter, \\textit{supra} note 19, at 99-100.\n\n\\textsuperscript{233} Collateral estoppel (or issue preclusion) prevents a party from relitigating in a subsequent action one or more issues that have already been adjudicated. For collateral estoppel to apply, an issue practically identical to the issue in the current action must have been fully and fairly litigated in the original action, it must have been actually decided, and it must have been necessary to the outcome of the litigation. 5 \\textsc{Charles A. Wright \\& Arthur R. Miller}, \\textsc{Federal Practice \\& Procedure} § 1225 (2d ed. 1990). All of these criteria are typically met with respect to the general causation issue in the Bendectin cases.\n\nTraditionally, mutuality had to exist for collateral estoppel to apply; that is, both parties had to be bound by the prior decision. However, mutuality is no longer always necessary. In Parklane Hosiery Co. v. Shore, 439 U.S. 322 (1979), the Supreme Court gave qualified approval to offensive, nonmutual estoppel. \\textit{Id}. at 322. Offensive collateral estoppel is used by plaintiffs who attempt to prevent a defendant from denying liability. In at least two cases, \\textit{In re Bendectin Products Liab. Litig.}, 749 F.2d 300, 305 (6th Cir. 1984), and \\textit{Raynor v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc.}, 643 F. Supp. 238 (D.D.C. 1986), Bendectin plaintiffs have attempted to use offensive collateral estoppel (or summary judgment under a collateral estoppel-like analysis) based on \\textit{Oxendine}. In each case the court refused, noting in \\textit{Raynor} that using offensive\n\nmost cases are successfully defended, an occasional plaintiff success will encourage other suits. Even a high batting average may spell doom for the defendant. The General Counsel for one pharmaceutical company is quoted as saying:\n\nEven if we win almost every case against us, the few verdicts we lose engender more suits, and make all the other suits more expensive and more difficult to settle . . . . There has to come a point with a particular product, even a good product, where you say, that's enough, and you get out of the market.\\(^{234}\\)\n\nAs the quote suggests, because *Oxendine* offers some hope for future plaintiff victories, it also influences the settlement value of other cases.\\(^{235}\\) It is clearly in the interest of the defendant to suppress settlement value as much as possible. This is especially true in dealing with a congregation of cases. Evidence from the MER/29\\(^{236}\\) and asbestos cases\\(^{237}\\) suggests that as a congregation matures, the settlement value can steadily increase unless the defendant is uniformly successful. Rheingold reports that for a \"typical MER/29 case\" settlements rose from approximately $25,000 in the early period, to $75,000 in the mid-period, to $125,700 near the end.\\(^{238}\\) Adverse verdicts played an important role in this increase. Merrell won most of the early cases in 1964 and 1965, but plain-\n\ncollateral estoppel would be particularly unfair to the defendant when there were inconsistent jury verdicts outstanding. *Raynor*, 643 F. Supp. at 246.\n\nMerrell, of course, has tried to invoke defensive collateral estoppel in numerous cases. *Parklane*, however, says that collateral estoppel is inappropriate when there is \"a series of cases with inconsistent judgments.\" *Parklane*, 439 U.S. at 330. On the basis of this language, Judge Rubin rejected Merrell's invocation of collateral estoppel in the Michigan Consolidated Trial partly because of the *Oxendine* verdict. *In re Bendectin Products, No. 85-0996, 1986 WL 20466, at *3 (E.D. Mich. May 2, 1986).\n\nEven if *Oxendine* did not exist, Merrell's use of defensive collateral estoppel would still face formidable barriers, as most courts would probably conclude that the plaintiff had not been given a full and fair chance to litigate the issue. *See In re Bendectin Products Liab. Litig.*, 732 F. Supp. 744, 746 (E.D. Mich. 1990). Still, Merrell's chances of obtaining summary judgment based on arguments that echo collateral estoppel would be better were it not for *Oxendine*. *See Lynch v. Merrell-Nat'l Lab.*, 830 F.2d 1190, 1193 (1st Cir. 1987) (defendant not allowed to invoke defensive collateral estoppel where plaintiffs in multidistrict litigation had been allowed to withdraw without forfeiting any rights after discovery and before trial).\n\n\\(^{234}\\) Tamir Lewin, *Pharmaceutical Companies Are Hardest Hit*, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 10, 1985, § 3, at 1, quoted in Galanter, *supra* note 8, at 381.\n\n\\(^{235}\\) The *Oxendine* verdict must have influenced Merrell's settlement offer in the consolidated multidistrict action in Ohio, discussed *infra* notes 255-300 and accompanying text.\n\n\\(^{236}\\) See Rheingold, *supra* note 62, at 137.\n\n\\(^{237}\\) See Paul Brodeur, *Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial* 265 (1985).\n\n\\(^{238}\\) He defines a \"typical case\" as involving a man under 60 with no earnings loss, only slight medical expenses, and strong medical proof of cataracts and hair and skin change. Rheingold, *The MER/29 Story*, *supra* note 62, at 137.\n\ntiffs won several in 1966 and 1967.\\textsuperscript{239} It seems apparent that these victories increased the value of untried cases.\\textsuperscript{240}\n\nThere is a final reason Merrell continues to fight the \\textit{Oxendine} verdict. They may have come to believe, based on the outcome of more recent cases, that a new trial based on the evidence available at the beginning of the 1990s would result in a judgment for the defense. This circumstance reflects how \\textit{Oxendine}, like \\textit{Mekdeci}, presented Merrell with a “first case” problem. Inevitably, if mass tort cases are tried while science is still developing, early cases will be tried on different, less well developed facts than later ones. Nearly as inevitably, this will benefit one party or the other. In the Bendectin cases, the plaintiffs appear to have had the early advantage. By using every available means to obtain a new trial in \\textit{Oxendine}, the defendant has sought to erase this advantage.\n\n\\textsuperscript{239} As of 1967, 11 cases had gone to trial. \\textit{Id.} at 133. A Westlaw search in Spring 1990, using MER/29 as the search criterion, failed to discover any additional trials that resulted in appellate opinions. The most recent case for which there is an appellate opinion is Martinez-Ferrer v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 105 Cal. App. 3d 316, 164 Cal. Rptr. 591 (1980). Not surprisingly, the appeal concerned the statute of limitations. \\textit{Id.} at 318, 164 Cal. Rptr. at 591.\n\n\\textsuperscript{240} Punitive damages also played a role in the settlement value of the MER/29 cases. Because compensatory damages tended to be relatively small and because of Merrell’s failure to disclose information to the FDA, the litigation efforts were driven by the desire to obtain punitive damages. While the plaintiffs were awarded punitives in only three cases (all three of which were reduced or overturned on appeal), these awards drove up the settlement value of other cases. Rheingold, \\textit{The MER/29 Story}, \\textit{supra} note 62, at 138. Rheingold cites two other factors as having influenced the size of MER/29 settlements. First, the earliest cases that went to trial or were settled were those in rural areas and smaller states where the expected value of cases was lower. \\textit{Id.} at 132. Second, there were differences in the quality of plaintiffs’ counsel. Early in the litigation 33 attorneys representing MER/29 plaintiffs formed the MER/29 Group, whose purpose it was to disseminate information about ongoing litigation, to hire expert consultants and to conduct joint preparation of cases, primarily through a shared discovery effort. Eventually 288 attorneys and firms joined the Group. Among the packages of materials distributed by the Group were transcripts of previous trials, key documents that had been discovered from Merrell files, depositions, and a “trial package” with suggested examination questions and examples of motions and briefs used in earlier trials. \\textit{Id.} at 123-24. According to Rheingold, attorneys who were not members of the Group made worse settlements than attorneys who had the advantages of the Group’s resources. \\textit{Id.} at 138. It is worth noting that this effect carries over to the litigated cases; plaintiffs who lost earlier cases were disproportionately represented by attorneys who were not members of the MER/29 Group.\n\nThe MER/29 settlement experience supports McGovern’s “cyclical theory,” \\textit{see supra} note 42, at least in its early stages. Plaintiffs’ counsel slowly developed information and strategies that eventually allowed them to win most litigated cases. Coincidentally, this point was reached at approximately the same time that Merrell’s insurance was exhausted. This caused Merrell to take over its own defense and actively seek settlement of all pending cases. \\textit{Id.} at 140. The number of cases rather quickly declined as depletion effects, accelerated by the statute of limitations, exhausted the number of potential cases. As we shall see, the Bendectin cases had a different fate.\n\nB. The Caseload and Trial Load\n\n*Mekdeci* and *Oxendine* marked the beginning of over a decade of litigation concerning Bendectin. For a while, they appeared to be just the beginning. Filings rose dramatically in the early 1980s, but then collapsed. After the Common Issues Trial. Table 5\\(^{241}\\) presents the Bendectin-related case filings in state and federal courts from 1977 to 1988.\\(^{242}\\)\n\nBendectin trials have followed a pattern similar to case filings. Through December 1991 there had been approximately thirty trials, including two German cases, one Italian case, and several consolidated trials—by far the most important being the *Common Issues Trial* in the Southern District of Ohio which consolidated 818 cases, some involving multiple plaintiffs.\\(^{243}\\) All but a handful of the cases have been tried in the federal courts, most removed there by the defendant under diversity jurisdiction. Table 6\\(^{244}\\) reports on trials by year.\\(^{245}\\)\n\nThere were two trials in 1985, eight in 1986, and eleven in 1987; then the number of trials collapsed. While a few cases are still pending, the stock of active potential cases is disappearing, due, in part, to Merrell's aggressive efforts to bring litigation to a close.\\(^{246}\\)\n\n---\n\n\\(^{241}\\) Table 5 is found in Appendix A.\n\n\\(^{242}\\) GAO, \"LITIGATION EXPLOSION\" QUESTIONED, *supra* note 87, at 35. In the table, any case originally filed in state court, but removed to federal court is counted twice. Between 1977 and 1986 there were 261 such cases. If the double counting is eliminated, there were 1648 filings between 1977 and 1986. Merrell reports that as of mid-1989 there were a total of 1696 child plaintiff cases. *See supra* text accompanying note 86. Between 1974 and 1986 the Bendectin cases constituted approximately 1.7% of the total products liability filings in the federal courts. Marc Galanter, *The Life and Times of the Big Six: The Federal Courts Since the Good Old Days*, 1988 Wis. L. Rev. 921, 941 [hereinafter Galanter, *Life and Times of the Big Six*]. See TERRY DUNGWORTH, *PRODUCT LIABILITY AND THE BUSINESS SECTOR: LITIGATION TRENDS IN FEDERAL COURTS* 41 (1988). By way of comparison, the enormous Asbestos congregation comprised approximately 6.4% of all civil filings in federal courts in 1990. 19 Prod. Safety & Liab. Rep. (BNA) No. 11, at 287 (Mar. 15, 1991).\n\n\\(^{243}\\) The 30 trial figure includes a trial in Corpus Christi, Texas in September 1991 (Havner v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals, 41 Prod. Safety & Liab. Rep. (BNA) No. 19, at 1134 (D. Tex. Oct. 11, 1991)).\n\n\\(^{244}\\) Table 6 is found in Appendix A.\n\n\\(^{245}\\) The table reports every trial, including retrials of the same case, such as occurred in *Mekdeci*. Because some cases are counted twice, and because some trials are consolidated trials of a number of individual cases, the number does not accurately reflect the number of cases that have actually gone to trial.\n\n\\(^{246}\\) For instance, one of the most important recently-outstanding cases was a multi-plaintiff case in Michigan before Judge Rubin (who had presided over the Ohio *Common Issues Trial*). In October 1989 Merrell filed a motion for summary judgment on the causation question and also filed case-specific motions based on statute of limitations, lack of ingestion, or timing of ingestion defenses in approximately 20 cases. Merrell also moved for discovery sanctions because over half the plaintiffs had failed to respond to discovery requests. While many of these motions were granted, Judge Rubin denied Merrell's motion for a summary judgment\n\nThe key events in Bendectin's trial history are not difficult to spot. The partial success in *Mekdeci* and the plaintiff's verdict in *Oxendine* were followed by a dramatic rise in filings over the next several years. Due to the common discovery procedures discussed below, however, there were no further trials until 1985. The next trial after *Oxendine*, the *Common Issues Trial* in Winter 1985 in the Southern District of Ohio, was the single most important trial in the Bendectin litigation. The case ultimately involved over 800 plaintiffs, and resulted in a defense verdict on the question of whether Bendectin was a teratogen. As a consequence of this verdict, new filings collapsed. However, the number of trials, functioning as a lagging indicator of events, continued to rise for two years before trials also began to decline in frequency. The relationship of filings and trials through the 1980s is presented in Figure 2.\n\n**Figure 2**\n\n*Total Filings and Trials, by Year*\n\n![Graph showing total filings and trials by year]\n\nIn January 1990, Merrell moved for reconsideration of the motion and a hearing was held in March 1990. At that time, Judge Rubin proposed a mini-trial to ascertain whether the testimony proffered by plaintiffs in opposition to the summary judgment motion would be admissible. Transcript of Proceedings at 22-23, *In Re* Bendectin Litig., No. 85-0996, 1986 WL 20465 (E.D. Mich. May 2, 1986) (Hearing on Motion). One possible interpretation of the judge's statements at the hearing is that he was likely to hold the animal studies inadmissible. *See id.* at 3. Within a few weeks of the hearing the remaining plaintiffs agreed to dismiss their cases without prejudice. They have three years to refile. Letter from W. Glenn Forrester, attorney for Marion Merrell Dow, Inc., to Joseph Sanders (Oct. 18, 1990) (on file with author).\n\nThe full extent to which trials can be viewed as lagging indicators in the Bendectin cases is further demonstrated in Figure 3. It presents the number of *in vivo* and epidemiological studies published and the number of trials begun in different time periods from 1962 to 1991. For the period covered in this figure, 94% (47/50) of all *in vivo* and epidemiological studies were published before 80% (24/30) of the trials had begun.\n\n**Figure 3**\n\n*Bendectin Scientific Articles and Trials, by Years*\n\nImportantly, in the Bendectin Cases the declining number of filings and trials has not been primarily a result of the exhaustion of potential claims. A number of leading plaintiffs’ attorneys, including Barry Nace and Thomas Bleakley, took their cases out of the *Common Issues Trial* and were prepared to proceed separately.\\(^{247}\\) In addition, there are many potential plaintiffs who have not entered the fray. Estimates made at the time of the *Common Issues Trial* were that the total number of Bendectin\n\n\\(^{247}\\) In fact, most of the subsequent Bendectin litigation involved these cases. For these cases, the impact of the outcome in the *Common Issues Trial* was indirect. As I shall discuss below, the defense verdict in the *Common Issues Trial* was an important factor in the judicial willingness to direct verdicts and enter judgment n.o.v. in later cases. *See infra* text accompanying note 309-10.\n\nfilings ultimately would be in the 15,000 range. These estimates were based on relatively conservative estimates as to what percentage of potential plaintiffs (children with birth defects whose mothers had taken Bendectin during a critical period of their pregnancy) would in fact raise claims.\\textsuperscript{248} The fact that far fewer cases have been filed is a consequence of the lack of plaintiff success in the cases that have been tried. Fundamentally, the process has been one of judicial rationing of access to the courts, beginning with the discovery and trial in Ohio.\n\nC. Rationing Law\n\nIn the Bendectin Cases, the rationing process has occurred in two stages: first, through the use of traditional procedural techniques to conserve judicial resources; second, through increasingly aggressive judicial management of cases. In the following sections, I discuss these strategies in turn.\n\n(1) Procedural Rationing\n\nFaced with the stunning volume of cases presented by mass torts and the time it would take to try each case separately, commentators have suggested various ways to expedite proceedings through the increased use of mass discovery and mass trials.\\textsuperscript{249} Several devices, including the Multi-District Litigation Act,\\textsuperscript{250} class actions under Rule 23 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (\"Rule 23\"),\\textsuperscript{251} and consolidation of cases for trial under Rule 42 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (\"Rule 42\") have been used in the Bendectin Cases. All of these propos-\n\n\\textsuperscript{248} Report of the Guardian Ad Litem at 6, \\textit{In re \"Bendectin\" prods. Liab. Litig.}, 102 F.R.D. 239 (S.D. Ohio 1984).\n\n\\textsuperscript{249} See Linda S. Mullenix, \\textit{Class Resolution of the Mass-Tort Case: A Proposed Federal Procedure Act}, 64 TEX. L. REV. 1039 (1986); David Rosenberg, \\textit{Class Actions for Mass Torts: Doing Individual Justice by Collective Means}, 62 IND. L.J. 561 (1987); Rosenberg, \\textit{supra} note 215, at 849; Thomas D. Rowe, Jr. & Kenneth D. Sibley, \\textit{Beyond Diversity: Federal Multiparty, Multiforum Jurisdiction}, 135 U. PA. L. REV. 7 (1986); Georgene M. Vairo, \\textit{Multi-Tort Cases: Cause for More Darkness on the Subject, or a New Role for Federal Common Law?}, 54 FORDHAM L. REV. 167 (1985); but see Roger Transgrud, \\textit{Mass Trials in Mass Tort Cases: A Dissent}, 1989 U. ILL. L. REV. 69 [hereinafter Transgrud, \\textit{Mass Trials}].\n\n\\textsuperscript{250} 28 U.S.C. § 1407 (1976); see David F. Herr, \\textit{Multidistrict Litigation: Handling Cases Before the Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation} (1979). For an analysis of the statute's impact on plaintiffs and defendants see Susan Olson, \\textit{Federal Multidistrict Litigation: Its Impact on Litigants}, 13 JUST. SYS. J. 341 (1988-89). In 1989 the MDL Panel reported that since its inception in 1968 it had centralized 17,093 civil actions for pre-trial proceedings. \\textit{ANNUAL REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE ADMIN. OFFICE OF THE U.S. COURTS, REPORTS OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE JUDICIAL CONFERENCE OF THE UNITED STATES} 6-7 (1989).\n\n\\textsuperscript{251} See Mullenix, \\textit{supra} note 249, at 1045-46.\n\nals and devices are justified by their proponents on the basis of the inefficiency and costs involved in single plaintiff litigation.\\textsuperscript{252} Whether or not there in fact are large savings to be gained by using these devices is, to some extent, an open question.\\textsuperscript{253} What is clear is that these devices can save a substantial amount of judicial time, and that judges will explore various procedural devices that allow them to avoid spending months and even years litigating a group of mass tort cases one at a time.\\textsuperscript{254} For example, Judge Rubin, the trial judge in the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}, calculated that the trial of all 1100 then existing Bendectin cases would take 182 judge years.\\textsuperscript{255} Trying even 5% of the cases would consume over nine judge years. It is not surprising, therefore, that the judiciary, especially at the trial court level, searches for ways to ration judicial resources. The Bendectin Cases reflect this phenomenon.\n\nBecause the \\textit{Common Issues Trial} so aptly demonstrates coordination and rationing in mass torts, it is worth discussing in some depth. The trial was the direct result of the consolidation of cases under Rule 42 and the transfer of cases to Ohio under the Multi-District Litigation Act (\"Act\" or \"MDL statute\").\n\nThe Act is a fundamental tool in the federal judiciary's efforts to force coordination on parties. As a byproduct, it facilitates the mobilization of plaintiffs' groups. The MDL statute was enacted in 1968. It calls for the creation of a seven member Judicial Panel on Multi-District Litigation (\"Panel\"). The members are United States District Court or\n\n\\textsuperscript{252}. It has been said that mass tort cases lead to an exponential growth in transaction costs as the number of parties increases. Richard Epstein, \\textit{The Legal and Insurance Dynamics of Mass Tort Litigation}, 13 J. LEGAL STUD. 475, 477 (1984). Whether this is in fact true for all mass torts is debatable. It is distinct from the question whether savings can be realized by consolidating individual cases into larger groupings by way of common discovery or class actions.\n\n\\textsuperscript{253}. For an argument that the savings are not always as large as advertised, see Trangsrud, \\textit{Mass Trials}, supra note 249, at 79. For an effort to set forth a method for assessing the effects of mass procedures, see Mark A. Peterson & Molly Selvin, \\textit{Resolution of Mass Torts: Toward a Framework for Evaluation of Aggregative Procedures} (1988).\n\n\\textsuperscript{254}. Judge Parker's efforts in the Eastern District of Texas to use collateral estoppel and class actions to manage the very large asbestos caseload in that district serve as an example. See Jenkins v. Raymark Indus., 782 F.2d 468, 469 (5th Cir. 1986) (class action); Hardy v. Johns-Manville Sales Corp., 681 F.2d 334, 338 (5th Cir. 1982) (collateral estoppel). For a discussion by a commentator who has been intimately involved with managing mass tort cases, see McGovern, \\textit{supra} note 20, at 442.\n\n\\textsuperscript{255}. \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. 1212, 1221 n.6. (S.D. Ohio 1985). Judge Rubin's calculation was based on his estimate that the average trial would take 38 days. This figure in turn was based on the average time it had taken to try the four cases (other than the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}) that had been tried at the time Rubin wrote his opinion. \\textit{Id.} at 1221 n.5.\n\nCourt of Appeals judges, no two from the same district. The Panel maintains a permanent staff in Washington and meets monthly. It monitors district court cases that appear to be likely candidates for consolidation. Claims may be consolidated by motion of the Panel itself or by approved motion of a party to a claim. The Panel may issue a consolidation order over the objections of all parties.\\textsuperscript{256} For the Panel to take action, four of the seven members must concur. Civil actions may be consolidated when: (1) they involve one or more common questions of fact, (2) they are pending in different districts, (3) the transfer will be for the convenience of parties and witnesses, and (4) the transfer promotes the just and efficient conduct of the actions.\\textsuperscript{257} Factors to be considered in determining whether consolidation would promote just and efficient conduct of the actions include whether it will prevent duplication of discovery and pretrial conferences and whether it will economize judicial efforts.\\textsuperscript{258}\n\nAs of July 1984, the Panel had used the MDL statute to transfer seventy-eight air disaster cases and seventeen other mass disaster cases.\\textsuperscript{259} It had also transferred nine mass product defect cases, including those involving Bendectin.\\textsuperscript{260} The Act, on its face, provides for the consolidation of \\textit{pre}trial proceedings only. At the end of these proceedings cases \"shall be remanded by the panel . . . to the district from which [they] were transferred\" for trial.\\textsuperscript{261} Notwithstanding this language, both courts and commentators have asserted that transferee courts may conduct a common trial in cases consolidated under the Act.\\textsuperscript{262}\n\nEven as \\textit{Mekdeci} was being tried, the landslide of lawsuits was beginning. In early 1982 the Panel began to assign cases to the Southern District of Ohio. It selected Judge Carl A. Rubin to conduct the consolidated pretrial discovery.\\textsuperscript{263} In May, a central component of the coordi-\n\n\\textsuperscript{256}. \\textit{In re Asbestos & Asbestos Insulation Materials Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 431 F. Supp. 906, 910 (J.P.M.L. 1977).\n\n\\textsuperscript{257}. 28 U.S.C. § 1407(a) (1991).\n\n\\textsuperscript{258}. See Wilson W. Herndon & Ernest R. Higginbotham, \\textit{Complex Multidistrict Litigation—An Overview of 28 U.S.C. Sec. 1407}, 31 \\textit{Baylor L. Rev.} 33, 41, 45 (1979); Transrud, \\textit{Joinder Alternatives}, supra note 22, at 803; Note, \\textit{The Judicial Panel and the Conduct of Multidistrict Litigation}, 87 \\textit{Harv. L. Rev.} 1001 (1974).\n\n\\textsuperscript{259}. Transrud, \\textit{Joinder Alternatives}, supra note 22, at 803-04 nn.138-39.\n\n\\textsuperscript{260}. \\textit{Id.} at 803-04 n.139. Other products involved in transfer orders include an aortic heart valve, multipiece rims, an antibiotic called Cleocin, the Swine Flu vaccine, the Dalkon Shield, plastic insulation, and helicopter engines. \\textit{Id.}\n\n\\textsuperscript{261}. 28 U.S.C. § 1407(a) (1991).\n\n\\textsuperscript{262}. Transrud, \\textit{Joinder Alternatives}, supra note 22, at 803-04 n.139; Richard A. Chesley & Kathleen Woods Kolodgy, Note, \\textit{Mass Exposure Torts: An Efficient Solution to a Complex Problem}, 54 \\textit{U. Cin. L. Rev.} 467, 523-26 (1985).\n\n\\textsuperscript{263}. \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 533 F. Supp. 489, 490 (J.P.M.L. 1982).\n\nnation objective was realized with the appointment by Judge Rubin of five attorneys who would act as lead counsel and coordinate plaintiffs' discovery efforts.\\textsuperscript{264}\n\nWithin the context of the Act, another word for coordination is centralization. In ordinary tort litigation, unaffected by multidistrict consolidation, the very fact that lawsuits are scattered throughout the land is simultaneously one of the main weaknesses and strengths of private litigation. It is a weakness because coordination is difficult, and because some plaintiffs will not have the resources to pursue their claims.\\textsuperscript{265} On the other hand, this diversity is a strength. If it spreads plaintiffs thin, it does the same to the defendants, who must fight on many fronts. Moreover, it spreads the risk. Prosecuting 800 single plaintiff cases instead of one 800 plaintiff case is a type of insurance for plaintiffs as a group. One large case places all of the plaintiffs' eggs in one basket.\\textsuperscript{266}\n\nIn November 1983 Judge Rubin took a large step toward centralization. Proceeding under Rule 42, the judge consolidated all cases that had been filed in Ohio for a common issues trial. Rule 42 is a particularly potent weapon for forcing consolidation because plaintiffs do not have a right to opt out of a common trial as they do under the MDL statute.\\textsuperscript{267} Judge Rubin set a date of March 1, 1985 for all those who did not bring their action in Ohio to choose whether to opt in or opt out of the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}.\\textsuperscript{268} And on June 11, 1984 a jury was empaneled.\\textsuperscript{269}\n\n\\textsuperscript{264}. See \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. 1212, 1216 (S.D. Ohio 1985), aff'd sub nom. \\textit{In re Bendectin Litig.}, 857 F.2d 290, 295 (6th Cir. 1988), cert. denied, 488 U.S. 1006 (1989).\n\n\\textsuperscript{265}. The contingent fee can relieve the individual plaintiff of the burden of direct litigation expenses, but the system will operate only when the expected value of a case warrants the costs that must be incurred in pursuing it. For the plaintiff with a less serious injury, such as a minor cleft, it may be impossible to find an attorney willing to pursue the claim if that plaintiff alone has to bear the entire cost of developing the case. Consolidation of discovery proceedings under the Act makes it possible for many plaintiffs to pursue claims that they otherwise could not afford.\n\n\\textsuperscript{266}. In August 1982 Judge Rubin removed the foreign eggs. He ruled that claims by British plaintiffs were barred under the doctrine of forum non conveniens. \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc.}, 545 F. Supp. 1130, 1133-36 (S.D. Ohio 1982) (where United Kingdom was alternative forum and prospect of numerous additional actions on behalf of foreign plaintiffs was likely absent dismissal, action was dismissed on forum non-conveniens ground). British plaintiffs had survived an earlier motion by defendant to dismiss on forum non conveniens grounds. \\textit{See Alexander v. Richardson-Merrell Inc.}, 541 F. Supp. 93, 98-99 (S.D.N.Y. 1982). Now, however, no foreign national would be able to pursue a Bendectin case in Federal court.\n\n\\textsuperscript{267}. FED. R. CIV. P. 42(b). \\textit{See Transsrud, Mass Trials}, supra note 249, at 72.\n\n\\textsuperscript{268}. \\textit{See In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. 1212, 1216 (S.D. Ohio 1985).\n\n\\textsuperscript{269}. \\textit{Id.}\n\nOne week later, however, with an eye toward settlement, Judge Rubin issued an order certifying the plaintiffs as a class under Rule 23.\\textsuperscript{270} Merrell made a settlement offer of $120 million and the jury was dismissed.\\textsuperscript{271} Taking into consideration potential future suits, Judge Rubin divided the settlement class into two subclasses, those who had already filed suit by June 18, 1984 and those who had not.\\textsuperscript{272} The class was a “non-opt-out” class. No individual plaintiff would be permitted to opt out and continue private settlement negotiations or proceed to trial.\\textsuperscript{273} Every injured child and parent of a stillborn child exposed to Bendectin would be bound by the settlement agreement.\\textsuperscript{274}\n\nJudge Rubin’s action did not meet with universal acceptance. Many attorneys, including two members of the five-person lead counsel committee, opposed the settlement and therefore objected to the formation of the class.\\textsuperscript{275} After failing to obtain a reversal of the class certification order on direct appeal,\\textsuperscript{276} they sought a writ of mandamus from the Sixth Circuit to vacate the order establishing the class. The court recognized that mandamus is an extreme remedy, but nevertheless granted the writ.\\textsuperscript{277} This ended any hope of settlement.\n\n\\textsuperscript{270} In re “Bendectin” Prods. Liab. Litig., 102 F.R.D. 239, 242 (S.D. Ohio 1984). Rubin found that the class met the four criteria of commonality, typicality, numerosity, and adequacy of representation required by Rule 23. \\textit{Id.} at 241. For the argument that Rule 23 should be used this way in mass tort cases, see Note, \\textit{Class Certification in Mass Accident Cases under Rule 23(b)(I)}, 96 HARV. L. REV. 1143 (1983).\n\n\\textsuperscript{271} In re Bendectin Prods. Liab. Litig., 749 F.2d 300, 306 (6th Cir. 1984). At the time of the settlement offer, pending before Judge Rubin were 253 cases filed in the Southern District of Ohio and 315 transferred by the Panel (in addition roughly 149 actions were pending in state courts). \\textit{Id.} Had the settlement been consummated and distributed pro rata among the existing plaintiffs under Rubin’s jurisdiction, the per case settlement would have been slightly in excess of $200,000.\n\n\\textsuperscript{272} In re “Bendectin” Prods. Liab. Litig., 102 F.R.D. at 242.\n\n\\textsuperscript{273} In re Bendectin Prods. Liab. Litig., 749 F.2d at 302. In addition, the certification order purported to stay all state court discovery proceedings. \\textit{Id.} at 304.\n\n\\textsuperscript{274} These extreme measures reflect the frustration judges feel in trying to work out a settlement in mass tort cases. Some have argued that Judge Weinstein’s summary judgment for defendants in the Agent Orange opt-out opinion reflects similar frustration and was motivated in substantial part by his desire to protect the perceived reasonableness of the settlement agreement between the defendants and the plaintiffs who did not opt out of the class action. See Green, supra note 94, at 65.\n\n\\textsuperscript{275} See Bendectin Pact Creating Furor, NAT’L L.J., July 30, 1984, at 1, 31-33.\n\n\\textsuperscript{276} See Schreier v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 745 F.2d 58 (6th Cir. 1984).\n\n\\textsuperscript{277} In re “Bendectin” Products Liab. Litig., 749 F.2d at 303, 307. The court found that Judge Rubin had failed to establish any grounds for certification under either Rule 23(b)(1)(A) (requiring a showing that separate actions would create a risk of inconsistent or varying adjudications) or Rule 23(b)(1)(B) (requiring a showing that there is a risk that a limited fund may exist from which judgments can be satisfied). \\textit{Id.} at 305-06.\n\nActions taken in the early years of a mass tort have the secondary consequence of encouraging or discouraging the filing of new cases. With a product such as Bendectin, for which over thirty million prescriptions had been filled world-wide, it is extraordinarily difficult to estimate the number of potential cases.\\textsuperscript{278} Indeed, in the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}, Judge Rubin solicited the assistance of several experts in order to obtain a reasonable estimate of the number of cases he could ultimately anticipate. The experts found it difficult to make a firm estimate, in part because there was no effective statute of limitations bar to future suits.\\textsuperscript{279} The experts' best guess was that future filings would be in the range of 5700 to 16,800 claims.\\textsuperscript{280} Thus, a settlement with only the existing plaintiffs seemed particularly risky for Merrell. In the asbestos, Dalkon Shield, and DES cases, initial settlements and jury verdicts set the going\n\n\\textsuperscript{278}. Attempts to estimate the number of potential plaintiffs who would meet the two criteria of a birth defect and a mother who ingested Bendectin during pregnancy have produced very large numbers. Judge Rubin noted in the \\textit{Common Issues} opinion that if 30 million pregnant women had taken the drug and the birth defect rate is between 2% and 5% of all births, then by chance (i.e., by causes other than Bendectin), there would be between 600,000 and 1,500,000 potential claimants. \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. 1212, 1229 (S.D. Ohio 1985).\n\n\\textsuperscript{279}. For a discussion of why this is so, see \\textit{supra} notes 88-89 and accompanying text.\n\n\\textsuperscript{280}. The experts estimated that there were between 115,000 and 168,000 potential claimants and that 5% to 10% would actually raise claims, creating a range of 5750 to 16,800. \\textit{See Transcript of Proceedings}, at 88-90 (Oct. 31, 1984). \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. 1212 (S.D. Ohio 1985) (MDL No. 486). Among the factors involved in a calculation are estimates of the number of injuries and estimates of the number of injured people who will advance claims. The percentage advancing claims is influenced by public knowledge that there is a potential claim, which in turn is influenced by the steps courts and others take in advertising the right to claim.\n\nIn the Dalkon Shield case, for instance, the bankruptcy court made significant efforts to publicize the right to claim. A survey of almost 1000 individuals conducted in 1984 asked whether they had heard of a variety of products (including the Dalkon Shield, Bendectin, asbestos, DES, and super-absorbency tampons), and if so whether they thought the product was hazardous to health. Of those surveyed, 80% thought asbestos was hazardous; 43% thought the Dalkon Shield was. Only 10% or so thought Bendectin was a health hazard, approximately 10% thought it was not a hazard, and 80% either had never heard of Bendectin or did not know if it was hazardous. Herbert M. Kritzer, \\textit{Public Notification Campaigns in Mass Litigation: The Dalkon Shield Case}, 13 JUST. SYS. J. 220, 231 (1988-89). Clearly, in 1984 public awareness of Bendectin was relatively low.\n\nAfter the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}, plaintiffs' lead counsel requested reimbursement for out-of-pocket discovery expenses, which tallied $750,000. Judge Rubin charged two thirds of the costs to the Southern District cases, but also had to set a price for counsel in future cases who might wish to acquire the materials. He set a fee of $600, by estimating that there would be 400 future cases where counsel would use the materials. To date, however, there have not been nearly that many cases, presumably in part because the outcome of the \\textit{Common Issues Trial} had a chilling effect on future litigation. \\textit{See infra} app. A., tbl. 5. Had the outcome been different, there is reason to suspect the expert's estimates would, if anything, have been too low and the number of claims would have run in the thousands, if not tens of thousands.\n\nrate for later cases. It usually does not avail the defendant to argue that it never would have offered so much in earlier cases had it known there would be so many later ones. Nor are existing plaintiffs in any position to offer reliable indemnity against future claims or even unsettled existing claims.\\textsuperscript{281} By forming a non-opt-out class, and establishing a subclass of future suits, for whom some percentage of the $120 million settlement offer would be earmarked, Judge Rubin's proposed settlement insured Merrell against the risk that by settling, it would encourage even more new plaintiffs, who would tend to begin negotiations from the basis of the earlier settlement.\\textsuperscript{282}\n\nThe Sixth Circuit's issuance of the writ of mandamus reflects the constant tension that exists in mass tort cases between the desire to provide individualized justice and the desire to reach for aggregate resolutions. Apparently, the Sixth Circuit felt that this settlement plan leaned too far in favor of efficient, aggregate solutions. The consequence of the Sixth Circuit's decision was that Judge Rubin resumed preparations for a common issues trial on the question of general causation. A second jury was empaneled in February 1985,\\textsuperscript{283} and a new opt-in deadline was set.\\textsuperscript{284} A total of 818 cases were consolidated: 557 cases originally filed in the Southern District of Ohio, and 261 opt-in cases.\\textsuperscript{285} Judge Rubin took the unusual step of trifurcating the case. First, he would try the issue of general causation: does Bendectin cause any defects? He then would try liability issues and, finally, damages issues.\\textsuperscript{286} This strategy\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n \\item \\textsuperscript{281} Transgrud, \\textit{Joinder Alternatives}, supra note 22, at 835.\n \\item \\textsuperscript{282} Frank Woodside III, chief defense counsel in the \\textit{Common Issues} case noted:\n One thing that we have attempted to obtain in settling the cases the way we have settled them is to achieve a degree of finality so that the litigation does not pend for 20 years. Because you involve children, you have litigation that can go on for a long time because you really don't have a statute of limitations.\n\n \\textit{Bendectin Pact Creating Furor}, supra note 275, at 31.\n \\item \\textsuperscript{283} \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. 1212, 1217 (S.D. Ohio 1985).\n \\item \\textsuperscript{284} \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc.}, 582 F. Supp. 890, 891 (J.P.M.L. 1984).\n \\item \\textsuperscript{285} \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. at 1216 n.1. Judge Rubin reports in his later opinion, upholding the jury verdict in this case, that there were an additional 368 cases assigned by the panel that did not opt in or were otherwise disposed of. In total, then, he had jurisdiction over 1186 cases. \\textit{Id.}\n \\item \\textsuperscript{286} The exact nature of the trifurcation and the forum in which each issue would be tried was not clear when the trial began. Apparently the parties never fully considered how to resolve the difficult question of specific causation that might arise if the jury were to find a significant correlation between Bendectin and some birth defect, but a relative risk of injury less than two. In this situation, based on the bare statistical evidence, no plaintiff would be able to show by a preponderance of the evidence that his or her defect had been caused by Bendectin. \\textit{See supra} note 215.\n\n In the event that the jury was to find for the plaintiffs on the causal and liability questions,\n\\end{itemize}\n\nhad the potential for greatly streamlining the case, for if the defendants won on the general causation issue there would be no need to continue the trial.\n\nMoreover, the strategy had the effect of preventing the plaintiffs from trying their entire cause of action at one time, thus denying them the opportunity that exists in unitary trials to bolster a weak case on liability or causation with a strong case on damages.\\textsuperscript{287} The only witnesses permitted to testify at the trial were experts on the chemical composition, toxicology, and epidemiology of Bendectin (ten experts on behalf of the plaintiffs and nine on behalf of the defendants).\\textsuperscript{288} Testimony and evidence pertaining to individual plaintiffs was not permitted.\\textsuperscript{289} Indeed, Judge Rubin would not even allow individual malformed plaintiffs in the courtroom during the trial, on the theory that to do so would inevitably bring the question of damages into the trial as the jury observed the plaintiffs' serious injuries.\\textsuperscript{290}\n\nJudge Rubin proposed a second innovation for this trial. Because of concerns that the complexity of the scientific evidence might be too difficult for the average juror to understand he offered to use either a \"blue ribbon jury\" (persons having the most formal education available in the jury panel) or a \"blue-blue ribbon jury\" (persons knowledgeable in the field). The offer was rejected by plaintiffs, and the case was tried to a jury from the regular jury pool.\\textsuperscript{291}\n\n\\textsuperscript{287} It is partly on this ground that Transsrud objects to the practice of splitting mass trials:\n\n[Trifurcation of issues] is not fair because it robs the jury of its traditional flexibility in tort cases to balance uncertainties in the plaintiff's case on liability against strengths in the plaintiff's case on damages. Trifurcation of issues also inevitably leads to the sterile trial of technical issues related to causation divorced from the fact of the plaintiff's injury and a full account of the defendant's role in the tragedy.\n\nTranssrud, \\textit{Joinder Alternatives}, supra note 22, at 80. Some would disagree with this analysis and argue that all trials should be bifurcated so that the damage question does not contaminate the logically prior liability and causation questions. Recall that the first \\textit{Mekdeci} jury verdict was overturned precisely because it appeared to be a compromise verdict.\n\n\\textsuperscript{288} \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, 624 F. Supp. at 1218.\n\n\\textsuperscript{289} \\textit{Id.} at 1228.\n\n\\textsuperscript{290} \\textit{Id.} at 1222-24. On similar grounds, Judge Rubin restricted pretrial discovery to Bendectin and at trial excluded all evidence concerning Thalidomide and MER/29. While Merrell's history with these drugs might go to the issue of liability, it did not go to the question of whether Bendectin caused birth defects. \\textit{Id.} at 1236, 1241, 1249.\n\n\\textsuperscript{291} \\textit{Id.} at 1217.\n\nPerhaps because of the trifurcation of the trial, the jury returned a verdict for the defendants.\\textsuperscript{292} In a lengthy opinion Judge Rubin denied plaintiffs' motion for judgment n.o.v. or a new trial.\\textsuperscript{293} The Sixth Circuit ultimately upheld the verdict over objections that Judge Rubin abused his discretion in, among other things, trifurcating the trial,\\textsuperscript{294} excluding the plaintiffs from the courtroom, and excluding references to Thalidomide and MER/29.\\textsuperscript{295} In April 1985, in light of the jury verdict and Judge Rubin's declaration that he had completed his duty, the Panel remanded the claims of eighty-three plaintiffs who had not opted into the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}.\\textsuperscript{296}\n\nAt a theoretical level, the verdict in the \\textit{Common Issues} case is just another jury verdict, binding on the parties to the case but of no particu-\n\n\\textsuperscript{292} In a laboratory experiment, using a toxic tort trial stimulus, Horowitz and Bordens found that juries hearing a unitary trial were significantly more likely to find for the plaintiff (85%) than were juries that heard bifurcated trials (68%). Irwin A. Horowitz & Kenneth S. Bordens, \\textit{An Experimental Investigation of Procedural Issues in Complex Tort Trials}, 14 \\textit{Law & Hum. Behav}. 269, 277-78 (1990). This tendency was strongest when the bifurcated trial juries heard the general causation testimony first. If these juries did find for the plaintiff, however, their compensatory damages awards were significantly larger. \\textit{Id}.\n\n\\textsuperscript{293} \\textit{See In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc., \"Bendectin\" Prods. Litig}, 624 F. Supp. at 1249.\n\n\\textsuperscript{294} The plaintiffs may have been somewhat prejudiced by the fact that one of the lead counsel had suggested a bifurcated proceeding early in the case. \\textit{Id} at 1249.\n\n\\textsuperscript{295} \\textit{In re Bendectin Litig}, 857 F.2d 290, 314-17, 321-25 (6th Cir. 1988). The appellate process was delayed by litigation concerning whether Judge Rubin had jurisdiction over claims by two foreign nationals who had originally filed in Ohio state court. These plaintiffs alleged that Merrell had violated the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, and that this violation constituted a \"rebuttable presumption of negligence.\" Merrell argued that removal to federal court was proper under 28 U.S.C. § 1441 because the allegation raised a federal question. The trial court agreed, but was reversed in Thompson v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 766 F.2d 1005, 1006 (6th Cir. 1985). The Sixth Circuit's decision was affirmed by the Supreme Court in a 5-4 opinion. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals v. Thompson, 478 U.S. 804, 817 (1986).\n\nThis ruling ultimately affected all Ohio resident plaintiffs. Merrell was a Delaware corporation, but had its principal place of business in Ohio. Therefore it was, for purposes of diversity jurisdiction, a citizen of both states. 28 U.S.C. § 1332(c) (1988). On the basis of the Supreme Court's \\textit{Thompson} decision, Judge Rubin proceeded to remand all cases brought by Ohio residents in Ohio state court that had been removed to his court under 28 U.S.C. § 1441 on the ground that they, too, had stated causes of action based on violations of the FDCA. \\textit{Bendectin Litig}, 857 F.2d at 297. For the same reason, he also dismissed without prejudice all claims brought by Ohio plaintiffs who had originally filed in Ohio federal court. \\textit{Id}.\n\nOn appeal, however, the Sixth Circuit held that only those Ohio plaintiffs (13 cases) who had not attempted to establish federal question jurisdiction through a cause of action based on the violation of the FDCA were entitled to have their claims dismissed without prejudice. \\textit{Id} at 297-98. The remainder, who had claimed federal question jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1331, were properly in federal court and, therefore, bound by the \\textit{Common Issues} verdict. \\textit{Id}.\n\n\\textsuperscript{296} \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc.}, 606 F. Supp. 715, 716 (J.P.M.L. 1985). The court denied remand of six actions and vacated an order to transfer six new cases to Judge Rubin's court. \\textit{Id}.\n\nlar precedential consequence for other parties, not even those plaintiffs who were part of the common pretrial proceedings and then opted out. This theoretical level perceives each case as an isolated event, legally uncontaminated by other suits, and it completely misses the importance of the *Common Issues Trial*. The verdict produced a complete reversal of fortunes for the parties. The claims of over 800 plaintiffs had been dealt a death blow, and remaining plaintiffs now faced what amounted to an adverse finding of fact—subsequent trial and appellate judges referred to the *Common Issues Trial*'s outcome when discussing whether the plaintiffs could prove that Bendectin causes birth defects.\\textsuperscript{297}\n\nThe defendant enjoyed an equally profound reversal of fortunes. From an offer of $120 million to settle the case, it now moved to stay Judge Rubin's dismissal and remand order. The defendant hoped to sweep the board clean by using the *Common Issues Trial* to prevent future plaintiffs from arguing that Bendectin was a teratogen.\\textsuperscript{298} The defense had gone on the offensive.\n\nNevertheless, trial of the Bendectin Cases had barely begun.\\textsuperscript{299} Many of the most seriously injured plaintiffs had opted out of the *Common Issues Trial*.\\textsuperscript{300} The existence of *Oxendine* made it unlikely that the defendant would succeed with any collateral estoppel arguments and also\n\n\\textsuperscript{297} \\textit{E.g.}, Hull v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals, 700 F. Supp. 28, 29 n.1 (S.D. Fla. 1988).\n\n\\textsuperscript{298} \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc. \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig.}, slip op. (S.D. Ohio Jan. 6, 1986) (LEXIS, Genfed Library, Dist file).\n\n\\textsuperscript{299} See infra app. A, tbl. 6.\n\n\\textsuperscript{300} Class actions are, in part, a public good. Benefits accrue to members of the group (all plaintiffs) regardless of their individual efforts. Olson notes that in such situations, because those with the most at stake will invest the most in the common good, there is a tendency for the \"exploitation\" of the great by the small.\" \\textsc{Mancur Olson}, \\textit{The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups} 29 (1968). Members with greater stakes in the outcome (the great) will make larger investments (in, for instance, pretrial discovery) than those with smaller stakes (the small). Those with smaller claims are able to free ride on the investment of those with larger claims.\n\nThis exploitation may occur even if there is no bargaining among plaintiffs. Bargaining may exacerbate this problem. To the degree there are limited assets to be shared, the plaintiffs will compete for shares of the defendant's assets. Here, the large stakes plaintiffs almost certainly will be in a minority, and may well be subjected to efforts by the majority to squeeze the range of recoveries. There will be pressure to hold down the maximum recoveries to raise the minimum recoveries. \\textsc{Coffee}, \\textit{supra} note 212, at 916.\n\nAs a consequence of these processes, it is not surprising that many of the opt outs in mass tort cases are the large stakes players. These include plaintiffs who have the more serious injuries and who have claims that are large enough to justify separate prosecution. They also include plaintiffs' attorneys representing a number of clients who, aggregating across all of their claims, have a large enough pool of claims to justify trying individual cases. Such a division apparently occurred in the Bendectin Cases. As this discussion indicates, mass tort cases present substantial issues of distributive justice. For a set of proposals as to how to manage mass tort cases so as to minimize distributional problems, see \\textit{id.} at 918-30.\n\nindicated that plaintiffs might well succeed in a unitary trial. The judiciary, however, was not to remain passive. As the Bendectin Cases matured, a new type of rationing was about to begin.\n\n(2) Substantive Rationing\n\nThroughout the life cycle of a congregation of cases the judiciary responds to the experts and their evidence. Trial judges are the most closely involved. The majority of their responses occur at the micro level of evidentiary and procedural rulings, permitting or prohibiting various initiatives by the parties.\\textsuperscript{301} Usually, however, the trial judge also must make larger decisions concerning who to permit to testify, what evidence and instructions to give the jury, whether the case ultimately should go to the jury, and if it does, whether the verdict should stand. These more macro judgments are especially likely to be appealed. In the process of justifying or rejecting what has been done below, appellate opinions shape the future direction of a congregation of cases. Like all judicial, and other, decisions within the congregation, appellate opinions are not isolated, atomistic events. They, too, exhibit stages of development and are best understood within the context of the collection of cases. In this section I briefly discuss the trial court opinions and then turn to an analysis of the Bendectin appellate opinions. Here, we examine a different type of rationing, not through the use of procedures to streamline but through the use of substantive decisions to dispose of cases on their merits. As the congregation matures, the courts move from procedural to substantive rationing.\\textsuperscript{302}\n\na. Trial Court Opinions\n\nUsing both Westlaw and Lexis searches, I have uncovered a total of fifty-eight trial court opinions concerning Bendectin, almost all of which\n\n\\textsuperscript{301} I hope to explore these micro decisions in a subsequent paper through an analysis of Bendectin transcripts.\n\n\\textsuperscript{302} This shift suggests an interesting question: Under what circumstances will courts employ substantive rationing? We might hypothesize that courts will resort to substantive rationing only when procedural rationing has failed to achieve the desired result.\n\nFor example, in the mass torts that are precipitated by a single cataclysmic event such as an airplane crash, multidistrict discovery and the consolidation of cases for trial are sufficient to assure reasonably prompt and consistent outcomes within the congregation of cases. In such a scenario, substantive rationing is unnecessary even for the occasional case that escapes the procedural net.\n\nIf this hypothesis is correct, we should expect substantive rationing in relatively few instances. In the final section of this Article, I elaborate on the circumstances in which we should anticipate substantive rationing.\n\nare from federal district courts.\\textsuperscript{303} Table 7\\textsuperscript{304} summarizes the district court opinions.\\textsuperscript{305}\n\nIn the table, I have coded the subject matter of each opinion (column 4) and designated it substantive or nonsubstantive (column 5). The key to the codes is found at the bottom of the table.\\textsuperscript{306} Nonsubstantive opinions involve: discovery motions; motions to bifurcate or trifurcate a trial; questions of federal jurisdiction, statute of limitations, and forum non conveniens; and decisions concerning inclusion or exclusion from the multidistrict proceedings. Substantive opinions involve: questions concerning the admissibility of evidence; motions for summary judgment, directed verdict, or judgment n.o.v.; motions to exclude physicians or pharmacists as defendants; and findings concerning the merits of the plaintiff's case.\n\nDrawn on the basis of information from Table 7, Figure 4 presents two indicators that illustrate how the Bendectin litigation matured over time. For each year between 1982 and 1990 it indicates the percentage of trial court opinions dealing with substantive issues and the percentage of opinions that were \"final\" in the sense that, unless overturned on appeal, the case was to end with that decision. In the early years of litigation, nonsubstantive issues tend to dominate case congregations. In the Bendectin cases, a substantial number of procedural issues arose because of the consolidation of cases in the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}. Additionally, several courts faced venue issues raised by claims of foreign nationals. Presumably, the foreigners and their attorneys preferred to litigate in American courts because they assumed their damage recoveries would be larger here than abroad. After some earlier opinions allowing them a cause of action, the foreign claimants eventually were barred under the doctrine of forum non conveniens.\\textsuperscript{307} Finally, there was the recurring\n\n\\textsuperscript{303} The opinions are from thirty-six different cases and multidistrict rulings of the Joint Panel on Multi-District Litigation (labeled MDL-JPML). Note that two of the cases are consolidated actions (labeled MDL-Ohio and MDL-Michigan).\n\n\\textsuperscript{304} Table 7 is found in Appendix A.\n\n\\textsuperscript{305} Not every Bendectin opinion is included in Table 7. Memorandum opinions, denials or grants of certiorari, and the like are excluded. They are listed in appendices H-I. The table does not include opinions that are neither published nor reported on Westlaw or Lexis.\n\n\\textsuperscript{306} Note that, in the case of summary judgments, directed verdicts, and judgments n.o.v. (codes 4, 5, and 6), where possible I have given the basis of the motion as well. For example, in the fifth case, \\textit{Koller}, the motion for a summary judgment was based on a claim that the plaintiff could not show general causation.\n\n\\textsuperscript{307} A key opinion is Judge Rubin's decision that foreign nationals would be barred from the multidistrict litigation, but that, in return, Merrell would have to consent to being sued in Great Britain. \\textit{In re Richardson-Merrell, Inc.}, 545 F. Supp. 1130, 1135 (S.D. Ohio 1982). Judge Rubin was particularly concerned that allowing foreign nationals to litigate in Ohio would flood the courts with litigants:\n\nissue of federal jurisdiction. Merrell occasionally asked to have a court rule that the joinder of a local physician or pharmacy was done fraudulently solely in order to defeat diversity jurisdiction.\\textsuperscript{308}\n\nIn more recent years an increasing percentage of opinions have dealt with the cases on their merits.\\textsuperscript{309} This progression from nonsubstantive\n\n\\textsuperscript{308} Defendant argues that to allow these foreign plaintiffs access to American courts on the bare nexus that a product was developed and tested in this country, when it was manufactured and sold abroad by a foreign corporation, would flood this country with cases in which its own interest is minimal and the United Kingdom's great. We find this argument highly persuasive from both a practical and theoretical viewpoint.\n\n\\textit{Id.} at 1135.\n\nJudge Rubin's concern over the potential flood of litigants reflects the federal judiciary's ongoing interest in managing mass tort caseloads as efficiently as possible. Here, of course, efficiency is measured from the federal judiciary's perspective. From the point of view of plaintiffs, American attorneys, and Merrell, it would have been more efficient to try all cases in Ohio.\n\n\\textsuperscript{309} \\textit{E.g.,} McFeggan v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals, 1987 WL 9332, at *1 (N.D. Ill. Apr. 7, 1987); Shelhamer v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 1987 WL 10702, at *1 (E.D. Pa. May 11, 1987).\n\n309. 1986 appears to be a slight aberration in this trend. In part, this may be understood as a reaction to the conclusion of the \\textit{Common Issues Trial}. Cases that had been transferred to\n\nto substantive opinions is a key element of the maturation of the congregation of Bendectin cases. By 1987, most nonsubstantive legal questions had been resolved, and cases were being decided on the merits. The fact that fewer and fewer cases addressed procedural questions\\(^{310}\\) also signifies that relatively few new cases were entering the stream and that depletion was underway. Figure 4 indicates that as the percentage of substantive opinions rises in a case congregation, so too does the percentage of final dispositions.\n\nFinally, an examination of the last three or four years of trial court opinions indicates that Merrell's motions for summary judgement, directed verdict, and judgment n.o.v. have increasingly been granted. This trend is, in large part, a response to appellate court opinions concerning Bendectin. It is to those appellate opinions that we now turn.\n\nb. Appellate Court Opinions\n\nI have found a total of thirty-six appellate opinions concerning Bendectin. This figure includes both published opinions and unpublished opinions available on the legal databases. The thirty-six opinions represent twenty-eight cases. Table 8\\(^{311}\\) lists the opinions in chronological order.\\(^{312}\\) As one would expect, the volume of appellate opinions has lagged behind the trial opinions, peaking in 1988.\n\nMost of these opinions did not follow a trial on the merits below, and those that did tend to have come relatively later in the series, again indicating the maturation of the Bendectin congregation.\\(^{313}\\) The early nontrial cases involved one of two issues: jurisdictional questions, or the inclusion of defendants other than Merrell. The jurisdictional questions usually involved foreign national plaintiffs hoping to find an American forum. As noted earlier, all eventually were excluded on forum non conveniens grounds. The non-Merrell defendant cases involved pharmacists or treating physicians against whom there was no specific claim except that they were in the chain of distribution.\n\nThe nontrial opinions of the last two or three years have been much more likely to involve substantive questions. They address questions\n\n---\n\n\\(^{310}\\) From 1988 to the present, only two opinions have not involved motions for summary judgment, directed verdict, or judgment n.o.v.\n\n\\(^{311}\\) Table 8 is found in Appendix A.\n\n\\(^{312}\\) Again, memorandum opinions and the like have been excluded from the table.\n\n\\(^{313}\\) See infra app. A, tbl. 8, col. 3.\n\nsuch as whether the plaintiffs have shown specific causation, whether they have shown by a preponderance of the evidence that Bendectin causes defects, and whether they have presented a qualified expert on the causation issue. Since 1987, all but three of the opinions have been final dispositions, yet another sign of the maturation and impending old age of the Bendectin congregation.\n\nMost of the nontrial opinions are relatively short and deal only with the specific issue under review. The opinions that followed full trials are substantially longer and often review the evidence presented at trial. These opinions reveal more fully the appellate courts' reactions to the body of fact and law that has developed as the congregation of cases has matured. There are nine such opinions. Table 9 presents information about these nine cases. One notable feature of these cases is that all except the Common Issues Trial involved a limb defect injury. While there are epidemiological studies that have found significant correlations between Bendectin and congenital heart defects, pyloric stenosis, and oral clefts, there appears to be no published epidemiological study that has found a statistically significant correlation between Bendectin ingestion and limb defects. Nevertheless, these cases have gone farthest through the appellate process, presumably because they involve the most serious injuries and the largest potential damage awards. Physically, psychologically, and perhaps financially, these tend to be the most devastating injuries for the child and his or her parents. For a contingency fee lawyer, they are the cases most worth pursuing, the cases whose expected value justifies the high costs involved in pursuing recovery.\n\n314. A common example involved plaintiffs with limb deformities who could not show that Bendectin caused their particular injuries because the mother did not ingest the product during the critical period when limb buds were forming.\n\n315. One of these three opinions, Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals v. Oxendine, 593 A.2d 1023 (D.C. 1991), is not final in the sense that the appellate court has refused to allow the plaintiff to collect compensatory damages until her punitive damages claim has been settled. Id. at 1030.\n\n316. Most trials that have gone to verdict have produced at least one appellate opinion. As far as I can determine, only three of the American trials have not led to an appeal, each having ended in a defense judgment, by either jury verdict, directed verdict, or judgment n.o.v.\n\n317. Table 9 is found in Appendix A.\n\n318. See infra app. A, tbl. 9, at col. 2.\n\n319. There is something especially horrific about a visible limb reduction defect that in some ways sets it apart from other defects. The financial burden created by such defects varies depending on the seriousness of the injury. For seriously deformed children the cost of care can be quite high. For those less seriously injured, however, the out of pocket financial cost may be less than it is for some other injuries, such has heart defects.\n\n320. See Coffee, supra note 212, at 881.\n\nThe more recent trials, those that occurred in 1987-1988, resulted in plaintiffs' verdicts. As noted earlier, however, as of this writing only the Oxendine verdict has survived the entire appellate process.\\textsuperscript{321} In several cases, the trial judge directed the verdict or entered judgment n.o.v. Most remarkably, in recent cases appellate courts have reversed jury verdicts on which the trial judge has entered judgment. Over time, the appellate courts have taken a very aggressive posture toward the Bendectin Cases.\\textsuperscript{322} The following discussion examines this trend within the context of a case congregation analysis.\n\nAll Bendectin cases pose the same general causation issue. Viewing the litigation from the congregation perspective, one would expect that over time the courts would come to a more complete understanding of the facts of the cases. A question to be asked about case congregations is whether, at some point, courts are prepared to act on that understanding and make substantive determinations in individual cases based upon knowledge drawn from the congregation as a whole. With respect to Bendectin, the answer is yes.\n\n\\textsuperscript{321} See supra note 230 and accompanying text.\n\n\\textsuperscript{322} This assertion, especially as it refers to substantive rationing, applies most clearly to appellate opinions following jury verdicts. When ruling on summary judgment motions, appellate courts have exhibited much greater reluctance to cut off plaintiffs' claims based merely on the courts' understanding of the Bendectin science. For example, in DeLuca v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 911 F.2d 941 (3d Cir. 1990), a scientifically sophisticated opinion, the court reversed a summary judgment in favor of Merrell that was based on the trial court's conclusion that the evidence offered by plaintiff's only expert was inadmissible under Federal Rule of Evidence 703 because it was not reasonably relied on by experts in the relevant field. The appellate court objected to the sketchy record upon which this ruling was based:\n\nFollowing Merrell Dow's lead, the district court did not point to specific deficiencies in the data utilized by Dr. Done and while it cited Rule 703, it made no record-supported, factual finding that Dr. Done had relied upon data experts in the field would have considered unreliable . . . . In only two brief sentences of its opinion did the district court address Dr. Done's statistical analysis of the available epidemiological evidence . . . .\n\n. . . . [I]ts cursory ruling that Done's testimony was inadequate under Rule 703 does not comply with the standard set forth in Japanese [Electronics] Products Litigation [723 F.2d 238 (3d Cir. 1983)], as it was not predicated upon a record-supported, factual finding that Done relied upon identified data not regarded as reliable by experts in the field.\n\nId. at 944, 953.\n\nNonetheless, the court noted in conclusion:\n\n[Elven if Dr. Done's epidemiological analysis is found to be admissible, the DeLucas are entitled to get to trial only if the district court is satisfied that this analysis together with any other evidence relevant to the causation issue would permit a jury finding that Amy's birth defects were, when measured against the appropriate burden of proof, caused by her mother's exposure to Bendectin.\n\nId. at 959.\n\nI have analyzed the way each appellate opinion approaches the evidence on Bendectin. In Table 9 each opinion is coded as exhibiting a legalistic, scientific, or legal-scientific approach to the pharmacological and epidemiological evidence presented at trial. An opinion is coded legalistic if it: (1) reviews the jury verdict and trial judge determinations using a set of legal formulas concerning admissible evidence, the burden of proof, judicial discretion, and the allocation of tasks between judge and jury; and (2) does not look behind the statements of qualified experts to assess the merits of the experts' opinions. An opinion is coded scientific when a court adopts an aggressive, proactive posture toward the evidence and the experts who presented it. These scientific opinions exhibit, to varying degrees, three characteristics: (1) the court places weights on the various types of evidence (in vitro, in vivo, or epidemiological); (2) the court examines and makes a substantive assessment of the evidence upon which an expert or set of experts have based their opinions; and (3) as a part of this assessment the court emphasizes formal scientific criteria of probative value, especially peer review and publication in refereed journals.\n\nAs the Bendectin congregation has worked its way through the legal system, opinions have become more scientific, and the courts have\n\n---\n\n323. There is a deeper sense in which an opinion can be \"scientific.\" There is a fundamental difference between the process of explanation engaged in by scientists and the process of attribution. See H.L.A. HART & TONY HONORE, CAUSATION IN THE LAW 68-83 (2d ed. 1985). As Hamilton notes, the search for a causal explanation involves an inquiry into the cause of an unexpected or puzzling effect. The outcome is a causal inference, and the key processing rule is a covariation principle. The process of attribution, on the other hand, involves a determination as to whether some effect can be assigned to a cause such that the cause is liable for sanctions. The outcome is a responsibility judgment and the key processing rule is whether someone \"could have done otherwise.\" V. Lee Hamilton, Intuitive Psychologist or Intuitive Lawyer? Alternative Models of the Attribution Process, 39 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 767, 768 (1980). The opinions I have coded \"scientific\" are not fully scientific in this deeper sense. They still are about the business of attributing responsibility and they sometimes blur the explanation-attribution distinction. It is fair to say, however, that the opinions I have coded \"scientific\" are in fact more scientific in the explanation sense than are most appellate opinions. Scientists, presumably, will feel comfortable with these opinions. Within the legal community, however, they seem to create a sense of unease.\n\n324. More specifically, appellate opinions have become more scientific when they involve a jury verdict for the plaintiff. In cases where the jury found for the defense, the courts have issued relatively legalistic opinions rejecting a number of plaintiffs arguments as to reversible error at trial. One such case is Wilson v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 893 F.2d 1149 (10th Cir. 1990). Even in Wilson, however, the court's position was not purely legalistic. In responding to the plaintiff's contention that the trial court erred in denying their motion for judgment n.o.v. or a new trial, the court said:\n\nMerrell Dow presented expert testimony, which was not contradicted by the Wilsons' experts, that of the approximately forty epidemiological studies of Bendectin, none has shown a statistically significant association between ingestion of the drug\n\nshown less willingness to leave factual determinations to the jury.\\textsuperscript{325} Finally, with the development of a body of cases assessing the merits of the evidence, at least one appellate court (and two trial courts ruling on summary judgment motions)\\textsuperscript{326} have reverted to a legalistic analysis, but a legalistic analysis with a twist. In these cases, the courts did not review or assess the evidence. They simply accepted the earlier appellate assessment of the evidence as a matter of law. I have coded these opinions legal-scientific. The following passages demonstrate each of the three types of opinion.\n\n(i) \\textit{Oxendine}\n\nThe clearest example of a legalistic appellate opinion is \\textit{Oxendine}.\\textsuperscript{327} The court in \\textit{Oxendine} reversed the trial judge, who had granted judgment n.o.v. and ordered a new trial on the ground that the jury's verdict for the plaintiff was against the great weight of the evidence. The appellate court relied heavily on \\textit{Ferebee v. Chevron Chemical Co.},\\textsuperscript{328} a case involving the question whether paraquat exposure causes pulmonary fibrosis. It favorably quoted the following passage from that opinion:\n\nJudges, both trial and appellate, have no special competence to resolve the complex and refractory causal issues raised by the attempt to link low level exposure to toxic chemicals with human disease. On questions such as these, which stand at the frontier of current medical and epidemiological inquiry, if experts are willing to testify that such a link exists, it is for the jury to decide whether to credit such testimony.\\textsuperscript{329}\n\n\\textsuperscript{325} Randall Terrell originally drew this pattern to my attention, and I am strongly indebted to his insight.\n\n\\textsuperscript{326} The two are Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 727 F. Supp. 570 (S.D. Cal. 1989), and Turpin v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 736 F. Supp. 737 (E.D. Ky. 1990). Still, trial courts have not uniformly accepted the lead of \\textit{Richardson, Brock,} and \\textit{Ealy} by finding as a matter of law that Bendectin is not a teratogen. See, e.g., Barton v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. C85-0028J, 1990 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 8010, at *2 (D. Utah May 31, 1990) (directed verdict affirmed, though court emphasized importance of jury trials in Bendectin cases because of complex factual causation questions).\n\n\\textsuperscript{327} Oxendine v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals, 518 A.2d 1100 (D.C. 1986).\n\n\\textsuperscript{328} 736 F.2d 1529 (D.C. Cir. 1984).\n\n\\textsuperscript{329} \\textit{Id.} at 1534, quoted in \\textit{Oxendine}, 506 A.2d at 1104.\n\nThe *Oxendine* court concluded its review of the trial with the following observation:\n\nAlthough the trial in this case was long and the evidence complex, the issue before the jury was a straightforward one: did Bendectin cause appellant's birth defects? Expert witnesses testified at length on both sides of that issue. Not surprisingly, their testimony revealed a disagreement as to how the epidemiological and other data should be interpreted. \"The case was thus a classic battle of the experts, a battle in which the jury must decide the victor.\"330\n\nThe *Oxendine* opinion, standing as it does at the beginning of the Bendectin congregation, is a clear example of a legalistic opinion. As the congregation matured, more scientific opinions began to emerge.\n\n(ii) *Richardson*\n\nIf the *Common Issues Trial* is the most important trial in the Bendectin Cases, the most important appellate opinion is *Richardson v. Richardson-Merrell*.331 Unlike *Oxendine*, in *Richardson* the court affirmed a trial court's grant of judgment n.o.v.332 As in all the opinions coded \"scientific,\" the *Richardson* court exhibited an unwillingness to accept expert opinion without examining its scientific underpinnings:333\n\n---\n\n330. *Oxendine*, 506 A.2d at 1110 (quoting *Ferebee*, 736 F.2d at 1535).\n\n331. 857 F.2d 823 (D.C. Cir. 1988).\n\n332. Judge Jackson granted judgment n.o.v. on the basis of Merrell's epidemiological evidence. He concluded, \"the literature on Bendectin, individually and in the aggregate, fails to demonstrate Bendectin's teratogenicity to a scientifically acceptable degree of accuracy.\" *Richardson v. Richardson-Merrell*, 649 F. Supp. 799, 802 (D. Mass. 1986).\n\n333. An early appellate opinion to take a scientific approach to the data is *Lynch v. Merrell-Nat'l Lab.*, 830 F.2d 1190 (1st Cir. 1987). Although *Lynch* did not follow a trial—the trial judge had granted Merrell's motion for summary judgment—it did contain a lengthy discussion of the data. Typical of the opinion was the court's discussion of the proffered testimony of Dr. Shanna Swan:\n\nThe plaintiffs also offered the opinion evidence of Shanna Helen Swan, a holder of a 1963 doctorate in statistics from the University of California at Berkeley. Swan had served from 1969 to 1975 as senior biostatistician in a Kaiser Health contraceptive drug study; been associate professor of mathematics at California State University, Sonoma, from 1974 to 1979; directed between 1979 and 1981 the training program in biostatistics and epidemiology at the School of Public Health of the University of California, Berkeley; and, while remaining in this school, has been since 1981 the chief of the Methodology and Analysis Unit, Epidemiology and Statistics, Department of Health Services of the State of California.\n\nSwan's opinion as to causation was based upon her reanalysis of data collected between 1970 and 1978 by the Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program. This data had been previously analyzed by four members of the Center for Disease Control . . . . [T]he researchers found \"weak\" but not causal relationship between the use of Bendectin and amniotic bands and concluded that the study \"excluded\" a risk of limb reduction from the use of Bendectin.\n\nSwan testified in the multi-district litigation in Cincinnati, and the district court here took note of her testimony as it was excerpted by the defendant . . . . ComparThe question whether Bendectin causes limb reduction defects is scientific in nature, and it is to the scientific community that the law must look for the answer. For this reason, expert witnesses are indispensable in a case such as this. But that is not to say that the court's hands are inexorably tied, or that it must accept uncritically any sort of opinion espoused by an expert merely because his credentials render him qualified to testify . . . .\n\nNext, the court distinguished among various types of evidence. *In vitro* and *in vivo* evidence was relegated to no more than a secondary role when compared to epidemiological studies:\n\nThese three types of studies then—chemical, *in vitro*, and *in vivo*—cannot furnish a sufficient foundation for a conclusion that Bendectin caused the birth defects at issue in this case. Studies of this kind, singly or in combination, are not capable of proving causation in human beings in the face of the overwhelming body of contradictory epidemiological evidence. Perhaps mindful of this, the last type of evidence considered by Dr. Done consisted of the epidemiological studies. When such studies are available and relevant, and particularly when they are numerous and span a significant period of time, they assume a very important role in determinations of questions of causation.\n\nThird, the court judged the probative value of evidence, in part by the rules science would use to make such a judgment—whether the results have been published in a refereed journal and whether they have been subjected to peer review: \"Only by recalculating the data was Dr. Done able to obtain what he deems a statistically significant result. Moreover, the studies rejected by Dr. Done had been published in peer-reviewed scientific journals, while Dr. Done has neither published his recalculation nor offered them for peer review.\"\n\nInforming the court's approach to the evidence was its own recognition that *Richardson* did not stand alone, but rather was part of a congregation of cases. On this basis, the court rejected its own previous analysis in *Ferebee* of the proper posture of courts to conflicting scientific evidence:\n\n---\n\n334. *Richardson*, 857 F.2d at 829.\n\n335. *Id.* at 830.\n\n336. *Id.* at 831.\n\nThe Richardsons, however, direct attention to our decision in Ferebee v. Chevron Chemical Co. . . . We think reliance thereon is misplaced here. . . . Ferebee stands for the proposition that courts should be very reluctant to alter a jury's verdict when the causation issue is novel and \"stand[s] at the frontier of current medical and epidemiological inquiry.\" If experts are willing to testify to causation in such situations and their methodology is sound, the jury's verdict should not be disturbed.\n\nThe case before us, however, is not like Ferebee. Indeed, we are at the other end of the spectrum, a great distance from the \"frontier of current medical and epidemiological inquiry.\" And far from a paucity of scientific information on the oft-asserted claim of causal relationship of Bendectin and birth defects, the drug has been extensively studied and a wealth of published epidemiological data has been amassed, none of which has concluded that the drug is teratogenic. Uniquely to this case, the law now has the benefit of twenty years of scientific study, and the published results must be given their just due.\\textsuperscript{337}\n\nIn spite of this language, Richardson might be thought of as an early scientific opinion. The court was not fully confident of its separate analysis of the evidence. It presented a significant excerpt from the testimony of Dr. Done, one of the plaintiffs' key experts, designed to demonstrate that even if the court were to accept plaintiffs' expert testimony at face value, the plaintiffs' experts themselves were unable to conclude that Bendectin more likely than not causes birth defects:\n\nDr. Done himself conceded the import of this literature when he agreed on cross-examination that \"in connection with the animal studies . . . because so many substances are teratogenic in animals, before you can make a conclusion that a substance is teratogenic in humans, you must look to the human data.\" Dr. Done also acknowledged the necessity of a statistically significant association between the drug and its effect in human populations . . .\n\nDr. Done further admitted that no one who has published work on Bendectin has concluded that there is a statistically significant association between Bendectin and limb reduction defects of the type at issue in this case.\\textsuperscript{338}\n\nBased on this analysis of Dr. Done's testimony the court of appeals concluded that his opinion concerning the teratogenicity of Bendectin lacked an adequate foundation and was therefore inadmissible.\\textsuperscript{339}\n\n(iii) Brock\n\nThe court in Brock v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals\\textsuperscript{340} exhibited no such uncertainty about the reallocation of tasks between judge and jury:\n\n\\textsuperscript{337.} \\textit{Id.} at 831-32 (footnotes omitted) (emphasis in original).\n\\textsuperscript{338.} \\textit{Id.} at 830-31.\n\\textsuperscript{339.} \\textit{Id.} at 831-32.\n\\textsuperscript{340.} 874 F.2d 307 (5th Cir.), \\textit{modified}, 884 F.2d 166 (5th Cir. 1989).\n\nThis case is one of a series of many cases filed against Merrell-Dow by parents of children with birth defects allegedly caused by the ingestion of Bendectin during pregnancy. Academic commentators have dubbed this case and others like it \"mass toxic torts.\" This represents a growing realization among academics, lawyers, and judges that cases such as this present special problems and challenges to traditional ideas regarding the role of the jury as a decision maker.\n\n...\n\nUnder the traditional approach to scientific evidence, courts would not peer beneath the reasoning of medical experts to question their reasoning. Confronted, as we now are, with difficult medical questions, courts must critically evaluate the reasoning process by which the experts connect data to their conclusions in order for courts to consistently and rationally resolve the disputes before them.\\textsuperscript{341}\n\nAs in \\textit{Richardson}, the court was particularly concerned with the fact that \\textit{Brock} was one of a long string of cases. The \\textit{Brock} court, however, added a further justification for a scientific approach to the data. It argued that courts should be more willing to intervene because inconsistent jury verdicts are particularly undesirable in situations where the same facts are tried over and over:\n\nMoreover, in mass torts the same issue is often presented over and over to juries in different cases, and the juries often split both ways on the issue. The effect of this is to create a state of uncertainty among manufacturers contemplating the research and development of new, and potentially lifesaving drugs. Appellate courts, if they take the lead in resolving those questions upon which juries will go both ways, can reduce some of the uncertainty which can tend to produce a sub-optimal amount of new drug development.\\textsuperscript{342}\n\n(iv) \\textit{Ealy}\n\nOnce a body of cases assessing the merits of the evidence has developed, courts may adopt a legalistic analysis that no longer reviews evidence, but accepts earlier appellate assessments of the evidence. The quotation from Junius at the beginning of this essay captures the essence of this phenomenon: \"What yesterday was fact, today is doctrine.\"\\textsuperscript{343} \\textit{Ealy v. Richardson-Merrell},\\textsuperscript{344} is a case in this tradition. In \\textit{Ealy}, as in \\textit{Brock}, the appellate court took the particularly aggressive step of reversing a trial court judgment entered on a plaintiff's verdict. Unlike \\textit{Brock}, however, the \\textit{Ealy} court justified this action not by directly attacking the\n\n\\textsuperscript{341}. \\textit{Id.} at 309-10 (citations omitted).\n\\textsuperscript{342}. \\textit{Id.} at 310.\n\\textsuperscript{343}. \\textit{DEDICATION TO THE ENGLISH NATION}, supra note 1, reprinted in \\textit{FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS} at 1001.\n\\textsuperscript{344}. 897 F.2d 1159 (D.C. Cir.), \\textit{cert. denied}, 111 S. Ct. 370 (1990).\n\nplaintiff’s experts or their evidence but by legalistically arguing that it was following the earlier Richardson opinion:\n\nWe find that this case is squarely within the binding rule articulated in Richardson: an expert opinion that Bendectin is a human teratogen which caused the plaintiff’s birth defects is without scientific foundation under Federal Rule of Evidence 703 in the face of “a wealth of published epidemiological data” to the contrary. Accordingly such expert opinion is inadmissible. Because we discern no material difference between the evidence presented in Richardson and that presented in this case, we reverse the trial court’s denial of the motion for judgment n.o.v.\n\n. . . .\n\nBecause Richardson provides a binding legal precedent governing the admissibility of expert opinion on the ability of Bendectin to cause human birth defects, the Ealys can only avoid that decision by showing that the record here is materially different from that in Richardson. We find no such difference.345\n\nAlthough the language of the opinion appears to hold out the potential that the plaintiffs might present new or additional data to avoid the precedential effect of Richardson, as a practical matter this is impossible. No in vitro or in vivo study will overcome the body of existing epidemiological evidence. And since Bendectin has not been on the market since 1983, there appear to be no significant data sets remaining that could cast new light on its teratogenic effects. As a matter of law, Bendectin does not cause birth defects.\n\nc. A Defense Bias?\n\nThese Bendectin opinions followed in the wake of and were clearly influenced by Judge Weinstein’s similarly “scientific” finding for the defense in the Agent Orange opt-out opinion.346 The Brock case divided the Fifth Circuit along apparently political lines.347 In light of these two circumstances, a natural question is whether what I have called substan-\n\n345. Id. at 1160-62. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 90-55397, 1991 WL269803 (9th Cir. 1991), was decided too late to be discussed in this article. Daubert is a legal-scientific opinion affirming a summary judgment for the defendant based on the plaintiffs’ inability to show Bendectin caused the plaintiffs’ defects.\n\n346. In re “Agent Orange” Prod. Liab. Litig., 611 F. Supp. 1223 (E.D.N.Y. 1985), aff’d, 811 F.2d 187 (2d Cir. 1987), cert. denied, 487 U.S. 1234 (1988).\n\n347. When the Fifth Circuit ruled en banc against granting a rehearing of the case, the eight judges who voted against a rehearing had been appointed by Presidents Nixon and Reagan, while five of the six judges who dissented had been appointed by President Carter. The other dissenter, Judge Higginbotham, wrote separately, indicating that he would go even farther than the majority in crafting a rule for the judicial scrutiny of expert testimony. John Endicott, Toxic Tort Litigation in the Fifth Circuit: Rulings on the Admissibility of Expert Testimony, 5 Toxics L. Rep. (BNA) No. 10, at 349 (Aug. 8, 1990).\n\ntive rationing is part of a general drift within the federal judiciary toward a more conservative, prodefendant position.\\textsuperscript{348} Such a trend may of course play a role in these opinions, but there is reason to believe that the use of substantive rationing is more than a partisan phenomenon. Within the Bendectin Cases, not all the judges issuing scientific or legal-scientific opinions are known conservatives or Republican appointees. The \\textit{Ealy} opinion, for example, was authored by Judge Mikva, who at one time was a liberal Democratic congressman from Illinois.\n\nMore to the point, perhaps, is the question whether similar decisions will be issued, but favoring plaintiffs rather than defendants. There are reasons to think that such an outcome is unlikely.\\textsuperscript{349} From the plaintiffs' point of view, the Bendectin Cases are an example of an unsuccessful mass tort congregation. The plaintiffs have routinely met with defeat, but because of the large number of separate actions the litigation has continued for several years. \"Successful\" mass tort cases will usually have a different career. In such cases it is frequently the case that by the time the courts have come to a conclusion as to the proper substantive outcome of the congregation, the defendant has been overwhelmed by the litigation. Bankruptcy is a different form of legal rationing—one that supersedes both procedural and substantive judicial rationing. Nevertheless, if substantive rationing is the product of the forces described in this Article, we should expect that on occasion it may be used to the plaintiffs' advantage.\n\nIn this regard it is worth noting a recent effort on the part of two federal district court judges from Ohio and Texas to consolidate all asbestos cases. Among other actions taken, the Ohio judge issued an order setting a hearing date for September 1990 in Cleveland to allow the parties to nearly 60,000 outstanding asbestos claims to address the proposed\n\n\\textsuperscript{348}. See generally Henderson & Eisenberg, supra note 2.\n\n\\textsuperscript{349}. One example, perhaps, is Beshada v. Johns-Manville Prods. Corp., 90 N.J. 191, 447 A.2d 539 (1982), in which the New Jersey Supreme Court ruled that the defendant could not raise a state-of-the-art defense in an asbestos products liability case. The New Jersey court was quickly forced to retreat from this position. See Feldman v. Lederle Lab., 97 N.J. 429, 479 A.2d 374 (1984). In distinguishing \\textit{Beshada}, the court in \\textit{Feldman} stated that, \"[t]he rationale of \\textit{Beshada} is not applicable to this case. We do not overrule \\textit{Beshada}, but restrict \\textit{Beshada} to the circumstances giving rise to its holding.\" \\textit{Id.} at 455, 479 A.2d at 388. One possible interpretation of this statement is that \\textit{Beshada} came after a substantial amount of asbestos litigation in which the defendants had tried and failed to make a state-of-the-art defense. By denying the defendants this line of defense in asbestos cases, the court was engaged in substantive rationing. Such rationing was inappropriate in cases such as \\textit{Feldman} that raised a relatively new factual question: whether defendants could have known that large doses of tetracycline could discolor the teeth of infants and young children. I wish to thank Michael Green for pointing out the relevance of \\textit{Beshada} to the argument in the text.\n\ncertification of a class in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, which would enable the court to:\n\nDeclare and apply federal common law that establishes as a matter of law that asbestos-containing insulation products capable of producing dust on use, application, or removal are inherently dangerous in accordance with the governmental ban and the findings of all federal agencies that have addressed the question; and that such products were marketed without an adequate warning and were therefore, defective and unreasonably dangerous.\\(^{350}\\)\n\nThe order, issued after a meeting in August 1990 at the Federal Judicial Center, was reviewed and approved by eight other federal judges, including Judge Weinstein who is overseeing the *Manville Personal Injury Settlement Trust*.\\(^{351}\\) This effort would have settled all but the specific causation and damages questions in almost all asbestos litigation. This is additional evidence that the pressures created by a congregation of cases, and not party bias, are the primary forces moving courts toward substantive rationing.\n\n**VI. The Larger Context**\n\nThus far, the argument has focused on the specifics of the Bendectin Cases. In the previous section I discussed a particularly interesting judicial reaction to a case congregation: substantive rationing. In this last section I move beyond the Bendectin Cases to discuss more general circumstances that produce this type of judicial behavior. I conclude with some thoughts on how the judicial response to case congregations may, in turn, affect all tort law.\n\n**A. Substantive Rationing and the Judge-Jury Relationship**\n\nSubstantive rationing as evidenced in the Bendectin Cases, and perhaps soon to be seen in the asbestos cases, is the ultimate form of what Galanter calls an *outcome stabilization* effect.\\(^{352}\\) The effect, however, occurs in a way unanticipated by either Galanter's congregation theory or McGovern's cyclical theory of mass torts.\\(^{353}\\) In their models something like market forces operate over time to bring stability to the caseload and to case outcomes. The uniform outcome imposed through the use of substantive rationing is different.\\(^{354}\\) In large part, this type of outcome stabilization seems to be a reaction to the jury trial as an institution.\n\n\\(^{350}\\) *In re National Asbestos Litigation*, No. 1:90 CV 11,000 (N.D. Ohio Aug. 10, 1990) (consolidation order), quoted in 5 Toxics L. Rep. (BNA) No. 11, at 360-61 (Aug. 15, 1990).\n\n\\(^{351}\\) *Id.* at 361.\n\n\\(^{352}\\) Galanter, *Case Congregations*, supra note 8, at 389-90.\n\n\\(^{353}\\) See McGovern, *supra* note 20, at 482.\n\n\\(^{354}\\) In Calabresi's terms, it is more like specific deterrence—you cannot bring this type of\n\nSubstantive rationing, especially in tort law, reflects distrust of juries and the desire to have clear rules governing the legal consequences of certain facts. It shrinks, as much as possible, the grey area of tort encompassed by the phrase \"a mixed question of law and fact.\" The effort is the judicial equivalent of negligence per se rules, but in the Bendectin Cases the rule is one of no negligence per se. The Bendectin appellate judges who have thus restricted the jury's role are heirs to Holmes' view of the jury and the judge-jury relationship.\\textsuperscript{355} In an 1899 article Holmes commented:\n\nI confess that in my experience I have not found juries specially inspired for the discovery of truth. I have not noticed that they could see further into things or from a saner judgment than a sensible and well trained judge. I have not found them freer from prejudice than an ordinary judge would be . . . . I do not believe that the jury have any historic or a priori right to decide any standard of conduct.\\textsuperscript{356}\n\nAnd in \\textit{The Common Law}, he expressed his hope regarding the ultimate allocation of duties between judge and jury:\n\nWhen a case arises in which the standard of conduct, pure and simple, is submitted to the jury, the explanation is plain. It is that the court, not entertaining any clear views of public policy applicable to the matter, derives the rule to be applied from daily experience, as it has been agreed that the great body of the law of tort has been derived. But the court further feels that it is not itself possessed of sufficient practical experience to lay down the rule intelligently. It conceives that twelve men taken from the practical part of the community can aid its judgment. Therefore it aids its conscience by taking the opinion of the jury.\n\nBut supposing a state of facts often repeated in practice, is it to be imagined that the court is to go on leaving the standard to the jury forever?\\textsuperscript{357}\n\nThe answer for Holmes was no. In the well known case of \\textit{Baltimore & Ohio Railroad v. Goodman}\\textsuperscript{358} he had an opportunity to turn his thoughts into law in the context of a railroad crossing case:\n\nWhen a man goes upon a railroad track he knows that he goes to a place where he will be killed if a train comes upon him before he is clear of the track . . . . In such circumstances it seems to us that if a driver cannot be sure otherwise whether a train is dangerously near he must stop and get out of his vehicle . . . . It is true . . . that the question\n\n\\textsuperscript{355} The following discussion is based upon materials in GEORGE CHRISTIE, CASES AND MATERIALS ON THE LAW OF TORTS 158-64 (1983).\n\n\\textsuperscript{356} Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., \\textit{Law in Science and Science in Law}, 12 HARV. L. REV. 443, 459 (1899).\n\n\\textsuperscript{357} OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES, JR., \\textit{THE COMMON LAW} 123 (1881).\n\n\\textsuperscript{358} 275 U.S. 66 (1927).\n\nof due care very generally is left to the jury. But we are dealing with a standard of conduct, and when the standard is clear it should be laid down once for all by the Courts.\\textsuperscript{359}\n\nAs students of tort law know, Holmes' effort to ration substantive law failed. The \"once for all\" rule of stop, look, and listen lasted less than a decade, dismantled by Benjamin Cardozo in \\textit{Pokora v. Wabash Railway Co}.\\textsuperscript{360} In a roughly similar case on the facts, Justice Cardozo declared that\n\nStandards of prudent conduct are declared at times by courts, but they are taken from the facts of life. To get out of a vehicle and reconnoitre is an uncommon precaution, as everyday experience informs us. Besides being uncommon, it is very likely to be futile, and sometimes even dangerous. If the driver leaves his vehicle when he nears a cut or curve, he will learn nothing by getting out about the perils that lurk beyond. By the time he regains his seat and sets his car in motion, the hidden train may be upon him.\n\n...\n\nIllustrations such as these bear witness to the need for caution in framing standards of behavior that amount to rules of law. The need is the more urgent when there is no background of experience out of which the standards have emerged\\textsuperscript{361}\n\nNeedless to say, Holmes and Cardozo were speaking of standards of care, while the Bendectin judges are speaking of the causal question. The Holmes-Cardozo exchange deals with a relatively more normative question, while the Bendectin courts are dealing with a relatively more objective one. They share, however, a concern with which facts can give rise to liability. Like Holmes, the judges in \\textit{Richardson}, \\textit{Brock}, and \\textit{Ealy} concluded that on certain given facts there is no room left within which the jury may operate. \\textit{Pokora}, however, stands as a warning that in a common-law system facts constantly challenge rules. If Holmes had somehow hoped that eventually each fact situation would have its own pigeonhole and that eventually judges, having considered each, would determine whether it was a \"liability\" hole or a \"nonliability\" hole, \\textit{Pokora} suggests that there are too many pigeonholes to make this a practicable enterprise for all of the law of torts.\n\nThe debate about the acceptability of jury verdicts and the judiciary's obligation to intervene continues. Most frequently, it has been debated in situations where the primary evidence of liability is based on laboratory research and epidemiological studies. Charles Nesson, for example, has argued that Judge Weinstein may have erred in taking the\n\n\\textsuperscript{359} \\textit{Id.} at 69-70 (citations omitted).\n\n\\textsuperscript{360} 292 U.S. 98 (1934).\n\n\\textsuperscript{361} \\textit{Id.} at 104.\n\nAgent Orange opt out case from the jury solely on the basis of adverse epidemiological evidence.\\textsuperscript{362} Others have disagreed with this conclusion and have argued that judicial intervention is essential to control verdicts that appear to depart from “rational efforts to reconstruct reality.”\\textsuperscript{363}\n\nFrom a wider perspective the dispute is not about juries per se, but about discretionary fact finding by judge or jury. When judges sit as fact finders they too can arrive at outcomes that depart from rational efforts to reconstruct reality. Note, however, that Holmes couched his thoughts in terms of a learning process. The judge should determine the standard of care, or perhaps find the facts, when nearly identical situations have been confronted repeatedly. According to Holmes, the pressure to ration law in this way is especially strong when the court finds “the jury oscillating to and fro, and will see the necessity of making up its mind for itself.”\\textsuperscript{364} The threat of inconsistent outcomes is always a cost of allowing any case to go to the jury. As Nesson notes, “[t]he force of this consideration depends on one’s assessment of the system’s capacity to rationalize inconsistent verdicts in terms of credibility of witnesses, ability of lawyers, variations among juries, and similar considerations.”\\textsuperscript{365} Such rationalizations may prove to be most difficult where congregations of cases present the same factual question. Inconsistent verdicts by one-shot juries lacking the benefit of the learning process that a congregation of cases provides may seem offensive to a judiciary that, as a collective entity, has tried the same question many times. Therefore, we are especially likely to observe substantive rationing as a congregation matures.\\textsuperscript{366} This is all the more true when the central factual question is\n\n\\textsuperscript{362}. Charles Nesson, \\textit{Agent Orange Meets the Blue Bus: Factfinding at the Frontier of Knowledge}, 66 B.U. L. Rev. 521, 526, 537-58 (1986) [hereinafter Nesson, \\textit{Factfinding at the Frontier}]. In part, Nesson’s concern arises from his distinction between verdicts based on “a determination of what actually happened” and verdicts that are only “statements about the evidence.” Charles Nesson, \\textit{The Evidence or the Event? On Judicial Proof and the Acceptability of Verdicts}, 98 Harv. L. Rev. 1357, 1361 (1985). Under this view, outcomes based solely on epidemiological studies are statements about the evidence and ought not overcome jury verdicts that may be based on a determination of what actually happened.\n\n\\textsuperscript{363}. Ronald J. Allen, \\textit{Rationality, Mythology, and the ‘Acceptability of Verdicts’ Thesis}, 66 B.U. L. Rev. 541, 562 (1986).\n\n\\textsuperscript{364}. Holmes, \\textit{supra} note 357, at 123.\n\n\\textsuperscript{365}. Nesson, \\textit{Factfinding at the Frontier}, \\textit{supra} note 362, at 537. See, e.g., Dempsey v. Addison Crane Co., 247 F. Supp. 584 (D.D.C. 1965). In \\textit{Dempsey}, two plaintiffs injured in the same crane accident had their nonjury cases tried separately and experienced opposite outcomes. In an attempt to explain this outcome, the court was happy to be able to report that “the evidence in the two actions was not the same.” \\textit{See id.} at 589. In Bendectin cases tried since 1985, however, the evidence on the question of general causation has been basically the same.\n\n\\textsuperscript{366}. Concern with inconsistent jury verdicts is part of the reason the trial court in Lynch v. Merrell-Nat’l Lab., 646 F. Supp. 856, 862 (D. Mass. 1986), \\textit{aff’d}, 830 F.2d 1190 (1st Cir.\n\none of general causation, and therefore, by definition, the identical issue is posed time after time. Substantive rationing of law is a response to being repeatedly presented with the same fact pattern and having to determine whether the correct outcome is liability or nonliability. As the following discussion illustrates, this phenomenon is not restricted to the law of torts.\n\nB. Substantive Rationing in the School Desegregation Cases\n\nIn the several cases leading up to *Brown v. Board of Education*,\\(^{367}\\) the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the plaintiffs in large part on the basis of a factual determination that the separate schools being run by the state were not equal.\\(^{368}\\) In the four cases comprising *Brown*, the plaintiffs presented social science testimony designed to prove that separate schools caused psychological harm to black children.\\(^{369}\\) Chief Justice Warren responded to this evidence with the following statement: \"Whatever may have been the extent of psychological knowledge at the time of *Plessy v. Ferguson*, this finding [that state mandated segregation has a tendency to retard the educational and mental development of black children] is amply supported by modern authority.\"\\(^{370}\\)\n\nDefendant school boards, however, continued to attack this factual assertion, arguing that separate may not be worse, educationally or psychologically. In this congregation of cases, as in the Bendectin Cases, the challenge soon fell on deaf ears. Appellate courts refused to hear experts on the issue, rejecting the testimony as a factual attack on *Brown*.\\(^{371}\\) One expert for a school district made the following comment in the face of this substantive rationing by the courts:\n\nThe legal doctrine is cast in concrete, and that's been one of my frustrations. It's as though the evidence is really immaterial . . . . I remember in one case I was talking with the judge from the witness box, and questioning some of the testimony in *Brown*. He asked me, \"Are\n\n\\(^{367}\\) 347 U.S. 483 (1954).\n\n\\(^{368}\\) See Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629, 633-34 (1950); McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 339 U.S. 637, 640-41 (1950); Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, 305 U.S. 337, 351-52 (1938).\n\n\\(^{369}\\) Richard Kluger, *Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality* 315-45, 480-507, 700-47 (1976).\n\n\\(^{370}\\) *Brown*, 347 U.S. at 494.\n\n\\(^{371}\\) See, e.g., Jackson Mun. Sch. Dist. v. Evers, 357 F.2d 653, 655 (5th Cir. 1966); Stell v. Savannah-Chatham County Bd. Educ., 318 F.2d 425, 427 (5th Cir. 1963), cert. denied sub nom. Gibson v. Harris, 376 U.S. 908 (1964).\n\nyou questioning the facts of Brown?\" And I said \"Yes,\" and he said, \"Well, that's not admissible for you to be doing that.\"372\n\nAgain, of course, the parallel should not be overdrawn. Ultimately, in the school desegregation cases courts simply did not care whether segregated schools psychologically harmed or benefitted minority students. Presumably, in the Bendectin Cases the courts still care whether the drug causes birth defects. But in both situations, the rationing response of the courts must be understood, in part, as a natural consequence of the fact that they were adjudicating cases that came relatively late in a congregation of similar cases. In the school desegregation cases and in the Bendectin Cases, substantive rationing is the ultimate rationing weapon.\n\nVII. Conclusion: Case Congregations and the Interaction of Macro and Micro Processes\n\nThis Article began by noting Henderson and Eisenberg's assertion that all of products liability law is changing in a prodefendant direction and that the Bendectin opinions are an example of this process.373 Their data indicate that the single most important component in increased defense success in products liability cases is an increased ability to win on pretrial motion, a type of judicial rationing.374 Henderson and Eisenberg explicitly leave for a later article their thoughts as to why this \"quiet revolution\" is occurring.375 Implicit in their discussion, however, is the argument that large scale, macro changes are occurring within the law of torts, causing the judiciary to adopt a more prodefendant position.\n\nThis Article's micro level analysis, which attempts to explain case outcomes in terms of the internal dynamics of the Bendectin Cases as a congregation, can be viewed as a rival hypothesis to the thesis that the change in the courts' attitude toward Bendectin suits is to be understood as part of a larger judicial retreat from proplaintiff positions. From this perspective, the future research agenda should include efforts to determine whether what we have observed in the Bendectin Cases is merely a cohort effect (a difference to be found between all products liability cases decided in 1985 and all such cases decided in 1990), as opposed to a history effect (evidencing the maturation of the Bendectin congregation). In this sense, macro and micro explanations may be seen as rival hypotheses for the findings.\n\n372. Chesler et al., supra note 36, at 430.\n373. Henderson & Eisenberg, supra note 2, at 491.\n374. Id. at 531, 548.\n375. Id. at 482.\n\nThere is, however, another more useful perspective, one that integrates rather than divides. Macro research on large scale patterns of change that excludes an analysis of the micro processes that generate those patterns often leads to incomplete, disembodied theories of legal change.\\textsuperscript{376} Theories of micro processes enrich our theories of larger processes by placing them within the context of individual human action.\\textsuperscript{377}\n\nFrom this latter perspective, the present Article suggests that the large-scale change reported by Henderson and Eisenberg can be understood, at least in part, as a product of the growth of mass torts and the micro processes generated within individual congregations of cases. That mass torts have changed the law is now beyond doubt. As noted earlier, they have raised a new set of causal conundrums and forced us to engage in a new round of theorizing about the causal question.\\textsuperscript{378} They have raised new issues with respect to damages.\\textsuperscript{379} By causing growth in some parts of the tort caseload, they have helped precipitate another round of legislative \"tort reform.\"\\textsuperscript{380} They have reinvigorated the search for alternatives to the traditional tort system.\\textsuperscript{381} This Article suggests that they may also have influenced the judiciary's approach to tort law by creating incentives for both procedural and substantive rationing.\\textsuperscript{382}\n\nThe Bendectin Cases alone would not have such an effect, but mass torts in general have become the primary growth area of tort law, constituting an increasingly larger part of the total caseload.\\textsuperscript{383} Their importance in terms of the judicial time they consume is even greater than is suggested by their percentage of the overall caseload. Each mass tort is a\n\n\\textsuperscript{376}. Sanders, \\textit{supra} note 46, at 241.\n\n\\textsuperscript{377}. James Coleman, \\textit{Foundations of Social Theory} 18-23 (1990).\n\n\\textsuperscript{378}. See Rosenberg, \\textit{supra} note 215, at 855-59.\n\n\\textsuperscript{379}. Mark Peterson et al., \\textit{Punitive Damages: Empirical Findings} 5-31 (1987).\n\n\\textsuperscript{380}. Sanders & Joyce, \\textit{supra} note 89, at 212.\n\n\\textsuperscript{381}. See Stephen Sugarman, \\textit{Doing Away With Personal Injury Law} (1989) (surveying contemporary attempts to reform tort law and advancing several new proposals).\n\n\\textsuperscript{382}. The Fifth Circuit, home of \\textit{Brock}, has perhaps been most aggressive in applying substantive rationing to cases that are not part of a congregation. \\textit{See, e.g.}, Christophersen v. Allied Signal Corp., 902 F.2d 362 (5th Cir. 1990), aff'd en banc, 939 F.2d 1106 (5th Cir. 1991). In \\textit{Christophersen}, the Fifth Circuit affirmed the district court's grant of summary judgment for the defendant against a claim that the plaintiff had not been adequately warned of the cancer causing potential of chemicals and other materials used in the manufacture of nickel-cadmium batteries. The district court had granted summary judgment after reviewing the qualifications of plaintiff's sole expert witness and the factual basis of that expert's opinion on causation. \\textit{Id.} at 364.\n\n\\textsuperscript{383}. Galanter, \\textit{Life and Times of the Big Six}, \\textit{supra} note 242, at 937; Deborah Hensler, \\textit{Trends in Tort Litigation: Findings from the Institute for Civil Justice's Research}, 48 Ohio St. L.J. 479, 480-83, 495-96 (1987).\n\ncongregation, subject to similar pressures to ration legal resources.\\textsuperscript{384} Moreover, there are types of cases rarely thought of as mass torts that exhibit some, or even most, of the features of mass torts. Specifically, many products liability design defect cases, another growth area of tort law,\\textsuperscript{385} present the courts with the same problems: repetitive trial of similar facts; substantial consumption of time; and the likelihood of inconsistent jury verdicts.\\textsuperscript{386} These problems are part of the congregational effects that caused \"scientific\" opinions like \\textit{Richardson}, \\textit{Brock}, and \\textit{Ealy} to be written. In the Bendectin Cases, the problems have driven the judiciary to play an even more active role in rationing law than suggested by Galanter's congregation theory. Outcome stabilization has come not through the market forces of litigation but through the central planning of the federal judiciary.\n\nIn sum, this Article confirms the insights of Emerson and Galanter, that the analysis of litigation from a perspective other than that of the individual, atomized case offers us a new and better understanding of case processing and case outcomes. The Bendectin congregation does exhibit many of the features hypothesized by Galanter, and thereby demonstrates the value of this line of analysis. But it holds out the potential to do even more. The analysis of this and other congregations may provide a new window into the way in which, over time, individual decisions of lawyers and judges create fundamental shifts in the common law.\n\n\\textsuperscript{384}. The mass inoculation cases (DTP, Polio, and Swine Flu) provide one example. In these cases, courts became increasingly reluctant to allow cases to go to the jury. \\textit{E.g.}, Johnson v. American Cyanamid Co., 239 Kan. 279, 718 P.2d 1318 (1986) (trial court erred in submitting issue of polio vaccine manufacturer's liability to jury). Ultimately, legislative rationing occurred in the form of the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act of 1986, 42 U.S.C. §§ 300aa-1 to -34 (1988).\n\n\\textsuperscript{385}. Design defect cases appear to have risen over time as a percentage of all products liability cases. \\textit{Compare} 3 INTERAGENCY TASK FORCE ON PRODUCT LIABILITY, U.S. DEP'T OF COMMERCE, PRODUCT LIABILITY: FINAL REPORT OF THE LEGAL STUDY 84-85 (1977) (reporting that 39% of all products liability cases were design defect cases) \\textit{with} ALLIANCE OF AM. INSURERS, A STUDY OF LARGE PRODUCT LIABILITY CLAIMS CLOSED IN 1985 (1985) (finding that defective design was the applicable theory in 75% of the cases).\n\n\\textsuperscript{386}. Products liability warning defect cases can also result in the repetitive trial of similar facts, with the attendant potential for inconsistent verdicts. In fact, some of the most important mass tort case congregations, such as asbestos and the polio vaccine, are litigated as warning defect cases. For a critique of this approach, see James A. Henderson & Aaron Twerski, \\textit{Doctrinal Collapse in Products Liability: The Empty Shell of Failure to Warn}, 65 N.Y.U. L. REV. 265 (1990). With respect to these and other warning cases, Henderson and Twerski \"urge that judges engage more aggressively in both lawmaking and law-applying.\" \\textit{Id.} at 326.\n\n## Appendix A\n\n### Tables\n\n#### Table 1\n**Bendectin Animal Studies**\n\n| Author | Year (1) | Animal | Exp/Con N (3) | Drug (4) | Effect? (5) | Defect Type (6) | Dose (7) | Dose Resp (8) | Auth Conc. (9) |\n|----------|----------|------------|---------------|----------|-------------|-----------------|----------|----------------|----------------|\n| 1. Gibson| 1968 | Rabbits | 36/13 | Do | No | — | (100) | No | No |\n| | | Rabbits | 22/10 | Di | No | — | (100) | No | No |\n| | | Rabbits | 38/14 | B3 | Yes | Other<sup>a</sup> | 6 | Yes | No |\n| | | Rats | 88/39 | Do | No | — | (100) | No | No |\n| | | Rats | 90/30 | Di | Yes | Other<sup>b</sup> | 10 | No | No |\n| | | Rats | 36/24 | B3 | No | — | (30) | No | No |\n| 2. Khera | 1975 | Rats | 22/10 | Py | No | — | (80) | No | No |\n| 3. Gibson| 1975 | Rats | 45/15 | B2 | Yes | Other<sup>c</sup> | 15 | No | No |\n| 4. Gibson| 1975 | Rabbits | 45/15 | B2 | No | — | (150) | No | No |\n| 5. McBride| 1981 | Chicken Eggs | 252/96 | Di | Yes | Other<sup>d</sup> | — | Yes | Yes |\n| 6. Hendrickx (8)| 1982 | Monkeys | 12/0 | B2 | Yes | Heart | 7 | ? | Maybe |\n| 7. Hendrickx (9)| 1983 | Monkeys | 20/0 | B2 | Yes | Heart | 7 | ? | Maybe |\n| 8. McBride| 1984 | Rabbits | 48/8 | Do | Yes | Limb, Skeletal Heart | 20 | Yes | Yes |\n| 9. Hendrickx (11)| 1985a | Monkeys | 74/12 | B2 | Yes | — | 7 | No | Yes |\n| 10. Hendrickx (12)| 1985b | Monkeys | 69/21 | B2 | No | — | (13) | No | No |\n| 11. Tyl | 1988 | Rats | 116/53 | B2 | Yes | Skeletal Death | 200 | Yes | No |\n\n**Information Reported (by column number):**\n\n(1) Year in which the research was published.\n\n(2) Animals studied: white rats, rabbits, chicken eggs, or monkeys.\n\n(3) Number of mothers in the experimental and control groups.\n\n(4) Drug tested:\n - Di = dicyclomine hydrochloride\n - Do = doxylamine succinate\n - Py = pyridoxine hydrochloride\n - B2 = two ingredient Bendectin (doxylamine succinate and pyridoxine hydrochloride)\n - B3 = three ingredient Bendectin.\n\n(5) Did the use of the drug appear to be related to some teratogenic effect?\n\n(6) Type of effect: heart, limb, skeletal, death, other (see below).\n\n(7) Minimum dose at which effect was observed. Dosages are expressed in mg/kg/day except in study 3. Where there was no observed effect this column reports (in parentheses) the maximum dose rate in the experiment. For purposes of comparison, the therapeutic dose for pregnant women was 2 to 4 tablets a day, each tablet containing 10mg of each ingredient. The dose for a woman weighing 60kg (132 lbs.) taking 4 tablets per day is .67mg/kg/day per Bendectin ingredient. Unlike the rest of the studies, Study 5—the 1981 McBride Study—involved injecting dicyclomine hydrochloride (or a saline solution for the controls) into Leghorn chicken eggs.\n\n(8) Was there a dose-response relationship?\n\n(9) Author’s conclusion as to whether the drug tested has teratogenic effects?\n\n**Other Effects (Column 6):**\n- a. Contracted tendons.\n- b. Focal hematomas.\n- c. Kidney pelvic dilation, subcutaneous hematomas.\n- d. Gastroschisis, deformed foot, micromelia, encephaly.\n\n## Table 2\n\n**Bendectin Epidemiological Studies**\n\n| First Author | Year | Type of Study* | Focus on Bendectin | Level of Stat. Anal.† | Author's conclus. | Data Base‡ |\n|--------------|------|----------------|--------------------|-----------------------|------------------|------------|\n| 1. Le Vann | 1963 | Cohort | No | 1 | No | 24 |\n| 2. Bunde | 1963 | Cohort | Yes | 1 | No | 9 |\n| 3. Warneke | 1963 | Other | Yes | 1 | No | 27 |\n| 4. GPRG | 1963 | Cohort | No | 2 | No | 10 |\n| 5. Klees | 1964 | Other | Yes | 1 | No | 28 |\n| 6. Farrar | 1964 | Case | No | 2 | No | 23 |\n| 7. Yerushalmy| 1965 | Cohort | No | 2 | No | 6 |\n| 8. Banister | 1970 | Other | No | 1 | No | 25 |\n| 9. Nelson | 1971 | Case | No | 2 | No | 11 |\n| 10. Milkovitch| 1976 | Cohort | No | 3 | No | 6 |\n| 11. Newman | 1977 | Cohort | No | 1 | No | 20 |\n| 12. Shafaro | 1977 | Cohort | Yes | 5 | No | 1 |\n| 13. Greenberg| 1977 | Case | No | 1 | No | 15 |\n| 14. Smith | 1977 | Case | No | 1 | No | 25 |\n| 15. Smithells | 1978 | Cohort | Yes | 1 | No | 17 |\n| 16. Rothman | 1979 | Case | No | 3 | Maybe | 4 |\n| 17. Michaelis| 1980 | Cohort | Yes | 4 | No | 26 |\n| 18. Harron | 1980 | Other | Yes | 1 | No | 12 |\n| 19. Jick | 1981 | Cohort | No | 3 | No | 7 |\n| 20. Fleming | 1981 | Cohort | Yes | 3 | No | 13 |\n| 21. Clarke | 1981 | Case | Yes | 3 | No | 16 |\n| 22. Correy | 1981 | Cohort | Yes | 1 | No | 20 |\n| 23. Cordero | 1981 | Case | Yes | 4 | Maybe | 8 |\n| 24. Mitchell | 1981 | Case | Yes | 3 | No | 3 |\n| 25. Gibson | 1981 | Cohort | Yes | 5 | Maybe | 22 |\n| 26. Eskenazi | 1982 | Case | Yes | 5 | Maybe | 5 |\n| 27. David | 1982 | Other | Yes | 1 | No | 19 |\n| 28. Morelock | 1982 | Cohort | Yes | 4 | No | 2 |\n| 29. Golding | 1983 | Case | Yes | 4 | Maybe | 14 |\n| 30. Aselton | 1983 | Cohort | Yes | 4 | No | 7 |\n| 31. Michaelis| 1983 | Cohort | No | 3 | No | 26 |\n| 32. Mitchell | 1983 | Case | Yes | 4 | No | 3 |\n| 33. Aselton | 1984 | Cohort | Yes | 3 | Maybe | 7 |\n| 34. McCredie | 1984 | Case | Yes | 3 | No | 21 |\n| 35. Zierler | 1985 | Case | Yes | 4 | No | 4 |\n| 36. Elbourne | 1985 | Case | Yes | 4 | No | 18 |\n| 37. Aselton | 1985 | Cohort | No | 3 | No | 7 |\n| 38. Shitono | 1989 | Cohort | Yes | 3 | No | 1 |\n| 39. Erickson | 1991 | Case | No | 4 | No | 8 |\n\n*a.* Type of Study (Column 2):\n- Case = Case-Control study\n- Cohort = Cohort study\n- Other = A study that is neither of the above.\n\n*b.* Levels of Statistical Analysis (Column 4):\n- 1 = None\n- 2 = Chi-square only\n- 3 = Chi square and confidence interval\n- 4 = Chi-square, confidence interval and something additional but no regression analysis.\n- 5 = 3 or 4 plus a multiple regression analysis to control for co-variants.\n\n*c.* For an explanation of databases, see *infra* app. E.\n\nTable 3\nWhether or Not Studies Focus on Bendectin by Whether They Are Published Before 1980 or Later\n\n| Does the Study Focus on Bendectin? | Published Before 1980 | Published 1980 or Later |\n|-----------------------------------|-----------------------|-------------------------|\n| No | 11 (69%) | 4 (17%) |\n| Yes | 5 (31%) | 19 (83%) |\n| Total | 16 (100%) | 23 (100%) |\n\n$X^2 = 10.52, \\ df = 1, \\ p < .01, \\ N = 39$\n\nTable 4\nWhether or Not Studies Report More Than a Chi-Square by Whether They Are Published Before 1980 or Later\n\n| Does the Study Report More Than a Chi-Square? | Published Before 1980 | Published 1980 or Later |\n|-----------------------------------------------|-----------------------|-------------------------|\n| No | 13 (81%) | 3 (13%) |\n| Yes | 3 (19%) | 20 (87%) |\n| Total | 16 (100%) | 23 (100%) |\n\n$X^2 = 18.14, \\ df = 1, \\ p < .001, \\ N = 39.$\n\nTable 5\nBendectin Related Cases Filed in State and Federal Courts, 1977-1988\n\n| Year | State Courts | Federal Courts |\n|------------|--------------|----------------|\n| 1977-79 | 1 | 1 |\n| 1980 | 15 | 22 |\n| 1981 | 32 | 50 |\n| 1982 | 43 | 73 |\n| 1983 | 40 | 171 |\n| 1984 | 151 | 420 |\n| 1985 | 212 | 594 |\n| 1986 | 44 | 40 |\n| 1987-1988 | 20 | 23 |\n\nTable 6\nBendectin Trials, 1980-1991\n\n| Year | Number of Trials |\n|------|------------------|\n| 1980 | 1 |\n| 1981 | 1 |\n| 1982 | 0 |\n| 1983 | 1 |\n| 1984 | 0 |\n| 1985 | 2 |\n| 1986 | 8 |\n| 1987 | 11 |\n| 1988 | 3 |\n| 1989 | 0 |\n| 1990 | 2 |\n| 1991 | 1 |\n| Total| 30 |\n\n## Table 7\n### Trial Court Cases on Bendectin\n\n| Name | Year Pub? | Verdict | Issue | Jury | Proc or Sub? | If motion, mover? | Winner | Final Disposition | Type |\n|---------------|-----------|---------|-------|------|--------------|-------------------|--------|-------------------|------------|\n| Alexander | 1982 | Yes | No | 1, 0<sup>a</sup> | P | Both | P | N | Several |\n| MDL (JPML) | 1982 | Yes | No | 14 | P | — | — | N | Several |\n| Lake | 1982 | Yes | No | 1 | P | D | P | N | ? |\n| MDL (Ohio) | 1982 | Yes | No | 1<sup>b</sup> | P | D | D | Y | Several |\n| Koller | 1983 | No | No | 4(10)| S | D | P | N | Limb |\n| MDL (Ohio) | 1983 | Yes | No | 0<sup>c</sup> | P | P | P | N | Several |\n| MDL (JPML) | 1984 | Yes | No | 14 | P | D | P | N | Several |\n| MDL (Ohio) | 1984 | Yes | No | 0<sup>d</sup> | P | D | D | N | Several |\n| MDL (JPML) | 1984 | Yes | No | 14 | P | D | P | N | Several |\n| MDL (JPML) | 1985 | Yes | No | 14 | P | — | — | N | Several |\n| MDL (Ohio) | 1985 | Yes | Yes(D)| 6 | S | P | D | Y | Several |\n| MDL (Ohio) | 1985 | No | No | 0<sup>e</sup> | P | — | — | N | Several |\n| Ramirez | 1985 | No | No | 0<sup>f</sup> | P | P | D | N | Limb |\n| MDL (Ohio) | 1986 | No | No | 14 | P | D | P | N | Limb |\n| Ramierz | 1986 | Yes | No | 7 | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| MDL (Mich) | 1986 | No | No | 13 | S | D | P | N | Several |\n| Heath | 1986 | Yes | No | 0<sup>g</sup> | S | D | D | Y | Several |\n| Hagaman | 1986 | No | No | 12 | P | D | P | N | ? |\n| Lanzilotti | 1986 | No | Hung | 5(9 & 10) | S | D | P | N | Limb,blind|\n| Raynor | 1986 | Yes | No | 15<sup>b</sup> | S | Both | D | N | Limb |\n| Will | 1986 | No | Yes(D)| 6 | S | P | D | Y | Limb |\n| Ramirez | 1986 | Yes | No | 4(10)| S | D | P | N | Limb |\n| Lynch | 1986 | Yes | No | 13,10| S | D | D | Y | Congenital|\n| Richardson | 1986 | Yes | Yes(P)| 6 | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| Bohrer | 1987 | Yes | No | 0 | P | D | P | N | ? |\n| Whelan | 1987 | Yes | No | 0<sup>h</sup> | S | D | D | N | ? |\n| Raynor | 1987 | No | No | 0<sup>i</sup> | P | D | D | N | Limb |\n| Rosen | 1987 | Yes | Yes(D)| 0<sup>j</sup> | P | P | P | N | Heart |\n| McFeggan | 1987 | No | No | 2<sup>k</sup> | P | P | P | N | ? |\n| Coyle | 1987 | Yes | No | 7 | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| Engel | 1987 | No | No | 8 | S | D | D | Y | Intestine |\n| Shelhamer | 1987 | No | No | 2<sup>m</sup> | P | P | P | N | ? |\n| Hagaman | 1987 | No | No | 0<sup>n</sup> | Pe&S | D | Both | N | ? |\n| Rosen | 1987 | Yes | Yes(D)| 6 | S | P | D | Y | Heart |\n| Ealy | 1987 | No | No | 0<sup>o</sup> | P | D | P | N | ? |\n| Rosen | 1987 | No | Yes(D)| 6<sup>p</sup> | S | P | D | Y | Heart |\n| Ealy | 1987 | No | Yes(P)| 6 | S | D | P | Y | Limb |\n| Hagaman | 1987 | No | No | 4<sup>q</sup> | S | D | P | N | ? |\n| Monahan | 1987 | No | No | 4 | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| St. Amand | 1988 | Yes | No | 0<sup>r</sup> | P | D | D | N | Multiple |\n| Hagaman | 1988 | No | No | 12 | P | D | P | N | ? |\n| Bernhardt | 1988 | Yes | No | 4(9) | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| Ealy | 1988 | Yes | No | 0 | P | D | — | Y | Limb |\n| Vines | 1988 | No | No | 4<sup>s</sup> | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| Hagen | 1988 | Yes | No | 4 | S | D | Both<sup>t</sup> | N | Limb |\n| Vines | 1988 | No | No | 4<sup>u</sup> | S | P | D | Y | Limb |\n| Hull | 1988 | Yes | No | 4(9 & 10) | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| Daubert | 1989 | Yes | No | 4(10)| S | D | P | N | Limb |\n| Ambrosini | 1989 | No | No | 4(10)| S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| Cudarian | 1989 | Yes | No | 4(9) | S | D | D | Y | Spinal |\n| Daubert | 1989 | Yes | No | 4(10)<sup>v</sup> | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| MDL (Mich) | 1990 | Yes | No | 4(10 & 13) | S | D | P | N | Multiple |\n| Turpin | 1990 | Yes | No | 4(10 & 11) | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| Longmore | 1990 | Yes | No | 4(10) | S | D | P | N | Limb |\n\nTable 7 (Continued)\n\n| | | | | | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n| 55. Barton | 1990 | No | Hung | 5(10) | S | D | Y | Limb |\n| 56. DeLuca | 1990 | No | No | 4(10 & 11) | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n| 57. Whelan | 1990 | No | No | 4(11) | S | D | D | Y | ? |\n| 58. Lee | 1991 | Yes | No | 4(11) | S | D | D | Y | Limb |\n\nIssues (Column 4):\n(0) = Other\n(1) = Forum non conveniens\n(2) = Personal jurisdiction\n(3) = Complaint fails to state a cause of action (Note—this might be one of several causes of action.)\n(4) = Summary Judgment\n(5) = Directed Verdict\n(6) = JNOV/New Trial\n(7) = Dismissal of pharmacist or physician defendant\n(8) = Statute of Limitations\n(9) = Specific causation—timing of ingestion\n(10) = Failure to prove general causation by a preponderance of the evidence\n(11) = Failure to present any qualified expert at trial on the general causation question, summary judgment (this is case 22,30)\n(12) = Motion for bifurcation, trifurcation\n(13) = Collateral Estoppel\n(14) = Transfer of cases in and out of consolidated litigation\n(15) = Multiple\n\nNOTE: Codes written like 4(10) indicate the type of ruling and the reason why that ruling was made; thus, in the example, a summary judgment was granted or denied based on an argument that the plaintiffs had failed to prove general causation.\n\nParticularities of Posture (Column 4 superscript annotations):\na. Request to transfer Ohio location of Merrell.\nb. Declares U.S. courts forum non conveniens for British claimants and others who survived a similar motion in Alexander (I).\nc. Discovery allowed from Merrell companies abroad.\nd. Class certification.\ne. Lead counsel asking for money for discovery materials.\nf. Plaintiffs move to return to state court because Defendant's petition for removal was tardy.\ng. Suit by military personnel against government barred.\nh. Plaintiff moves for offensive collateral estoppel on causation question/loses; Defendant pharmacy moves to dismiss/ wins; Defendant Merrell moves for summary judgment on punitive damages and fraud count/wins.\ni. Defense motion to allow statistical evidence in only if it is statistically significant (.05%) granted.\nj. Quashed deposition.\nk. Motion by Plaintiff to examine notes of a juror after verdict for Defendant.\nl. Plaintiff's motion to remand to state court granted. Defendant claims Plaintiff added pharmacies to destroy complete diversity, and Defendant argues this was done without hope of recovery against them.\nm. Mother's derivate action time barred.\nn. Defendant makes 8 pretrial motions: (1) Exclusion of Thalidomide—denied with caution; (2) inadmissibility of early Jinks' epidemiology studies later repudiated by Jinks in print in JAMA—denied with caution; (3) warning on UNISOM (which has doxylamine) not to be used by pregnant women—denied; (4) admissibility of published epidemiological studies—denied in advance of testimony showing their relevance and probativeness; (5) exclusion of other Bendectin related birth defects—denied; (6) exclusion of DERs and In vitro studies—sustained as to DERs not rat studies; (7) exclusion of deposition on Burde-Bower—sustained as it isn't used by Defendant; and (8) exclusion of evidence on the cessation of bendectin production—sustained.\no. Objection to way jury was selected.\np. Motion to reconsider denial of new trial. Court now allows Plaintiff to photocopy jury notes and examine them further.\nq. Motion by Defendant for summary judgment on punitive damages and fraud claim.\nr. Defense motion to discover mother's medical records—sustained.\ns. No evidence mother ever took Bendectin—25 years before filing suit.\nt. Defendant asks for summary judgment—sustained as to punitive damages, but not as to causation.\nu. Motion to reconsider summary judgment rejected.\nv. This opinion granted defendant a summary judgment in Daubert and Schuller v. Merrell Dow.\n\n### Table 8\n\n**Appellate Cases on Bendectin**\n\n| Name | Year (1) | Trial Below (2) | Issue (3) | Appellant (4) | Winner on Appeal (5) | Final Disposition at This Level (6) |\n|---------------|----------|-----------------|-----------|----------------|-----------------------|-------------------------------------|\n| Mekdeci | 1983 | Yes | — | P | D | No |\n| Albertson | 1983 | No | 3 | P | P | No |\n| Dowling | 1984 | No | 1 | P | D | Yes |\n| Koller | 1984 | No | 9 | D | P | No |\n| MDL (Ohio) | 1984 | No | 9 | — | — | No |\n| Koller | 1985 | No | 9 | D | D | No |\n| L. Thompson | 1985 | No | 2 | P | P | No |\n| Watson | 1985 | No | 1 | P | D | Yes |\n| Oxendine | 1986 | Yes | — | D | P | Yes |\n| L. Thompson | 1986 | No | 1 & 2 | P | D | Yes |\n| Dralle | 1986 | No | 3 | P | P | No |\n| Chambers | 1986 | No | 1 | P | D | Yes |\n| Makripodis | 1987 | No | 4 | P | D | No |\n| Urland | 1987 | No | 5 | P | D | Yes |\n| Lynch | 1987 | No | 7 | P | D | Yes |\n| Chambers | 1988 | No | 1 | P | D | Yes |\n| Coyle | 1988 | No | 4 | P | D | Yes |\n| Dralle | 1988 | No | 3 | P | D | No |\n| Martin | 1988 | No | 6 | P | D | Yes |\n| MDL (Ohio) | 1988 | Yes | — | P | D | Yes |\n| Richardson | 1988 | Yes | — | P | D | Yes |\n| J. Thompson | 1988 | No | 8 | P | D | Yes |\n| Brock | 1989 | Yes | — | D | D | Yes |\n| Coggrove | 1989 | Yes | — | P | D | Yes |\n| Blum | 1989 | Yes | — | D | D | No |\n| Oxendine | 1989 | No | 7 & 8 | D | P | Yes |\n| Vines | 1989 | No | 6 | P | D | Yes |\n| Wilson | 1990 | Yes | — | P | D | Yes |\n| Bernhardt | 1990 | No | 6 | P | D | Yes |\n| Ealy | 1990 | Yes | — | D | D | Yes |\n| Herring | 1990 | No | 9 | P | D | Yes |\n| Obiago | 1990 | No | 6 & 8 | P | D | Yes |\n| DeLuca | 1990 | No | 8 | P | P | No |\n| Coyle | 1991 | No | 4 | P | D | Yes |\n| Ambrosini | 1991 | No | 7 & 8 | P | D | Yes |\n| Oxendine | 1991 | Yes | 9 | D | D | No |\n\n**Issue on Appeal (Column 4):**\n(1) = Forum non conveniens \n(2) = Federal jurisdiction \n(3) = Complaint fails to state a cause of action. *(Note—this might be one of several causes of action.)* \n(4) = Dismissal of pharmacist or physician defendant \n(5) = Statute of Limitations \n(6) = Specific causation—timing of ingestion \n(7) = Failure to prove general causation by a preponderance of the evidence \n(8) = Failure to present any qualified expert at trial on the general causation question, summary judgment (this is case 22,30) \n(9) = Other\n\nTable 9\nAppellate Cases Reviewing a Jury Verdict Below\n(Numbers in parentheses are the number of the case in Table 8)\n\n| Year (1) | Type of Injury (2) | Jury Verdict (3) | Trial Judge (4) | App. Ct. Holding (5) | App. Ct. Orientation (6) |\n|----------|-------------------|------------------|-----------------|----------------------|-------------------------|\n| 1. (1) | Limb Defect | Plaintiff | New Trial | Affirm | Legalistic |\n| 2. (9) | Limb Defect | Plaintiff | JNOV | Reversed & Remanded (verdict reinstated) | Legalistic |\n| 3. (20) | Various | Defense (general causation) | Entered Judgment on Verdict | Affirmed | Legalistic |\n| 4. (21) | Limb Defect | Plaintiff | JNOV | Affirmed | Scientific |\n| 5. (23) | Limb Defect | Plaintiff | Entered Judgment on Verdict | Reversed & Rendered | Scientific |\n| 6. (24) | Limb Defect | Defense | Entered Judgment on Verdict | Affirmed | Legalistic |\n| 7. (25) | Limb Defect | Plaintiff | Entered Judgment on Verdict | Reversed | Legalistic (11 jurors) |\n| 8. (28) | Limb Defect | Defense | Entered Judgment on Verdict | Affirmed | Legalistic |\n| 9. (30) | Limb Defect | Plaintiff | Entered Judgment on Verdict | Reversed Remanded ordering a JNOV | Legal/Scientific |\n\n* = After MDL\n\nAppendix B\n\nIn Vitro Studies Bibliography\n\nJ.D. Budroe et al., *A Study of the Potential Genotoxicity of Methapyrilene and Related Antihistamines Using the Hepatocyte/DNA Repair Assay*, 135 MUTATION RES. 131 (1984).\n\nM. Guntakatta et al., *Development of a Mouse Embryo Limb Bud Cell Culture System for the Estimation of Chemical Teratogenic Potential*, 4 TERATOGENESIS, CARCINOGENESIS, & MUTAGENESIS 349 (1984).\n\nJ.R. Hassell & E.A. Horigan, *Chondrogenesis: A Model Developmental System for Measuring Teratogenic Potential of Compounds*, 2 TERATATOGENESIS, CARCINOGENESIS, & MUTAGENESIS 325 (1982).\n\nS. A. Newman, *Lineage and Pattern in the Developing Vertebrate Limb*, 4 TRENDS GENETICS 329 (1989).\n\nJ.Y. Renault et al., *Limb Bud Cell Culture for In Vitro Teratogen Screening: Validation of an Improved Assessment Method Using 51 Compounds*, 9 TERATOGENESIS, CARCINOGENESIS, & MUTAGENESIS 83 (1989).\n\nL.G. Roberts et al., *Embryo-Maternal Distribution of Basic Compounds in the CD-1 Mouse: Doxylamine and Nicotine*, 97 TOXICOLOGY & APPLIED PHARMACOLOGY 134.\n\nAppendix C\n\nIn Vivo Studies Bibliography\n\n(Numbers in parentheses at the end of each citation refer to the order of the studies in Table 1)\n\nJ.P. Gibson et al., Teratology and Reproduction Studies with an Antinauseant, 13 TERATOLOGY & APPLIED PHARMACOLOGY 439 (1968). (1)\nJohn Gibson, Teratology Study with a New Antinauseant Formulation in Rabbits, Project Report T-75-12 (4), Dep't of Pathology and Toxicology, Merrell-Nat'l Lab. Div. of Richardson-Merrell, Inc. Cincinnati, Ohio. (1975) (unpublished study) (on file with author). (4)\nJohn Gibson, Teratology Study With a New Antinauseant Formulation in Rats, Project Report T-75-13, Dep't of Pathology and Toxicology, Merrell-Nat'l Lab. Div. of Richardson-Merrell, Inc. Cincinnati, Ohio. (1975) (unpublished study) (on file with author). (3)\nA.G. Hendrickx et al., Evaluation of Bendectin Embryotoxicity in Non-human Primates: Double-Blind Study in Cynomolgus Monkeys, 32 TERATOLOGY 191 (1985). (10)\nA.G. Hendrickx et al., Evaluation of Bendectin Embryotoxicity in Non-human Primates: Ventricular Septal Defects in Prenatal Macaques and Baboon, 32 TERATOLOGY 179 (1985). (9)\nA.G. Hendrickx et al., Embryotoxicity Studies on Bendectin in Cynomolgus Monkeys (Macaca Fascicularis) (Abstract), 25 TERATOLOGY 47 (1982). (6)\nA.G. Hendrickx et al., Cardiac Embryotoxicity Studies on Bendectin in Macaques (Abstract), 27 TERATOLOGY 49 (1983). (7)\nK.S. Khera, Teratogenicity Study in Rats Given High Doses of Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) During Organogenesis, 31 EXPERENTIA 469 (1975). (2)\nW.G. McBride, The Effects of Dicyclomine Hydroxochloride on the Development of the Chick Embryo, 9 IRCS MED. SCI. 471. (1981), Merrell & Co. Studies (1971). (5)\nW.G. McBride, Teratogenic Effect of Doxylamine Succinate in New Zealand White Rabbits, 12 IRCS MED. SCI. 536 (1984). (8)\nR.W. Tyl et al., Developmental Toxicity Evaluation of Bendectin in CD Rats, 37 TERATOLOGY 539 (1988). (11)\n\nAppendix D\nEpidemiological Studies Bibliography\n\n(Numbers in parentheses at the end of each citation refer to the order of the studies in Table 2)\n\nPamela Aselton & Hershel Jick, *Additional Follow-Up of Congenital Limb Disorders in Relation to Bendectin Use*, 250 JAMA 33 (1983). (30)\nPamela Aselton et al., *Pyloric Stenosis and Maternal Bendectin Exposure*, 120 AM. J. EPIDEMIOLOGY 251 (1984). (33)\nPamela Aselton et al., *First-Trimester Drug Use and Congenital Disorders*, 65 OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY 451 (1985). (37)\nPhilip Banister, *Congenital Malformations: Preliminary Report of an Investigation of Reduction Deformities of the Limbs, Triggered by a Pilot Surveillance System*, 103 CAN. MED. ASS'N J. 4466 (1970). (8)\nCarl Bunde & D.M. Bowles, *A Technique for Controlled Survey of Case Records*, 5 CURRENT THERAPEUTIC RES. 245 (1963). (2)\nMichael Clarke & David Clayton, *Safety of Debendox*, LANCET, March 21, 1981, at 659. (21)\nJose Cordero et al., *Is Bendectin a Teratogen?*, 245 JAMA 2307 (1981). (23)\nJ.F. Correy & N.M. Newman, *Debendox and Limb Reduction Deformities*, 1981 MED. J. AUSTL. 417 (1981). (22)\nT.J. David, *Debendox Does Not Cause the Poland Anomaly*, 57 ARCH. DIS. CHILD 479 (1982). (27)\nDiana Elbourne et al., *Debendox Revisited*, 92 BRIT. J. OBSTETRICS & GYNAECOLOGY 780 (1985). (36)\nDavid J. Erickson, *Risk Factors for Birth Defects: Data from the Atlanta Birth Defects Case-Control Study*, 43 TERATOLOGY 41 (1991). (39)\nBrenda Eskenazi & Michael Bracken, *Bendectin (Debendox) As a Risk Factor for Pyloric Stenosis*, 144 AM. J. OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY 919 (1982). (26)\nJ.F. Farrar & I.J. Mackie, *A Survey of Possible Causes of Congenital Malformation*, 2 MED. J. AUSTL. 793 (1964). (6)\nD.M. Fleming et al., *Debendox in Early Pregnancy and Fetal Malformation*, 283 BRIT. MED. J. 99 (1981). (20)\nGeneral Practitioner Research Group, *General Practitioner Clinical Trials: Drugs in Pregnancy Survey*, 191 PRACTITIONER 775 (1963). (4)\n\nG.T. Gibson et al., *Congenital Anomalies in Relation to the Use of Doxylamine/Dicyclomine and Other Antenatal Factors: An Ongoing Prospective Study*, 1981 *Med. J. Austl.* 410 (1981). (25)\n\nJ.S. Golding et al., *Maternal Anti-Nauseants and Clefts of Lip and Palate*, 1983 *Hum. Toxicology* 63 (1983). (29)\n\nG. Greenberg et al., *Maternal Drug Histories and Congenital Abnormalities*, 1977 *Brit. Med. J.* 853 (1977). (13)\n\nD.W.G. Harron et al., *Debendox and Congenital Malformations in Northern Ireland*, 281 *Brit. Med. J.* 1379 (1980). (18)\n\nHershel Jick et al., *First-Trimester Drug Use and Congenital Disorders*, 246 *JAMA* 343 (1981). (19)\n\nE. Klee, *Early Pregnancy Toxicosis Treated with Lenotan*, 44 *Med. Welt* 204 (1964). (5)\n\nL.J. le Vann, *Congenital Abnormalities in Children Born in Alberta During 1961: A Survey and a Hypothesis*, 89 *Can. Med. Ass'n J.* 120 (1963). (1)\n\nJanet McCredie et al., *Doxylamine/Dicyclomine/Pyridoxine and Congenital Limb Defects*, 140 *Med. J. Austl.* 525 (1984). (34)\n\nJ. Michaelis et al., *Teratogene Effekte von Lenotan? (Does Lenotan Have Teratogenic Effects?)*, 23 *Dtsh. Arzt.* 1527 (1980). (17)\n\nJ. H. Michaelis et al., *Prospective Study of Suspected Associations Between Certain Drugs Administered During Early Pregnancy and Congenital Malformations*, 27 *Teratology* 57 (1983). (31)\n\nLucille Milkovich & Bea van den Berg, *An Evaluation of the Teratogenicity of Certain Antinauseant Drugs*, 125 *Am. J. Obstetrics & Gynecology* 244 (1976). (10)\n\nAllen Mitchell et al., *Birth Defects Related to Bendectin Use in Pregnancy: I. Oral Clefts and Cardiac Defects*, 245 *JAMA* 2311 (1981). (24)\n\nAllen Mitchell et al., *Birth Defects in Relation to Bendectin Use in Pregnancy: II. Pyloric Stenosis*, 147 *Am. J. Obstetrics & Gynecology* 737 (1983). (32)\n\nSuzette Morelock et al., *Bendectin and Fetal Development: A Study at Boston City Hospital*, 142 *Am. J. Obstetrics & Gynecology* 209 (1982). (28)\n\nMatilda Nelson & John Forfar, *Associations Between Drugs Administered During Pregnancy and Congenital Abnormalities of the Fetus*, 1971 *Brit. Med. J.* 523 (1971). (9)\n\nN.M. Newman et al., *A Survey of Congenital Abnormalities and Drugs in a Private Practice*, 17 Austl. N.Z. J. Obstetrics & Gynecology 156 (1977). (11)\n\nKenneth Rothman et al., *Exogenous Hormones and Other Drug Exposures of Children with Congenital Heart Disease*, 109 Am. J. Epidemiology 433 (1979). (16)\n\nSamuel Shapiro et al., *Antenatal Exposure to Doxylamine Succinate and Dicyclomine Hydrochloride (Bendectin) in Relation to Congenital Malformations, Perinatal Mortality Rate, Birth Weight, and Intelligence Quotient Score*, 128 Am. J. Obstetrics & Gynecology 480 (1977). (12)\n\nPatricia Shiono & Mark Klebanoff, *Bendectin and Human Congenital Malformations*, 40 Teratology 151 (1989); Erratum 41 Teratology 250 (1990). (38)\n\nS.O. Smith et al., *An Epidemiological Study of Congenital Reductions and Deformities of the Limbs*, 31 Brit. J. Preventive & Soc. Med. 39 (1977). (14)\n\nRichard Smithells & Sheila Sheppard, *Teratogenicity Testing in Humans: A Method Demonstrating Safety of Bendectin*, 17 Teratology 31 (1978). (15)\n\nG. Warneke, *Die Behandlung des Schwangerschaftsverbrechens mit Lenotan (The Treatment of Vomiting in Pregnancy with Lenotan)*, 17 Med. Mschr. 691 (1963). (3)\n\nJ. Yerushalmy & Lucille Milkovich, *Evaluation of the Teratogenic Effect of Meclizine in Man*, 93 Am. J. Obstetrics & Gynecology 553 (1965). (7)\n\nSally Zierler & Kenneth Rothman, *Congenital Heart Disease in Relation to Maternal Use of Bendectin and Other Drugs in Early Pregnancy*, 313 New Eng. J. Med. 347 (1985). (35)\n\nAppendix E\nData Base List\n\nThe number preceding each data base corresponds with the number appearing in Column 6 of Table 2. The numbers in parentheses at the end of each data base reference refer to the number of the study using this database as it appears in Table 2. For example, data base number 1 was used by studies 12 (Shapiro) and 38 (Shiono).\n\nUnited States\n\n1. Collaborative Perinatal Project, 50,282 child pairs from 12 hospitals throughout the United States. (12), (38)\n\n2. Boston City Hospital, 3222 eligible mothers. February 1977 through October 1979. (28)\n\n3. Boston University School of Medicine and Harvard Medical School case control study. Drawn from 22 participating centers in 3 regions: (1) Boston (initiated in March 1976); (2) Pennsylvania (March 1977); and (3) Toronto (January 1979). 1565 malformed infants. (24), (32)\n\n4. Harvard School of Health, Department of Epidemiology. Subjects chosen from all residents of Massachusetts born alive with severe congenital heart disease and with controls randomly selected from all available birth certificates filed with the Massachusetts Division of Health Statistics. (16) (between 1973 and 1985), (35) (between April 1, 1980 and March 31, 1983).\n\n5. John B. Pierce Foundation Laboratory and the Departments of Epidemiology and Public Health and Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yale University School of Medicine. (Mothers of infants from 5 urban hospitals in central Connecticut—between November 18, 1974 and November 17, 1976). (26)\n\n6. Northern California Kaiser Permanent Birth Defects Study (Patients from Kaiser Health Plan—also called Child Health and Developmental Studies (CHDS), 1974 to 1977. (7), (10)\n\n7. Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound (GHC-PS) (subjects were patients in Seattle). Data put on computer files by the Commission on Professional and Hospital Activities-Professional Activity Study (CPHA-PAS) in Michigan. (19), (30), (33), (37)\n\n8. Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program (MACDP) survey of birth defects “since 1967” from hospitals within the 5 central counties of the metropolitan Atlanta area. (23), (39)\n\n9. Merrell Department of Medical Research. 18 groups (21 physicians) from California, Colorado, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ontario, and Quebec. (2)\n\n**United Kingdom**\n\n10. General Practitioners Research Group, patients of physician members in U.K. (4)\n11. University of Edinburgh Department on Child Life and Health, Edinburgh Scotland. (9)\n12. *The Annual Report of the Registrar General (Northern Ireland)*, 1966-1973, and *Health and Personal Social Services Statistics, for Northern Ireland*, 1974-1976. (18)\n13. Birmingham Research Unit of the Royal College of General Practitioners, Birmingham. 22,977 women (14,684 in Scotland and 8293 in England), 620 of whom were Debendox exposed. (20)\n14. *The Oxford Record Linkage Study*. Infants delivered between 1965 and 1974 to women in Oxfordshire and West Berkshire. (29)\n15. The Office of Population Consensus & Surveys (OPCS) pilot study (London). (13)\n16. University of Leicestershire. 40,000 perinatal births in Leicestershire. (21)\n17. University of Leeds. Scan of RX records from Leeds and Liverpool. (15)\n18. *Cardiff Births Survey (CBS)*, (Cardiff and Aberdeen), 86,283 births between 1965 and 1979. (36)\n19. Reported cases of Poland Anomaly in Britain between 1890 and 1977. (27)\n\n**Australia**\n\n20. University of Tasmania, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. All deliveries in Tasmania. (11) (from 1953 to 1975), (22) (from 1975 to 1980).\n21. Infants born alive in New South Wales or the Australian Capital Territory between 1970 and 1981. (34)\n22. Queen Victoria Research Foundation. Patients attending Queen Victoria Hospitals in Adelaide, Australia “since 1975.” (25)\n23. Sutherland District Hospital, Carinbaugh, Australia. Eleven mothers whose babies were abnormal and were born in September and October, 1961 and 98 similarly situated mothers with normal babies. (6)\n\nCanada\n\n24. University of Alberta. 33,874 births in Alberta in 1961. (1)\n\n25. Pilot Surveillance System-Department of National Health and Welfare, Ottawa Ontario, Births in 4 Canadian Provinces (New Brunswick, Alberta, Manitoba, and British Columbia) were surveyed. (8), (14)\n\nGermany\n\n26. DFG Study, 21 hospitals in West Germany. (17), (31)\n\n27. 94 women with emesis gravidarum (nausea in pregnancy). (3)\n\nNot Certain\n\n28. Klee's Study, 30 cases of hypermises gravidum. (5)\n\nAppendix F\nDistrict Court Opinions\n\n(Numbers in parentheses at the end of each citation refer to the order of the cases in Table 7)\n\nAlexander v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 541 F. Supp. 93 (S.D.N.Y. 1982). (1)\nAmbrosini v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 84-3483, 1989 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 8036 (D.D.C. July 12, 1989). (49)\nBarton v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. C85-0028J, 1990 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 8010 (D. Utah, May 31, 1990). (55)\nBernhardt v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 723 F. Supp. 1188 (N.D. Miss. 1988), aff'd, 892 F.2d 440 (5th Cir. 1990). (42)\nBohrer v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 122 F.R.D. 217 (D.N.D. 1987). (25)\nCadarian v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 745 F. Supp. 409 (E.D. Mich. 1989). (50)\nCoyle v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 15 Phila. 389 (Common Pleas Ct. of Phila., 1987). (30)\nDaubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 711 F. Supp. 546 (S.D. Cal. 1989). (48)\nDaubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 727 F. Supp. 570 (S.D. Cal. 1989). (51)\nDeLuca v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 131 F.R.D. 71 (D.N.J., rev'd, 911 F.2d 941 (3d Cir. 1990). (56)\nEaly v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 83-3504, 1987 WL 15512 (D.D.C. 1987). (35)\nEaly v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 83-3504, 1987 WL 18743 (D.D.C. Oct. 1, 1987), rev'd, 897 F.2d 1159 (D.C. Cir.), cert. denied, 111 S. Ct. 370 (1990). (37)\nEaly v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 83-3504, 1988 WL 64933 (D.D.C. June 13, 1988). (43)\nEngel v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. CIV-83-1189E, 1987 WL 4769 (W.D.N.Y. Apr. 20, 1987). (31)\nHagaman v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 84-2202-S, slip op. (D. Kan. July 1, 1986) (LEXIS, Genfed library, Dist file). (18)\nHagaman v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 84-2202-S, 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 6124 (D. Kan. June 26, 1987). (33)\n\nHagaman v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 84-2202-S, 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 12184 (D. Kan. Dec. 2, 1987). (38)\n\nHagaman v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 84-2202-S, 1988 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 4233 (D. Kan. Apr. 8, 1988). (41)\n\nHagen v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 697 F. Supp. 334 (N.D. Ill. 1988). (45)\n\nHeath v. United States, 633 F. Supp. 1340 (E.D. Cal. 1986). (17)\n\nHull v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 700 F. Supp. 28 (S.D. Fla. 1988). (47)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), 533 F. Supp. 489 (J.P.M.L. 1982). (2)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), 545 F. Supp. 1130 (S.D. Ohio 1982), *aff'd sub nom.* Dowling v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 727 F.2d 608 (6th Cir. 1984). (4)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), 97 F.R.D. 481 (S.D. Ohio 1983). (6)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), 582 F. Supp. 890 (J.P.M.L. 1984). (7)\n\n*In re* \"Bendectin\" Prods. Liab. Litig. (MDL #486), 102 F.R.D. 239 (S.D. Ohio 1984). (8)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), 588 F. Supp. 1448 (J.P.M.L. 1984). (9)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), 606 F. Supp. 715 (J.P.M.L. 1985). (10)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), 624 F. Supp. 1212 (S.D. Ohio 1985), *aff'd sub nom.* *In re* Bendectin Litig., 857 F.2d 290 (6th Cir. 1988), *cert denied*, 488 U.S. 1006 (1989). (11)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), slip op. (S.D. Ohio Oct. 17, 1985) (LEXIS, Genfed library, Dist file). (12)\n\n*In re* Richardson-Merrell, Inc. (MDL #486), slip op. (S.D. Ohio Jan. 6, 1986) (LEXIS, Genfed library, Dist file). (14)\n\n*In re* Bendectin Cases, No. 85-0996, 1986 WL 20466 (E.D. Mich. May 2, 1986). (16)\n\n*In re* Bendectin Prods. Liab. Litig., 732 F. Supp. 744 (E.D. Mich. 1990). (52)\n\nKoller v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 80-1258, slip op. (D.D.C. Jan. 25, 1983) (LEXIS, Genfed library, Dist file). (5)\n\nLake v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 538 F. Supp. 262 (N.D. Ohio 1982). (3)\n\nLanzilotti v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 82-0183, 1986 WL 7832 (E.D. Pa. July 10, 1986). (19)\n\nLee v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 84-2228GB, 1991 WL 166316 (W.D. Tenn. 1991). (58)\n\nLongmore v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 737 F. Supp. 1117 (D. Idaho 1990). (54)\n\nLynch v. Merrell-Nat'l Lab., 646 F. Supp. 856 (D. Mass. 1986). (23)\n\nMcFeggan v. Merrell Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 2784 (N.D. Ill. April 7, 1987). (29)\n\nMonahan v. Merrell-Nat'l Lab., No. 83-3108-WD, 1987 WL 90269 (D. Mass. Dec. 18, 1987).\n\nRamirez v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 85-1504, slip op. (E.D. Pa. Nov. 27, 1985 (LEXIS, Genfed library, Dist file). (13)\n\nRamirez v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 628 F. Supp. 85 (E.D. Pa. 1986). (15)\n\nRamirez v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 85-1504, slip op. 1986 WL 9724 (E.D. Pa. Sept. 4, 1986). (22)\n\nRaynor v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 643 F. Supp. 238 (D.D.C. 1986). (20)\n\nRaynor v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 83-3506, 1987 WL 8518 (D.D.C. Mar. 5, 1987). (27)\n\nRichardson v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 649 F. Supp. 799 (D.D.C. 1986). (24)\n\nRosen v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 82-0513, 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 2236 (E.D. Pa. Mar. 27, 1987). (28)\n\nRosen v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 82-0513, 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 6585 (E.D. Pa. July 22, 1987). (34)\n\nRosen v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 82-0513, 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 7440 (E.D. Pa. Aug. 18, 1987). (36)\n\nDaubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 727 F. Supp. 570 (S.D. Cal. 1989). (50b)\n\nSt. Amand v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 140 Misc. 2d 278, 530 N.Y.S.2d 428 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1988). (40)\n\nShelhamer v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 87-0782, 1987 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 3808 (E.D. Pa. May 11, 1987). (32)\n\nTurpin v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 736 F. Supp. 737 (E.D. Ky. 1990). (53)\n\nVines v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 86-3228 (RCL), 1988 WL 93454 (D.D.C. Aug. 24, 1988), aff'd, 1989 WL 105491 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 31, 1989). (44)\n\nVines v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 86-3228 (RCL), 1988 WL 112174 (D.D.C. Oct. 13, 1988). (46)\n\nWhelan v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 117 F.R.D. 299 (D.D.C. 1987). (26)\n\nWhelan v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 1990 WL 130654 (D.D.C. Aug. 30, 1990). (57)\n\nWill v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 647 F. Supp. 544 (S.D. Ga. 1986). (21)\n\nAppendix G\nAppellate Court Cases\n\n(Numbers in parentheses at the end of each citation refer to the order of the cases in Table 8)\n\nAlbertson v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 441 So.2d 1146 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1983). (2)\n\nAmbrosini v. Labarraque, No. 90-7146, 90-7148, 1991 WL 101512 (D.C. Cir. May 31, 1991). (35)\n\nBernhardt v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 892 F.2d 440 (5th Cir. 1990). (29)\n\nBlum v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 385 Pa. Super. 151, 560 A.2d 212 (1989), appeal granted, 590 A.2d 753 (Pa. 1991). (25)\n\nBrock v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 874 F.2d 307 (5th Cir. 1989), modified, 884 F.2d 166 (5th Cir. 1989), cert. denied, 110 S. Ct. 1511 (1990). (23a)\n\nBrock v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 884 F.2d 166 (5th Cir. 1989). (23b)\n\nBrock v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 884 F.2d 167 (5th Cir. 1989). (23c)\n\nChambers v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. C-850888, slip op. 1986 WL 14901 (Ohio App. Dec. 24, 1986), aff'd, 35 Ohio St. 3d 123, 519 N.E.2d 370 (1988). (12)\n\nChambers v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 35 Ohio St. 3d 123, 519 N.E.2d 370 (1988). (16)\n\nCoyle v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 372 Pa. Super. 118, 538 A.2d 1379 (1988). (17)\n\nCoyle v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 584 A.2d 1383 (Pa. 1991). (34)\n\nCosgrove v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 117 Idaho 470, 788 P.2d 1293 (1989). (24)\n\nDeLuca v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 911 F.2d 941 (3d Cir. 1990). (33)\n\nDowling v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 727 F.2d 608 (6th Cir. 1984). (3)\n\nDralle v. Ruder, 148 Ill. App. 3d 961, 500 N.E.2d 514 (1986), rev'd, 124 Ill. 2d 61, 529 N.E.2d 209 (1988). (11)\n\nDralle v. Ruder, 124 Ill. 2d 61, 529 N.E.2d 209 (1988). (18)\n\nEaly v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 897 F.2d 1159 (D.C. Cir. 1990), cert. denied, 111 S. Ct. 370 (1990). (30)\n\nHerring v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 896 F.2d 1383 (D.C. Cir. 1990). (31)\n\n*In re Bendectin Prods. Liab. Litig.*, 749 F.2d 300 (6th Cir. 1984). (5)\n\n*In re Bendectin Litig.*, 857 F.2d 290 (6th Cir. 1988), *cert. denied sub nom.* Hoffman v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 488 U.S. 1006 (1989). (20)\n\nKoller v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 737 F.2d 1038 (D.C. Cir. 1984), *vacated*, Richardson-Merrell, Inc. v. Koller, 472 U.S. 424 (1985). (4)\n\nRichardson-Merrell, Inc. v. Koller, 472 U.S. 424 (1985). (6)\n\nLynch v. Merrell-Nat'l Lab., 830 F.2d 1190 (1st Cir. 1987). (15)\n\nMakripodis v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc., 361 Pa. Super. 589, 523 A.2d 374 (1987). (13)\n\nMartin v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 851 F.2d 703 (3d Cir. 1988). (19)\n\nMekdeci v. Merrell Nat'l Lab., 711 F.2d 1510 (11th Cir. 1983). (1)\n\nMerrell Dow Pharmaceuticals v. Oxendine, 593 A.2d 1023 (D.C. App. 1991). (36)\n\nObiago v. Merrell-Nat'l Lab., 560 So. 2d 625 (La. Ct. App. 1990). (32)\n\nOxendine v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc., 506 A.2d 1100 (D.C. App. 1986). (9)\n\nOxendine v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 563 A.2d 330 (D.C. App. 1989), *cert. denied*, 110 S. Ct. 1121 (1990). (26)\n\nRichardson v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 857 F.2d 823 (D.C. Cir. 1988), *cert. denied*, 110 S. Ct. 218 (1989). (21)\n\nThompson v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 229 N.J. Super. 230, 551 A.2d 177 (N.J. Super. Ct. App. Div. 1988). (22)\n\nThompson v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 766 F.2d 1005 (6th Cir. 1985), *aff'd*, 478 U.S. 804 (1986). (7)\n\nMerrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. v. Thompson, 478 U.S. 804 (1986). (10)\n\nUrland v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 822 F.2d 1268 (3d Cir. 1987). (14)\n\nVines v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 88-7264, 1989 WL 105491 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 31, 1989). (27)\n\nWatson v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 769 F.2d 354 (6th Cir. 1985). (8)\n\nWilson v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 893 F.2d 1149 (10th Cir. 1990). (28)\n\nAppendix H\n\nMemorandum Opinions\n\n(not included in data analysis)\n\nBordick v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 853 F.2d 916 (3d Cir. 1988) (table disposition, aff'd).\n\nBrock v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 886 F.2d 1314 (5th Cir. 1989) (table disposition, reh'g en banc denied).\n\nCoyle v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 520 Pa. 588, 551 A.2d 215 (1988) (table disposition, appeal granted).\n\nDralle v. Ruder, 505 N.E.2d 352 (Ill. 1987) (table disposition, appeal allowed).\n\nKoller v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 469 U.S. 915 (1984) (cert. granted).\n\nKoller v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 474 U.S. 808 (1985) (motion of respondents to retax costs denied).\n\nObiago v. Merrell-Nat'l Lab., No. 90-C-1056, (La. June 29, 1990) (writ denied).\n\nOxendine v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 110 S. Ct. 1121 (1990) (cert. denied).\n\nSchreier v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 745 F.2d 58 (6th Cir. 1984) (table disposition, appeal dismissed).\n\nThompson v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 474 U.S. 1004 (1985) (cert. granted).\n\nAppendix I\n\nUnpublished Opinions\n(not included in data analysis)\n\nSummary Judgments Granted to Merrell Dow\n\nDiaz v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. L-082085 (N.J. Super. Ct. Law Div. April 28, 1989).\nHagle, (November 1989) (summary judgment for defendant on merits).\nLee v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 84-2228 GB (W.D. Tenn. Jan. 30, 1991).\nMonohan v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 83-3108-WD (D. Mass. Dec. 18, 1987) (court relied on Lynch v. Merrell Nat'l Lab.).\n\nSummary Judgments Denied Merrell Dow\n\nDePyper v. Navarro, No. 83-303-467NM (Civ. Ct. Wayne Co., Mich. Mar. 10, 1990), rev'd, No. 116390 (Mich. Ct. App. June 21, 1991).\nMangels v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. R-83-3272 (D. Md. Aug. 17, 1987).\n\nPlaintiff Verdicts (Jury or Judge)\n\nBlum v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 1027 (Pa. Ct. C.P. May 12, 1988) (unpublished opinion).\n\nDefendant Verdicts (Jury or Judge)\n\nBityk v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. C-302-225 (Cal. Super. Ct., Los Angeles County 1987).\nBuell, (June 1988) (judgment for defendant on merits).\nButterweck, (Jan. 1986) (W. Germany, judgment for defendant on merits).\nCordova v. Philips-Roxane Laboratories, Inc., No. 432656 (Cal. Super. Ct., Santa Clara County 1985) (appeal withdrawn).\nFrancione, (March 1990) (Italy, judgment for defendant on merits).\nHill v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. C83-74TB (W.D. Wash. 1988) (appeal withdrawn) (also known as Washington Consolidated).\nKottwitz, (W. Germany, Jan. 1986) (judgment for defendants on merits).\nMaryland Consolidated (Johnson, Kelley, Mangels), (Md. federal court, mistrial, cases dismissed by plaintiffs June 10, 1988).\n\nRudell v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., No. 85-0115-CV-W-5 (W.D. Mo. Dec. 16, 1987).\nWiles, (Cal. federal court, Nov. 11, 1987) (defense verdict by judge).\nWilson v. Richardson-Merrell, Inc., No. 85-C-540-E (N.D. Okla. Dec. 14, 1987)."}}},{"rowIdx":204789,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Construction: Beginner’s Guide to Power Supplies\n\nOn Test: the Yaesu FT736R VHF/UHF Multiband Multimode Transceiver\n\nOut of Africa – The Story of A22KZ in Botswana\n\n6 Straight and Level\nAll the latest news, comments and developments on the amateur radio scene\n\n12 DX Diary\nDon Field G3XTT with this month's DX news\n\n14 Fox-Hunting\nKevin Fox with a stirring tale about the sort of DFing nightmares are made of... cows, students and sinister rituals. Beware, gentle reader!\n\n17 Angus McKenzie Tests\nG3OSS looks at the Yaesu FT736R multiband multimode transceiver and the Hokushin HS727VME and HSWX1 dual-band antennas\n\n26 Out of Africa\nAt last, an exclusive account of the A22KZ 50MHz operation from Botswana, by David Saul himself\n\n28 Coming Next Month\nWhat's in store for you\n\n29 Morse Report\nTony Smith G4FAI takes his bimonthly look at the world of dots and dashes\n\n32 Short Wave Listener\nTrevor Morgan continues his hitchhiker's guide to receivers and takes a long, hard look at those amateur bands\n\n34 Power Supplies for Beginners\nJohn and Steven Goodier with a beginner's guide to PSUs and a circuit for a complete 12V 1A power supply\n\n39 Datasheet\nIan Poole looks at speech processors\n\n42 Figure It Out\nTony Smith again, cutting a dash with maths for the non-mathemagician\n\n44 Name, Rank or Serial Number\nAn intriguing tale from John Feeley G4MRB that will add a whole new dimension to catching DX\n\n46 50MHz\nKen Ellis with all the latest developments on 6m\n\n48 On the Beam\nThings are looking up this month, as Glen Ross investigates the microwaves\n\n50 Second-hand\nHugh Allison looks at hum (mains, not bugs)\n\n52 Project Book\nMartyn Williams with the final part of his component code series\n\n53 Free Classified Ads\nThe market for buying and selling\n\nSERVICES\n25 Subscription Order Form\n38 Radio and Electronics World Subscription Order Form\n49 Back Issues Order Form\n55 Free Classified Ad Form\n58 Newsagents Order Form\n58 Advertisers Index\n58 Advertising Rates and Information\n\nRAYCOM MOVE\n\nRay Withers Communications, the well-known dealers in amateur radio equipment, have made some changes to their outfit.\n\nFirstly, as you will see from Ray's advert in our own unrivalled publication, the company name has been shortened to Raycom. Secondly, Raycom has moved to new and luxurious offices. Situated at International House, 963 Wolverhampton Road, Oldbury, West Midlands B69 4RJ, the company is now easily accessible and very central.\n\nRaycom are official Sony dealers, also retailing Uniden, Yaesu and Icom goods (to name but a few). They also stock Butternut aerials, as reviewed by Angus McKenzie recently. Well worth a visit if you're in the West Midlands.\n\nMONEY BACK\n\nOwners of high quality, but now unused equipment that is gathering dust on storage shelves can realise valuable revenue by selling through Carston Electronics.\n\nCarston has established a unique brokerage scheme that offers sellers a rapid means of 'liquidising' the large sums of money that can be tied up in redundant items such as instrumentation, test equipment, computer peripherals, etc.\n\nIn particular, the company is interested in hearing from owners of recent models from brand-name manufacturers. Many companies purchase specialist equipment to fulfil the needs of a project and, when this is completed, place the equipment in storage.\n\nCarston has developed this capability in response to a growing requirement for companies to utilise their capital in the most efficient manner. The company also provides a proven source of fully calibrated and guaranteed equipment.\n\nFor further information, contact: Carston Electronics Ltd, 2-6 Queens Road, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LR. Tel: 01-943 4477.\n\nSOLDER OFF\n\nCeka now offers a new antistatic desoldering pump with variable spring action suction.\n\nThe suction power is varied simply by unthreading the pump's nozzle and turning the spring to either the 'soft' or 'strong' suction position. The suction is strong, muffled and recoilless.\n\nThe desoldering pump, number 6103, is made from black antistatic nylon glass plastic. When it reloads, it clears solder through a heat-resistant non-stick carbon fibre tip. It is supplied in individual wallets, with full instructions for use and maintenance, and costs £11.00.\n\nFor further information contact: Ceka Works Limited, Pwllheli, Gwynedd, North Wales LL53 5LH. Tel: (0758) 612254.\n\nPCB CONNECTORS\n\nA new modular BLA/SLA connector system for printed circuit boards made its debut in the UK on the Klippon Stand at the All Electronics Show.\n\nDesigned for various process control systems, the range is available in a single row format from 2 to 24 poles and in a double row format with up to 48 poles. The modules can be built into blocks, can be easily terminated and are designed to be vibration proof.\n\nThe connectors are manufactured in PBTP, have an operational temperature range of 120 degrees centigrade and an 8A current rating.\n\nFor further details, contact: Klippon Electricals, Power Station Road, Sheerness, Kent ME12 3AB. Tel: (0795) 580999.\n\nSTC Electronic Services has introduced the new MK SafeGuard RCB adaptor plug to complement its MK Sentry-socket range.\n\nDesigned to provide immediate mobile earth fault protection by simple insertion into a standard 13A socket, the adaptor features sleeved pins, double pole isolation and a patented safety shutter on live and neutral.\n\nAs an added safety facility, the SafeGuard will trip off if it is removed from the socket or if the power supply is cut. More importantly, it will not automatically restore power to equipment (ie, dangerous tools) following an interruption until the reset button is manually operated.\n\nThe adaptor operates with a 30mA trip current, is fitted with a test button to ensure satisfactory function and features a mechanical indicator for maximum safety. If necessary, two units may be fitted into a twin 13A socket outlet.\n\nFor further information, contact: The Tool Group, STC Electronic Services, Edinburgh Way, Harlow, Essex CM20 2DF. Tel: (0279) 626777.\n\nInstrumex has now introduced the Grundig FG80 PAL/SECAM colour pattern generator for multi-standard testing in both eastern and western formats.\n\nIt can be used in broadcasting, where standard converters are increasingly important, or for video equipment production testing. A useful feature is its output to an external oscilloscope.\n\nThe comprehensive set of video test patterns includes a special moving test pattern to verify still frame, slow motion and time lapse operations when checking video recorders.\n\nThe FG80 can fully test stereo and dual tone functions, as well as the continental video program service (VPS) signal. Four station frequencies can be programmed into memory for rapid recall. The instrument has a logical, uncluttered front panel.\n\nThe FG80 operates over a full RF range of 30 to 870MHz. Its RF output is 40mV EMF (synchronised pulse) into 75Ω.\n\nFurther information can be obtained from: Instrumex, Dorcan House, Meadfield Road, Langley, Berks SL3 8AL. Tel: (0753) 44878.\n\nThe K613 is a fully-protected dimmer/controller kit which handles mains voltages of up to 5A. It is now available from ECW Sales.\n\nThe dimmer is a high-Q device that adjusts the power supplied to a load with minimum hysteresis. This makes it suitable for dimming lights, adjusting ac motor speed and the output of heating elements and many others.\n\nThe K613 assembles into a compact chassis unit that can be incorporated easily into an enclosure. It is fully suppressed and has a triac output, protected against inductive voltage loads.\n\nFor dedicated lighting control, ECW Sales can also supply dimmers that replace conventional wall switches with potentiometer or touch control.\n\nThe K613 is offered at a mail order price of £14.33, including VAT and posting/package.\n\nFor further information, please contact: Electronic and Computer Workshop Ltd, Unit 1, Cromwell Centre, Stepfield, Witham, Essex CM8 3TH. Tel: (0376) 517413.\n\nSTC Instrument Services has introduced the Voltech EL100 and EL300 units, which offer a convenient and flexible means of loading dc power supplies and batteries.\n\nThese 3U-high modules provide a precise constant current load to the power source for the purpose of assessing the electrical performance of the source. Extremely versatile, the EL100 loads powersources up to 100W, 20A whilst the EL300 is rated at 300W, 60A. In addition, each unit has two current ranges enabling accurate setting of low current levels. Both units operate from below 3V to 110V dc—hence covering a very wide selection of applications.\n\nOther features include an easy-to-read green LED display, push-button selectable operating modes with LED indication on the front panel, a current monitor output, which allows interfacing with an oscilloscope or external logger, and remote control facilities.\n\nTotally self-contained, the units incorporate a variable speed dc fan which matches the cooling rate to the power demand—ensuring a long bearing life and high reliability as well as extremely quiet operation.\n\nThe units are very compact and are suitable for standalone bench use or for rack-mounting within Euroracks to form a flexible multi-load test station.\n\nMore details are available from: STC Instrument Services, Dewar House, Central Road, Harlow, Essex CM20 2TA. Tel: (0279) 641641.\n\nRikadenki Mitsui Electronics (UK) has franchised STC Instrument Services to carry the ROX Series of Y-T chart recorders. The agreement initially covers the 1, 2 and 3-pen ranges (types R01, R02 and R03) plus the 4 and 6-pen ranges (R64 and R66).\n\nThe instruments have been developed from the highly successful R20 Series of Rikadenki flat-bed instruments.\n\nContact: STC Instrument Services, Dewar House, Central Road, Harlow, Essex CM20 2TA. Tel: (0279) 641641.\n\nEGA TO WATCH\n\nPanasonic has introduced a new 14in colour display monitor, available from Hero Electronics. The monitor is compatible with IBM PCs or IBM PC compatibles using enhanced graphics adaptors (EGAs).\n\nThe monitor has two modes. Mode 1 gives a horizontal sync frequency of 15.7kHz, a 16 colour display and a resolution of $640 \\times 200$ dots. Mode 2 gives a horizontal frequency of 21.8kHz, 64 colours and a resolution of $640 \\times 350$ dots.\n\nThe monitor is housed in an attractive case. A tilt and swivel stand is an optional extra.\n\nFor more information contact: Hero Electronics Limited, Dunstable Street, Ampthill, Bedfordshire MK45 2JS. Tel: (0525) 405015.\n\nSWITCHING OPTIONS\n\nWavecom's latest SPY-8 RF coaxial switch, available from Anglia Microwaves Ltd, is ideal for designing custom switch matrices in ATE and other microwave equipment. It can be used at frequencies of up to 18GHz and has internal 50 ohm terminations at all open positions.\n\nManufactured to MIL standards, the switch has a guaranteed lifetime of one million cycles per position, without intermittent contact and without insertion loss rising more than 0.1dB.\n\nOptions include TTL logic, BCD decoding, isolated indicator circuits and one of four standard actuation modes: latching, latching-reset, normally-open or normally-failsafe to position '1'.\n\nWavecom quotes a VSWR performance of 1-2.1 at 3GHz, and 1-5.1 at 18GHz with insertion losses of 0.2dB and 0.55dB respectively, while isolation figures are 80 and 60dB.\n\nFurther information from Anglia Microwaves Ltd, Radford Business Centre, Radford Way, Billericay, Essex CM12 0BZ. Tel: (0277) 630000.\n\nGREENWELD CREDIT CARD\n\nGreenweld is now offering an in-store credit card which enables customers to order goods by phone for dispatch the same day. The system offers a choice of an option account or a budget account.\n\nFull details and an application form will be sent on request by contacting: Greenweld, 443J Millbrook Road, Southampton SO1 0HX. Tel: (0703) 772501/783740.\n\nCRYSTALS, FILTERS AND OSCILLATORS\n\nCirkit Distribution has been appointed a UK distributor for Uniden Corporation of Japan, one of the few manufacturers in the world that grows its own crystals so that quality can be controlled right from the raw material stage.\n\nSpecial frequencies and tolerances can be accommodated from 1.0MHz up to 130MHz in a variety of can sizes and mounting styles. Minimum order quantity is 1,000 per batch. Standard frequencies are held in stock.\n\nCrystal filters are available in 2, 4, 6 and 8-pole configurations in a variety of centre frequencies and bandwidths.\n\nFor further information, contact: Cirkit Distribution Ltd, Park Lane, Broxbourne, Hertfordshire EN10 7NQ. Tel: (0992) 444111.\n\nBAND THREE, TWO, ONE!\n\nBand III radio was finally inaugurated on March 1st, in the exotic surroundings of the Roof Gardens in Kensington. Dedicated reporters from this magazine, manfully suffering the champagne and canapés, managed to ask a National Mobile Radio executive a few pertinent questions.\n\nBand III, as you will know, is the frequency band around 200MHz vacated by television when it moved on to new allocations. Effectively, the band has now been divided into three - one for present use, one for future expansion and the last being reserved for new technology.\n\nNMR Ltd have been awarded licences to operate 20 channels in the London region and 19 in both the Birmingham and Manchester regions. It is hoped to cover the country within 18 months, though 'the odd farmer in Auchtermuchty' will probably never be able to take part - you have been warned!\n\nThree million pounds has been pumped into the development and the combined talents of National Radiofone, Storno, BT and Motorola have been utilised to bring the project to fruition.\n\nRepeater systems are 'on the cards'. Calls will be free, with a standing charge of approximately £20 per mobile per month, and potential users can be 'up and running' within three days of asking for the system. Inter-region operating is possible. Both voice and data communications will be available and transmissions will be protected.\n\nOnly one shadow appears on this glittering scene - the threat that TV may ask the DTI to re-allocate these frequencies for its own use. Watch this space for future developments...\n\nLINES AND TIGERS\n\nTiger Antenna Magazine, published quarterly by Ant Products, contains news and comment for radio amateurs, construction projects, pieces of theory and a regular computer program.\n\nAn annual subscription is £3.20, post paid.\n\nFor further information contact: Tiger Antenna Magazine, Foundry Works, Old Great North Road, Ferrybridge, West Yorkshire WF11 8NN. Tel: (0977) 85274.\n\nBarry's birthday\n\nBarry College of Further Education Radio Society is celebrating its 21st birthday and continues its commemorative series of demonstrations and lectures with a video presentation on May 19th, 'JARL DXpedition to China'.\n\nThe club meets on Thursday evenings from 7.30pm onwards at the college annexe along the Barry to Bonvilston Road (A4226), a few hundred yards from the site of Barry Zoo, now the Welsh Hawking Centre. Contact Dr Kevin Johnston GW4BCB, Barry College, Colcot Road, Barry, South Glamorgan CF6 8YJ.\n\nGordon's donation\n\nRemember Roy (Straight & Level, March 1988)? He's the intrepid ex-Scout leader who was going to free-fall in tandem with one of his former Scouts.\n\nAt the time of writing, the event was set to take place on April 2nd or, if it was wet that day, April 9th.\n\nWhat's more, Gordon Crowhurst, the well-known key maker, made and donated a special Morse key so that Roy could send a 21st birthday greeting to his former troop. Well done, Gordon. If you're making a record attempt, it's nice to know you can rely on the equipment.\n\nKey technique\n\nEver fancied attending a master class, the sort where a virtuoso cajoles extra piquancy from a student's rendition? Perhaps not. If you turn up at Kevin Fox's, you'll at least be sure of the right key; then it's just a question of rhythm and tempo.\n\nClass A licence holders will have a chance to improve their CW technique under the expert guidance of local Sheffield HF operators. Class B holders need not be put off; they can practise identifying by phone.\n\nIf you're interested, contact Kevin Fox G4MDQ, on air between 1730 and 1900, Monday to Friday.\n\nNeater repeater\n\nReading and District ARC are holding two meetings, both in the 'White Horse' pub, Emmer Green, Reading.\n\nOn Tuesday, May 10th, David Bryant will speak on satellite reception and on Tuesday, May 24th, Gary Shippton G4CRJ will attempt to avoid hesitation, deviation and mostly, repetition, when he talks, for more than just a minute, all being well, on the 23cm TV repeater GB3HV. All are welcome, and further details are available from the club's honorary secretary, Mike Anthony G4THN, tel: Reading (0734) 774042.\n\nMARS mart\n\nMidland Amateur Radio Society has a rally at Drayton Manor on May 8th, followed by a junk sale and natter night. Surely there's no connection. For more details, phone (021) 357 1924.\n\nConvenience listening\n\nNow that packet soups have dissolved into the background, the latest stir is being created by packet radio. Find out about the UK network at the Verulam Amateur Radio Club on Tuesday, May 24th. Mr M Dennison G3XDV will be giving the talk at 8pm, but please turn up at 7.30pm at the RAF Association Headquarters, New Kent Road, off Marlborough Road, St Albans.\n\nThe club is also holding an activity evening on Tuesday, May 10th. Visitors are welcome at all meetings and further information is available from Hilary G4JKS, tel: St Albans 59318.\n\nEdgware is it?\n\nLost in the landscape or the bandscape? Put your trust in a satellite; you can find out how on May 12th when P Machin will be giving a talk entitled 'Navigation by Satellite' at Edgware and District Radio Society, Watling Community Centre, 145 Orange Hill Road, Burnt Oak, Edgware.\n\nYou might like to retrace your steps on May 20th and 26th, when there will be a straight key evening and an NFD briefing/construction contest respectively. Contact Ian Cope G4IUZ, tel: Hatfield 65707.\n\nWaves and ovations\n\nDorking and District Radio Society could be divided into nodes and antinodes when Tony G4XYC poses the question, 'SWR, does it matter?' It takes place on Tuesday, May 10th at 8.00pm. Further details are available from G4XYC himself, who can also be contacted on Leatherhead 375976. Why not turn up and give him a standing ovation?\n\nSoft soap\n\nThere are days when one wishes for instant mechanical know-how, and today's one of them. Wimbledon and District ARS are having a talk on May 13th, the subject being 'Allard Motor Cars'. Well, we knew they weren't all soft...\n\nThey are continuing an eventful month with a construction contest for the G3PGA Trophy. Hope no-one makes one of them 'ard motor cars!\n\nAll club meetings are held on the second and last Fridays of each month at 7.30pm in St Andrews Church Hall, Herbert Road, Wimbledon SW19. To find out more about the club, contact David Love G4RBQ on (07373) 51559.\n\nBack in time\n\nThe Binstead ARS on the Isle of Wight meet every Monday at 7.30pm. This month, on the first Monday, a talk will be given by Douglas G3KPO on vintage radio and TV. Another club looking at yesteryear!\n\nThe club meets at Dubbers Godshill, IOW, and to find out more about club events you should contact R Griffiths G01SB.\n\nFast on the draw\n\nBlackwood and District ARS is holding a construction competition, pardners, so strap those ol' solderin' irons in them thar holsters, and prepare for the shoot-out at the OK corral - sorry, Oakdale College, actually. Yee hah!\n\nThose soldering irons will really be smouldering, as the entrants try to put together the Maplin Live Wire Detector Kit in the shortest possible time. Entrants are invited to bring friends for moral or vocal support – the more the merrier (and noisier).\n\nEvery entrant will get a copy of the construction details when his or her entry form is received, so hopefully they will all know what they’re doing. Constructors can keep the finished product so that visitors can admire it. Oh well – you could always pretend that it was meant to be a scale model of Spaghetti Junction.\n\nPrizes will be awarded for the fastest constructor overall, the fastest beginner and the fastest club constructors. Unfortunately, each entrant will receive a certificate stating their final position, but you can always Tipp-Ex out the ‘Highly Unrecommended’ and forge a ‘First’.\n\nTo get into the competition send £4 to Terry John GW4XCU at 9 Yew Tree Grove, Woodfieldside, Blackwood, Gwent. Phone Terry on (0495) 222573 for details, and prepare for a showdown!\n\nAll the nice girls\n\nYo, ho, ho and an annual mobile rally at HMS Mercury, near Petersfield in Hampshire. We like the RNARS, they called us a ‘fine magazine’. And they’re a fine body of men – we’d send them a pin-up photo of the Ed, but we’d like to stay friends…\n\nAnyway, back to the Mercury Rally, which will make an excellent family day out and will take place on June 12th. There will be trade stands and stalls.\n\nThe harmonics will be entertained with rides and amusements, exhibitions and demonstrations – there’s even a touch of the Robin Hoods with an exhibition of DIY archery.\n\nAs if this wasn’t enough, there will be vintage steam machines and fire engines, radio controlled model power boats, trains and racing cars. Refreshments will be available and talk-in will be on both 2 metres and 70cm. Too good to miss, this.\n\nViking trip\n\nMay 5th brings the North Wakefield Club out into the open, busy lot that they are. The club’s first meeting is a talk by PC Workman. A cautionary tale, perhaps, with an arresting ending?\n\nThe club goes on the air on May 12th with G4NOK, and then on May 19th comes a real treat. The club is going by coach to the Jorvik Viking Centre in York. A good trip, by Odin, and for a paltry £5. Sounds worth horning in on.\n\nThe last meeting for the month is on May 26th and is the club’s regular monthly meeting. The club meets every Thursday at 8pm in the White Horse Public House, Fall Lane, East Ardsley. To find out more about the club contact Steve G4RCH on Leeds 536633.\n\nHighland fling\n\nAviemore, the jewel of the Cairngorms, is hosting a promotional day for Raynet in Scotland.\n\nMay 1st brings this series of talks from the Freedom Inn in the Aviemore Centre. Anyone who is interested can attend.\n\nThe theme is ‘Emergency – Which Service’ and the first talk will be by the Highland Region Emergency Planning Officer. After lunch there will be talks by members about fire and mountain rescue, then there will be an open forum on Raynet.\n\nAs this Sunday precedes a Bank Holiday, why not make a long weekend of it. There is plenty to keep the family amused – skating, pony trekking, go-karting, curling…yes, our sleuths have checked the centre out and it’s very nice, thank you.\n\nFor further details, contact Eric Garrington GM3RFA QTHR or on Fort William 3833.\n\nWDRG\n\nThe West Devon Repeater Group has appointed a new secretary, Trevor G3ZYY. He tells us that the group is still alive and kicking, and that anyone wanting to join should contact him (QTHR).\n\nMembership only costs £3 per year, for which you get an attractive membership certificate, fact sheet, newsletter and welcoming letter. Sounds too good to miss!\n\nElectrifying!\n\nThe Bournemouth and District RAIBC Group will be operating their annual special event station from the Southern Electricity Museum, Bargates, Christchurch on May 14th/15th this year. Wonder if they’ll talk about current affairs?\n\nThe museum, previously known as the Wedgewood Electrical Collection with the callsign GB2WEC, will now have the new call GB75SEM for this year’s event. The station will be active on HF, VHF and UHF.\n\nVisitors are welcome, and the museum will be open between 10am and 4pm. Talk-in will be available on VHF.\n\nA special colour QSL card will be sent to all contacts via the RSGB Bureau or direct on receipt of an SAE to Bob G6DUN, 40 Fairmile Road, Christchurch, BH23 2LL.\n\nMilligan, Gilligan\n\nOver the sea, now, to Ireland, where the Mid-Ulster Radio Club is flourishing. Their annual Parkanaur radio rally will be held on Sunday, May 15th at the Silverwood Hotel, Lurgan, County Armagh. Being an easy-going crowd, the club’s rally doesn’t start till twelve noon, but it’s bound to be a quality affair.\n\nThe entrance fee is £1 and there will be trade stands, a bring-and-buy stall, RSGB bookstall, QSL bureau and much more. Talk-in will be on S22 FM.\n\nNot only this, but the proceeds will go to the Stanley Eakins Memorial Fund, so the club is hoping for a good turnout. Attend your rally – keep those Irish eyes smiling!\n\nThe Mid-Ulster ARC meets on the second Sunday of each month (except in July and August) at 3pm in the Guide Hall, Castle Hill, Gilford, County Down. There is usually a radio-related talk and everyone is welcome.\n\nTo find out more about the club contact Sam White G1IBIW on (07622) 22855.\n\nClub secretaries please note:\n\nWhen you send details of events for inclusion in this section remember to state the venue, date and time.\n\nAlso a contact address or phone number is useful\n\nTypewritten information is preferred\n\nA FIND TO TREASURE\n\nBritain’s best selling magazine for the metal detecting enthusiast!\n\nDon’t miss the May issue at your newsagents\n\nWEATHER FAX/RTTY/NAVTEX: COMPLETE RECEIVE SYSTEM\n\nOperates with any HF SSB Receiver.\nEasy to use. No computer knowledge needed.\nFully automatic operation. Built in timer and tuning indicator.\n\nGives superbly detailed weather maps, satellite cloud cover printouts, printed weather forecasts, navigation warnings and news bulletins from around the globe.\n\nIncludes FAX-1 demodulator, mains power unit, Epson compatible printer, paper, ribbon and all connecting cables. Nothing more to buy. Just connects to receiver loudspeaker output.\n\nHundreds of FAX-1s already in use world wide by professional and amateur weather forecasters, yachtsmen, aviators and enthusiasts. British designed and manufacturered.\n\nICS Electronics Ltd\nPO Box 2, Arundel,\nWest Sussex. BN18 ONX\nTelephone: 024 365 590. Facsimile: 024 365 575\n\n12 months parts and labour warranty, Price includes VAT at 15%\n\nThere was some excellent propagation on the HF bands during March, even including some openings to the Pacific on 10 metres with strong signals from F00AQ, KH2D, KG6DX and others. Unfortunately, these conditions didn't prevail during the WPX contest and a solar storm on the Saturday really put paid to any decent openings to the west on the higher bands, although stations from the Far East were absolutely pounding in on 20 metres.\n\nAlong with other members of the Chiltern DX Club, I was operating GB4CDX in the contest and we had quite a struggle, despite having an excellent antenna system including a 3-element 40-metre beam and a set of slopers for 80. However, there were many interesting prefixes for the Amateur Radio prefixes award. For example, we worked TXUA, FY91S, TW6A, FJ0A, T07TSE, YM2KC, 9X1BE, etc.\n\nDuring the BARTG Spring RTTY Contest, held over the previous weekend, I was able to make a brief appearance on RTTY. I was surprised at the level of activity, with some stations running serial numbers in excess of 400 by the end of the contest. I noted the following DX (not all worked by me, unfortunately!): 3C1MB, HD5G, ZC4JA, TG9VT, J39BS, HC8GR, AL7BB, 4U1UN and YS1TG.\n\nOutside the contests, S0RASD continued to be very active, as were the various stations associated with the Canadian/Russian Trans-Polar Ski-Trek (particularly VO1SA/UA0, CI8C and CI8CW). Amir 4X6TT turned up as promised from various Pacific Islands. The KH1 DXpedition appeared just before the end of the month, with excellent signals on 20 metres and workable, although weaker, ones on 15 metres.\n\nMy apologies for giving some erroneous information concerning this DXpedition in the March issue. Previous operations from KH1 have been from Canton Island, but this time the operation was from the Baker and Howland Islands, which will count as a new one for the Islands on the Air Award.\n\nAbu Ali\n\nThe A15 callsign used by the recent German DXpedition to Abu Ali led to some raised eyebrows. However, *Qrz DX* has since shed some light on this by way of a letter from Dieter DK9KD.\n\nDieter's letter reads as follows: 'In the past, all kinds of calls were used. We tried to find a way to give this island a callsign like, for example, Spratly. After discussing the matter with DARIC (the German national society) we came up with the as yet unissued called A1.'\n\nWe, the EUDXF, have been given the right by the owner of the island to issue a licence and, in future, we will supply a licence to everyone who likes it, even if he is not going to use it from the island. It will be valid for 5 years and will cost $50. The blocks A14, A15 and A16 will be used. The captain who is responsible for the island and the lighthouse agreed to this solution. The licence will be in such a form that it can be shown in any shack and we hope to use the money from the sale to further DXpeditions all over the world.'\n\nAbu Ali, incidentally, is one of a group of rocks in the entrance to the Red Sea off Djibouti and isn't even shown in most atlases. Its significance is that a lighthouse sits on it and this is jointly administered by several nations with an interest in the area.\n\nDX news\n\nSo let's move on to what is in store. Looking quite some way ahead, the 6-metre DX Society is mounting a DXpedition to Saba Island in the Caribbean from 7-14th July. The callsign will be PJ6M. Although they will be paying particular attention to exploring 6m multi-hop paths to the UK and Europe, they will also be active on the 80 to 10 metre HF bands. K2MUD will be handling the QSLs.\n\nThe following are a couple to look forward to from the Pacific. NZ1Q was due to be active at NZ1Q/KH7 until 3rd May, CW only, 26kHz from the bottom of the various bands. Although KH6JEB/KH7 has operated from Kure Island several times in recent years, this has been almost exclusively on SSB so NZ1Q is likely to find himself very popular. NY6M and KH2F will sign NY6M/AH0 from Saipan from 27-30th May, on 160-10.\n\nDJ5GR is currently active as TU4GR and will be at the Ivory Coast until mid-August. He is mainly active on CW. QSLs will be dealt with on his return to Germany. Rudi was once of the last amateurs to operate from Yemen, signing 4W9GR in the mid-'70s.\n\nGerben PA0GAM, who has recently been very active from the Sudan, was due to visit several rare countries in Africa and Asia between 6th April and 6th June. These will include 9X, A5 and 9N. I can't imagine Gerben getting permission to operate from Bhutan, but he was hoping it would give him the opportunity to find out what the latest situation is regarding amateur radio in that remote kingdom.\n\nGerry 5X5GK is reported to have been forcibly expelled from Uganda, which is unfortunate both for him and for the amateur radio community. Gerry has been the only station regularly active from Uganda in recent years. N5RM/PJ2 should be active from 24th-31st May, including during the CQ WPX CW contest when he will sign PJ0R. SX1RAAG will be active from Greece during the whole of May and June, operated by the Greek national radio club (the RAAG).\n\nWAB enthusiasts should look out for G5LP and others who were due to activate the islands of Sark (30th April-4th May), Herm (5th May) and Alderney (6th May). The callsign was expected to be GUBING and I would suggest checking the usual WAB frequencies (particularly 3760kHz).\n\n*DX News Sheet* recently carried a reminder from G3AEZ that propagation forecasts are broadcast by Radio Australia on Mondays to Saturdays at 0425, 0827, 1627 and 2027. Reception in the UK is particularly good on 7205kHz from 1600 GMT. The morning transmissions are made on 9655, 15395 and 17715kHz.\n\nContests\n\nThe main contesting event of May is the CQ WPX CW contest on the last full weekend of the month (in other words 28/29th May this year). See the March *DX Diary* column for the rules, which are the same as for SSB.\n\nThe Russian CQ-M Contest is another interesting one to look out for this month. This is on 14/15th May, lasting for 24 hours starting at 2100 GMT on the Saturday. This is for both CW and SSB and is always an excellent opportunity to work rare Russian oblasts, as well as countries like JT (one year I worked three Mongolian stations on 20 metres within an hour of the contest starting).\n\nLooking ahead, the All Asia Phone Contest takes place on 18/19th June. This is a full-blown 48-hour affair and the contest exchange is RS plus your age. YL operators are allowed to send OO! If propagation is favourable, this can be a very enjoyable and rewarding contest with lots of interesting Asian DX to be worked.\n\nThis month I have included...\n\nthe UK results from the 1987 CQ WPX SSB Contest. The number of entries was disappointingly low compared with other European countries. I hope more UK stations decided to have a go this year. Congratulations are due especially to GW4BLE, whose 14MHz score was world 7th, and to G4VGO, who came world 4th on 1.8MHz operating as GB8DX. G4JVG also put in a very respectable all-band score of 1,130,220 points, operating as OH0/G4JVG from the Aland Islands.\n\nOperating techniques\n\nI have said quite a lot in the past about the best operating techniques for DX chasing. There is no doubt that the most successful DXers are those who spend much more time listening than transmitting and, if they hear a DX station, make a point of figuring out his operating technique before making their first call. It's probably fair to say that the majority of US and Japanese amateurs put these techniques into practice and operate in a well-disciplined way.\n\nHowever, I continue to be appalled by the operating behaviour of most European DXers. Of course, we all get carried away in the excitement of a pile-up from time to time and occasionally make the mistake of selecting the wrong VFO when the DX station is operating split frequency. Nowadays, though, it seems to be common practice for most Europeans to call and call regardless of whether the DX station is already in QSO or is listening for a particular station or group of stations.\n\nThen there are the 'policemen', who insist on being 'helpful' by sitting on the DX station's frequency in order to tell others to QSY off the channel. Often they make far more QRM than the stations they are trying to move. If all this were not enough, there are others who cause deliberate QRM out of sheer bloody-mindedness, sometimes playing music on the DX station's frequency or putting out a continuous carrier.\n\nIf you chase DX at all, I'm sure you could add several more examples of the way in which this aspect of the hobby seems to have deteriorated in recent years. I'm sure there has always been an element of this kind of behaviour, but perhaps matters have got worse due to the rapid increase in the number of DXers. I imagine much of the bad behaviour is due to sheer frustration at not being able to get through the pile-up. Even a major DXpedition, which might make 20,000 contacts or more, can't completely satisfy the demand, and the lone operator in a remote corner of Africa or wherever finds it even harder to please everybody.\n\nThe advent of new single band DXCC awards can only make matters worse. DXers will not be satisfied with 100 countries per band for their 5-band DXCC, but will want to press on and work every new one they can. What's more, they will also be wanting the QSL cards in order to send them off for the various awards.\n\nI don't see any immediate respite from this kind of pressure. Perhaps things will improve when we get full access to the 18 and 24MHz bands but, if anything, it may be worse because DXers will now want to work a rare station on nine rather than six bands, making it even harder to satisfy everybody.\n\nPretty depressing? Well, maybe. On the other hand, many of us still find DXing the most rewarding aspect of amateur radio, gaining a real sense of achievement when something unusual finds its way into the log. Although the going can get rough at times it isn't always so, particularly for good listeners who latch on to the DX before anyone else realises it's around. If you listen on the HF bands on a weekday you might sometimes be forgiven for thinking that HF amateur radio is dead - the DX is booming in calling CQ and there is not a DXer to be heard.\n\nNo magic remedy, then. If the going gets too rough, call it a day and look around for someone else to call. There will always be another time. And in your own operating, try to set an example to others, even if it means taking a back seat occasionally. Do remember, as well, that life on CW is still generally much more civilised than on SSB and DX stations are beginning to realise that as well.\n\nBooks\n\nIf you want to read more about DX operating techniques, there are several books worth taking a look at. All are American, but available in the UK. One which has received good reviews recently, and which I am currently in the middle of reading, is DX Power, Effective Techniques for Radio Amateurs by Eugene Tilton K5RSG, published by TAB Books in conjunction with the ARRL.\n\nTAB also publish Secrets of Ham Radio DXing by Dave Ingram K4TWJ.\n\nFinally, The Complete DXer by W9KNI, published by Idiom Press, is also a good read. This one is principally aimed at CW DXing, but many of the techniques described are equally applicable to DXing on SSB.\n\nAwards\n\nThis month I have concentrated on a series of Canadian awards issued by the Ontario DX Association.\n\nThe Canadian Provincial Capitals Certificate is an attractive award for which you need to work a station in each of the ten provincial capital cities of Canada: Edmonton (Alberta), Victoria (British Columbia), Fredericton (New Brunswick), St John's (Newfoundland), Halifax (Nova Scotia), Winnipeg (Manitoba), Toronto (Ontario), Quebec City (Quebec), Charlottetown (Prince Edward Island) and Regina (Saskatchewan).\n\nSend certified log data (signed by one executive of your local radio club or two fellow amateurs) to Ron Nickle VE3SF, Awards Manager, 286 Burnett Avenue, Willowdale, Ontario, Canada M2N 1W1. There is a charge of $2 or 10 IRCs.\n\nAnother Canadian award to go for is the Trans-Canada Award. For this one work five stations in each of the 8 Canadian call areas for a total of 40 contacts, plus five stations in Newfoundland or Labrador (VO1 or VO2), plus one VE0 Maritime Mobile station. Of the VE8 contacts, at least one must be with the Yukon (VE8 or VY1) and one with an offshore island of the North-West Territories. The total number of contacts required is 46. The method of application and charge are exactly the same as for the capitals award described above.\n\nFinally, the St Lawrence Seaway Award requires contacts with ten stations along the route of the St Lawrence, including at least one in each of the following areas: Thunder Bay, Greater Toronto, Greater Montreal and Greater Quebec City. The remaining six may be from any municipality located along the route. Again, charges and method of application are as for the previous two awards.\n\nIncidentally, you may see in award details that applications require a GCR list. The term GCR gained acceptance as a standard for awards chasing due to the efforts of K6BX in the 1960s and '70s. GCR stands for General Certification Rule. When applying for an award the applicant is expected to provide a list of the contacts or QSLs required for the award. The GCR is a separate area on the application which contains a statement such as: 'The information and/or QSLs required for this award have been checked and are certified as being correct by the following amateurs'.\n\nAlmost all award sponsors require two (dated) signatures. Some require the signature of a club official. Others will specify an official of an IARU associated club or of the national society. The safest way when applying for awards for which QSL cards are required is to have the application certified by your national HF awards manager who, in the UK, is GW4BKG. That's the lot for this month. Happy DXing.\n\nUK Scores in 1987 CQ WPX SSB Contest\n\n| Category | Station | Score |\n|-------------------|-----------|-----------|\n| All-band | GM4GPN | 301,924 |\n| All-band | GM4WEN | 177,000 |\n| 21MHz | G3VOF | 42,288 |\n| 14MHz | GW4BLE | 3,229,446 |\n| 14MHz | GB6AR (op: G4XKR) | 401,580 |\n| 1.8MHz | GB8DX (op: G4VGO) | 64,256 |\n| 1.8MHz | G3XWZ | 3,182 |\n| Multi-single | GB8AU | 3,080,525 |\n| Multi-single | GB8PX | 261,392 |\n| Multi-single | G4CVK | 85,782 |\n\nFunny how things change isn't it? I mean, when I was but a callow youth we always called it the 'coffee bar'. Nowadays, it's almost universally 'the caff'. Well, coffee bar was good enough in my day and it'll do today as well. At least I know what I mean, even if nobody else does. Ah! Those halcyon days of youth, sitting in the coffee bar drinking ice cold bottled Coke or espresso coffee (frothy coffee, we called it) and the Beatles belting out *Love Me Do* on the juke box. Happy days, indeed.\n\nAnyway, me and Old Cyril were sitting in the coffee bar plotting. We'd completed all the events in the club's programme and had about three weeks to run before the start of the next one. 'Wot abah't a two metre ess ess bee contest?' said Old Cyril, looking at me hopefully. I swivelled my eyes from side to side in consternation, then snatched a quick glance behind me.\n\n'Shush!' I urged him frantically, again sweeping the room with my eyes. I reminded him that we'd had so many two metre SSB contests recently that the club members had sworn to lynch the next person to suggest another.\n\n'Junk sale?'\n'Last month, Cyril.'\n'Home-brew competition?'\n'Remember the last one?' I asked him.\n\nOld Cyril's eyes glazed over as he time-warped back three months to the club's last home-brew competition. We had acquired a new club member who was as keen as mustard, but unfortunately knew next to nothing about the bizarre world of amateur radio. He appeared faithfully, week after week, always dressed in the same clothes. Black three piece suit, white shirt and black tie.\n\nHe came up to me a few weeks before the home-brew competition and asked me what home-brew was all about. I explained to him that it referred to anything you made yourself.\n\nOn the night of the judging, among the various bits of electronic plumbing carefully displayed around the room was a long box-like shape covered with a white cloth and supported at each end by two chairs. The judges, including some very high up bod from the RSGB, were meandering around the room, picking up gadgets, passing a few comments then moving on to the next piece. Finally, they arrived at the shrouded box between the chairs. They stopped, wrinkled their brows then looked around the room for an explanation. Mr 'Black-suit', who'd been watching things closely, calmly walked over to his creation, took hold of a corner of the white cover and, with a nice theatrical gesture, swept it off to reveal... a beautifully polished and gleaming pine coffin, complete with sculptured brass handles.\n\nI had forgotten to mention the word 'radio' when I explained what home-brew was all about. Still, he did win first prize; I think it was the brass handles which finally swung things his way.\n\n'Natter nite?' suggested Old Cyril, returning to the present.\n\n'Nope!' I vetoed.\n\n'Fox-hunt. That's it! We 'aven't 'ad one o' them fer yonks.'\n\n'Fox-hunt?' I queried, puzzled.\n\n'Yeh. That's wot we'll do, we'll 'av a fox-hunt,' said Old Cyril, gleefully.\n\nI'd never heard of a radio fox-hunt before. Visions of woofing dogs, scarlet coats and horses whizzed through my mind. I had remained curiously ignorant about amateur radio fox-hunting. I told Old Cyril that I had no idea about what happened on a fox-hunt, or how to organise one. Then I realised that I had made yet another blunder. Old Cyril grinned delightedly, leaned his elbows on the table, pushed his half full coffee mug away from him and began to light his evil smelling pipe. I recognised all the signs of an impending monologue and leaned back in my chair, resigned to an ear bashing.\n\nAs Old Cyril struggled with his pipe I cast a casual glance around the coffee bar. Seated at a table immediately to my right were four people, three men and a girl. They were students, judging by their avant garde dress and plethora of 'ban everything' patches. Their eyes roamed aimlessly around the room, one of the men was whistling tunelessly through his teeth. But it was very apparent that they were listening very carefully to everything we said.\n\n'Yoo really don' know wot a fox-hunt is?' asked Old Cyril incredulously. Then, without waiting for me to answer, he launched into a description. 'Right! Well, first you choose a fox. That's somebody everybody else has to find. 'e takes off to a secret location armed wiv a transmitter, then, every two or three minutes, he'll transmit on a certain frequency for a fixed time.'\n\nOld Cyril whipped the pipe out of his mouth, narrowed his eyes and stared intently at me, checking that I was following his explanation. I nodded to reassure him and he re-inserted his pipe and continued.\n\n'Everybody leaps into their cars and sets off to find the fox by direction fixing on the fox's radio broadcasts. Yoo 'av to mek a speshul directionamal aerial so's yoo can null out unwanted signals, jus' leaving the one which points to the fox.'\n\nOld Cyril had lost me by this time. I recapped on the highlights, then asked for more details. 'This, er, this directionamal - er, directional aerial baffles me, Cyril. What's it made of?'\n\nOld Cyril smiled secretly at me, gave me a huge conspiratorial wink then tapped the side of his nose with the stem of his pipe.\n\n'Ah! Now that's where success or failure lies,' he said, with a knowing smirk. 'There are stacks of different designs, most of them top secret.' He made a verbal detour to explain the principles of directional aerials, and gradually the fog began to clear away.\n\n'So, You take three bearings on the fox from different locations, plot them on a map and the fox will be where the lines intersect!' I concluded, triumphantly.\n\n'Yes, you've got it,' came the chorus from the students' table. I threw them my world famous withering look.\n\n'Right then! We'll do it,' I stated, with authority.\n\nJust as we got up to leave, one of the students stopped us cold with: 'You should be ashamed of yourselves, using high tech equipment to hunt down and slaughter an innocent animal. I've got some friends who know how to deal with people like you.'\n\nWell! Old Cyril looked at me, and I at him. Our flabbers had never been so gasted. We synchronised Gallic shrugs, nodded our heads sadly and left the coffee bar. How I wish I had paid more attention to the long haired chappie; his pronouncement was to have dire consequences for all of us later on.\n\nHaving taken so long to find an amateur radio club, now that I belonged to one I was determined to enter fully into the spirit of things, and so I joined the club's committee. I put forward the suggestion for the fox-hunt at the very next meeting. To my surprise it was warmly received, so I didn't need the roller skates or the back door held open by Old Cyril after all. However, there was a proviso demanded by the club members. Old Cyril had to be the fox.\n\nI was puzzled by this until a fellow committee member explained all to me\n\nover a double brandy (my favourite drink, should we ever meet) at the committee meeting held to plan the fox-hunt. He related several apocryphal sounding tales of Old Cyril's DFing, finally ending with: 'And then there was the time he DFed the fox's position before the fox had even made his first transmission!'\n\n'Aw, c'mon. You're winding me up,' I complained.\n\n'Nope. S'true!'\n\n'How?'\n\n'Well, the crafty old bugger syphoned all the petrol out of the fox's car, then returned just the one gallon. Having noted the direction the fox set off in, Old Cyril carefully plotted the car's range on a map. Of course, it was quite a simple job to check all the likely areas. Old Cyril simply sat on the side of the road awaiting the arrival of the fox. He was just lighting his pipe as the fox rolled to a halt a few inches away from him.'\n\nWell! I mean, how can you fail to be impressed by such animal cunning? We quickly concluded our committee meeting, supped up and left the pub.\n\nNow, I can only concentrate on one thing at a time, but I concentrate and get involved one hundred per cent. Some people call it going over the top, or at least that's what the club members said as I drew up in my car on the evening of the fox-hunt.\n\nI leaned against the bonnet of my car, flicking an imaginary speck of dust off my scarlet, tailed hunting coat, casually slapping my white blanccoed jodhpurs with my riding crop and inspecting the shine on my knee length patent leather riding boots. 'Cor! Give us a toot on yer 'unting 'orn, John Peel,' said one of the older club members.\n\nI nonchalantly lifted the heavy brass hunting horn to my lips and blew into it. A sound like an old cabbage being swallowed by a waste disposal unit pierced the peaceful calm and silence of the warm summer evening. The club members stared aghast as I donned my hard black riding hat. 'Well, it is supposed to be a fox-hunt,' I explained to all the mouths hanging open as I walked around my car.\n\nWe had arranged for all club members to travel in pairs. For some strange reason I couldn't get anybody to travel with me. I gave another hearty blast on the hunting horn. Two cows in an adjacent field came galloping over, eyes shining bright and huge smiles on their bovine faces. On reaching the fence, their heads flipped from side to side, looking for the bull.\n\nEventually, there were three luckless bodies left without transport. 'Never mind, chaps, you can come with me,' I beamed at them. Sobbing deeply, they got into the car and with me in the back, hanging out of the window and tooting merrily on the hunting horn, we set off in pursuit of the fox.\n\nWe drove up to a small hill and I leaped into action with the dipole and the AGC-less two metre receiver. I waved the dipole around, listened intently to the receiver, then waved the dipole some more. Of course, I was getting about two million nulls. Picking one at random (I wonder where Random is?), I plotted its bearing on the only map I had; a Mercator projection of the whole world! The track of the bearing dissected the North Pole, then dog-legged across Eastern Siberia.\n\nOn looking down the hill to try and align the new map hastily thrust into my hands by my assistants, I noticed quite a crowd had gathered. I never connected the press reports of a scarlet coated satanist waving deer's antlers above his head whilst performing black magic rites with my DFing antics!\n\nBack to the car, and off for the second bearing. We travelled slowly down a country lane, with me hanging out of the car window, dipole in one hand, hunting horn in the other. I blew an occasional toot on the hunting horn, yelling 'Tally-ho!' for added authenticity. Pretty soon a dog appeared behind the car and began trotting after us. Then, from a hole in the hedgerow, another dog appeared. Then another - and another. By the time we had travelled two miles we had collected a pack of about forty dogs, all loping along behind the car.\n\nI was enjoying myself enormously by this time. I tooted on the hunting horn and the dogs woofed in unison. Toot - woof. Toot - woof. It went on for miles. Again we pulled up at the side of the road for a second bearing on the fox. The dogs milled around the car as I busied myself with rig and aerial.\n\nPresently, I heard a sound like distant thunder approaching. I ignored it for a while, but it grew louder and louder.\n\n'Stop mucking about with those coconut shells,' I commanded my assistants. However, I suddenly saw a score of huge horses leaping over a hawthorn hedge, with scarlet coated portly gentlemen in the driving seats. Spotting the car and the dogs, the leading horseman hastily reined in his horse and cantered up to us.\n\n'I say, old chap, which way to the fox?' enquired a bristling moustache seated on a giant bay horse.\n\nI delicately moved out of range of his waistcoat buttons which appeared to be fighting a losing battle to contain his straining stomach. 'Don't know yet, old bean,' I replied. 'I've still got one more bearing to take before I pinpoint his position, then we'll have the blighter!'\n\n'You mean you can pinpoint the fox by waving those two metal pipes around?'\n\nsaid the moustache, enormously impressed.\n\n'Is there any other way?' I riposted, nonchalantly.\n\nAll the scarlet coats, horses and dogs went into a huddle. I could overhear an excited buzz of conversation ripple around them. The horses seemed very impressed.\n\n'OK, We have the blighter! Crossroads - Armageddon Road and Slaughterhouse Lane,' I said, plotting the bearing on the map.\n\n'But this is absolutely fantastic, old boy,' said the moustache.\n\n'Hardly sporting though, Archibald, don't you know?' answered one of the moustache's lieutenants, looking at me down the length of his nose. I shrugged my shoulders. The moustache gave a long toot on his hunting horn, and I replied in kind, on mine.\n\n'Tally-ho!' he said.\n\n'Right on!' said I.\n\nThe horses, dogs, gentlemen and clouds of dust all disappeared up the road. We ambled back to the car, in no hurry now that we'd located the fox's position, but I kept the receiver on, to reassure us we were going in the right direction. Suddenly, the calm, slightly bored voice announcing a callsign and that he was the fox, turned into a panic induced shriek. Muffled bangs and crashes followed by muttered swearing filled the air waves. Then - silence.\n\nWorried about the shouting and the sounds of a desperate struggle which had come over my receiver, I urged our driver to put his foot down and we melted the tarmac in our haste to get to the fox. I knew that we weren't too far away; before the fox's signal had vanished he had three oranges and two cherries on the bargraph LED display.\n\nWe arrived at the brow of a hill which overlooked the crossroads and coasted to a stop. I held the hunting horn three inches away from my lips, frozen into immobility. We each stared with horrified eyes at the debacle confronting us at the foot of the hill. A scene of pure lunacy was being enacted before our very eyes. Army surplussed combat jackets filled with student types were running around the scarlet coated gentlemen on the horses, screaming and shouting abuse at them. They were waving home-made banners, twisting football rattles and generally making as much noise as possible. The horses were bucking and kicking, whilst the portly gentlemen were swiping indiscriminately at each side of their horses with horse whips.\n\nWe drove up to the fringe of the mêlée. Getting out of the car, I heard four student types yelling, 'We've got it! We've got the fox!'\n\nI saw them humping a large sack with something inside kicking and struggling furiously. To my horror, I recognised the four students holding the sack - they were the four people who had sat on my right in the coffee bar. On seeing me, they dropped the sack, which emitted a deep groan as it hit the ground and rolled over a few times. Another group of students rushed up to the sack and began spraying it with deodorants and various perfumes from an atomizer.\n\nThe four students who'd been carrying the sack marched up to me.\n\n'That's 'im. He's the one that organised it all,' said one of the students. A deathly silence greeted this announcement. The students stopped abusing the horsemen and vice versa. They walked over to me and formed a circle around me. I hoisted my hands into the air, in the international signal of 'I surrender'.\n\n'Look chaps, I'll give you a last chance to surrender,' I stuttered, nervously. The horsy types, intrigued, cantered over to join the circle.\n\n'I told you you'd regret using high tech methods for fox-hunting,' said the leader of the hunt saboteurs, pointing her finger to a row of parked cars. I followed her pointing finger and saw six club members standing at the sides of their cars, holding various parts of their amateur radio equipment, staring disconsolately at smashed dials and hacked wires. My heart hit my boots.\n\nI walked over to the still violently struggling sack, reached down and unfastened the string securing it. Out flopped a furious Old Cyril, which produced a gasp of amazement from the student types. I began an explanation of the terrible mistake they had made. Old Cyril, smelling like the perfumery department of Boots, added the odd four letter word at various stages.\n\n'I say, old boy. Could do with a drinky-boos, what?' said the bristling moustache. One of the students produced a six-pack of lager and passed one to the bristling moustache. The temperature lowered somewhat and the hunt saboteurs and horsemen both drifted off into small groups, discussing tactics and yarning about past hunts.\n\nI was left with the six angry amateurs. One produced a shotgun from the boot of his car and, without a word, passed it to Old Cyril. Old Cyril walked over to me, his eyes glowing with satanic intention. He pushed his grinning face into mine. I took several steps backwards - the smell of the perfume was overpowering. Old Cyril pushed past me and walked up to my car. He then quite calmly, and grinning broadly, proceeded to blast the front nearside tyre of my car with the shotgun. This produced a loud cheer from the six rigrless amateurs. Pumping the shotgun, Old Cyril methodically worked his way around my car, blasting the other tyres. Then, without a word to me, they returned to their cars and left.\n\nI stood staring down at my mortally wounded car, a big lump in my throat. I put the hunting horn to my lips for a final toot. As the echoes of the hunting horn were slowly dissipating, a reddish brown shape with a long bushy tail crawled out from beneath my car, slunk over to the discarded sack and rolled itself around on top of it. With a backwards grin at me, the vixen loped off into the gathering darkness. I could have sworn I heard it chuckling in the distance.\n\nIt makes a lot of sense for manufacturers to incorporate modular construction to allow one rig to cover up to four bands not covered by HF transceivers in general.\n\nThis brand new rig from Yaesu is normally supplied with 144 and 430MHz modules, each giving up to a nominal 25W output, but you can add 10W modules for 50 and 1296MHz bands, the latter being covered from 1240 up to 1300MHz. The FT736 provides LSB, USB, narrow or normal FM and CW, a 600Hz Rx filter being available as an optional extra. The rig also includes facilities for data input and output, as well as all the normal external computer control functions for use with packet, AMTOR and RTTY terminals.\n\nThe FT736 resembles both the earlier FT726, which it completely outclasses, and the FT767 HF transceiver, available with plug-in VHF and UHF modules. The FT767 gave a very unsatisfactory performance with the plug-in modules when I reviewed it a year ago, the main problem being the very high synthesizer noise. Let me assure readers straight away that Yaesu appear to have learned their lesson, for the synthesizer in the FT736 is the best Yaesu one yet, outclassing both HF and VHF Yaesu synthesizers so far encountered.\n\nThey have taken a long time to issue this rig, but it is quite clear that the delay has been well worthwhile. They have not only corrected many of the problems in the earlier rigs, but they have introduced some extremely useful and impressive ergonomic features. However, before launching into the rig's facilities and a description of its various functions, we had better have a look at the alternatives available. These need to be thought about in great depth before a rig such as this is contemplated.\n\nAll the eggs in one basket again\n\nThere are three completely different approaches that can be adopted when deciding what to purchase for multimode operation on two or more VHF/UHF bands. The first approach is to lay out a lot of money on the best and most suitable HF transceiver that you can possibly afford, adding transverters to it for each band.\n\nSSB Products are increasing their range of transverters and very shortly they should be introducing their 28/430MHz model, which could run alongside the 28/144MHz one which I reviewed a year or so ago. They do not as yet make a 50MHz one, but RN Electronics should be producing a 28MHz IF version of their successful 144/50MHz one which I reviewed last Christmas. BNOS also promise to introduce some transverters soon.\n\nIf you are fortunate enough to be able to find 50 or 144MHz muTek transverters in good condition second-hand, you will be very lucky indeed, for they offer a superb performance but are no longer made (see Radcom's news pages, March 1988). Under the right circumstances, with careful attention to attenuator settings on the HF rig, the use of external transverters still offers the best possible overall performance, with superb system noise figures and RF input intercept points, so necessary for successful contest and DX operating.\n\nThe second alternative is to select the best multimode monoband rig for each band that is required. The new Icom 575, 275 and 475 models will, presumably, have a 1275 model added eventually for 23cm. The standard of performance of all these rigs is generally good (and somewhat better than the competition so far, other than dedicated transverters), but the cost of having two or more monoband rigs is becoming prohibitive compared with the significantly lower cost of a multiband rig. Incidentally, the Icom IC575 includes 28 as well as 50MHz, but you only get 10W PEP for your money!\n\nThe third alternative is to purchase a rig such as the new FT736, the Trio TS780, a second-hand Yaesu FT726 or the Yaesu FT767 set-up, which I did not recommend. The FT736 under review is quite clearly the best multiband VHF/UHF rig available; its release will almost certainly result in second-hand prices of the older models beginning to fall. The biggest problem, though, is that you have all your eggs in one basket and, if you are as keen as I am and have the four band modules incorporated, you will be QRT on all bands if your rig has to go for a service. It is therefore even more important for you to investigate the efficiency of after sales service given by the dealer of your choice.\n\nTuning methods\n\nYou can access a frequency on the FT736 in several different ways. You can select the required band first, then the mode and tune up and down the band either with the normal VFO tuning knob or in selectable steps. A separate click step rotary can be selected to tune up and down in channels. The main VFO rotates in 10Hz or 100Hz steps at approximately 10 or 100kHz per rev; the click step rotary can be selected to vary...\n\nin 5, 10, 12.5, 15, 20, 25, 30 or 50kHz steps for FM and 2.5 or 5kHz steps on CW/SSB. Once the step size has been selected for a mode on one of the bands, a non-volatile memory retains the selection.\n\nNote that you can select a different stepping rate for different bands; the rates for SSB/CW and FM can be set separately. Selector buttons choose either the main VFO or the click steps. Above the main VFO knob are two more buttons labelled 'up' and 'down'. You can use these for stepping, with the step rate appropriate to the chosen VFO or click step knob. As with the microphone's up and down buttons, you can also use the rig's up and down buttons for starting or stopping a scan.\n\nYou can enter a required frequency directly from the comprehensive keypad on the right-hand side of the front panel. There is provision for altering just one digit of a frequency with this keypad. The keypad is also used for accessing dozens of different functions, including memory selection, programmable search start and stop frequencies and various repeater and dual VFO functions.\n\n**Memory and repeater functions**\n\nThere are 100 basic memories, which can retain frequency, mode and repeater information. In addition, there are separate memories for many different sets of duplex frequencies and specialised split VFO channels. Each band module retains its own information in conjunction with the main microprocessors in the rig, thus allowing different step and repeater shift data to be stored in non-volatile memories for each band.\n\nThe version sold in the UK is the 736R/C1. This also incorporates an automatic repeater shift on each band, which puts the shift in completely automatically when you are on a repeater frequency but takes it out again when you shift to a simplex one. Simplex or repeater shift can, of course, be overruled on a specific frequency.\n\nThere are two call buttons, which allow immediate access to a preselected call frequency. Whereas call 1 accesses just one stored frequency, known as a global call frequency, the call 2 button accesses a different call frequency on each band. You can select either of two VFOs known as A or B, but there is much more to it than this. Each of these VFOs has different stored frequencies and modes on each of the bands, so you could always use VFO A for SSB and B for FM, for example.\n\nIf you select 'satellite' operation, two more frequencies are stored as if there were two more VFOs, the receive and transmit frequencies being memorised independently. A series of satellite memories can also be accessed. You could choose to alter either receive or transmit duplex frequencies whilst transmitting, but there is a facility, which I believe is unique, for altering the two satellite frequencies at the same time, with one going upwards whilst the other is going down in frequency!\n\nThe FT736 can be programmed to go into the priority mode, which allows a required channel to be scanned very briefly whilst you are listening to another frequency.\n\n**VFO to memory and memory to VFO**\n\nA check button allows you to select any required memory and see what frequency is stored in it without affecting normal operation. In this way, you can set a memory up that you know you will want to use shortly or, alternatively, a channel that you will want to store something on. You can at any time store a VFO frequency or frequencies into a memory. The rig also allows you to switch a memorised frequency to the VFO for manipulation, whilst also storing the previous VFO frequency into the memory. This can turn out to be an excellent way to completely louse up a memorised frequency, so one does have to be rather careful!\n\nFor a short while I was baffled that there was no apparent direct memory to VFO facility; it only took a minute or two, however, to realise that there is a perfectly good memory to VFO function. One must simply press the VFO/memory switch over and, following this, immediately depress the VFO to memory button. This worked without any trouble, although I would have preferred a single button to do the job.\n\nOnce you have selected a memory, you\n\ncan select the next one with a frequency stored in it by using the click rotary or up and down buttons.\n\nI found memory access very simple and band change ergonomics excellent.\n\n**Narrower FM channeling**\n\nAn extremely important new feature should be very popular for use on busy bands. Among the mode buttons are two for selecting normal FM or FM narrow. The normal FM IF filter has around 12kHz bandwidth. This in itself gives quite good selectivity, better than all previous Yaesu rigs checked, but if you press FM narrow an 8kHz filter is switched in, giving superb FM selectivity for 12.5kHz channeling.\n\nThe buttons not only change the Rx filters, though, they also change the deviation limiting threshold on Tx between just under 5kHz and just over 2.5kHz. This is undoubtedly a step in the right direction, although the considerable amount of research work that I have carried out for the RSGB's VHF Committee has shown that, for amateur radio purposes, it is not really necessary to reduce deviation to less than around 3 to 3.5kHz peak in order to obtain reasonable adjacent channel clearance.\n\nThe FM filters are of good quality and have quite steep sides, so an average FM transmission peaking at 5kHz deviation will sound distorted on peaks in the narrow position. However, if the transmitting station turns the deviation down somewhat, there is very little loss in system performance with the FT736 switched to narrow. The improvement in selectivity is phenomenal, however, and a strong station operating 12.5kHz off channel should not cause annoying interference unless the station is over deviating. I hope that other manufacturers will follow Yaesu's example here.\n\n**Front panel controls**\n\nSplit concentric rotaries are provided for carrier level/mic gain, audio tone control and squelch (all modes) and Rx audio and RF gains. The mic gain is operative on all modes, which I think is a very great advantage. The RF carrier level also operates on all modes and can be used to reduce the output power or PEP by up to 30dB. Thus, when set fully anti-clockwise, I was able to peak just 25mW quite predictably on SSB, for example. Although I like the idea of an audio tone control, I did note that there was not enough HF output when the control was fully clockwise and reproduction was far too woofy when it was anti-clockwise. I tend to prefer control with a centre indent, which cuts HF one way and LF the other way.\n\nA switch selects three speeds of AGC. I found this a great advantage for SSB, where the medium speed was ideal when many stations were in a net with fairly short overs, but I liked going to slow AGC for longer overs. There was no way to turn AGC off, however, which is a pity.\n\nA five-position satellite switch has to be set to 'off' for normal use, with the remaining four positions being provided for satellite or other duplex operations.\n\nThe 'Rx' position enables the Rx frequency to be selected in the normal way, whilst the 'Tx' position allows one to vary the Tx frequency. In these two positions, the displayed frequency is the relevant one, actual duplex operation being possible once the PTT is pushed in. It is possible to alter just the Rx or Tx frequencies individually, but if you select the next position, 'normal', then both Rx and Tx frequencies can be varied in tandem.\n\nWith the final position, 'reverse', the received frequency goes in the opposite direction to the transmitted one, which can really tie you in the most dreadful knots if you are not concentrating very hard!\n\nIn the satellite mode, FM can be used as well as CW or SSB and separate modes can be chosen for Rx and Tx. There seemed to be almost no desensing at all when I used this facility for FM for 2m/70cm duplex, even when the transmitting and receiving aerials were fairly close to each other.\n\nMini rotaries are provided to adjust vox gain, anti-vox, vox delay and CW keying speed (optional board available to work with an external paddle). A rotary switches the meter to read Rx FM centre zero or S-meter, Tx power output or ALC. In duplex operation, the meter can be switched to read the received signal, if required, by selecting special switched positions.\n\nA large push-button provides 13.8V dc on the centre of the co-ax socket of the\n\nYaesu FT736 Laboratory Measurements\n\n**Receiver Measurements**\n\n- **SSB 12dB sinad sensitivity**\n - 144MHz: $-125.5\\text{dBm (0.12\\mu V)}$\n - 432MHz: $-127\\text{dBm (0.1\\mu V)}$\n\n- **FM normal 12dB sinad**\n - 144MHz: $-123.5\\text{dBm (0.15\\mu V)}$\n - 432MHz: $-124.5\\text{dBm (0.13\\mu V)}$\n\n- **FM normal 12dB sinad, offset 1.5KHz tuning for best**\n - 144MHz: $-124.5\\text{dBm (0.13\\mu V)}$\n - 432MHz: $-125.5\\text{dBm (0.12\\mu V)}$\n\n- **RF input intercept point, 100kHz spacing**\n - 144MHz: $-8\\text{dBm}$\n - 432MHz: $-12.5\\text{dBm}$\n\n- **Reciprocal mixing performance, offset carrier level/SSB noise floor 144MHz**\n - 5kHz: $81\\text{dB ratio}$\n - 10kHz: $90$\n - 20kHz: $97$\n - 50kHz: $109$\n - 100kHz: $116$\n\n- **S-meter**\n - S1: $-113\\text{dBm}$\n - S3: $-110$\n - S5: $-107$\n - S7: $-101$\n - S9: $-93$\n - S9 + 20: $-74$\n - S9 + 40: $-54$\n - S9 + 60: $-35$\n\n- **SSB selectivity bandwidth:**\n - 3dB: $1.9\\text{kHz}$\n - 6dB: $2.4$\n - 40dB: $3.2$\n - 60dB: $4.2$\n - 70dB: $4.2$\n - 80dB: $4.2$\n\n- **FM selectivity normal filter ±12.5KHz**\n - $+11/+16.5\\text{dB}$\n- **normal filter ±25KHz**\n - $+75.5/+76.5\\text{dB}$\n- **narrow filter ±12.5KHz**\n - $+24.5/+26\\text{dB}$\n- **narrow filter ±25KHz**\n - $+77/+77\\text{dB}$\n\n- **FM capture ratio normal filter**\n - $4.1\\text{dB}$\n- **narrow filter**\n - $4.3\\text{dB}$\n\n- **SSB product detector distortion (static test)**\n - FM distortion higher deviations between 3 and 5kHz\n - 1% THD\n - 2.5 to 3%, lower deviations 1 to 1.5%\n\n- **Maximum audio output for 10% THD**\n - 8 ohms: $2.1\\text{W}$\n - 4 ohms: $3.5\\text{W}$\n\n- **Received frequency accuracy after warm up (SSB)**\n - 144MHz: average 20Hz\n - 432MHz: average 70Hz\n\n- **Typical drift over 1 hour from switch on**\n - around 50Hz\n\n**Transmitter Measurements**\n\n- **Power output FM 144MHz**\n - 430 to 439MHz: 26 to 25W across band\n - 23 to 20W\n\n- **Typical SSB two-tone PEP 144MHz**\n - 432MHz: 24W max\n - 20W typically\n\n- **Variable power range ref full power**\n - 0 to $-30\\text{dB (typically 25W to 25W)}$\n\n- **SSB carrier rejection**\n - $-51\\text{dB}$\n- **Alternate SSB rejection 1kHz audio**\n - typically 60dB\n\n- **FM max deviation normal filter 1kHz audio**\n - $4.7\\text{kHz}$\n- **normal filter 600Hz audio**\n - $5\\text{kHz}$\n- **narrow filter 1kHz audio**\n - $2.7\\text{kHz}$\n\n- **Transmitted frequency accuracy after warm up**\n - 144MHz: 10Hz (high)\n - 435MHz: 20Hz (low)\n\n- **Tx response FM ref 1kHz**\n - 100Hz: $-16\\text{dB}$\n - 350Hz: $-3\\text{dB}$\n - 2.6kHz: $-3\\text{dB}$\n - 3.2kHz: $-10\\text{dB}$\n - 4kHz: $-15\\text{dB (all ref 750\\mu s de-emphasis)}$\n\n- **Size (WxHxD with projections)**\n - $368 \\times 129 \\times 286$\n\n- **Weight**\n - $9\\text{kg}$\n\nselected module for masthead pre-amp operation. On Tx, the voltage is instantly withdrawn to disable the masthead pre-amp.\n\nThere is one serious snag, however. Judging by the review sample, this entire facility can only be activated if a special jumper plug supplied is pushed home inside the appropriate module. However, getting at the module to do this is a lengthy and very tiresome job and, since we had very little time to carry out this review, we could not check the operation. I am most surprised that the factory did not despatch the equipment with the jumper plugs in position for each of the modules. If there is any chance that you will require the masthead facility, you should insist on the dealer doing the job for you.\n\nIt would have been so much better if, as in an alternative rig reviewed recently, the masthead drive facility was on a back panel switch.\n\nIncidentally, from my personal experience, I can strongly recommend SSB Products' mastheads for use with this rig, as they have a very fine performance. Take care not to put 13V onto a co-ax lead directly connected to a dummy load or to an antenna system which puts a dc short circuit across the line.\n\nIn addition to mains on/off and Tx/Rx buttons, there are also switches for Tx processor on/off; noise blanker on/off; dial lock; notch filter enable, VFO A or B; split VFO for Rx and Tx in either direction, VFO dial or rotary click steps separate for SSB/CW and FM; CW keyer on/off; 1750Hz auto toneburst on/off; scanner pause on/off and light dim.\n\n**Microprocessor operation**\n\nTo the right of the VFO are all the buttons used to interface with the microprocessors in the rig. Many of the buttons have second functions. The mode buttons (LSB, USB, FM narrow, FM normal, CW narrow and CW normal) have second functions, giving plus or minus repeater shifts or simplex, plus various enabling functions for tone squelch and Yaesu's AQS system, etc.\n\nTwo buttons are provided for QSYing up and down in 1MHz jumps and a split concentric rotary provides notch filter tuning and IF shift, the latter having a centre indent. A rotary is provided for adjustment of CW sidetone level. Three large buttons are used for switching to Tx with continuous toneburst, for selecting the second function of various buttons and for commencing an 'enter' process, eg, a required VFO frequency.\n\nMatrix pad functions include VFO select, memory recall, step rate, memory check, T set, VFO and memory switch round, memory write from VFO, programmed search clarifier on/off, speech enable (speech frequency readout board type FVS-1 is an optional extra), call 1 and call 2, frequency band, reverse repeater and priority channel. Second functions include numbers 1 to 9 and 0, *, 'hash', code and offset. Additional buttons control various AQS functions.\n\nThe front panel display gives frequency with 100Hz resolution, selected memory channel in reserve and all the normal status indications. The S-meter is by the side of the frequency display. The front panel microphone socket has eight pins wired to the normal Yaesu configuration, which is different to Icom and Kenwood. There is also a quarter-inch headphone jack by its side. The rig has a carrying handle on the right cheek and is fitted with four feet underneath, extender feet being provided if you want to use them to raise the front. The loudspeaker is mounted on the top of the cabinet.\n\nShoot the reviewer!\n\nThis rig has the fascinating facility of automatically selecting repeater shift just between 145.6 and 145.8MHz. My wife, Fiona, and I spent a good hour trying to get this function to work, but it would only go into repeater shift under manual control. I telephoned the official Yaesu importers and applied many checks to the rig whilst on the phone to them. They went away and tried their own showroom model and eventually phoned me back to suggest that the set, which had been loaned to me by a very kind and helpful reader, was actually a faulty one. It was suggested that perhaps Yaesu had introduced some strange modifications.\n\nWe looked all the way through the manual to no avail. It was when we were writing this review and had reached the part about the top panel loudspeaker that I asked Fiona what on earth the two tiny rubber bungs were near the front. She didn't think there was anything down there but, on closer examination with a torch, there was a suspicion of two tiny microswitches a good half-inch down.\n\nCloser perusal of the handbook found section 2.2 'top panel switches'. The first one was boring, its job being to reset the microprocessor, but the second switch produced considerable hilarity, for it was provided to switch off the automatic repeater shift function. Fiona eventually found a tiny screwdriver and, after much fiddling, managed to slide the switch over, whereupon the auto repeater function worked perfectly and all was forgiven. I don't feel too much of an idiot, though, and I await SMC's reaction when they too discover this secret switch!\n\nThe rear panel\n\nThe rig can be used either on 240V ac mains (as normally connected, but other mains voltages are available) or 13.8V dc. The ac socket is a standard IEC mains type. The output of the mains PSU feeds out of the rig and back in again to the dc socket, a separate dc power lead being an optional extra. The wiring of the IEC socket is perhaps a little bit 'open to the wind' internally, so do be careful if you have the lid off and are poking around with the mains connected.\n\nSomewhat surprisingly, each module only has the antenna socket connection for the outside world, N type sockets being fitted to the UHF and microwave modules whilst S0239s are provided for the 6m and 2m ones. A five pin 'standby' socket provides solid-state switching pins for separate connection to external linear. It is most unfortunate that these pins were not independent short on Tx open or Rx relay connections, so interfacing will be very awkward for most makes of linear. Another multipin socket is provided as a CAT interface, with serial in and out, squelch on/off and 13.8V being available.\n\nA separate data three contact micro jack is used for computer controlling. A 3.5mm jack socket is fitted for connection to an external speaker and a three-pole quarter inch jack is for a straight or paddle key connection. External PTT can be connected to a phono-type socket. Two large heatsinks occupy most of the space on the back panel.\n\nI have to make the comment that I am very disappointed that no further interfacing is provided, so there is no input for external ALC, no convenient recorder feeds and none of the switching facilities that are fitted to models like the FT767.\n\nErgonomics\n\nAlthough this rig has a great complexity of buttons, they are very sensibly laid out and easy to use. It should not take you too long to get the rig working in most of its modes, but some of the more specialised ones do require you to tuck your head into the instruction book for a while!\n\nI very much liked the operational convenience of having the separate VFO knob and rotary click step control. The VFO runs very smoothly and is heavily knurled, a large finger hole also being fitted with a bearing which allows you to turn the VFO with your finger very rapidly. It is an excellent idea to have switches to select VFO or click steps for each step and the choice of steps is excellent. The up and down buttons above the VFO seem a little superfluous, however, unless you want to commence scanning; most users would probably use the up/down keys on the mic anyway.\n\nI must praise the automatic repeater shift facility very highly. This operates on the 144MHz band only; it would have been very convenient if it could have been user programmable onto the 432MHz band as well, but perhaps this is too much to ask!\n\nMemories were very easy to access and I soon got used to pressing two buttons to gain the memory to VFO function. The latter I feel is a must for any rig of this type these days.\n\nI did not try the AQS system controls but I cannot help but feel that very few people are likely to be interested in using them because of the ludicrous lack of standardisation between all the manufacturers. It seems very childish for the Japanese manufacturers to each go their own way on this. They have done the same for years over the microphone socket pin connections, a constant irritation both to the trade and to amateurs who like fiddling around with mics.\n\nI very much appreciated the facility for decreasing transmitted power by up to 30dB and the carrier level control had quite a smooth action on this. I also liked being able to alter the mic gain for FM as well as SSB. I do not understand why this gain is fixed for FM on so many other rigs, as some users almost eat a microphone.\n\nwhilst others get well back and need much more mic gain.\n\nI think that it is right to put the VOX controls on the front panel for a similar reason, although I do not like VOX on FM. Having three speeds of AGC is a great advantage and accessing the duplex mode with a rotary switch is commendable. I do prefer rotary switches to cyclic button pushing; perhaps Yaesu are now getting more consumer reaction against cyclic operating buttons. Manufacturers will only learn what people like and dislike if users let them know directly. I find that, in practice, it is no good letting shops know, as they often cannot be bothered to pass on the comments, especially if they are very busy at the time.\n\nThe notch filter was very poor indeed, the notch depth being less than 10dB, but I hope this was due to maladjustment rather than a design fault. The noise blanker seemed to be satisfactory.\n\nI was very surprised that various interfacing possibilities were omitted on the actual modules themselves, for this was the obvious place to put external linear control, ALC input (completely omitted on the 736) and a switch to enable a masthead pre-amp on Rx. It would also be handy to have an easily available counter-sunk preset on the module's rear panel to set the maximum output power at a lower level than the factory set one. This would stop fiddlers at portable sites from whipping up the drive to a linear which may only require 10W PEP, for example.\n\n**Subjective trials**\n\nI was impressed by the rig's sensitivity on 70cm SSB and FM but the performance on 2m was not quite so good, although better than some of the competition. The selectivity was outstandingly good on all modes and I did not experience any RF input intermodulation problems until I put the masthead pre-amp on 2m by external control. Transmitted and receive quality were both reasonably good, but some amateurs may find the microphone somewhat coloured in the mid-frequency region. FM reception was excellent and the tonal quality good, but I felt that SSB sounded a little muffled, although the actual bandwidth was ideal as far as the IF filter is concerned.\n\nIt seemed that there was too much audio cut at HF. There did not seem to be quite enough audio power available on the internal speaker and, in making a careful comparison of transient distortion on the 736 against my Kenwood TS940S/muTek on SSB, there seemed to be a slight roughness on peaks on the Yaesu which was not noticeable on the Kenwood. This would not be of concern to many, but was noticed by several friends of mine in my shack during the '73.\n\nThe rig worked well on CW, although the optional narrow CW filter was not supplied on this sample as the friend who loaned it to me is not particularly interested in that mode. Unfortunately, it was not fitted with speech frequency readout, so I could not try this either, and, whilst he was interested in the 6m and 23cm modules, they had not yet arrived at the retailers.\n\n**Brief circuit description**\n\nThe main rig has intermediate frequencies of 13.69MHz and 455kHz. Each module contains its own mixer, fed with the output from its own synthesizer and, whereas the two VHF modules both mix down directly to 13.69MHz, the 70cm UHF module has an extra IF of 47.43MHz. The 23cm module also has an extra intermediate frequency, at 133.91MHz. GaAsFET front ends are provided for the UHF and microwave units, whereas the VHF ones use conventional devices.\n\nThe synthesizer on each module takes its frequency standard from the temperature compensated crystal oscillator in the main rig, this being a very stable one. The RF circuits and PA blocks are all separate for each module. Digital information is provided from the rig's main microprocessor to processors within each module to give the required information for appropriate frequency synthesis.\n\nMuch of the internal construction is in the form of vertically mounted printed circuit boards, many of the interconnections being on plugs and sockets. There is quite a lot of room around for experts to put in their favourite modifications, but I would not advise anyone to fiddle about inside unless they really do know what they are doing! Although the instruction book is reasonably clear, far better than the majority of Kenwood ones, for example, I still feel that amateurs are not given enough information about the circuitry and I am sure that many users of equipment do like to read for themselves all about the principles of circuit design, etc. I remember that most rig manuals of 20 years ago were very much better than they are today.\n\n**Laboratory tests**\n\n*Complete receiver with 144MHz module*\n\nThe front end sensitivity on 144MHz measured well, although not quite as well as that of a first class transverter. The front end intercept point, although measuring quite satisfactorily, was actually about 10dB inferior to the performance of muTek front ends; I remain baffled as to why Japanese designers don't seem to be able to get their front ends right.\n\nTo put it into perspective, though, the FT736 intermodulation performance is much better than many older rigs and you are not likely to have any intermodulation problems unless you are using a masthead preamplifier and have some very strong competition around.\n\nI have to admit to being very surprised to find that Yaesu's synthesizer design is better than they have achieved before - measurements produced some excellent figures for a VHF rig. You can often tell by just listening to a carrier that synthesizer noise is good. Harmonic distortion and noise actually measured at very low levels. Reciprocal mixing performance is important on 144MHz, and it was in this area that I criticised the FT767 144MHz module so strongly.\n\nThe FM sensitivity did not quite come up to expectation, despite being checked several times on different frequencies, but I noted that it was actually around 1dB better if I retuned the oscillator to 1.5kHz off channel. Since the synthesizers were obviously very accurate and SSB frequency accuracy was superb, I have to assume that the discriminator was very slightly out of adjustment.\n\nThe selectivity on SSB was outstandingly good and, in order to get sensible and accurate measurements, I had to use the low noise muTek oscillator. Since the rig only gave frequency to 100Hz resolution, what more can I say other than that the filter is virtually a brick wall at around 4.2KHz bandwidth. The −60, −70 and −80dB bandwidths all measured between 4.2 and 4.3kHz.\n\nWhen I tuned across GB3VHF (I receive it at about 30dB above the level required for S9), the signal suddenly vanished outside the passband. Clean but strong signals seemed to knife out when I tuned away from them and the measurements confirm the excellent subjective impressions. FM narrow and wide filters were both superb, with about the best compromise that I have yet noted on an NBFM rig.\n\nWe noted a 20dB difference between S1 and S9, the S1 indication being at approximately 24dB above the receiver noise floor. The plus 20, 40 and 60dB points were all remarkably accurate to within a dB or two. On FM, the S-meter had only 14dB range between S1 and 9 and, whilst this is not the worst on FM, it is not particularly good, readings above S9 being ridiculous.\n\nAlthough the harmonic distortion, including noise, on SSB was only 1%, two-tone intermodulation well within the filter passband was fairly poor. Third order products at around 3.2% were noted on static tones, considerably higher distortion being seen on medium AGC. This was more apparent on fast than on slow AGC, perhaps showing up the reason for transient distortion heard in the subjective tests. However, the distortion was considered a lot better than on the earlier FT726, and Icom rigs do not seem to measure any better anyway, although Kenwood ones do.\n\nFM distortion with the wide filter was a little high at between 2.5 and 3% at higher deviations. Lower ones were very much cleaner, however, again pointing perhaps to incorrect discriminator adjustment. The maximum audio power output was slightly limited into both 8 and 4 ohms and I would have liked a lot more in a mains rig.\n\nAfter we had measured the FM received response, we understood the reason for a slight plumminess audible on most FM stations; the LF response\n\nwas extended flat to well below 200Hz and even 100Hz was only just over 5dB down. If you contrast this with 3kHz at nearly 7dB down, the roll-off continuing very steeply above this, you will see that the response is not ideal, the plot being taken with the treble control flat out (Plot 1). The ideal response should be flat from around 350Hz to 3kHz with 12 or even 18dB per octave cut outside these limits.\n\nFM capture ratio measured well and quieting was also excellent, especially with the narrow FM filter which, incidentally, gave a marginally better sinad sensitivity than the wider filter did.\n\nFinally, I must commend the incredibly accurate main crystal reference frequency, as the SSB received frequency error was a mere 20Hz after a few minutes warm up, the rig maintaining this minute error for well over an hour without noticeable drift. I would consider an HF rig to be good with this accuracy, but for a VHF one it is incredible.\n\n432MHz module front end\n\nThe 432MHz sensitivity was some 1.5dB better than that of the 144MHz module, first class in fact, just 0.1µV emf/2 being required for 12dB sinad. FM was also very good, but again not quite as good as should have been obtained because the same discriminator problem arose.\n\nThe RF intermodulation distortion performance again measured quite well, and there is not normally the problem on 432MHz that there is on 144MHz. Reciprocal mixing seemed satisfactory, but no actual measurements were taken because of insufficient time.\n\nThe frequency accuracy was superb, an error of just under 70Hz being noted after warm up, this remaining stable for a long time. The front end gain was very similar to that of the 144MHz module and the S9 reading was within 1dB.\n\nTx tests\n\nThe complete transmitter section including the 144MHz module\n\nOn the 144MHz band the FM and CW output powers were around 25W output, with just a very slight rise noted at the very bottom end of the band. On SSB, we could not get more than 24W PEP on two tones if they were of equal level. When the carrier control was set to minimum the power was reduced to only 25mW, a very useful facility.\n\nRF harmonics were at very low levels. The second harmonic, for example, was at −67dB. Although we tried long and hard to find spurii or transmitted images, none were noted on the spectrum analyser, the noise floor being typically at −80dB. I think this is quite remarkable.\n\nThe SSB carrier balance had been quite well set, the carrier being typically at a level of −51dB ref full output. The alternate sideband breakthrough at 1kHz was at −60dB, which is very good indeed.\n\nComing to the two-tone tests of the PA block, I have to express once again my dissatisfaction with modern PA block design. Third order products at −20dB are just not good enough (see Plot 2), nor is the fact that the high order products do not drop below −60dB until they go a long way out. Although results are cleaner at lower output levels (Plot 3), they do not drop rapidly enough. Contrast all these results with the SSB Products transverter, which I reviewed so favourably last year.\n\nIt is not just Yaesu who are fitting PAs that are not really good enough, for I seem to be criticising almost all Japanese PAs these days. It is high time Japanese manufacturers did something about it. Perhaps it is the lack of use of discrete component circuitry which is the problem. Whatever, I do feel it should be given top priority, especially as a rig which is so good in almost every other way is highly likely to be used with good valve linears for contest operation.\n\nThe AF/RF transmitted response plot (Plot 4), taken from mic input at low level to carrier output at a maximum of 2W carrier, is thus well below any ALC action. You can see how very steep the filter skirts are, although the top of the passband has a strange step in it which causes the top octave of speech frequencies within the passband to be transmitted at around half the power given to the lower register below 1kHz. I do not know the reason for this, but it will not help DX readability.\n\nThe peak FM deviation on the normal filter was very accurately set for 25kHz channelling. The maximum possible deviation also fell very rapidly at the HF end to prevent excessive transmitted bandwidth. At 3kHz the maximum possible deviation was just at 2.5kHz, 6dB down on the maximum at lower frequencies. With the narrow filter selected, the maximum possible deviation was reduced to only 2.7kHz at 1kHz audio frequency. I consider that this deviation is too low for an amateur radio service, although about right for a commercial one.\n\nThe actual limiting came in at just above 2.3kHz, incidentally, again on the low side. Reverting to the wider deviation performance, the signal-to-noise ratio was typically around 40dB, this being mainly background hiss. Distortion was below 1.7% for deviations below 3kHz, but above this distortion rose to around 6%. The transmitted response at lower levels was almost ideal, virtually what I recommend for Rx, in actual fact! The response was very well attenuated outside the range 300Hz to 3kHz. The toneburst frequency was accurate and its deviation just about right.\n\nWe noted the transmitted frequency error to be only 60Hz high immediately after switch on and, after some minutes, the error was only 10Hz – quite astonishing accuracy.\n\nThe 432MHz module\n\nFM power tests on this module showed that the output was varying between 23W at the bottom end of the band up to just 20W at 439MHz on FM. As with 144MHz, we could not get quite as much power out with two-tones on SSB, a maximum of around 20W PEP being available. What was very odd in the two-tone plots was that the LSB and USB products were grossly dissimilar. Note in particular the third order of −20dB and −38dB on the 20W PEP plot. There was clearly some cancellation going on, but there is also a pointer to bad circuit layout, possibly even within the PA block itself, which might be outside Yaesu’s direct control.\n\nNote, again, that the high order products do not drop as they should do (Plot 5), although the performance is better at lower levels (Plot 6).\n\nDeviations on FM and SSB performance were noted to be virtually identical on 432MHz, so full tests were not repeated. However, we checked for frequency accuracy and 435MHz FM was only 20Hz low, an SSB carrier being just 70Hz low. The two measurements were taken at around an hour apart, showing how little drift there was.\n\nConclusions\n\nThere is much that is impressive about this new rig and it deserves to be a better seller still than its predecessor, the FT726. I must particularly praise the receiver section, which is among the finest VHF/UHF designs to have come out of Japan. The transmitter section was also satisfactory, apart from the SSB intermodulation performance which I feel is not good enough for contest working if the rig is to be used with a big linear. Perhaps I am being too niggly here, for I have no doubt that its 13.8V dc facility will encourage its use by many portable contest stations who will find the CW narrow filter, IF passband tuning and its many other facilities suitable for contest working.\n\nAlthough I am told the rig is officially priced at £1,450 including VAT, telephone enquiries showed that it can be bought for at least £100 less if you shop around. Sometimes this may be in the form of an inflated trade-in price on an old rig, whilst at other times, if you have enough cheek and very crisp notes in your hand, you might get it from your friendly local retailer. However, don’t try too hard for discount if you want absolutely tip-top after sales service.\n\nIn conclusion, I recommend this rig highly. I think it is very good value for money, considering its facilities and the available options. The speech option will be a boon for blind amateurs. I would particularly like to thank most warmly my friend for so very kindly loaning me this rig immediately after purchasing it and, of course, Fiona, for helping with all the measurements and the word processing.\n\nSome back copies of Angus McKenzie’s reviews are available. For details contact us at the address on page 3\n\nIt is only in recent years that dual-band antennas have been made available to the amateur on the 144 and 432MHz bands, with the exception of a few discones and log aperiodic types. The earliest dual-band mobile antenna that I know of is the Trio-Kenwood MA4000. When I tested this it performed excellently until I absent-mindedly put 100W into it; the feed coil in the base promptly blew up. I learned my lesson and I was very careful with the second sample loaned to me.\n\nI reviewed this antenna in comparison with two other dual-band mobile antennas in the July '87 issue of *Amateur Radio*.\n\nHokushin, distributed by Lowe Electronics, have now introduced two new higher gain models: a mobile, type HS727VME, and the HSWX1, which is referred to in the instructions somewhat amusingly as a 'grand plane' version. The latter is intended for roof mounting and is supplied with various types of bracket for ease of installation.\n\n**The Hokushin HS727VME**\n\nThis mobile dual-bander is supplied with a PL259 plug recessed into the base which screws directly into an SO239 type mag mount or gutter mount socket. It seems that the thread is of the more unusual Japanese metric type rather than the ubiquitous, and older, European type thread, although it did screw onto a normal gutter mount quite adequately.\n\nThe antenna is marginally over 1.5m long from the base to the tip. It includes a matching network in the base and two large two-turn coils approximately one third and two thirds of the way up the antenna, a short joining section being provided in the centre.\n\nThe antenna is effectively a matched 3/4 wave on 144MHz and three 5/8 waves in series on 432MHz, giving considerable gain over a normal 1/4 wave vertical on both bands. As I do not have an antenna measurement range, I can only quote the subjective difference in practice between this antenna and my own MA4000, which I have used for some years.\n\nTests conducted outside my front door were misleading, as differences were varying from none at all up to a whole S point. These were all influenced by the angle of radiation, reflections from local buildings and even my own antenna masts, so it is better to give the subjective impression of a difference of nearly an S point in general use on the open road.\n\nKen G3MSW uses a very similar antenna to the one under review and regularly drives from Essex right across to the M25, near the A1, and agrees that an improvement of nearly an S point over the more usual dual collinear is a fair estimate. 70cm repeaters that are very marginal over the simpler antenna are fairly weak, but quite usable with the triple % on 433MHz FM.\n\nI used the antenna on a long journey from North London to Ipswich and there was definitely an extension of my range on both bands. Furthermore, I was able to hold a QSO with a fixed station for much longer than I would have normally expected. In the past few years I have frequently travelled to the Braintree area, so I do know the terrain fairly well.\n\nBoth Ken and I were a little concerned about the greater than average length of this antenna. When screwed into an elderly gutter mount, in good condition, on the left side of the car, the tip of the antenna brushed several trees. This was less of a problem when used with a mag mount in the centre of the roof.\n\n**A strange problem**\n\nWhen Fiona and I first measured the SWR of the antenna mounted in this way, we obtained figures that were unexpectedly poor on the 432MHz band, although the 144MHz figures were good. I was very surprised at this and wondered if some moisture had got into the lead. So, all of the tests were repeated with a brand new spare lead which we happened to have. Readings were almost identical, so at this point I screwed on a very high quality Bird 50 ohm dummy load to the gutter mount socket end. I was astonished to see a 1.4:1 SWR on the old lead and just over 1.3:1 on the brand new one. Initially, I did not know what to do but, after a hunt, I found a superb quality 934MHz mag mount complete with an SO239 socket.\n\nI can remember remarking at the time of the original review of the 934MHz equipment that the mag mount socket was not really appropriate for such a high frequency.\n\nUpon closer examination, however, I found the construction of the socket of a very high standard and, when the mag mount and lead was tested in the same way, with the dummy load screwed onto it, I was delighted to find virtually no reflected power at all. The SWR tests were then repeated with this mag mount.\n\nThis introduces a subject which is very important: SO239 socket quality with respect to use at UHF. I cannot understand how any professional engineer could ever call the PL259/SO239 pair a 'UHF plug and socket' for, believe it or not, that is the alternative designation for them.\n\nI have never had any problems with an N socket, but time after time PL259s on 145MHz (let alone 432MHz) have caused me difficulties. It took years of grumbling by various equipment reviewers, including myself, to wean the Japanese off SO239 sockets on 432MHz mobile gear. However much I enquired, I could not find one single make of mag mount with an N type socket on it, nor could I find any dual-band antenna available as an option with an N plug on its base, so there is still a long way to go!\n\nIn the meantime, if you are considering a gutter mount, make absolutely sure that the lead supplied with it, including the SO239 socket, is rated for proper use on UHF.\n\n**A superb SWR**\n\nOn the 144MHz band the SWR measured 1.1:1 below 1.5MHz, rising to a mere 1.2:1 at 145.8MHz. This is an excellent performance which should not stress any rig or linear. On the 432MHz band there was almost no reverse power noted in the bottom part of the band; even at 434MHz it was no worse than 1.1:1. SWR gradually increased to a maximum of just 1.4:1 at the 440MHz band edge. This is a commendable performance once again.\n\nThe antenna is rated as taking the full output of a linear up to 125W, which is ideal.\n\n**The Hokushin HSWX1**\n\nThe specification of the base station version is very similar to that of the mobile one previously described, apart from the power rating which is increased to 200W FM.\n\nThe antenna is a vertical white stick, again just over 1.5m in length, but this time with three horizontal radials protruding from the base.\n\nAn SO239 socket is built into the base, around which is a cylindrical metallic shroud, several centimetres long, which acts as a weather-proofing and mounting section. Various clamps and brackets are supplied for use with this section. A coaxial cable and plug feeds through this cylinder and is screwed into the base of the antenna.\n\nAlan Goddard G3NQR installed the antenna at around 10m above ground level, well clear of any metallic obstacles on the roof, using Pope H100 cable through to the shack. Despite the fact that the SWR was, frankly, rather poor on the 432MHz band (averaging around 1.6:1), results were excellent in practice and SWR was quite good on 144MHz.\n\nAlan has had an assortment of vertically polarised antennas on the roof over the years, but was totally convinced that the Hokushin white stick (my name for it, as I am a blind operator!) was far better than any previous antenna that he had used on 432MHz for FM.\n\nWe were both surprised that he could access as many repeaters as I could on the band, some of them at considerable\n\ndistances, as his QTH is not particularly good geographically. He certainly sounded much stronger to me than before on both 2m and 70cm FM.\n\nI well remember the first time we tried the antenna out. We were working duplex on 2m/70cm. Fiona arrived in the shack with a cup of coffee for me, our bearded collie, Ceilidh, in tow. At the same time, Alan's XYL, Lucy, arrived in his shack with Sam, his West Highland White puppy. Ceilidh began to bark and Sam replied, whilst Alan and I sat back and listened to this remarkable canine exchange which they kept up for some minutes.\n\nIncidentally, both dogs do have licences - but these are somewhat less expensive than amateur ones! The extremely strong signals between us over a 16km path were clearly responsible for the superb duplex system quality, which the dogs obviously appreciated.\n\nConclusions\n\nI recommend the mobile Hokushin very highly. It seems that the base station antenna is also an excellent performer, although you may have an SWR problem on 432MHz.\n\nIt is quite plausible that the review sample might have been a poor one for SWR, so I would be interested to hear readers' experiences if they purchase it. The mobile type, HS727VME, costs £37.42 including VAT, whilst the base station version, HSWX1, costs £59.62.\n\nMany thanks to Lowe Electronics for the loan of the review samples, and to Alan and Fiona for helping with the review.\n\nThe Hokushin HS-VK5 vertical 5 band HF antenna was reviewed in the March issue.\n\nIn December, I returned to the UK after two years of teaching and amateur radio activity in Maun, Botswana. On picking up a copy of *Amateur Radio* I was surprised to see just how much interest there had been in my 50MHz activity from Botswana. So I would like to add my own account of amateur radio in A2-land.\n\n**The country**\n\nBotswana is a large country, its area almost three times greater than that of Britain. The population, however, is little more than one million, and most people live in the eastern part of the country. The capital, Gaborone, has a rapidly expanding population and is located in the south-eastern corner of the country, close to the border with South Africa. Much of Botswana is covered by the Kalahari Desert, a vast area of dry savannah which is still largely untouched by man.\n\nThe northern areas of the country contain some of the greatest concentrations of elephants and other game remaining in Africa. In the northwest is the Okovango Delta—a unique aquatic wilderness, which has recently been the subject of a BBC TV series. Close to the Okovango is the village of Maun, the administrative centre of this particular region of Botswana. I was posted here in September 1985 to teach science at Maun secondary school.\n\nThere are very few radio amateurs in Botswana. Most, like myself, are expatriates on short term contracts, and at any time there may only be about a dozen A2 calls active. I had applied for a reciprocal licence before leaving Britain, and was issued with the callsign A22KZ on arrival in Botswana.\n\nI was very fortunate initially, as I was able to buy an FT101ZD from A22AA, who was about to leave the country. I also obtained a 14AVQ ground plane for 40/20/15/10 metres and needed only to find a suitable mast on which to perch it. The answer was growing on the opposite bank of the Thamalakane river, about a mile downstream from the school. My long suffering house-mate helped fell a choice bamboo which, after trimming, was still nearly 15 metres long.\n\n**A malevolent hippo?**\n\nGetting it back to the QTH was tricky: a malevolent hippo dissuaded us from simply floating it across the river and carrying it, so it was loaded precariously on the back of our pick-up and taken the long way back. A bamboo that long bends a lot but, with a system of pulleys and a group of school students, we were able to get it vertical again with the 14AVQ on top. With 8 radials, 12 guys and an 80m dipole to boot, it stayed up—much to our amazement, until the eve of my departure.\n\nWith this HF set-up, powered by the village 240 volt mains, I was able to maintain reliable twice weekly skeds with G3TKN in Portsmouth for two years. We generally used 15m and occasionally had to QSY to 20m, but we found that at 1600Z we could almost guarantee good communications between Portsmouth and Maun.\n\nMy nearest amateur neighbour was Charlie A22CL (VE6ASL). He lives in Etsha, a small and remote village some 200km to the north-west of Maun. Charlie ran his station from 12V batteries, trickle charged by a solar panel. We kept nightly skeds on 80m and often he would have urgent messages regarding the non-arrival of supply trucks, which frequently broke down on the sandy road between Maun and Etsha. Every two weeks or so, Charlie would make the journey into Maun and we would have an eyeball QSO over a Lion (Lion lager, that is).\n\n**50MHz operation**\n\nThe 50MHz story dates back to March 1987. On Sunday mornings I would generally listen to the 'Amateur Radio Mirror' bulletin, broadcast by the Johannesburg branch of the South African Radio League. Excellently presented, it is transmitted simultaneously on 80, 40, 20 and 2 metres. Sometimes I would call in on 40m with a reception report and on one such occasion was heard by Hal Lund ZS6WB, in Pretoria. Hal is a very keen VHFer and is responsible for stirring up much of the VHF interest in South Africa. The October 50MHz transequatorial propagation (TEP) tests were on the horizon; Hal suggested that I was ideally situated to take part and offered to send me the necessary equipment.\n\nThe first 50MHz operation from A2 took place in July 1987, when ZS6BCR and ZS4TX paid a flying visit to Maun one weekend. With ZS6BCR at the controls, they flew from Pretoria with a plane full of 6m, 2m and HF equipment. We managed to unload the aircraft without customs noticing and minutes later, back at the school, ZS6BCR made the first 2m EME contact from A2, with W5UN. The remainder of their visit was devoted to 6m meteor scatter contacts to ZS.\n\nIn September I set up my 50MHz station, with 80 watts from an IC551D and a 4-element yagi on a 9m baby bamboo, rotated manually. Directed south, I was able to copy meteor bursts from the Pretoria beacons and make a few MS contacts with South Africa. But beaming north I heard nothing – until October 2nd.\n\nAt 1527Z on October 2nd, 1987, the silence was broken by the Malta beacon, 9H1SIX, on 50.085MHz. I started calling on 50.110, both CW and SSB, and also on 28.885 SSB. At 1545Z, Costas SV1DH (SZ2DH) in Athens returned my call on 10m. We immediately QSYed to 6m and had a fine sideband QSO, conditions being better there than on 10m. I gave him 5 and 5; he returned 5 and 3. We signed off, but the Malta beacon remained audible until 1900Z.\n\nThroughout this period I had been in contact on 80m with ZS6WB and others who, some 700km further south, had not heard anything on 6m.\n\nOn October 5th the Cyprus beacon, 5B4CY, became audible and SZ2DH and I exchanged 5 and 7 each way. Three days later, on October 8th, the band again opened and I had an SSB contact with 9H1BT. On this occasion my signals were heard by G3JVL, but unfortunately the band closed quickly and I was unaware at the time of this brief opening to the UK.\n\nFor the next four weeks, trans-equatorial propagation on 50MHz occurred daily, almost without exception. I had numerous contacts with SZ2DH, and with 9H1BT, 9H1FL and 9H1CG on Malta, with signal reports as high as 5 and 9 + 30dB. We observed on some occasions loss of propagation, followed by its reappearance an hour later with severe distortion, characteristic of evening TEP.\n\nGeographically, however, the effects of TEP are limited. Maun is located in latitude 20°S, and other stations in the same latitude were having similar experiences.\n\nTo the west, ZS3E in Outjo had many QSOs into Europe and, to the east, Z21FT in Bulawayo was receiving signals but unfortunately was unable to transmit on 50MHz from Zimbabwe. Further south in South Africa, however, openings to Europe were very brief when they did occur and many stations were frustrated at being unable to join in the fun. Similarly, in the northern hemisphere, propagation was limited to areas in the Mediterranean latitudes.\n\nA2 – G on 50MHz\n\nThe highlight of the TEP season occurred on October 22nd when TEP, combined with sporadic-E over Europe, presented a path from Botswana to the UK.\n\nI first heard Eric G2ADR at 1545Z, returning my CQ on CW. Describing the event afterwards in a letter, Eric said that the excitement was almost too much for his ancient heart. It was certainly too much for the fuse in my power line, which inexplicably went high resistance at the critical moment. That fault took several precious minutes to track down, and bemused visitors in the shack at the time didn’t quite understand the cause of my panic!\n\nEventually, with the rig now in pieces on the bench, I was able to complete QSOs with G4HBA, G2ADR, GM4DGT, G1AWP, G4GAI and G3CCH. Signal strengths were no more than S2 and the band was quite noisy with QRM from non-amateur stations. An attempt to work GM4DGT on SSB at 1715 narrowly failed because he was suddenly swamped by a strong FM signal.\n\nThe path to the UK closed down soon after 1715Z, at which time I was able to compare notes with SZ2DH and 9H1CG. Propagation to Europe finally ceased altogether at 1825Z.\n\nAfter this date, TEP openings started to be less frequent and were shorter in duration. On November 10th I heard the CT0OWW beacon for the first time, but was unable to complete a crossband QSO with EA4CCGN. During the third week of November the 9H1SIX and 5B4CY beacons were audible for short periods on most evenings. On November 20th at 1925Z I heard 9H1SIX for the last time, appearing briefly out of the noise and uttering its final dots and dashes. That was the end of TEP in Botswana, and two weeks later I was to dismantle the station.\n\nAbove: David Saul’s QSL cards\n\nQRT\n\nPulling the plugs for the last time and dropping the antennas down is a sad occasion. I have since spoken to other amateurs who have had similar experiences after operating abroad.\n\nI knew that when the bamboo mast crashed to the ground, A22KZ would have gone irrevocably QRT. The event obviously deserved a bit of ceremony. A violent thunderstorm late at night is not the best time to handle masts and aerials, but after a few beers I and a couple of colleagues decided otherwise. Groping around in the wet and dark, I cut all the guys and then set about sawing through the base of the bamboo. Then, while I played the Last Post on the mouth organ, the remainder of the crew tried to push the mast over. A solitary guyline up there in the darkness, or perhaps Divine intervention, we shall never know; but the mast refused to fall. Maybe A22KZ was destined to remain on the air? Eventually, however, with more manpower brought to bear, 14AVQ and all came down out of the night sky—and I was going home.\n\nNEXT MONTH\n\nall the regulars...\n\nDX Diary\nOn the Beam\nSecondhand\nSWL\nStraight and Level\nYour letters and features covering the whole of Amateur Radio\n\nRECEIVER SPECIAL\nHugh Allison has been out and about to discover what is available on the second-hand market for less than £50\n\nPOWER SUPPLIES PART 2\nDon't miss the final instalment of J and S Goodier's beginner's guide\n\nBATTERY TESTER\nThis useful tool from B B Walters fits the bill for most batteries used in amateur hand-helds\n\nDON'T MISS THE JUNE ISSUE\nOn sale 26th MAY\n\nTony Smith G4FAI takes his bimonthly look at the world of dots and dashes\n\nDr Gary Bold ZL1AN and Barry Kirkwood ZL1BN alternate in writing a monthly column, The Morseman, in Break-in, the journal of NZARTS. In the September 1987 issue Gary discusses some interesting aspects of learning Morse by computer. He refers to an innovative computerised teaching system described by WA9VRU in QST, May 1977, which combines two 'beautiful, simple and obvious ideas'. One was the introduction of characters in postponed discrimination order; the other was that the computer should adapt to the human.\n\nPostponed discrimination order means the longest characters are introduced first, as opposed to the more usual start with E, I, T, etc. The idea is to reinforce the need to listen to the whole character before deciding what it is. Plain text gives the learner little chance to practise the more uncommon letters. With postponed discrimination, by the time E is reached the Qs, Zs, Xs, etc, will have been heard so often that they will not cause the usual confusion.\n\nGary says that WA9VRU's is the only adaptive code teaching system he has seen and he would like to know of others, if they exist. 'Adaptive' here means adjusting the teaching to match the learning ability of the student. Gary's version, much worked over, is a program called 'Teach' which sends an audible character at about 12wpm and waits for a response. If you know what it is, you press the appropriate key on the keyboard. If you don't know, and do nothing, the program waits a reasonable time, prints the letter on the screen and sends it again.\n\nAverage response\n\nIf the wrong key is pressed, the character is sent again without comment. The program starts with Qs and goes on to Ys, introducing more as the learner begins to recognise the characters correctly. It continuously averages past response times and waits for a response for twice as long as this average.\n\nIt keeps track of the student's error rate on each character and the average error over all characters in use. All these error rates have to be acceptably low before a new character is introduced. Characters are sent with a non-uniform random probability, so that characters which a student finds difficult (determined from the student's response rate) are sent with a higher probability than those recognised more easily. At the end of a session the program provides information on how the student is progressing.\n\nBarry Kirkwood is a psychologist who is setting up a psychology project for third-year students at Auckland University. They will scientifically investigate the effectiveness of adaptive Morse code teaching software. This is thought to be the first such investigation, but if readers know of any others, please tell me and I will pass the information on.\n\nNow you have passed the test\n\n'The passing of the CW test equips one with but a simple survival kit - just enough to survive a simple CW contact... I firmly believe that this hard-won skill should be developed and extended to whatever limits the individual wishes to set', says Ron Wilson G4NZU in his booklet The Test and After. This booklet takes over where many of the 'teach yourself Morse' books finish.\n\nHe offers guidance on preparing for and taking the test, then goes on to discuss in some detail what happens when you finally get on the air. It is useful for anyone nervous about using CW for the first time as it contains some good advice; for example, it explains how it is better to forget about speed and to concentrate on developing exactness of rhythm, the hallmark of good CW.\n\nRon says that abbreviations can be learnt as easily as anything else - but you have to remember to use them. Originally written for members of his Morse class, the booklet costs £1.50 post paid, available from Ron Wilson, Greythorn Drive, West Bridgford, Nottingham NG2 7GG.\n\nQRP convention\n\nThe fourth Yeovil QRP Convention will be held on Sunday, May 8th. This is always a good Morse day for dedicated QRPerS or for those who want to find out more about low power operating. Both 1930s style and modern QRP rigs will be demonstrated with the call GB2LOW. There will be component stands, a homebrew equipment display, nice refreshments and a natter area.\n\nRob Micklewright G3MYM, always worth listening to, will be talking about 80 metre propagation and I am going to be guest speaker, talking about my favourite subject, the origins of Morse. Further information from Dave Bailey G1MMN, 46 Goldcroft, Yeovil BA21 4DH. Tel: Yeovil 79804.\n\nStraight key evening\n\nEdgware and District Radio Society's annual straight key evening will be held on Friday May 20th, around 3.550MHz. This event is becoming increasingly popular, with participation spreading across the UK and into Europe.\n\nIt is a pleasant evening on the hand key, working at your own pace in a friendly atmosphere. Call CG SKE and look out for GB2SKE, the Edgware Society's own special event station. Afterwards, write to John Bluff G3SJE, 52 Winchester Road, Kenton HA3 9PE, with your views, comments, and nominations for the best 'fist' heard.\n\nGloomy outlook?\n\nEverything seems fine just now, but I still feel that within ten years there will be considerable concern about the future of amateur Morse. I hope I am wrong. I have previously mentioned in this column (Amateur Radio, May 1987) the proposed official abolition of Morse from the maritime bands in the 1990s. This could lead to the eventual abolition of the amateur Morse test.\n\nThere is not enough space in this column to go into what happened when the Morse test was abolished in Spain a few years ago, but the spring 1987 issue of Morsum Magnificat has the original articles which prompted my concern. The annual subscription for MM (4 issues) is £6, but if you just want the spring issue you can get it from me, QTHR, for £1.50.\n\n| UTC | Main frequency | Reserve frequency (if QRM is bad) |\n|-------|----------------|----------------------------------|\n| 0700-0800 | 3.508 | 3.515 |\n| 0800-0900 | 14.080 | 14.094 |\n| 0900-1000 | 3.508 | 3.514 |\n| 1000-1100 | 14.080 | 14.094 |\n| 1100-1200 | 3.508 | 3.514 |\n| 1200-1300 | 14.080 | 14.094 |\n\nThe IC-4GE is the first in a line of new handportables to be announced from ICOM. The small compact style provides easy operating and rugged durability. Other models for 2mtrs and 23cm will be released later this year.\n\nA full 6 watts of RF power is available when using the IC-4GE with the option IC-BP7 nicad pack. The IC-4GE is equipped with a total of 20 memory channels. Each memory can independently memorise frequency, offset direction and frequency.\n\nAll circuits are designed using low power dissipation techniques to create a special power save circuit in the transceiver. The power saver circuit functions if no signal is received or no switch operation is performed for more than 30 seconds. In addition, the power saver circuit can be turned off for packet communications.\n\nTwo different scans, programmed scan and memory scan are provided and in addition memory skip channels can be programmed to skip selected memory channels during memory scanning operating. The squelch monitor function allows you to monitor weak signals without having to adjust the squelch control. The high impact case is splash resistant by the inclusion of rubber gaskets. The IC-4GE is supplied with a IC-BP3 nicad battery pack, flexible antenna, AC wall charger, belt clip and wrist strap. It is compatible with many of the existing accessories for ICOM’s IC-2/4 and IC-02/04 series of handportables.\n\nAlso available for the IC-4GE is a large range of optional accessories including a variety of rechargeable nicad power packs, dry cell battery pack, desk charger, headset and boom mics and new slimline speaker mics. For more information on the IC-4GE or any other ICOM handportable contact your local ICOM dealer or ICOM (UK) LTD.\n\nIcom (UK) Ltd.\nDept AR, Sea Street, Herne Bay, Kent CT6 8LD. Tel: 0227 363859. 24 Hour.\n\nIC-575, 28/50MHz Dual band multimode.\n\nThe ICOM IC-575 base station has been developed to meet the demand for advanced communications for the recently acquired 6m band. Similar in appearance to the IC-275/475 2m and 70cm base stations, the beauty of this new transceiver from ICOM is that it gives you the best of both worlds, 6 & 10m in one compact unit. The IC-575 covers 28-30Mhz and 50-54Mhz.\n\nOperating modes are SSB, CW, AM & FM. Power output is 10 watts (AM 4 watts) with a front panel control to reduce output for QRP operations. A pass band tuning circuit narrows the I.F. passband width, eliminating signal in the passband. A built-in notch filter eliminates beat signals with sharp attenuation characteristics.\n\nSome PLL systems have difficulty meeting the lockup time demands placed on them by new data communications. This is why ICOM developed the DDS (Direct Digital Synthesizer) method. With a lockup time of just 5 msec the DDS method allows the IC-575 to handle data communications such as packet or AMTOR. 99 programmable memories can store frequency, mode, offset frequency and direction. A total of four scanning functions for easy access to a wide range of frequencies, memory scan, programmed scan, selected mode memory scan and lock out scan. The IC-575 has an internal A.C. power supply, but can also be used on 13.8v DC for mobile or portable operation.\n\nOptional accessories available are the UT36 voice synthesizer, the IC-FL83 CW narrow filter, SM7 external loudspeaker, HP2 communication headphones and SM8/SM10 desk microphones. Other transceivers available in this range are: IC-275E 2m multimode 25w, IC-275H 2m multimode 100w, IC-475E 70cm multimode 25w, IC-475H 70cm multimode 75w.\n\nIC-505, 50Mhz Transceiver\n\nThe IC-505 is a 6mtr BAND SSB, CW, FM (Optional) transceiver. It can be used as a portable or like other transceivers of this type as a base station unit. When used with an external 13.8v power supply the 505 gives 10 watts RF output, 3 watts or 0.5 watts on low power is available when using internal batteries. Other features include 5 memories with memory scan, program band scan, dual VFO’s with split operation.\n\nThe easy-to-read LCD readout includes frequency, memory scan and call modes. Full metering of battery condition signal strength and power output is provided. When fitted with the optional EX248 FM unit the IC-505 offers 50Mhz operation at an affordable price.\n\nHelpline: Telephone us free-of-charge on 0800 521145, Mon-Fri 09.00-13.00 and 14.00-17.30. This service is strictly for obtaining information about or ordering Icom equipment. We regret this cannot be used by dealers or for repair enquiries and parts orders, thank you.\n\nDatapost: Despatch on same day whenever possible.\n\nAccess & Barclaycard: Telephone orders taken by our mail order dept, instant credit & interest-free H.P.\n\nAs I mentioned in last month's column, an AM transmission consists of a carrier wave and two sidebands which are produced by the modulation of the carrier wave. The total bandwidth used by an AM signal is unacceptable when you consider the total coverage of the frequencies allocated to amateurs. It would take very few AM signals to completely swamp, say, 40m, so the accepted form of transmission on the amateur bands is single sideband. This uses less bandwidth and results in more power being available from the transmitter.\n\nAlthough the usual receiver is inadequate for resolving such transmissions, there is a way to hear sideband signals using a second receiver. The technique is called zero beating.\n\nTaking your main receiver, you tune it to an amateur signal which sounds distorted. Then you tune the other receiver to around 450kHz lower. With the volume of the second receiver backed off, you should be able to hear the whistle produced by the second receiver as you tune it through the signal of the main one. A little adjustment of the distance between the receivers and you can resolve the sideband signal! It's a bit hit and miss, but it does work.\n\nThe real answer, of course, is to get a receiver with a built-in oscillator that does this automatically - a beat frequency oscillator. There are many receivers on the market that have this facility. They start at under £100 new; less if you buy second-hand.\n\nIt has become standard practice for all transmissions below 10MHz to be on the lower sideband and transmissions above 10MHz to be on the upper sideband. This rule is not mandatory so you can still hear stations working the wrong end. AM transmissions can still be heard on 160m.\n\nThe areas of coverage of the amateur bands are controlled by international agreement, although individual countries have ultimate control over what can or cannot be used by their amateurs, so there are a few differences in the band coverage. However, there are few differences in band usage and, for the most part, all countries have similar rules which have to be observed.\n\nOn the other hand, the band areas where different modes can be used are not strictly controlled and many would like this to be resolved. It is easy to see why.\n\n**Slow-scan**\n\nLet us take SSTV, for instance, which is becoming very popular since the advent of the home computer. The generally accepted area on 20m is around 14230 and SSTV exponents usually stick to this. However, some operators still transmit SSB or even CW on the frequency, quite within their rights, but hardly in the spirit of amateur radio. The same applies to the QRP frequencies which are often overloaded with stations operating high power.\n\nThe 'old hairy' (old hairy what? - Ed) about contests being held in selected bands has never been resolved. Maybe it is time the powers that be took a long look at this side of regulation. Of course, in an ideal world, all operators would stick to the rules, even if they were not mandatory, and there would be less hassle all round.\n\nOK, so having got your sidebands sorted out, and being ready to log all those wonderful exotic stations, where do you look for them?\n\n**160 metres** (or Top Band) can provide some good long-distance listening via multiple skip. The signals are bounced back to earth off the atmospheric E-layer, then bounced back again and so on. Unfortunately, this substantially attenuates the signal and is usually only possible during the hours of darkness. The best times to listen are late at night and early morning, when stations are on opposite sides of the darkness belt.\n\nA very useful aid to determining when it's best to listen for DX is the DX Edge, a device which calculates the best areas to listen for at a given time.\n\nThe problem with Top Band is that it is shared with maritime and other 'official' stations which can be very powerful, making it difficult to copy weak amateur stations.\n\n**80 metres** is generally regarded as the chat band. There are literally hundreds of regular local nets operating virtually all day, every day. Most special event stations spend at least part of their operating time on 80.\n\nAlthough 80m has many of the same problems as Top Band, greater distances are possible, even during daylight hours. There are also commercial and official stations using this band and it is not unusual to be listening to a perfectly clear QSO one minute, only to have it obliterated by a heavy RTTY signal the next.\n\nOne of the variants of band allocations is worth noting in that American stations can use the area from 3.8 to 4.0MHz, so it is worth listening around there late in the evening.\n\n**40 metres** can be a DXer's delight. Only 100kHz wide, it nevertheless attracts many DX operators and, despite being crowded for most of the time, can produce some worthwhile loggings. Although some countries allow amateurs to use up to 7.3MHz, this puts them right amongst the 'heavy mob' of the broadcasting fraternity transmitting from Europe, so it is hard to hear the much weaker hams.\n\n**30 metres** is another band that has to be shared with commercials and others. Like 40, it is a very small allocation, from 10.1 to 10.15MHz. Only Morse and RTTY are officially allowed on this band in the UK, but occasional sideband signals are heard. The area around 10.103 to 10.110 can be very fruitful.\n\n**20 metres** is the 'bread and butter' band. Stations from all over the world can be worked here most of the day. Essentially a daytime band, the darkness line can almost be drawn, logging the stations as the conditions rise and fall. Australian and Asian traffic comes in during the early morning, followed by the Middle East and Africa until lunchtime when the Americans start to appear.\n\nAlthough the band does drop significantly during the winter months, daylight still give some excellent listening and, once summer comes, the band can be alive almost 24 hours a day.\n\n**18 metres** is a new band which is capable of excellent long-distance communications. However, amateurs are slow in taking this band seriously and it is not as well used as it could be. It is worth a listen, as some good DX can be heard.\n\n**15 metres** is another excellent DX band during the day. At periods of low sunspot activity (more about this later), it can go almost completely dead; however, things are currently on the upward trend and stations are beginning to use the band again.\n\n**12 metres** is also new. It could produce the goods when conditions are right. Sunspot levels make a big impact at these frequencies and it remains to be seen whether the band will be used as successfully as the other HF bands.\n\n**10 metres** is the oddball of the HF bands. It is badly affected by sunspot levels, becoming virtually unusable for any distance during the low period, but it is perfectly usable (though not often) for short distance contacts. It is essentially a daytime DX band capable of excellent results during sunspot highs. Even low power communication can take place over dramatic distances.\n\nIt is affected by many of the propagation effects that trouble VHF and a high on 2m can also mean similar conditions on 10m. A two or even three-element beam is perfectly feasible for this band, and converted 27MHz equipment has made this the 'poor man's DX band'.\n\nSo, what about those sunspots? One solar phenomenon is the appearance of the so-called sunspots at the sun's surface. These are dark areas which last anything from a few days to a few weeks. Sunspots occur at intervals of anything from eight to fifteen years, but we usually refer to it as an eleven-year cycle.\n\nDuring periods of high sunspot activity, propagation of radio signals is enhanced by their effects on the ionised layers above the earth. The low end of cycle 21 was reached in 1987 and we are presently experiencing a gradual rise in conditions which should reach a peak around 1995. Radio wise, there's a lot of DXing ahead!\n\nThe wanderer\n\nThe usual thing for new listeners is to wander around a particular band, listening to anything that comes up. The novelty soon wears off and it all gets very boring.\n\nIf you are lucky enough to watch a seasoned DXer or award hunter, you soon pick up tips on how it's done. Most of these experienced chaps have prepared themselves before the current session and have details of any proposed expeditions to areas not regularly heard, any special event stations likely to be on the air and notes about interesting stations other listeners have heard recently.\n\nTuning a band is done slowly and deliberately. Be ready for any slight sound - it might be a new station for the log. Experienced listeners often use many aids, such as filters, but the most important is a good pair of headphones. They don't have to be expensive; just comfortable.\n\nBefore you rush out to find some, let's have a look at the entries submitted by some of our regular contributors. This month has been the busiest ever for the award hunters among our readers, with the regulars being hassled by some newcomers whom we welcome.\n\nWith the upper frequencies now showing signs of life, it is no surprise to see some single band claims coming in. The latest continental awards have created a lot of interest among new listeners, just as intended.\n\nHeading this month's list is Trevor Newstead ILA 098, of Morecambe, who claims a bronze certificate for 15m only. He lists AA4, AB5, A22, CE3, HP1, HZ1, PP7, TK5, VP2, VP8, VK3, YC9, ZY5, SB4, 8P9, 9Y4 and a Chilean special 3G8TAX. Trevor also gained second place in the G-SSB section of the 1987 RSGB SWL contest, during which many of his loggings were made. Congratulations!\n\nPeter Barnes ILA 341 of Blackpool claimed bronze and silver certificates and included 4S7, 5H3, AJ9, KP4, KT5, TI2, VS6, YB7 and ZY4 in his super lists.\n\nErnie Beckett ILA 261 used his new HF125 and end-fed antenna to get into the act with a claim for the bronze award, listing AB2, HH7, T77, VK6, VK3, 6W7, 8P9 and J28.\n\nDavid Davidson ILA 320 of Ayrshire claimed his silver award and mentioned AA4, A71, DU7, FY7, HC8, HH2, HK1, J88, VQ9, XQ5, 4S7, 5W3, 8P9 and 9U5 amongst some of the less usual ones. David used the FRG7 and a GSRV.\n\nDavid Tanswell G6LAU likes doing things a bit differently and still manages to get more prefixes on RTTY than many get on sideband! This time the claim was for 20m only, making it the first 20m all RTTY bronze award. Well done David. Prefixes like 4N7, 5H3, BV0, D44, H18, KL7, P43, S79 and ZP5 are good catches at any time, but on RTTY they've got to be that little bit special.\n\nDarrell Jacobs, now back in the UK, has only a temporary 10ft wire rigged up in his bedroom. However, he has still been pulling them in and offered 5L2, TU2, 5Z4, Z21, TZ0, 7P8, 9J2, KH0, NP4, 9Y4, V34, HC8 and ZD8 towards his bronze for 15m only. Aspecial delight was to log PS7KZ on 21.228 flying at 29,000 feet over Brazil. He was calling and working US stations when Darrell logged him.\n\nAs I stated earlier, the new continental awards got a few newcomers off the ground. Rosemary Whyte ILA 301 took over the station from husband Martyn to get in her first claims for North and South America. This upset Martyn so much, he got his own back by logging furiously until he was able to claim his gold prefix award. Not to be outdone, Rosemary countered with claims for the bronze and silver. Martyn, now feeling decidedly miffed, got in again with a couple more continents. Rosemary led with another continental, then a right cross...no, hang on a minute! Anyway, things are hotting up in Edinburgh and I'm watching for smoke from that direction.\n\nMeanwhile, down in the quiet valley near Pontypridd, Susan Powell ILA 321 has been keeping the broadcast bands under observation. She has now claimed her broadcast award with some very nice loggings including R Discovery (Dominica), KTWR (Guam), SLBC (Sri Lanka), R Atlantica (Peru), HH1 (Honduras), R Mundial (Venezuela), FEBA (Seychelles), SWABC (Namibia) and RRI (Jakarta).\n\nHedley Falkinder ILA 150 of Malton has claimed the first of his continents with help from Soviet amateurs. Hedley is still using the Racal RA17A to good effect!\n\nBrian Pearson ILA 180 also got into the Russians for his claim and managed to dig out 48 oblasts into the bargain (these are the equivalent of our districts and there are over 200).\n\nIan Baxter ILA 322 of Blackburn used his FRG7700 to log more than the 100 stations necessary for his European continental. While mentioning this, contrary to the original rules, claims will be accepted from your own continent but must not include your own country.\n\nDavid Glover ILA 339 (G1VJP) claimed the Broadcast Monitor Award and also had one for his loggings of jamboree stations from the 1987 JOTA. David uses one of the Matsui receivers and says it's excellent value (even more so, now that it's been reduced to £99.99). David is a member of many of the broadcast station monitor clubs and currently spends most of his time with them.\n\nWhile looking for a bit of missing information, I discovered that from January 1st to March 4th I received and replied to 215 letters, not including the award claims, so if you have to wait a day or so for a reply, you know why.\n\nNice to hear from Mike Ribton of Gillingham again. Hi Mike! A good piece of information for users of the Matsui 4099 (also known as the Sangean 803, TMR 7062 etc) might help to improve reception. Connect a length of wire to the earth side of a mini jack plug and insert it into the external aerial socket. This acts as a counterpoise for the whip. Just to prove it works, Mike put in a claim for the bronze prefix award including AAS, AL7, CM7, KP4, KZ8, XI2 and YC8.\n\nStan Porter, out there in Malawi (7Q 001/ILA 062), has now settled nicely into his new QTH and has used his recently acquired certificates to decorate the new shack. Pity he's got to buy real wallpaper for the rest of the house! He's been listening in to the RNARS net on 15m with WA1HMW as net controller. He says they just can't win down there with crops failing, first from drought and then from floods. Even his 4x4 vehicle can't get about! He's hoping to make it to the UK again this year so we may get to have that chat soon. Meanwhile, he's plodding away at the premier prefix award with over 1700 in the log so far!\n\nOne final point: it's just come to my notice that I, and many others, have been led astray for a long time. The problem lies in the coded greetings used on CW, in particular, the code 55. Now, I have always been led to believe this meant 'best of luck' (in the callbook as 'best success'). Well, apparently, during the 1930s, youngsters who were members of the Hitler Youth movement used to sign off HH, meaning 'Heil Hitler'. Realising they were giving the game away, they changed to 55. Apparently, some German stations still regard 55 as an insult! So, if you want to keep on the good side of German contacts, don't sign 55!\n\nWell, that's about it for this month. Next time round, we'll be going further into the realms of amateur band listening and also taking a look at the broadcast side of the hobby. Meanwhile, have a good month and, remember, there's plenty out there to hear, it's just a matter of a little patience and some spare time at the right moment. Good listening!\n\nIf you are the type that likes to experiment with radio and electronics, then sooner or later you will need a power supply. I don't mean one that's big enough to start a car, but a simple low-current regulated supply suitable for powering the average VHF/UHF converter or even a low-power transmitter. The design and construction of power supplies has changed tremendously over the years and, as far as most amateurs are concerned (unless you are a constructor of large linear amplifiers), the days of high-voltage, high-current designs have gone. With the introduction of semiconductors, power supplies started to get smaller and smaller as the supply voltage needed for such circuits became less and less.\n\nWe have now reached the stage where there is a fully protected PSU on a single integrated circuit. The design of such power supplies is reasonably simple and there are many standard circuits to go by. They have a low component count and excellent performance. If you are a keen constructor, you probably know all about voltage regulators, such as the 7805, 7812 and the LM317, but if you are relatively new to radio and electronics, they might be a bit of a mystery.\n\nThe idea of these articles is to introduce the beginner to the most common types of regulator and to show how simple and easy it is to build a fully working, high-performance power supply unit. Various modifications to the standard circuits will be shown and help will be given on how to wire transformers and choose components. A little bit of power supply theory is also dealt with.\n\nRight from the start\n\nPower supply circuits are designed to convert the standard line voltage (usually 240V ac in the UK) down to an isolated dc supply suitable for connecting to a piece of equipment. A basic power supply circuit consists of little more than a transformer, rectifier and smoothing capacitor. Figure 1a shows a block diagram of a typical supply unit. If we take one component at a time, it will give us a chance to discover its job and how it fits into the supply unit.\n\nBox 1 is the transformer and, as its name suggests, its job is to transform the mains voltage down to a usable level. A transformer has two separate halves, one called the primary and the other called the secondary. The mains voltage is applied to the primary side of the transformer and the voltage for the power supply is then taken off the secondary. The value of the secondary voltage depends on the ratio of the number of turns on the secondary side of the transformer and the number of turns on the primary side of the transformer.\n\nIn most cases, the secondary voltage will be much less than the primary voltage—for example, 240V ac on the primary side and only 15V ac on the secondary side, though this need not always happen. A transformer can be made to work in the opposite way; for example, high-power linear amplifiers often use supply lines of many thousands of volts, provided by a transformer which has stepped up the mains supply to about 500 or 800V. This voltage is subsequently rectified, then doubled up by a special circuit.\n\nThe secondary voltage of the transformer is still ac, so the next job is to convert this into a dc form. This is done by using a rectifier, the second box in Figure 1a. Alternating current has two halves, one is positive and the other is negative. In the case of the British mains, the alternating current moves through this 'positive/negative' cycle fifty times a second. The rectifier does something very simple; it 'chops' half of the ac voltage away, thus leaving either a positive or negative supply. The rectifier circuit can be made from one, two or four diodes, or a special element called a bridge rectifier; more about these later.\n\nBox 3 is the final section of our simple power supply. Its job is to smooth the output from the rectifiers. It uses an electrolytic capacitor. Raw dc voltage, supplied from the rectifiers, charges the capacitor. The capacitor then acts like a reservoir; in fact, it is sometimes known as the reservoir capacitor.\n\nWhen a piece of equipment is connected to the supply, voltage constantly drains from the smoothing capacitor. Therefore, between pulses of voltage from the rectifier, the voltage across the capacitor slowly falls. This fall in voltage leaves a small ripple on the dc voltage level. Ripple will affect any equipment connected to the power supply. To reduce the amount of ripple, we make the value of the smoothing capacitor as large as possible. In power supply units designed to provide 20 or 30A, the value of the smoothing capacitors can be as large as 100,000μF (0.1F). In our low-current designs, the value of the smoothing capacitors will be about 1000 to 4000μF.\n\nWe can now move on and look at some practical circuits. Figures 1b to 1d show three simple supply circuits. As can be seen, each consists of a transformer, rectifier and smoothing capacitor.\n\n**Rectifiers**\n\nFigure 1b illustrates half-wave rectification, perhaps the least common type of rectification. Nevertheless, it does have the advantage of using only one rectifier diode and it needs no centre tap on the transformer. The main disadvantage is that it produces a lot of ripple so the output needs considerable smoothing.\n\nFigure 1c uses a type of rectification known as full-wave rectification. The transformer has a centre tap which makes up the negative side of the supply and two diodes supply the raw dc voltage to the smoothing capacitor. This type of supply requires less smoothing, but it does need a transformer with a centre tap.\n\nFigure 1d shows the most common of all rectifier circuits; it uses a type of rectifier known as a bridge rectifier. As can be seen, the diodes are arranged in a bridge configuration with the ac from the transformer entering at one side and raw dc leaving at the other. Again, it uses full-wave rectification and the transformer would increase by 1.5V when off load.\n\nIt is also important to make sure that your transformer can safely supply the maximum amount of current you expect to draw from your supply. There is no point in choosing a 200mA transformer when you expect the PSU to supply 1A or more. If you start to ask your transformer to supply more current than it was designed for, then there will be a considerable voltage drop across the secondary and the transformer will overheat.\n\nAs will be seen later, most transformers have two secondary coils which can be wired in a number of different ways to provide different currents and voltages.\n\n---\n\n**Table 1**\n\n| Type | Output Voltage | Output Current | Input Voltage | Ripple Rejection |\n|--------|----------------|----------------|---------------|------------------|\n| 78L05 | +5V | 100mA | 7 – 30V | 62dB |\n| 78L12 | +12V | 100mA | 14.5 – 35V | 54dB |\n| 78L15 | +15V | 100mA | 17.5 – 35V | 51dB |\n| 78M05 | +5V | 500mA | 7 – 25V | 80dB |\n| 78M12 | +12V | 500mA | 14.5 – 30V | 80dB |\n| 78M15 | +15V | 500mA | 17.5 – 30V | 70dB |\n| 7805 | +5V | 1A | 7 – 25V | 78dB |\n| 7812 | +12V | 1A | 14.5 – 30V | 71dB |\n| 7815 | +15V | 1A | 14.5 – 30V | 70dB |\n| 78S05 | +5V | 2A | 8 – 35V | 54dB |\n| 78S09 | +9V | 2A | 12 – 35V | 47dB |\n| 78S12 | +12V | 2A | 15 – 35V | 47dB |\n| 78S15 | +15V | 2A | 18 – 35V | 46dB |\n\nOutput voltages are ±4%\n\nneeds no centre tap.\n\nThe examples given in Figures 1b to 1d are for positive output lines only. If you were to reverse the diodes, then the output would be negative.\n\n**Smoothing capacitors**\n\nThe two most important facts to know about smoothing capacitors are their working voltage and value. The working voltage must be greater than the off load output voltage of the power supply. The value of the capacitor should be about 1500 to 2000µF per amp, so for a small 1A power supply, a value of about 2000µF should be fine.\n\n**Winding experiment**\n\nIf you have suitable components and a tagboard, then perhaps you would like to have a go at building the circuit shown in Figure 1d. This would be a good chance to prove to yourself how easy it is to build a very simple power supply. It would also give you a chance to experiment with the different windings found on some transformers.\n\nFigure 2 shows the layout of our simple power supply. For this circuit, none of the components are critical. Start by soldering into place the components onto the tagboard. The bridge rectifier is made up of four 1N4001 diodes, but almost any rectifier diodes will do. The value of C1 can be anything from about 220 to 2200µF, but take note to be careful about the working voltage mentioned earlier.\n\nNext, wire the transformer. Almost any mains transformer will do, but have a look at any writing on the secondary side to get some idea of the output voltage. If you are using the type of transformer shown in Figure 2, then wire as shown.\n\nA word of warning here. *Never forget that the mains supply voltage can kill.* After I have wired up the primary side of the transformer I always cover the terminals with insulating tape to stop any chance of an electric shock.\n\nIf you take a look at Figure 3a and Figure 3b, you will see that it is possible to wire up some transformers to provide double the output voltage or double the output current. Figure 3a shows the secondary windings wired in series. In this configuration, the output voltage is doubled but the current rating of the transformer stays the same.\n\nFigure 3b shows the secondary windings wired in parallel. Here, the output voltage remains the same but the transformer now provides double the current.\n\nIt is important to note that on some transformers the primary side is made up of two 120V windings. These must be connected together for safe 240V operation.\n\n**Calculating the output**\n\nIf you take a look back at Figure 1d, you will see that it is possible to calculate the output voltage across C1. For example, if the transformer secondary is 30V, the expected output across the smoothing capacitor is $30V \\times 1.41 = 42.3V$. Remember, this voltage is the full load voltage, so that when the load is removed, the output voltage will rise by a small amount, dependent on the regulation factor of the transformer.\n\nThe combination of transformer, rectifier and capacitor is the basis of most types of power supply. The transformer could be rated at 16.5V, 40A. The bridge would then be rated at about 35A and the smoothing capacitors would have a value of about 60,000µF. Add the extra electronics to get a very nice 13.8V, 30A power supply unit. The extra components are the ones that do all the work in a power supply. In most cases they are responsible for voltage regulation, overvoltage and undervoltage protection and short circuit protection. All we have looked at so far is the conversion part of a PSU. What we need to do now is to take the smoothed dc voltage and turn it into a safe and useful output, suitable for powering all types of equipment.\n\n**Voltage regulators**\n\nMany circuits require an almost constant output voltage, irrespective of the amount of current being taken from the supply. This job is done by a voltage regulator and, over the years, a number of useful components have appeared on the market, making this job very simple indeed.\n\nTake, for example, a transmitter and receiver with a common oscillator and an unregulated power supply. The receiver current consumption is fairly low, so the oscillator and received frequency are relatively stable. As soon as the transmitter is keyed, the current consumption will increase considerably and, because the power supply is not stabilised, the output voltage will drop. This drop in output voltage will cause the oscillator to shift its frequency, making the transmitted signal very unstable. If the transmitter is being used on CW, as the transmitter is keyed on and off an effect known as 'chirp' will result. The solution to this problem is very simple—use a stabilised power supply.\n\nFigure 4 shows a block diagram of a complete stabilised power supply. As you can see, three extra boxes have been added to our original design. The\n\nregulator is the component which controls the output voltage and in most cases this will have a fixed value, eg, 5V, 12V, etc. Overvoltage and undervoltage detectors are usually optional and will be looked at in more detail later. The most common series of voltage regulators you are likely to come across is the 78xx series (xx stands for two other digits which equal the output voltage, eg, the 7805 outputs 5V). The regulators in this series are positive regulators. Negative regulators belong to the 79xx series.\n\nBoth 78 and 79 series regulators (dropping the xx) have three legs: input, output and common. They incorporate features such as current limiting and thermal protection and they are also protected against short circuits. They are fixed voltage regulators, usually having 5, 12 or 15V as their output voltage. Output currents are commonly 100mA, 500mA, 1A, 2A and 5A. Table 1 shows a list of useful specifications for the 78xx series; a much more detailed list can be found on page 401 of the current Maplin Electronics catalogue.\n\nThese regulators also provide considerable ripple rejection; in most cases this can be as much as 70dB or better. This means that a ripple of 1V on the input can be reduced right the way down to 1mV or below.\n\n**A complete PSU**\n\nFigure 5 shows a complete 12V 1A PSU. Notice how few components it contains. The voltage regulator used is a type 7812, but the following circuits are valid for all the other voltage ratings in the 78 series. When using this type of regulator, we must make sure that the unregulated supply on the input of the IC is at least 3V greater than the desired output.\n\nThe circuit in Figure 5 uses a transformer that has two secondary windings of 15V wired in parallel (look back at Figure 3b and you will see that this doubles up the current but keeps the output voltage of the transformer the same); if each winding is rated at 600mA, the total current rating will be 1200mA or 1.2A. It is now possible to work out a value for the unregulated supply. We are using a bridge rectifier to turn the ac into dc and looking back at Figure 1d shows that\n\n\\[ V_{dc} = 1.41 \\times V_{ac} \\]\n\nThe secondary of the transformer is rated at 15V, so\n\n\\[ V_{dc} = 1.41 \\times 15V = 21.15V \\text{ approx.} \\]\n\nIf you look down Table 1, you will see that the input range of a 7812 is between 14.5 and 30V, so an unregulated supply of 21V will be safe to connect to its input.\n\nTo stop them from breaking into oscillation, all 78 series voltage regulators need a capacitor between input and zero volts and a capacitor between output and zero volts. In Figure 5 these capacitors are C2 and C3. The value of both capacitors varies from circuit to circuit and there seem to be no rules for choosing them. I must admit that, in the past, I have put in whichever capacitors have been available and have never had any problems. If you keep the value of C2 between 270nF and about 1µF, and the value of C3 between 1µF and 100µF, then all should work well.\n\n**More voltage**\n\nAll 78 series regulators have a terminal called common, usually connected to zero volts (Figure 5). If a low-value resistor is connected between common and zero volts then the output voltage of the regulator will increase. This is a very useful feature and it means that a fixed-voltage device can be modified to...\n\nprovide a number of different output voltages. All you have to remember is to keep the unregulated supply at least 3V above the wanted output.\n\nFigures 6a and 6b show two methods of increasing the output voltage of a 7812. This configuration holds true for all the positive regulators in the 78 range. If you look at Figure 6a, you will see that a number of resistors have been added to the circuit. R1 provides a small bias current which will help to prevent any voltage drop when drawing higher currents. R2 and R3 vary the quiescent current in the common terminal of the regulator. This in turn will increase the output voltage. As an example, if we replace R2 with a wire link and make R3 a 470R variable resistor then the output voltage of a 7812 will be completely variable from 12 to about 20V.\n\nA different method of increasing the output voltage is shown in Figure 6b. In this circuit, R1 still remains but it now has a value of 4k\\(\\Omega\\). The two other resistors have now been replaced with a zener diode. The output voltage is now equal to the zener voltage plus the regulator voltage. If the zener voltage is 4.3V and the voltage regulator is a 7805 then the output voltage would be about 9.3V – similar to the standard PP3 battery. All this holds true for voltage regulators in the 78 range, but you must keep an eye on the unregulated supply voltage as well as the rectifier and transformer current ratings.\n\n**Layout**\n\nSo far we have had a look at a number of different circuits and modifications which enable us to get a variety of output voltages from standard designs. We will now move on and describe the construction of a very versatile low-current power supply board which you could include in many of your projects. To make the board as complete as possible, we included the rectifier and smoothing capacitors on the main PCB. We also made the board versatile enough to include all the modifications to the standard circuits.\n\nThe layout of the board is shown in Figure 7b. We opted to use four individual diodes, not a bridge rectifier block, to make up the rectifier. The reason for this is that when you start to get up to currents of about 3A, the standard bridge rectifier starts to increase in size, making it difficult to design a suitable PCB layout to fit all types. The spacing for the diodes on the board is quite wide so you should find that a number of different types, ranging from 1A up to about 5A, should fit.\n\nThere is enough room for three smoothing capacitors. Looking through the various component catalogues, I was surprised to find that the largest single-ended electrolytic capacitor sold by Maplin Electronics was only 1000\\(\\mu\\)F at 35V working voltage, STC Electronic Services sell 2200\\(\\mu\\)F rated at 40V and 1000\\(\\mu\\)F rated at both 50 and 63V. There is enough room on the board for three of these, making a total value of about 6600\\(\\mu\\)F depending on the type used. Alternatively, you can replace the single-ended type with one axial electrolytic; values in this range go right up to 4700\\(\\mu\\)F, at 50V. The only problem with this type of capacitor is the size. A 4700\\(\\mu\\)F, 50V electrolytic has a length of about 50mm and a diameter of 25mm. If you plan to use this type then it would be a good idea to increase the length of the PCB to accommodate it.\n\nThe rest of the layout is pretty straightforward. C2 can either be a polyester or metallised polyester film capacitor but, to be honest, any type within the range of 270nF to 1\\(\\mu\\)F will do. C3 can either be a tantalum bead or sub-miniature electrolytic capacitor and, again, the value of this can be between 1\\(\\mu\\)F and 100\\(\\mu\\)F. In the next article we will describe the construction of the board, before discussing R1, R2, R3 and VR1.\n\nDon’t miss the second part of this article in the June issue!\n\nSpeech processing is an integral part of radio communication today. Even though many people do not like the degradation in speech quality brought about by some processors, its value in terms of utilisation of power and signal gain have been proved time and again. In fact, it is possible under some circumstances to achieve gains of up to 8dB by simply using a good RF speech processor.\n\n**AF or RF**\n\nSpeech processors can come in many forms and they can use different methods to process the speech. Some use AF clipping, where the audio is clipped at audio frequencies. Others use RF clipping, where a single sideband signal is clipped. This has the advantage that the distortion products caused by the clipping stage fall outside the passband of the signal and the resultant audio is much cleaner. In addition to clipping, most processors will use some form of frequency tailoring. This all adds to the 'punch' of the signal.\n\n**Useful facility**\n\nAnother facility which can be used in processors is audio gain control. Sometimes they are referred to as compressors and sometimes they are referred to by the name VOGAD, which stands for Voice Operated Gain Adjusting Device. This can be used on its own to maintain the level of modulation and take out variations in the levels of speech. Alternatively, it can be used with a clipper to maintain the level of clipping. This is very useful as it enables a known level of clipping to be used regardless of any variations in the speaker's voice level.\n\nAlthough audio gain controls can be made up fairly easily using discrete components, there are a few integrated circuits on the market which can be used. One such device is the SL6270, one of the Plessey range of communications integrated circuits. It superseded the SL622, which was used very successfully in many transmitters including the G3ZVC transceiver design.\n\n**Basic data**\n\nThe SL6270 comes in both TO8 can and 8-pin dual in-line packages, although the DIL package appears to be more common. It operates from a supply voltage which can lie between 4.5 and 10 volts. This is very convenient when building it into a system, as it is quite possible that a supply of this order will already exist. Finally, it has an overall gain which is typically around 52dB.\n\n**Internal structure**\n\nThe internal structure of the device is given in Figure 2. From this it can be seen that it has two inputs. This is because they are intended for differential use, i.e., the microphone leads are connected to the two inputs and not to one input and ground. Fortunately, it is possible to use it in a single ended mode because this is often more convenient. This is done by connecting the microphone to one input and then connecting the other input to ground via a capacitor. The disadvantage of this is that the differential input impedance of around 300 ohms falls to about 180 ohms.\n\nA basic circuit using the device is shown in Figure 3. Here $R_1$ and $C_1$ set the AGC characteristic. The attack time is controlled by the value of $C_1$, whilst both components affect the decay rate. Then, $C_2$ provides the coupling between the two amplifier stages in the device. The value of the capacitor and an internal 680 ohm resistor govern the low frequency response. However, the tolerance on the internal resistor is quite large and this should be taken into account when making any calculations. The overall gain of the chip is defined by an internal 10k resistor. By placing a capacitor across this, i.e., between pins 7 and 8, the high frequency response can be limited – but, again, beware of the large tolerances spread on the value of the resistor.\n\n**Typical output**\n\nThe output from the device is typically 90mV rms, although this can vary from 55mV up to 140mV. Even so, it is not really enough to drive a pair of back to back diodes into limiting. It is far better to add a further amplifier stage, possibly using a 741. If this is done, it can also be used to limit the frequency response. This is better than using the SL6270, because the components around the 741 will be more clearly defined and so the frequency...\n\nresponse will be more predictable.\n\n**In use**\n\nThe IC performs very well, and it is a very useful device. However, there are a few points which may enable any would-be experimenters to get the best out of it.\n\nThe first is associated with the low input impedance, particularly when it is used in its single ended mode. This is far too low for the majority of microphones in amateur use and, therefore, some form of impedance transformation is required. This is probably best done by using a simple buffer amplifier such as an emitter or source follower. One circuit which has been used quite successfully is shown in Figure 4. It consists of a simple FET source follower.\n\n**Match the input**\n\nIn this circuit, the input impedance is governed by the bias resistor, $R_2$, and the value of this can be chosen to match the required input impedance. It is also possible to include an RF filter at this stage. This prevents any RF which is picked up on the microphone lead from entering the circuit and causing distortion or even oscillation. The component values have been chosen to operate with impedances between about 100k and 600 ohms.\n\nIf problems are encountered even with the filter included, it is possible to add a further stage of filtering. However, it is also worth checking that RF is not getting in by any other means. Further precautions should include placing the filter as close to the input connector as possible, ensuring the case is RF tight, placing filters in supply leads and so forth.\n\n**Problems**\n\nAnother point worth considering is the gain of the IC. This can become a problem if a high output microphone is used. During speech pauses the gain can rise to an extent where the background noise rises to an unacceptable level. If this happens, the gain of the IC can be reduced by simply placing a resistor across pins 7 and 8.\n\nNormally, the gain is controlled by the two internal resistors and is equal to 10k/680 ohms, so by reducing the value of the 10k resistor it can be seen by what proportion the gain can be reduced.\n\n---\n\n**Final comments**\n\nAs the SL6270 is very versatile and easy to use, it has found its way into many speech processor and transmitter designs. At around £3 each, one of these devices may not be as cheap as something like a 741 but it still offers excellent value. In fact, it would probably still work out much cheaper to use a '6270 than build an equivalent circuit from discrete components. On top of this, there is also the enormous amount of time saved in constructing and debugging the circuit, because only a few extra components are used and fewer mistakes are likely to be made.\n\n**Better processors**\n\nEssentially, these ICs enable much better speech processors to be made with only a few extra components and at a little extra cost. Because of this, they are worth considering if any speech processor designs are being contemplated.\n\n---\n\n**Keep up with the latest information – order Amateur Radio at your newsagents**\n\n---\n\n**RADIO AMATEUR LICENCE**\n\nStart training now – No previous knowledge required. Study for 3-6 months. Post Coupon now for free brochure – without obligation:\n\n**Radio & Telecommunications Correspondence School, 12 Moor View Drive, Teignmouth, Devon. 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Post or phone today for your FREE INFORMATION PACK on the course of your choice.\n\n- Electronics\n- Basic Electronic Engineering (City & Guilds)\n- Electrical Engineering\n- Electrical Contracting/installation\n- Course of Interest:\n - Name: ..................................................\n - Address: ...........................................\n - P. Code ............................................\n- Radio, Audio and TV Servicing\n- Radio Amateur Licence Exam (City & Guilds)\n- Car Mechanics\n- Computer Programming\n- GCSE and 'A' level subjects\n\nInternational Correspondence Schools Dept. EF55B, 112/314 High Street, Sutton, Surrey SM1 1PR. Tel: 01-643 9568 or 041-221 2926 (24 hrs.)\n\nTX-3 RTTY/CW/ASCII TRANSCEIVE\nThe high performance, low cost system\n\nSplit-screen, type-ahead operation, receive screen unwrap, 24 large memories, clock, review store, callsign capture, RTTY auto CR/LF, CW software filtering and much more. Needs interface or TU.\n\nBBC-B and Master, CBM64 tape £20, disc £22. Spectrum tape £35, +3 disc £37 inc adapter board (needs interface/TU also). For VIC20 we have our RTTY/CW transceive program. Tape £20.\n\nRX-4 RTTY/CW/SSTV/AMTOR RECEIVE\n\nThis is still a best-selling program and it's easy to see why. Superb performance on all 4 modes, switch modes at a keypress to catch all the action. Text and picture store with dump to screen, printer or tape/disc. An essential piece of software for trawling the bands. Needs interface. BBC-B and Master, CBM64 tape £25, disc £27. VIC20 tape £25. Spectrum tape £40, +3 disc £42 inc adapter board (needs interface also). The Spectrum software-only version (input to EAR socket) is still available, tape £25, +3 disc £27.\n\nTIF1 INTERFACE\n\nPerfect for TX-3 and RX-4, it has 2-stage filters and computer noise reduction for excellent reception. Transmit outputs for MIC, PTT and KEY. Kit £20 (assembled PCB + cables, connectors) or ready-made £40, boxed with all connections. State rig for transceive. Interface available only with TX-3 or RX-4 software.\n\nMORSE TUTOR, LOGBOOK, LOCATOR, RAE MATHS programs also available for BBC-B, Master, CBM64, Spectrum, VIC20.\n\nPrices include VAT and p&p, 1st Class inland, airmail overseas, normally by return. Eire, CI, BFPO deduct 13%.\n\nTechnical Software (AR)\nFron, Upper Llandwrog, Caernarfon LL54 7RF\nTel 0286 881886\n\nMAKING ELECTRONICS C.A.D. AFFORDABLE\n\nZ-Match\n\nSmith Chart Program\nfor IBM PC/XT/AT £130 (ex VAT)\nBBC B £65 (ex VAT)\n\nTakes the drudgery out of Matching problems. Includes many more features than the standard Smith Chart. Full calculation of parameters\n\nPCB DESIGN\nfor IBM PC/XT/AT from £160 (ex VAT)\n\nLow Cost PCB draughting packages\nVery easy to learn and use\nComponent library facilities\n\nWe offer full after-sales support with telephone 'HELP HOTLINE' service. 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(Tel: 01-274 8611)\n\nTO ADVERTISE IN AMATEUR RADIO TELEPHONE MARIAN ON 0277-219876 FOR DETAILS\n\nMathematics are not to everyone's taste, although every radio amateur has to dip into them to some extent simply to pass the RAE. There are some whiz-kids who do everything by maths, and some who write magazine articles which lose most of their readers the moment they reach a formula which appears to be written in Greek, followed by columns of calculations.\n\nThere is no doubt that for those with an aptitude for the subject everything becomes that much easier and, for anyone taking up radio or electronics professionally a good knowledge of mathematics is a necessity.\n\nMany radio amateurs today, however, are involved in the pursuit of a practical hobby, and have no great wish to become involved in too much juggling with figures. Nevertheless, even when working on a practical basis, simple calculations can help save hours of experimentation. They need not be too complicated, and a few are discussed here to illustrate the point. A simple approach has been adopted, and all calculations can be made with a pocket calculator. Mathematicians reaching this point are invited to turn the page and proceed to the next article!\n\n**Dipole antenna lengths**\n\nThe formula to calculate the length of a half-wave wire dipole for HF is usually given as\n\n\\[\nL = \\frac{468}{f}\n\\]\n\nwhere \\( L = \\) length of antenna in feet, and \\( f = \\) frequency required in MHz.\n\nWithout knowing the precise location of the antenna, its height, the presence of nearby objects, trees, buildings etc, it is impossible to provide an accurate formula, and the factor of 468 can only be an approximation. Consequently, the newly erected antenna may well not be resonant at the desired frequency, and subsequent adjustments usually consist of arbitrary alterations until the correct length is found.\n\nA simple reversal of the original formula saves all this. First, the (unwanted) resonant frequency of the antenna is identified by noting the receiver frequency when the lowest SWR is obtained during transmission.\n\nAssume that an 80 metre dipole is required to resonate at 3.650MHz. The usual formula\n\n\\[\nL = \\frac{468}{3.650}\n\\]\n\ngives a length of 128.22 feet, but when erected the antenna is found to resonate at 3.564MHz.\n\nIf the length is equal to the factor divided by the frequency, then the factor is equal to the length multiplied by the frequency. It has been established that the antenna has a frequency of 3.564MHz, and with this information a new factor can be calculated:\n\n\\[\n\\text{Factor} = \\text{length} \\times \\text{frequency}\n\\]\n\\[\n= 128.22 \\times 3.564\n\\]\n\\[\n= 457\n\\]\n\nThe new factor is tailor-made for the particular location, and can now be used to calculate the correct length for the frequency required:\n\n\\[\nL = \\frac{457}{3.650} = 125.2 \\text{ feet}\n\\]\n\n**Coaxial wavelengths**\n\nA half-wavelength, or multiple thereof, is a useful length for coaxial feeders. For any given frequency, the impedance at one end is repeated at the other end. At VHF particularly, the length of feeder between a transmitter and an SWR bridge should be such as to ensure that the bridge indicates the condition at the transmitter output terminal. At all frequencies, it is helpful to have a feeder in multiples of a half-wavelength when experimenting with single band antennas, to ensure that the feeder itself does not act as a transformer and give misleading results to antenna adjustments.\n\nAll measurements of feeder lines refer to the electrical length of the line, taking into account the velocity factor of the cable used, as follows:\n\n\\[\nL = \\frac{492V}{F}\n\\]\n\nwhere \\( L = \\) length of cable in feet\n\\( V = \\) velocity factor of the cable,\nand\n\\( F = \\) frequency in MHz\n\n*Example:* A half-wavelength of coaxial cable with a velocity factor of 0.66, at 144.5MHz\n\n\\[\n= \\frac{492 \\times 0.66}{144.5} = 2.25 \\text{ feet}\n\\]\n\nThe formula for a full wavelength uses a factor of 984, and for a quarter wavelength, often used as an impedance transformer, 246.\n\n**SWR calibration**\n\nAn SWR meter can be calibrated using the formula:\n\n\\[\n\\frac{F+R}{F-R}\n\\]\n\nwhere \\( F = \\) full-scale deflection of the meter,\nand \\( R = \\) meter deflection to the point to be calibrated.\n\nThis enables existing meter scale markings to be modified and used quite easily. If, for example, a scale is marked in tenths of FSD, each point represents 10 and FSD is 100, thus for a mid-scale reading:\n\n\\[\n\\frac{100+50}{100-50} = \\text{an SWR of 3:1}\n\\]\n\nand calculations can be made for other SWR calibrations in like manner.\n\n**Voltage dividers**\n\nExperimenters often find a need to apply one or more voltages to different parts of a circuit. A common way to do this is with a voltage divider: a simple resistor network from the positive to negative line of a power supply. This provides various voltages at the junction(s) of the resistors, as illustrated.\n\nThe formula to obtain the values of the resistors is based on Ohm's law, ie:\n\n\\[\nR1 = \\frac{E-E1}{I1+I2} \\quad \\text{and} \\quad R2 = \\frac{E1}{I2}\n\\]\n\nwhere \\( E = \\) the voltage supply applied to the circuit\n\\( E1 = \\) the load voltage required from the divider\n\\( I1 = \\) the load current required in amps\n\\( I2 = 10\\% \\) (approx) of the load current\n\n*Example:* A circuit is supplied with 12\n\nvolts. A section of the circuit requires a supply of 6 volts at 10mA.\n\n\\[ R_1 = \\frac{12 - 6}{.01 + .001} = 545 \\text{ ohms} \\]\n\n\\[ R_2 = \\frac{6}{.001} = 6000 \\text{ ohms} \\]\n\nFinally, the wattage (W) of the resistors is determined by \\( W = EI \\):\n\n\\[ R_1 = 6 \\times .011 = .066W \\]\n\\[ R_2 = 6 \\times .001 = .006W \\]\n\nIn this instance, \\( \\frac{1}{2}W \\) or smaller resistors will suffice in both cases.\n\n**Dummy loads**\n\nA non-inductive (ie, not wire-wound) resistor provides a good substitute for an antenna for testing a transmitter without radiating a signal. It must, however, present a resistance value matching the output impedance of the transmitter, and be capable of dissipating the full output power.\n\nWith low power (QRP), this presents little problem. A 1 watt transmitter is easily served by a 47 or 56 ohm, 1 watt, carbon resistor.\n\nAn application of a formula learned for the RAE:\n\n\\[\nR = \\frac{1}{\\frac{1}{R_1} + \\frac{1}{R_2} + \\frac{1}{R_3}} \\quad \\text{etc}\n\\]\n\nshows that several resistors connected in parallel will provide a dummy load capable of carrying more power, for example:\n\n\\[ 3 \\times 150 \\text{ ohm, 1W resistors} = \\]\n\n\\[\n\\frac{1}{\\frac{1}{150} + \\frac{1}{150} + \\frac{1}{150}} = 1 \\times \\frac{150}{3} = 50 \\text{ ohms}\n\\]\n\nAs the power route is now divided three ways, and as each resistor can carry 1W, the total dissipation will be 3W. Various permutations are possible using 1 or 2W resistors, eg \\( 11 \\times 560 \\text{ ohm}, 2W \\) resistors would provide 51 ohms at 22W. The ratings of the resistors are for continuous dissipation. Keyed or speech transmissions are not radiating with a continuous duty cycle however, and the rating of a dummy load calculated as shown can probably be doubled, subject to an occasional check that it does not become too hot to touch when in use.\n\nWith powers above QRP level, dummy loads need to be carefully constructed and cased. Details are outside the scope of the present article, but examples can be found in many amateur radio reference books etc.\n\n**Many more**\n\nThere are many more examples, gradually becoming more complicated, but there is no need to think that because maths can be difficult, that it is always difficult – this is not so. The simple calculations illustrated here show that maths can, and should, be used to assist the practical constructor to whatever extent he, or she, is capable of using it.\n\n**Velocity factor of coaxial cables:**\n\nThis depends on the insulating material used for the cable. Popular types with solid polythene dielectric, such as UR43, 57, 67, 76 etc, have a velocity factor of 0.66\n\nThose with a helical membrane, foam, or PTFE dielectric have factors ranging from 0.70 to 0.96 and should be checked against data tables found in various handbooks or other works of reference.\n\nIt was Kevin Fox G4MDQ who pointed it out to me.\n\n'Isn't it strange,' he said, 'how few rigs have names?' He went on to say how those that do seem to be Western rather than Japanese - the KW Atlanta, the TenTec Argosy, the Micron and large numbers of QRP rigs, for example.\n\nIt struck me how strange this was, when you consider that cars from that part of the world are marketed in the West using names - many of which seem odd to us. The Sunny and the Cherry are not the usual macho names associated with cars in our culture. Range Rover or Spitfire sound better to the British ear. Japanese cars still sell well, though, so why are rigs not saddled with names as well? Why are we not boasting about our new Yaesu Peach or Trio Moonshine?\n\nHaving some contacts in Japan, I set out to ask this question. In the search, I stumbled across the answer to one of the great mysteries of amateur radio. Why is it that some rigs are better performers than others of the same model?\n\nThe significance given to numbers in the Orient is greater than in the West. The patterns in which they lie are important and are seen as holding the fortune or luck of the things to which they are attached. Sadly, the success of a rig will sometimes force a number onto the Japanese staff which, although logical from the Western point of view, is laden with ill-luck in their eyes.\n\nAs an example of this, let us consider the triumph of the FT101 and the failure of its two successors the FT One and the FT102. In the West the number one has a special meaning: first and best. In the Orient, one is a number that gains its strength from its place in the pattern of numbers. Thus 101 can be written in the form $1 \\times 0 \\times 1$.\n\nThis pattern accords with the static Yin line in the classic form of oriental fortune telling. A Yin line often has desirable connotations, since words meaning accord, gracefulness and the like are derived from it. This pattern of numbers holds great fortune, and the rig itself is a great success. What then of the FT One? The pattern here is another classic in the fortune telling system: $0 \\times 1 \\times 0$.\n\nThis is the static Yang line, and means the exact opposite of the Yin line. Thus, when casting the luck of the One, the engineers would have been aware that the fortune of the rig was exactly the opposite of the 101!\n\nThis is a hard idea for Westerners to grasp, so let me put it another way. If you...\n\nconsider a one to represent a pillar or support, it is easy to understand that a bridge supported at both ends:\n\nis stronger than a bridge with a single support in the centre:\n\nHaving had this unfortunate number forced onto them by Western sales staff, is it any wonder that the development staff could not find it in their hearts to spend a great deal of time on the One?\n\nThe FT102 also logically follows in the Western number system from the 101, but again the number signifies ill luck. Two in the oriental system is the number of the bird meaning 'Luck which flies away'. So the bridge starts strong:\n\nbut rapidly becomes weak as the luck flies away:\n\nThe experimental three valve final was dumped onto this number to get it out of the laboratory and into a field trial. Since the patient was going to die anyway, it wouldn't hurt to try a new treatment!\n\nThe numbers of value in the oriental system are 8, 3 and 9. The number of luck or good fortune is 8, while in common with Western mystics 3 and 9 (3 times 3) are numbers of worth and strength. One, as I have explained, is an important number which takes its meaning from its combination with other numbers.\n\nPlace is an important aspect of the fortune telling system, the order of luck favouring the centre, then the number to the left of centre and then the right. Thus luck favours number combinations such as 830, 930, 2300 (the 00 counts as 0), and of course 290.\n\nPerhaps, then, we should not wonder that the runaway success of the FT290, and its fellow 690 and 490 rigs, was due to the development team being free to pick a number with good luck attached and to build a rig to match the success the number would bring. The new version of the FT290 still retains this magic number, being the Mark II, and not changing to the less lucky FT291!\n\nEven in the best of rigs, one can find 'Friday afternoon' examples which perform in a disappointing manner.\n\nMany years ago, when Douglas made Vespa motorscooters in this country, they boasted that any bike with a zero at the end of its serial number was subject to extra checks. A single zero warranted a special visual inspection, a double zero a full mechanical inspection, three zeros a complete performance test and 4 zeros, it was claimed, were destruction tested!\n\nThis number magic can apply to rigs as well. Remembering the numbers of strength (3, 8, 9), and the combination 1—any number—1, we must look at the serial number in the oriental manner from right to left. The number fifth from the left holds the fate of the sequence and the second number from the left gives it a value, ie much luck (or ill-luck) or little.\n\nThe numbers at the extreme left and right, it is said, hold the past and future luck of the equipment. Thus, a sequence 390083 with the 9 in fifth place supported by the 8 in second place should bode well and, as the history numbers at each end are both 3, they should indicate a trouble-free life for the equipment.\n\nAn example from life concerns one of my rigs with the number 311023. This has never misbehaved (as indicated by the history numbers) but has never been able to pick out the DX, perhaps due to the poor luck of the numbers in fifth and second places!\n\nThis system only applies, of course, to hand-built rigs, where the human factor can unconsciously affect the fortune as it is built. Computer-built rigs are more robust in this area, and it is then the luck of the robot which must be considered. This is often shown on the inspection slips enclosed with the rig as initials (the human inspector) and a number indicating the robot line. Divination can then proceed as above.\n\nTimes and dates too, carry importance. Certain number sequences are of great cultural significance. With this in mind, I have been careful that this piece is written at one of these meaningful points in the year:\n\nJohn Feeley, 11.55GMT 1.4.88.\n\nThe period under review has not produced any spectacular results; nevertheless conditions have been interesting and the upward trend has continued with some interesting crossband QSOs taking place with DX stations. I am starting the column with some of the DXpeditions planned for the summer season this year.\n\nI am indebted to Harry Schools KA3B for permission to reprint the following information from issue number 7 of his *International 6 Metre Digest*, March 1988.\n\n**DXpedition to St Pierre (FP)**\n\n'I had reported in the February issue of the digest that I had been making tentative plans to operate from the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon during the June VHF contest. So far, things are looking good. My vacation schedule has been approved by my immediate superior at work. The dates I have requested are June 7th to June 14th, which coincide with the VHF contest on 11th/12th.\n\n'The location from which I am planning to operate, the Hotel Robert, is available on these dates. Readers who are familiar with the hotel will know that it has been host to many DXpeditions in the past, especially on the HF bands. The hotel's manager has been enthusiastic about amateur operations and has allowed a New England ham, Ralph Hirsch K1RH, to establish a permanent station on the top floor of the hotel.\n\n'The station consists of a minibeam for 6, 10, 15 and 20 metres, a Butternut vertical for 40, 80 and 160 metres and a 5RV for utility work. Also in place is a MFJ 1500 watt tuner with SWR and power meters, an antenna switch and rotator plus 115/230V ac and 12V dc at 35 amps. All you need to do is bring your rig and you can be on the air within 10 minutes of arrival (anyone interested?). I spoke with Ralph on the telephone and enquired about whether there was room on the roof for additional antennas. He tells me that there is ample space for mounting a 5-element 6-metre beam. I shall therefore bring one along, plus rotator, and leave it there for future expeditions.\n\n'I have applied for a special callsign, FPOSIX, although I am sure I shall be required to sign as FP/KA3B. My operation will concentrate on 6 metres, although I will probably operate on HF as well. The 6 metre operation will run about 100 watts. QSL/SAE's please!\n\n'I have written to Harry about crossband working using 28.885 and his answer will be printed next month in this column.'\n\n**DX briefs from KA3B**\n\nPhillip Delcroix TR8DX is reported as operational on 6 metres with 40 watts output and a 4-element beam. He is active in the evenings and at weekends. Others interested in operating on the band are TR8CA and TR8JLD.\n\n**Falkland Islands (VP8):** Bob VP8BKK will shortly be operating on 6 with a Swan 250.\n\n**Nicaragua (YN):** YN3CC is now operational on 6 with a Yaesu FT620B and a 5-element yagi, which were donated by the Six Metre International Radio Club (SMIRK).\n\n**Zambia:** Bill 9J2WS will be active on 6 from Zambia until the end of 1989, before returning home to Sierra Leone as 9L1WS.\n\n**El Salvador (YS):** In addition to YS1ECB, Marco Diaz YS10D is reported to be active on 6. His address is Box 464, San Salvador, El Salvador.\n\n**Martinique (FM):** Three operators are reported as active on 6 from this small island in the Caribbean (Grid FK94). They are FM3AG, FM3BY and FM3CS. Note that the French Guiana beacon FY7THF on 50.038, which is received in the UK when conditions are favourable, is a good pointer for this area.\n\n**Peru (OA):** From Ray Clark comes word that OA8ABT is active on 6 with 50 watts output. He is using stacked, 5-element yagis.\n\n**Ceuta and Mella (EA):** From this area comes word that EA9ID9 will be starting out on 6 soon.\n\n**Other DX news**\n\nA Gibraltarrian DXpedition is planned to take place between May 31st and June 14th. A letter from G4VXE gave details of the forthcoming 6 metre DXpedition. Tim says that callsigns have not yet been finalised, but will probably be ZB2/G4VXE, etc., rather than full ZB2 callsigns. Operation will begin on May 31st and end on June 14th. The period was chosen for best sporadic-E propagation to the UK.\n\nOperating frequencies will be 50.165 and 50.200, with monitoring on 28.885. See Figure 1 for details of reception of the Gibraltar Beacon in the Scilly Isles by G5KW during May and June 1981. As will be seen from the graph, the band was open for 70MHz operation on May 31st and June 1st. This was when many of us made QSOs on 4 metres. The propagation mode has not been established but we believe it to be enhanced sporadic-E.\n\nJohn G3UUT writes to say that he has received a letter from Jimmy Bruzon ZB2BL. Jimmy is the keeper of the beacon ZB2VHF which, as reported earlier, was damaged by rats. He says that he is hoping to get the beacon Poperational again soon, as he has ordered the spares necessary to mend it. This is good news, as the beacon was a valuable guide for the conditions to the south of us.\n\nI had a telephone call last week from Jimmy in California, saying that his plans for his annual DXpedition this year are not confirmed yet. He believes that he may go to Belize; I hope to give more\n\ninformation on this next month. Jimmy is probably the world's greatest operator of 6 metre DXpeditions and produces a very fine souvenir QSL card, giving full details of equipment and local colour.\n\n**Ascension Island beacons**\n\nIn a news handout from the UK 6 Metre Group, we read that Mike Barry ZD8MB/G4MAB obtained licences for two beacons in the autumn of 1987: ZD8 HF on 2829kHz, with 50 watts output power, and ZD8 VHF on 50032.5kHz, having 50W output power. The necessary permits were issued by the Governor of Ascension Island. The antennas will be a 5-element yagi and a vertical, both available for 6 metre operation; for 10 metres a vertical will be used.\n\nThe same keyer is used for both transmitters, but the appropriate callsign for each beacon is sent, followed by the Ascension Island call, locator II2TB. The keying is synchronous throughout except for the callsign differences, permitting arrival timing comparisons.\n\nSeveral organisations have provided hardware. Yaesu donated the components, South Midland Communications gave random antenna electronics and the keyer PCB is from G4FRE. The beacon was designed, built and tested by G3JVL; funding is by donations from interested members of the UK 6 Metre Group. The 10 metre beacon has been funded by ZD8MB, G4JCC, G3SED and G3JVL.\n\n**UK 6 Metre Group AGM**\n\nThis will be held at the RSGB VHF Convention at Sandown Park on May 2nd. The convention opens at 11.30am and non members are cordially invited to attend but may not vote.\n\n**Aurora during March**\n\nThe magnetic storm on February 21st, which was followed by an intensive aurora on February 21st and 22nd suggested that similar conditions would probably return 27 days later. We were not disappointed! During the first two weeks of March there were several auroral openings, but these were not much in evidence from my QTH in the south-east. Stations further north and in Scotland, however, had some major openings – particularly towards the end of the month. With the solar flux at 132, an A index of 22 on March 29th and stormy geomagnetic conditions forecast as this column is being typed, no doubt more auroral contacts will have taken place by the time this is published.\n\nMike Barry ZD8MB has already been having some good crossband and direct 6 metre QSOs – although, isolated as he is, all QSOs can be considered DX! He is regularly in QSO with Costas SZ2DH and the 9H1 gang, and in crossband contact with OZ2BQ/EA7, EA4CGN, TR8DX and CT1WW. The highlight of the season so far was a crossband QSO on March 25th between EA4CGN on 10 metres and LU7DX on 50.105MHz just before the aurora started up in the UK. Enhanced conditions have been encountered in the past before an aurora.\n\nIn the March issue the captions were omitted from the graphs of the solar flux and sunspot data supplied by Geoffrey Roberts. An updated version has therefore been included this month. As mentioned earlier, the upward trend continues.\n\nAs we move through the summer sporadic-E season to the autumn F2 DX season, next month I shall be including a reprint of the propagation study I made, in the Scilly Isles, of the North Atlantic path with times and details of contacts made. Until next month, 73 and good DX on 6. Ken Ellis G5KW, 18 Joyes Road, Folkestone, Kent CT18 6NX. Tel: (0303) 53267.\n\nIt has been some time since we had a serious look at what is happening on the higher microwave bands. Perhaps the most interesting occurrence is that a number of people are now running private beacon systems on the bands from 10GHz upwards. There are several reasons why beacon facilities are useful. The obvious one is to find out what conditions are over a particular path, a service provided by the official beacon network.\n\nA secondary function is providing a tune-up facility for tweaking up newly-built equipment. Here, the official network is not very helpful if you are located some distance away. The problem is that the gear could be off frequency and as deaf as a post, so you would need to get close to the beacon site to make a start on the lining up job. Because the official beacons are few and far between, this could involve a lot of travelling.\n\n**A good idea**\n\nThe private beacon network which is springing up around the country helps to cut down on your travelling by putting signals into areas which are not well served by the official network. So, how do they operate?\n\nAs you know, an RSGB type beacon has to go through a thorough DTT examination before being granted a licence. This is largely because the unit is going to be installed on a remote site and will be left to run unattended.\n\nThere is, however, nothing to stop anyone transmitting a constant carrier with tone or other modulation from home, provided that the callsigns are transmitted at the stated intervals. This is, after all, exactly the way you run a normal QSO.\n\n**Objections**\n\nSome people have said that efforts should be concentrated on providing more official beacons. The reason given is that because the private ones are not running continually and because the aerial may be pointing in different directions at various times, depending on the user's requirements, it is not possible to use them to keep a check on propagation. This argument misses the whole point of the private beacon system, which is to provide signals and help to get gear up and running when requested.\n\n**Advantages**\n\nIn one sense, the private beacon has a great advantage over the official ones as the operator will be available to respond to your requests via a two metre talkback link. This effectively gives you a duplex QSO, with you on 10GHz and the beacon operator on 144MHz. Any adjustments you make can be immediately reported back to you, making the tweaking progress a lot easier. Many of the home beacons also have full 10GHz transceive operation available, so a final test can be made using full duplex telephone style contacts – the ultimate in luxury.\n\n**Get 'em up**\n\nAs starters you could try the following to get a signal up on the band. In the Glasgow area, try Mark GM4ISM for 10GHz FM and possibly 24GHz FM. In Geordie land, try John G3NWU who can help with 10 and 24GHz FM. In the Midlands you can call me for a signal on 10 FM, 10 SSB or 24GHz FM. For the area south of Birmingham, contact Dave G0DJA who also has 10 and 24 FM available. In the Wolverhampton area the man to get is Glynn G8SWZ, who can also manage 10 and 24 FM.\n\nMoving to the Bristol area, you could ask Roy G3FXL who can manage signals on most bands above 1.3GHz including 10GHz ATV. In the Swindon area you could contact Tim G3KEU for 10 FM, SSB and ATV. In the Sheffield area you could try Peter G3PHO.\n\nIf you live in the South Wales area then Doug GW3ATM, located near Chepstow, would be pleased to help on 10 FM. In the Hitchin area, Harold G3UYM is available for 10GHz FM and, in Reading, you could ask Ian G8KOW for 10GHz FM and SSB and also 24GHz WBFM. Most, but not all, of these operators have a mast-mounted system but they can all get a signal on the band for you with little trouble.\n\n**Contacting them**\n\nAll of them are QTHR and phone numbers are available via directory enquiries. Please bear in mind that you cannot expect a signal at the drop of a hat. Contact the people concerned well in advance to arrange a suitable time to do your tests. All these people are very helpful and very experienced microwave operators – just the sort you need to hold your hand when you are getting started.\n\nThis is by no means a full listing and I would be very pleased to hear from anyone else who is prepared to put up signals.\n\n**Proper ones**\n\nJust to round off the information, the official beacons – working upwards in frequency – are, on 10.1GHz, GB3IOW on the Isle of Wight; on 10.12 GB3ALD on Alderney; on 10.368 we have GB3SCX at Bournemouth, GB3MHX at Ipswich, GB3CEM at Birmingham and GB3AZA at Scarborough. All the preceding beacons are high stability types for SSB use but can also be received as carriers on wideband FM receivers. The FM beacons with nominal 300kHz deviation are all on 10.4GHz. These are GB3GBY at Grimsby, GB3MLE at Emley Moor, north of Sheffield, GB3XGH located at Chester and GB3LEX which is located between Leicester and Loughborough.\n\n**More units coming**\n\nThere is also news of a new 10.4 FM unit to be installed at Blackhill near Glasgow (NGR reference NS 828 647) as soon as all the paperwork is approved. Further news of this one is obtainable from GM4ISM. It is hoped that GB3OHM will have made an appearance from the Birmingham area by the time you read this. Information on this one is from G6KOA. On 21.4GHz you will find GB3ALD and GB3IOW putting out signals.\n\nThese beacons are all fairly reliable, but they do have to be taken out of service for short periods for running repairs and so on. If you want to check the latest status try contacting the RSGB Databox on (0707) 52242 using normal Prestel 1200/75 baud rates. Lots more interesting information for the VHF man is also available from the same source.\n\n**Cumulative results**\n\nLast year's 10GHz cumulatives were well supported in spite of the terrible weather conditions. Any time you want rain, just take a dish aerial up onto a local hill – it rarely fails. The score is the best results from three of the available contest days and the winner was G4EFT with 2554 points from 38 contacts, with a best DX of 219km.\n\nSecond was G8KQW with 2522 points from 35 contacts, the best DX being 163km. The greatest number of contacts was 42, scored by G4EML. On SSB the winner was G8KQW with 1329 points from 16 contacts, the best DX being 153km. This is actually less than he achieved on\n\nwideband FM but, of course, there are a lot less stations around on SSB even though the number is increasing rapidly.\n\nActivity\n\nAs well as the cumulative contests on 10 and 24, there is now a well established idea of using the first Sunday in the month as an activity day. This has promoted a lot of interest and each month sees more people joining in. The Midlands, South Yorkshire and the Lancashire area are particularly busy.\n\nThere is now a well established South Wales microwave group doing a lot of operating from their site at Hay on Wye. In North Wales there have been reports of contacts into Eire and Scotland, where the Glasgow group are getting very well organised. There is also a very active group in the Hull area, although high spots are not easy to find around there.\n\nExpeditions\n\nNews is coming in of a planned trip to Gd-land by G8KQW, possibly in August. He will be taking 10 and 24GHz FM and also 200 milliwatts of 10GHz SSB with him. This may not sound much to a two metre operator, but bear in mind that the average 10 SSB system runs about a third of a milliwatt output and his system is really QRO.\n\nAround the same time we can expect an expedition to the south-west corner of Scotland, possibly with both 10 and 24GHz being carried. Several operators are planning trips up Snowdon; in fact it is getting to the point where a rota system will have to be brought in for this site to stop local QRM from becoming a problem.\n\nSummer holidays\n\nJuly and August are possibilities for an expedition to the south-east of Scotland, from where long distance sea paths into the north of England and East Anglia are being attempted.\n\nThe Belfast Group will be out on most contest days looking for paths into Scotland and North Wales. A new interest in microwaves is appearing on Anglesey and the north-west coast of Wales, plus there is a very active Glasgow group, so the limited success of last year should improve.\n\nMobile\n\nMad though it may sound when you consider that microwaves are a line-of-sight game, a fair amount of work has gone into mobile operating. This is usually achieved using Alford slot aerials mounted on the roof of the car. This type of aerial is intended to give good all round coverage and does an excellent job.\n\nHowever, when doing mobile tests rather than looking for random mobile contacts (What, on 10GHz! - Ed), both cars are following the same route and much better results can be obtained by using the extra gain of a small horn aerial. These are usually mounted inside the rear window of the leading car and inside the windscreen of the following one.\n\nUsing this layout G8OIT and I have managed contacts of up to three miles when, obviously, the cars are not in visual range. Even better results were obtained on the M62 where visual distances in some areas are greater. I have also done some tests on 24GHz FM mobile with G0EDT. So far, they have only provided contacts of less than a mile, although we are sure that this could be easily extended.\n\nUsing SSB mobile on 10GHz has provided some problems due to Doppler shift as the relative speed of the cars has changed. Using the throttle as an RIT control has to be experienced to be believed!\n\nClose-down\n\nNext month we move back to the lower end of the spectrum and perhaps also get an update on the awards that have been issued. If you want information on these, or just want to comment generally, then the QTH is 81 Ringwood Highway, Coventry; or you could use Prestel on 203616941. Good hunting.\n\nThe subject of mains hum is an old favourite from the postbag. It can be a real pain, though it can normally be separated out into three main sources. The easiest of the lot to deal with is heater cathode shorts in valve sets. Hum all the time has got to be limited to the audio stages (this is the most likely cause), the rectifier or the detector, assuming it's coming from the heaters. Heater cathode shorts down the RF/IF/mixer stages normally only show up when you tune in a strong signal.\n\nIn my experience the indirectly heated series heater valves, for example PL, U types etc, are the worst for this problem, though 6.3V'E' series strung in series can play up. The way to check is to heat the valve up (ie put the correct volts up the heater pins) out of the set and AVO the resistance between cathode and heater. Although there should be no conduction, in an audio or rectifier valve you should disregard anything 10kohms or above. You will gather from this that I don't like using the valve tester. I get a belt off it every time I play with the damned thing!\n\nThe old trick of listening to your local oscillator (or, in more advanced receivers, conversion crystal oscillators, etc) is very worthwhile when you are only getting the hum when a signal is tuned in. Any trace of 50Hz and I'd be wopping in a new oscillator bottle. Another good trick, for 6.3 or 12 volt parallel connected heaters only, is to disconnect the heater transformer winding and run the heaters off an external dc supply. If the hum is gone, the heater circuit is your chief suspect.\n\nA bodge way out of heater induced mains hum is the so-called 'hum-dinger' circuit. It is very, very important that you do not try this technique on series connected heaters; you must only do it with parallel connected ones, isolated from chassis heaters. Figure 1 is self-explanatory.\n\n**The HT supplies**\n\nWe are now talking either valve or solid-state equipment, with HT either meaning your hundreds of volts in the valve box or only the 12 volts or what-have-you in your semiconductor wonder-box. If you have a 'scope handy, it's well worth a nose round the 'main' rail, with the 'scope on ac coupling, to see if you have any 'modulation' on it, be it 50 or 100Hz, dependent upon half or full wave rectifying.\n\nOn a 12 volt(ish) system I begin to worry when confronted with more than roughly half a volt's worth of wiggle. Your 300 volt valve heap can probably take 5 to 10 volts of ripple. First move, if confronted with yards of the stuff, is to wop an electrolytic of roughly the same value and voltage as that already fitted straight across the rail. Remember to be careful and to discharge the substitute after use.\n\n**Induction hum**\n\nIf you have been adding new mains transformers and the like, the radiated magnetic field round it can be upsetting other gubbins within the set. Try rotating it through 90° and see if the hum disappears. Another favourite complaint is the mounting screws of the mains transformer not making good contact to the chassis. Try loosening them off and re-tightening.\n\nOne final mains transformer related hum problem can be loose laminations. Not loose enough to physically rattle (this is annoying; cure it with liberal 'coatings' of high temperature lacquer), but loose enough to impair the efficiency of the transformer. Think about it - if the laminations are loose, the magnetic circuit is inefficient. Your 'lost' power, which goes as an increase in the external magnetic field (ie the inefficiency), can induce mains hum into other nearby inductors, principally audio-inter-stage transformers or the 'L' bit of audio filters. Try a clamp on the lams if you suspect this. AG clamp and some scrap wood can sometimes suffice.\n\nMagnetic radiation from transformers can be the cause of 'judder' on the picture of a CRT screen, be it computer, TV, monitor, scope or whatever. I tend to extend the mains transformer leads (well insulated) so that I can run the set from it, but with the transformer physically located well away from the set. With monitors, as often as not, the whole thing runs on 12 volts or thereabouts so it can also be worthwhile running it up from an external supply. If the transformer is the problem, a mu-metal screen can sometimes effect a good cure.\n\n**Yaesu FT720**\n\nThese FM machines come in three variants. The FT720RV is a 10 watt, two metre FM box, the FT720RU is 10 watts on seventy and the FT720RVH is 25 watts on two. The most unusual feature is that the transceiver can be split in half; the control gubbins separates away from the 'RF deck'. It is thus possible to mount the little control box under the smallest dash in a car and put the rest of the set in the boot or under the seat. Control cables come in two or four metre lengths.\n\nThere is also a special combiner box so that you can have one control unit and separate two and seventy RF decks. A point to watch with this family is their extreme sensitivity to VSWR. There is a built-in safety feature whereby any mismatch trips out the transmitter. This is really sensitive - in my view a bit over sensitive. Even a watt 'back' will trip out the ten watt version, so a well matched aerial is essential.\n\nPerformance-wise the quoted figures are 0.32uV for 20dB quieting on two and 0.5uV for the UHF variant. In practice, they all seem to be exactly this, which is reasonable considering the slightly dated design. The Tx side always gives a bit more than stated, typically 12 watts out for the 10 watters, 27 to 30 out of the 25 watt.\n\nPrice-wise, the two metre versions go for £125 for the low power one to about another twenty quid(ish) for the higher one. Last year I only saw two UHF ones sell, one at £135 and the other at £155, so I can offer no definitive price. They are not bad machines.\n\n**Repairing Spectrums**\n\nMy comment in the second-hand computer special recently about dead Spectrums that will only produce multi-coloured flashing squares seems to have touched a very raw nerve indeed. Most of\n\nthe correspondence about this ruefully agrees with my comment that you should never unplug or plug in any accessory to a running Spectrum; that's how those concerned blew theirs up.\n\nFor starters, I think it's only fair to point out that there are several firms about who will repair a dead Spectrum for a fixed price of £15 to £20. The repair isn't a lot of fun, but is relatively inexpensive so this might be worth considering. If all goes against you, you are in for about a tenner's worth of bits.\n\nAssuming you are a sadist, though, open him up and look, with an AVO, at the block of eight memory chips in the bottom left-hand corner. These should have +12, −5 and +5 on them, on pins 8, 1 and 9 respectively. Bet they haven't. Now cut the supply rails to that area (ie cut the tracks) and see if the +12, −5 and +5 comes up. Bet it doesn't.\n\nThe inverter's a gonner. This features a ZTX650 transistor, an etsy bitsy thing that is a lion in sheep's clothing. This tiny, insignificant transistor has the ability to shake two amps or two and a half watts maximum dissipation.\n\nIt also has a gain of 100 min, 300 max, so don't wop in a BC108. The correct transistor is essential and they are cheap (£5 for £1.50), so it's not worth playing games. Well, would I lie to you?\n\nSo now we have a running inverter. The real bad news is that the memory block has to come out, which is soldered in, plus it's double-sided, plated through-holes. Eight sixteen-pin ICs. Yuck. That's one hundred and twenty-eight goes with the solder sucker and solder wick. Super fun! Folklore has it that when a 4116 has not got its full complement of all rails across it, it will die permanently. My experience of this is that it isn't true.\n\nIn a normal dead Spectrum, six out of the eight chips are normally OK. The problem is that you've got to get them all out to check them (rails run under the chips so you cannot keep cutting tracks). The easiest way is to cut all the legs off on the top of the board, then unsolder each leg one at a time until the area is clear. This obviously makes re-use of the memory chips a no-no. Still, 4116s are under a quid a go, so eight new ones aren't going to cost the earth. Incidentally, you weren't going to solder the new chips in, were you? For the extra eighty pence or so it will cost you for a set of IC sockets, I'd advise you to fit them.\n\nI, however, am extremely tight when it comes to parting with money on electronics. I'd rather waste an hour carefully sucking out all the old memory chips so that they come out whole. It's then a case of plugging them one at a time into a socket fed with +5, −5, +12 on the appropriate pins whilst watching the current meters on the power supplies. Any dead 'uns obviously get binned; it's worth remembering that one of them ought to be a short, 'cos that's what took out the inverter.\n\nUnfortunately, the above PSU tests will not find 'dynamically dead' ICs, ie ones that are taking the right sort of current but don't work. Nearly all Spectrums in my experience die with one IC going a dc short and another going dynamically. So in go the seven dc good ones, plus one new one. It might work. If not, replace each chip in turn with a known good one. Sure you could have seven dynamically dead ones, but I've never met this. A 4116 is a 16,384 bit random access read/write memory organised as 16,384 × 1 words. Since the Z80 is an eight-bit machine, it needs all eight bits to 'live'. As a rough guide, we are talking only µA on the −5V rail and 45mA on the +12.\n\n**A common misconception**\n\nQuite a common letter in the postbag is the one from the person who wishes to add a BFO (beat frequency oscillator) to a short wave radio to allow him/her to listen to SSB and CW. What makes me laugh, because I thought the same myself mega years ago, is that the correspondent goes on to say something like, 'The set covers 1.8 to 4.5MHz and I need a BFO to cover that'. Wrong. It needs to tune only across the IF of the set. That's normally 455kHz, maybe 465 or 475, but in your average grotty MW/LW/short wave domestic box it's around there. I'm being rude; your one isn't grotty, of course not.\n\nIf we are talking of only listening up to 10MHz or so, then all the transmissions you are going to bump into are likely to be lower sideband. Above 10MHz, most are upper. A lot of sets don't make 10MHz so you don't even have to tune the BFO. You can set it and forget it.\n\nA BFO can be built for nothing out of an old transistor radio. All the bits are there, in the IF strip. Figure 2 shows the nominal last IF of an average Japanese radio. Copy the circuit diagram of your set, then reconfigure it like the example in Figure 3. If it doesn't oscillate then reverse the collector and +ve connections to the coil.\n\n455kHz IF coils are yellow, mixer to first IF, white is interstage IF and black (ie natural ferrite colour) is the last IF/detector. For this circuit you can use any of them. Should you require a tunable BFO then add a variable across the 'hidden' one in the IF coil, ie from the unused pin to earth. If you are really tight, the variable capacitor in the set could be used with, say, a 10pF in series, or a small variable could be used.\n\nShould you find frequency drift a problem, normally noticeable with a circuit like this only when the battery is getting low, then a 5.6V zener (plus series limiting resistor, of course) should effect a cure.\n\nYou will note that there is no coupling into the set shown. With most transistor radios, merely having the BFO near it will give you enough injection. Should more be required, a couple of pF from the BFO collector to the set's detector should do the trick.\n\nThis month we come to the last part of the series on various coding systems and we concentrate on valves. There are still far more of these in use than is perhaps realised, particularly amongst the growing band of old equipment restorers, so information on the coding systems used will be very helpful.\n\n**American codings**\n\nThese are still readily available and, in fact, are probably the sort you will run into most frequently.\n\nThe point about this system of coding is that, although the code does not appear to be much help in determining what sort of valve you are looking at, you can glean a lot of useful information once you know what to look for. Let us take as an example type number 6V6GT – this is not an exotic callsign, as some may think.\n\n**Detective work**\n\nThe first figure of this code tells us that this valve has a six volt heater. Other numbers you may come up against are 1 (.5), 25, 35, 50 and even as high as 117, all indicating heater volts. The next bit is the ‘V’ and this conveys no information at all.\n\nThe next figure can generally be taken to indicate how many of the base pins are connected and, allowing for the fact that the heater will have two connections, this indicates that there are actually five electrodes in the valve. A fair guess will come up with heater, cathode, grid, screen and anode and this is exactly what we have. The valve is, in fact, a power output tetrode.\n\n**Go faster?**\n\nSo what about the GT bit – is there anything to be gleaned from this? Yes, there is. The ‘G’ tells us that the enclosing envelope is made of glass and the ‘T’ shows that it is of tubular construction rather than the more usual pear shape.\n\nInstead of the ‘G’ you may find an ‘M’ marking; this indicates that the valve is in a metal container. Another marking you may find could be something like 6SK7, the ‘S’ indicating single-ended construction. The 6K7 is a small signal RF pentode with the control grid connected to a cap on the top of the valve. The 6SK7 is exactly the same valve type, but with the control grid connection brought out to one of the pins on the base.\n\n**JAN codes**\n\nAnother American coding you may come across is ‘JAN’. These codes were used by the armed forces and are, in effect, stock numbers from which no useful information can be obtained, unless, of course, you have a stock list.\n\nOne final point on the American coding system, the 12K7 is exactly the same as the 6K7 except for the heater volts; the same applies to all the other type numbers.\n\nOne oddball you may come up against is something that was used in car radios to reduce current drain on the battery. This is a rectifier with a filament rated at zero volts, thus having a 0 as its first code letter. Perhaps you might care to work out how you can get a heater to run on zero volts?\n\n**British types**\n\nIn Britain all manufacturers used an in-house system of type numbers and most tell little or nothing about the valve you are looking at. In the early days, say pre-1939, valve numbering was very simple and a frequency changer with a four volt heater was simply marked FC4. A pentode with ‘straight’ transfer characteristics and a thirteen volt heater was marked SP13 and so on; all very straightforward.\n\nOf the post-war types only those of Mullard manufacture (just about the largest maker, as it happens) actually have a useful coding. The most likely codes you will find are ones like EF39, EL34 and similar markings.\n\n**Making sense**\n\nThe final 39, 34 or whatever is simply a series number and gives no information, but the letters between the two sets of figures indicate exactly what type of valve it is. See Table 1.\n\n| A | Diode |\n|---|-------|\n| B | Diodes |\n| C | Triode |\n| F | Pentode |\n| H | Heptode |\n| L | Tetrode |\n| M | Magic eye |\n| Z | Rectifier |\n\n*Table 1 Valve types*\n\nFrom this it can be deduced that an EBC33 would have a six volt heater and would contain two diodes and a triode in the same envelope. The magic eye may take some explaining. This was a valve with a fluorescent screen mounted at the top. The valve was fixed in the radio cabinet in such a way that you could see the screen, on which was displayed a dark shadow. The size of this shadow varied with the strength of the incoming signal, providing a signal strength indication which was used in much the same way as a modern S meter.\n\nNext month, Martyn Williams starts a new Project Book series.\n\n3CX800 welcome. Calum GM0EWX QTHR.\n\n- SEM Tranzmatch, 80-10m. John G4UBB. Tel: 01-686 7684\n\n- MuTek, SLN145 SB, pre-amp for FT290 Mk1. Fair price paid. Not working unit considered. Tel: (0277) 823146 evenings.\n\n- Trio trntrwv, 140-230, MML 144-100S linear, reasonable price paid. Terry G4OXD, Hitchin. Tel: (0462) 35248 after 6pm.\n\n- Mel type L662 miniaturised comm Rx. J Ball, 17 Theadene Rd, Wallington, Surrey SM6 0TD. Tel: 01-647 9502\n\n- Yaesu freq counter, YC801 to match 101E, must be in good working condx, for which I will pay fair price. Anyone one might be considered at a knock-down price. Please check the shack and help me out. Tel: (07622) 24855 anytime.\n\n- Drake T-AXC and/or KW107 ATU. GM3BKC QTHR. Tel: Falkirk 23533\n\n- KW type 103, combined SWR/RF power meter or type 107 or similar. Must be pwo and sensible price. Bill G0DVW QTHR. Tel: Guildford (0463) 893411\n\n- Mains transformer for NEC CG110E transceiver, or would buy non-worker for spares. A Swainsbury. Tel: 01-460 4134\n\n- Realistic 10-30 hand-held scanner must be in good condition (or thereabouts). Money waiting. Tel: Rik (061) 436 7224\n\n- I have a Yaesu FRG7 and need a manual, has anyody got one, I will pay the postage. I Thomas Street, North Ormsby, Middlesbrough, Cleveland TS3 6JE. Tel: (0642) 230911\n\n- R109 Rx, prefer unmodified your price plus carriage paid. Peter. Tel: (0642) 456327 10am-4pm, or (0805) 543966\n\n- Icom IC402 70cms SSB must be vgc. Cash waiting. Tel: (0926) 498388\n\n- Bird 43 thruline wattmeter inserts. Please ring giving power handling and freq available or similar compatible inserts. Mike B0QJH, 12 Ranmore Ave, Croydon, Surrey CR0 5QA. Tel: 01-654 4444\n\n- Sommerkamp TS700 DX, FT707, FT101, with or without 11 metre conversion. Also general coverage receiver up to £175. I have unused, boxed. Pioneer 50 watt stereo (RPH 4120) valve, £150. Will exchange for any of above, cash adjustment either way or sell for best offer. Please write with details, guaranteed reply any location. Mr N Treece, 126 Bembridge Drive, Alveston, Derent DE5 0UR.\n\n- Trio TR700 Tx/2m Rx/Tx up to £55 plus post, Icom IC240 FM 2m Rx/Tx up to £50, Trio TL120 linear amp, tel: Jim (0202) 518828\n\n- Old telephones, radio books, mags. Radio Times, RAF T1083 transmitter, R1082 Rx, details please. D Byrns G3KPO, 52 West Hill Road, Ryde, IOW PO33 1LN. Tel: Ryde 6790.\n\n- HF transmitter, receiver, FT7, 101, 200, FT77, anything considered up to £200 plus Realistic DX 302, 0 to 30MHz receiver. Also open to offers on receiver. Tel: (0332) 372696, ask for Ian\n\n- Complete HF station required. Must be general coverage on receive (no 'Yaesu equipment please) and have an A1 condition. Buyer will collect. Tel: (0533) 774505\n\n- WW2 German ex-service equipment, parts, literature, for museum purpose – any condition acceptable. Also wanted: WSII W565, W566, T-1190, AD67, 52ER7, 4Q, 5G, RG37, H25 modules, suitcase radio. Will collect, cash or swap. WHY? Rag. Tel: contact 0225 4444. Venables 5, DK-284, Hvide, Denmark. Tel: 010-452 801875\n\n- KW2000B Tx/Rx, must be in good condx, but no objection to repairs on electronics. Would p/e for unused Pye, SSB130, HF Tx/Rx. Cash adjust, also require Command Tx, Command PSU/mod, any items for this installation. Need T1154/R1155 plus cabling and other associated items. Jones type plugs, sockets. Anyone got a BC348 RF Oymonator? Good price given. John, 18 Oaky Balks, Alnwick, Northumberland NE68 2QE. Tel: (0665) 602487\n\n- I will swap a Delta 1 collinear p/pack for 934MHz hand-set, must be in good condition. Andreas Prapapas, 190 From Field, Brighton BN2 2YD. Tel: Brighton 68883\n\n- External VFO for FT102 with at least 2MHz drop. Urgent. Converter for Cobra 148 GTL DX for 45 metre band. State price. Please write or call. Dave Cummins, 23 Mahan Crescent, Blackrock, Co Cork, Eire. Tel: (021) 358396\n\n- Need substitute for 2N6258 used in dc/ac inverter. Any ideas welcome, costs gladly refunded. Mark Tel: 0303 200068\n\n- Headphones for B40 Rx, same as used or issued if poss, or any ex-gvt that would be suitable. Also PSU for HRO Rx. J Edwards, 15 Folly Row, Kingston St Michael, Chippenham, Wilts SN14 6JD\n\n- Have Admiralty Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy, 1938, vols 1 and 2. Measurements in Radio Engineering, 1935, Radio Engineering, 1937. Radio Engineers' Handbook, all by Terence. All boxes as new. Tektronix 465B instruction manual, new. Want Edystone 750, also BC453, in good condition. W E Stedman, 133B Lynton Road, Bermondsey, London SE1 5QX\n\n- Buy or borrow mags relating to AM/FM 10GHz system (published 1986). Subaaz, 4 Southway, Burgess Hill, West Sussex RH15 9ST. Tel: (0446) 2974\n\n- Pye Olympic FM radiotelephone, also manual and extender boards. PF70 pocket phone, code E1. Tel: 01-856 4123, evenings\n\n- Wanted, dead or alive Samurai S16 bits and pieces, part work, design or condition unknown, all accepted, anything whatsoever to do with the S16 machine. Ring now for an instant offer on your items. Serial keyboard for above, any serial keyboard will do, condition not important but must be in working order. 70cm Westminster, must be FM and working, will accept any condition of rig but must be complete & board intact. Would prefer data unit, but no fuse unit is for Packet only, so single channel unit OK, also any 70cm Tx/Rx considered. Xerox 820 computer or similar, any disc-based MS-DOS or CPM machine, condition not important, what have you? Wanted for Packet mailbox 1 level 3 node, Pye A200 E band amp, again condition not important but required in working condition, must work or be modified. FM Westminster, as above, anything considered. WHY? Would swap my TS700G, ST5MC or TNC220 for anything above. Ring and surprise me. Simon GM4PCM. Tel: (0505) 29363\n\n**Amateur RADIO SMALL ADS**\n\n**RF DEVICES AT ROCK BOTTOM PRICES!**\nNobody beats us!\n\nOver 30,000 RF devices at low prices\n\n**REPLACEMENT RF TRANSISTORS**\n- MRF454 HF/SSB 80W £24.50\n- MFR450 HF/SSB 50W £11.60\n- MRF238 VHF/FM 25W £12.80\n- MRF475 HF/SSB 20W £3.25\n- 2SC1969 HF/SSB 18W £2.75\n- 2SC2209 SA37 VHF 16W £2.00\n- 2SC1947 VHF 3.5W £7.60\n- 2SC1946A VHF 32W £15.30\n- BLW60R HF/VHF 50W (Special) £7.50\n\n**REPLACEMENT RF POWER MODULES**\n- M57704/SAU3 UHF 15W £39.20\n- M57712/37 SAU7 VHF/FM 23W £39.50\n- M57713/SAU8 VHF/SSB 15W £39.00\n- M57716/SAU1 UHF/SSB 15W £39.00\n- M57718/SAU4 UHF/SSB 15W £49.50\n- M57719 VHF/PMR 15W £31.20\n- M57723 VHF/SSB 20W £47.50\n\n24v ni-cad battery contains twenty XD type cells, used condition, some cells may be faulty .................................................. £12.00\nSpring tension gauges, set of 3, 0-4 ounce, 0-16 ounce, 0-6lb ........................................... £8.00\nEx Vulcan bomber hitch and roll assembly, contains gears, shafts, bearings etc ........................................... £15.00\nRange and bearing marker unit, contains bevel gears, servos, shafts etc .................. £15.00\nRadar drive unit, contains 2 ex 24v motors, gears, components etc .......................... £15.00\nEddystone type 770R VHF receiver, 19-155 MHz .......................................................... £120.00\nType R210 receiver 2-15 MHz, complete with plug and headphones .......................... £55.00\nITT UHF TX-RX base station ......................... £40.00\nITT 149 MHz VHF transmitter ...................... £40.00\nCollins R390A receiver, poor condition .......................................................... £150.00\nRing for details\nReadyphone 100 watt, LIN, amplifier, complete with ATU ........................................... £75.00\n\n*Prices include postage and packing*\n\n**JAYCEE ELECTRONICS LTD**\nJOHN GM3OPW\n20 Woodside Way, Glenrothes,\nFife KY7 5DP\nTel: 0592 756962\nOpen: Tues-Sat 9-5\nQuality secondhand equipment in stock. Full range of TRIO goodies. Jaybeam – Microwave Modules – LAR.\n\n**AGRIMOTORS**\nMERTON CB AND RADIO CENTRE\nMERTON GARAGE AND POST OFFICE, MERTON.\nNr OAKHAMPTON DEVON EX22 3DZ\nOPEN 6 DAYS 9-5 LUNCH 1-2pm\nEARLY CLOSING THURSDAY 1.00pm\n(SUNDAYS BY APPOINTMENT)\nSPECIALIST IN 934 MHz\nSUPPLIERS OF ALL 2M AND 50M EQUIPMENT\nAMATEUR ACCESSORIES CATERED FOR\n08053 200\n\n**ALAN HOOKER ELECTONICS**\n42 Nethernall Road\nDoncaster\nTel: 0302 25690\nLarge stocks of electronic components\n\nVoucher removed\n\nplease mention AMATEUR RADIO when replying to any advertisement\n\nMAY 1988\n\n## DISPLAY AD RATES\n\n| depth mm x width mm | ad space | 1 issue | 3 issues | 6 issues | 12 issues |\n|---------------------|--------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|\n| 61 x 90 | ¼ page | £86.00 | £252.00 | £575.00 | £53.00 |\n| 128 x 90 or 61 x 186| ½ page | £115.00 | £345.00 | £795.00 | £72.00 |\n| 128 x 186 or 263 x 90| ½ page | £225.00 | £675.00 | £1,500.00 | £180.00 |\n| 263 x 186 | 1 page | £430.00 | £1,290.00 | £2,850.00 | £345.00 |\n| 263 x 394 | double page | £830.00 | £2,490.00 | £5,400.00 | £660.00 |\n\n## COLOUR AD RATES\n\n| depth mm x width mm | ad space | 1 issue | 3 issues | 6 issues | 12 issues |\n|---------------------|--------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|\n| 128 x 186 or 263 x 90| ½ page | £200.00 | £600.00 | £1,275.00 | £245.00 |\n| 263 x 186 | 1 page | £360.00 | £1,080.00 | £2,400.00 | £470.00 |\n| 263 x 394 | double page | £1,130.00 | £3,390.00 | £7,010.00 | £900.00 |\n\n## SPECIAL POSITIONS\n\n- Covers: 10% extra\n- Bleed: 15% extra\n- Facing Matter: 10% extra (Bleed area = 307 x 220)\n\n## DEADLINES\n\n| Issue | colour & mono proof ad | mono no proof & small ad | mono artwork | on sale thurs |\n|-------|------------------------|--------------------------|--------------|---------------|\n| May 88| 31 Mar 88 | 6 Apr 88 | 8 Apr 88 | 28 Apr 88 |\n| Jun 88| 30 Mar 88 | 4 May 88 | 6 May 88 | 26 May 88 |\n| July 88| 2 Jun 88 | 3 June 88 | 10 Jun 88 | 28 Jun 88 |\n| Aug 88| 30 Jun 88 | 6 Jul 88 | 8 Jul 88 | 26 Jul 88 |\n\n*Dates affected by public holidays*\n\n## CONDITIONS & INFORMATION\n\n### SERIES RATES\n\nSeries rates also apply when larger or additional space to the same size is taken.\n\nAn ad of at least the minimum space must appear in consecutive issues to qualify for series rates. Previous copies will automatically be repeated if no further copy is received.\n\nA hold ad is acceptable for maintaining your series rate. An ad will not automatically be inserted if no further copy is received.\n\nDisplay Ad and Small Ad series rate contracts are not interchangeable.\n\nIf series rate contract is cancelled, the advertiser will be liable to pay the unearned series discount already taken.\n\n### COPY\n\nExcept for County Guides copy may be changed monthly.\n\nNo additional charges for typesetting or illustrations (except for colour separations).\n\nFor illustrations just send photograph or artwork. Colour Ad rates do not include the cost of separations Printed – web offset.\n\n### PAYMENT\n\nAbove rates exclude VAT.\n\nAll single issue and ad rate accepted on a prepayment basis only, unless an account is held.\n\nAccounts will be opened for series rate advertisers who have not placed an order within 3 months.\n\nAccounts are strictly net and must be settled by the 1st day of the month following publication.\n\nOverseas payments by International Money Order or Bankers Cheque.\n\n### FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT\n\nAmateur Radio, Sovereign House, Brentwood, Essex CM14 4SE (0277) 219876\n\nCommission to approved advertising agencies is 10%.\n\n### CONDITIONS\n\n10% discount if advertising in both Amateur Radio and Radio World or Radio World.\n\nA voucher copy will be sent to Display and Colour advertisers only.\n\nAll advertisements subject to our standard conditions, available on request.\n\n## ADVERTISERS INDEX\n\n- Aerial Techniques ........................................... 49\n- J Bull .................................................................. 59\n- SRW Communications ............................................ 16\n- PM Components .................................................. 4,5\n- Computer Appreciation .......................................... 45\n- ICS Electronics .................................................. 11\n- RN Electronics ................................................... 43\n- ICOM .................................................................. 30,31\n- ICS International ................................................ 40\n- Number One Systems ............................................. 41\n- Radio & Telecommunications .................................. 40\n- Suma Designs ...................................................... 43\n- Technical Software ............................................... 41\n- Victor Communications ......................................... 16\n- Waters & Stanton ................................................ 60\n- R Withers .......................................................... 2\n\n**ALINCO DUAL BANDER**\n\n- 2m/70cm\n- 25 Watts output\n- Full duplex operation\n- 21 Memories\n- 2 Call channels\n- Priority channel\n- Dual VFO’s\n- 12.5 & 25kHz steps\n- Memory Scan\n- Programme Scan\n- Memory Skip\n\n**ALD-24E**\n\n£449 inc vat\n\nThis transceiver could transform your operating habits! It contains completely separate 2m and 70cms transceivers, permitting full duplex operation. To the un-initiated, this means you can transmit on 2m whilst receiving on 70cms, or vice versa. The built-in duplexer means a single antenna socket with a full 25 watts output on both bands. Measuring only 5.5”x2”x6.5” it is the ideal mobile rig. Its comprehensive memory and scanning facilities provide rapid access to both simplex and repeater channels on 2m & 70cms. Using the dual VFO’s you can instantly switch between 2m & 70cm and the single knob tuning provides simple and quick frequency selection. The large LCD readout incorporates an S-meter and is back lighted. If you are looking for a completely self contained 2m & 70cm station, then look no further. At this price it has to be a bargain. For further details of this amazing transceiver, send today for the full colour brochure.\n\n---\n\n**OUR FAMOUS FREQUENCY MANUALS!**\n\n**UK LISTENERS CONFIDENTIAL FREQUENCY LIST 5th EDITION**\n\nThis publication has now sold well over 3500 copies since it was advertised only a few months ago. Now the recent updated version is selling even better. No self respecting listener would be without a copy. If you enjoy exploring the short wave bands then this publication will add to your enjoyment. It covers the hf spectrum from 2 to 30 mhz and gives details of transmissions outside the amateur bands. Specially designed for the UK and European listener it sets out in a very easy way a comprehensive list of hundreds of interesting transmissions that will keep you occupied for days on end! Only a fraction of the cost of other similar publications it contains details of Civil, Military, Embassy, Press and News agencies. Many listings have time schedules included together with comprehensive RTTY details. It tells you the frequencies used by civil and military aircraft whilst flying the Atlantic, when and where to pick up the press bulletins, long distance marine traffic etc and much more. Send today for your copy of this worthwhile publication.\n\n**NEW 1988 EDITION £6.95 p&p 90p**\n\n**4th EDITION VHF-UHF AIRBAND FREQUENCY LIST**\n\nThis frequency manual is without doubt the most comprehensive list of VHF/UHF aircraft listings available in the UK. Of vital importance to the airband enthusiast or indeed any keen VHF/UHF listener it sets out in a very easy to follow manner full details of a whole host of stations. Every known UK airfield frequencies, etc. Included are Civil, RAF, USAF, MOD, Naval fields on both VHF and UHF bands. There are also air to air frequencies, the Red Arrows frequency, and much more! Send today for your copy and find out just how much you have been missing!\n\n£5.95 p&p 90p\n\n**THE COMPLETE UHF-VHF FREQUENCY GUIDE 26-2000 mHz**\n\nNew 1988 Edition. Many listeners have asked for a guide to the wide VHF/UHF spectrum and to meet this demand we have now published this frequency manual. It covers the range 26 to 2000 mHz and has been specially prepared for the UK listener. Anybody who has used a scanning receiver will know that the wide frequency range involved means that it is difficult to know exactly where to listen. This guide takes all the guessing out of monitoring. It lists all the services throughout the spectrum together with both simplex and duplex frequency splits. If you’ve spent your hard earned money on a scanning receiver or are considering buying one you’ll find that this publication contains a wealth of information that has previously remained unpublished.\n\n£5.95 p&p 75p\n\n**HF OCEANIC AIRBAND COMMUNICATIONS 1988 EDITION.**\n\nPrepared in response to many requests for more information about the air traffic on the hf bands this little guide sets out to explain to the beginner how the hf band works in relation to air traffic. It contains full details of the world aircraft frequency bands in the range 2 to 23 mHz together with control frequencies and those commonly used by the various services. Included are many VOLMET frequencies, the Search and Rescue frequencies used by RAF helicopters and Nimrods, the HF RT network, London Company frequencies, European control centres etc. An ideal companion for the hf airband listener. Send today for your copy.\n\n£3.50 p&p 70p\n\n---\n\n18-20 MAIN ROAD, HOCKLEY, ESSEX – 12 NORTH STREET, HORNCOURCH, ESSEX.\n\nMAIL ORDER TO: 18-20 MAIN ROAD, HOCKLEY, ESSEX TEL: (0702) 206835"}}},{"rowIdx":204790,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"4th Grade\n\nPacket 3\nMay 4, 2020\n\nThat night, Pinocchio, instead of going to bed at ten o'clock, waited until midnight, and instead of making eight baskets, he made sixteen.\n\nAfter that he went to bed and fell asleep. As he slept, he dreamed of his Fairy, beautiful, smiling, and happy, who kissed him and said to him, \"Bravo, Pinocchio! In reward for your kind heart, I forgive you for all your old mischief. Boys who love and take good care of their parents when they are old and sick, deserve praise even though they may not be held up as models of obedience and good behavior. Keep on doing so well, and you will be happy.\"\n\nAt that very moment, Pinocchio awoke and opened wide his eyes.\n\nWhat was his surprise and his joy when, on looking himself over, he saw that he was no longer a Marionette, but that he had become a real live boy! He looked all about him and instead of the usual walls of straw, he found himself in a beautifully furnished little room, the prettiest he had ever seen. In a twinkling, he jumped down from his bed to look on the chair standing near. There, he found a new suit, a new hat, and a pair of shoes.\n\nAs soon as he was dressed, he put his hands in his pockets and pulled out a little leather purse on which were written the following words:\n\nThe Fairy with Azure Hair returns fifty pennies to her dear Pinocchio with many thanks for his kind heart.\n\nThe Marionette opened the purse to find the money, and behold—there were fifty gold coins!\n\nPinocchio ran to the mirror. He hardly recognized himself. The bright face of a tall boy looked at him with wide-awake blue eyes, dark brown hair and happy, smiling lips.\n\nSurrounded by so much splendor, the Marionette hardly knew what he was doing. He rubbed his eyes two or three times, wondering if he were still asleep or awake and decided he must be awake.\n\n\"And where is Father?\" he cried suddenly. He ran into the next room, and there stood Geppetto, grown years younger overnight, spick and span in his new clothes and gay as a lark in the morning. He was once more Mastro Geppetto, the wood carver, hard at work on a lovely picture frame, decorating it with flowers and leaves, and heads of animals.\n\n\"Father, Father, what has happened? Tell me if you can,\" cried Pinocchio, as he ran and jumped on his Father’s neck.\n\n\"This sudden change in our house is all your doing, my dear Pinocchio,\" answered Geppetto.\n\n\"What have I to do with it?\"\n\n\"Just this. When bad boys become good and kind, they have the power of making their homes gay and new with happiness.\"\n\n\"I wonder where the old Pinocchio of wood has hidden himself?\"\n\n\"There he is,\" answered Geppetto. And he pointed to a large Marionette leaning against a chair, head turned to one side, arms hanging limp, and legs twisted under him.\n\nAfter a long, long look, Pinocchio said to himself with great content:\n\n\"How ridiculous I was as a Marionette! And how happy I am, now that I have become a real boy!\"\n\nExcerpt from *The Adventures of Pinocchio* by C. Collodi, [Pseudonym of Carlo Lorenzini]. Translated from the Italian by Carol Della Chiesa.\n\nPhotograph of wooden doll of Pinocchio (Image: 331633091), copyright © Dado Photos/Shutterstock. Used by permission.\n\n1. Which of the following quotations describes the setting of the story?\n\nA “There, he found a new suit, a new hat, and a pair of shoes.” (paragraph 4)\n\nB “In a twinkling, he jumped down from his bed to look on the chair standing near.” (paragraph 4)\n\nC “The Marionette opened the purse to find the money, and behold—there were fifty gold coins!” (paragraph 7)\n\nD “The bright face of a tall boy looked at him with wide-awake blue eyes, dark brown hair and happy, smiling lips.” (paragraph 8)\n\n2. Which quotation from the story shows why Pinocchio was happy?\n\nA “... Pinocchio, instead of going to bed at ten o’clock, waited until midnight. . . .” (paragraph 1)\n\nB “... he saw that he was no longer a Marionette. . . .” (paragraph 4)\n\nC “... he found a new suit, a new hat, and a pair of shoes.” (paragraph 4)\n\nD “... he put his hands in his pockets and pulled out a little leather purse. . . .” (paragraph 5)\n\n3. Read the sentence from paragraph 18.\n\n\"How ridiculous I was as a Marionette!\"\n\nWhich of the following words means the same as ridiculous as it is used in the sentence?\n\nA boring\n\nB complete\n\nC different\n\nD silly\n\n4. Which quotation from the story describes how Pinocchio’s behavior affected the household in the story?\n\nA \"Father, Father, what has happened? Tell me if you can. . . .\" (paragraph 11)\n\nB \"This sudden change in our house is all your doing, my dear Pinocchio. . . .\" (paragraph 12)\n\nC \"I wonder where the old Pinocchio of wood has hidden himself?\" (paragraph 15)\n\nD \"And how happy I am, now that I have become a real boy!\" (paragraph 18)\n\n5. Which paragraph does the picture help the reader understand?\n\nA paragraph 3\n\nB paragraph 14\n\nC paragraph 16\n\nD paragraph 18\n\n6. Choose three statements that should be included in a summary of the story.\n\nA Pinocchio lived with his father.\n\nB Pinocchio was a marionette.\n\nC Pinocchio was changed to a boy.\n\nD Pinocchio’s father was an old man.\n\nE Pinocchio learned to make good choices.\n\nF Pinocchio found gold coins in his purse.\n\nG Pinocchio saw the wooden boy leaning against a chair.\n\n7. Read the sentence from paragraph 4.\n\nHe looked all about him and instead of the usual walls of straw, he found himself in a beautifully furnished little room, the prettiest he had ever seen.\n\nWhat does the word **furnished** mean as it is used in the sentence?\n\n- A available\n- B circled\n- C cleaned\n- D decorated\n\n8. How would *The Adventures of Pinocchio* be different if it were written as a play?\n\n- A It would have directions that tell the father what to do while Pinocchio is asleep.\n- B It would have directions that tell what the Marionette does as he falls on the floor.\n- C It would have directions that tell the Fairy what to say about Pinocchio as he is dreaming.\n- D It would have directions that tell what Pinocchio does when he wakes and realizes he has changed.\n\n9. Read the summary of *The Adventures of Pinocchio*.\n\nPinocchio is rewarded and forgiven for his past behavior because of his kind heart. He is given new clothes, a leather purse with money, and a real body to replace his wooden body.\n\nChoose the detail that best completes the summary.\n\nA) Pinocchio and his father decide to decorate a picture frame together.\n\nB) Pinocchio and his father are able to enjoy a home filled with happiness.\n\nC) Pinocchio and his father find the old Pinocchio leaning against a chair.\n\nD) Pinocchio and his father realize how happy Pinocchio was as a wooden boy.\n\n10. Read the sentence from paragraph 10.\n\nHe ran into the next room, and there stood Geppetto, grown years younger overnight, spick and span in his new clothes and gay as a lark in the morning.\n\nWhich word would best replace spick and span as it is used in the sentence?\n\nA) alive\n\nB) kind\n\nC) neat\n\nD) slim\n\n11. What is a theme of the story?\n\nA When people act with kindness, they are rewarded.\n\nB In order to get what you want, all you have to do is ask.\n\nC Dreams come true no matter what a person does.\n\nD Things come easily to those who wait.\n\nDirections: Write sentences with the 4th grade spelling words. Use correct capitalization, spelling, punctuation, and subject/verb agreement.\n\n| against | agree | airport | alarm | alive |\n|---------|-------|---------|-------|-------|\n| all right | alley | alphabet | although | always |\n| angriest | angry | animal | answer | asleep |\n| attack | aunt | banana | battle | beautiful |\n| beauty | become | beggar | believe | belong |\n| between | blanket | blood | bottle | bought |\n| bounce | breath | bridge | broke | broken |\n| brought | bubble | building | built | busy |\n| button | buying | calf | camera | cardboard |\n| caring | carrying | catch | center | certain |\n| chance | charge | cheer | chicken | chief |\n| choice | choose | chore | chose | circle |\n| cities | clothing | coast | coin | comb |\n| common | copy | corner | cottage | cotton |\n| couch | cough | couldn't | couple | cousin |\n| cover | crayon | crime | crooked | crow |\n| crowd | crumb | curl | dairy | damage |\n| danger | dawn | deaf | dear | death |\n| decide | degree | deliver | didn't | dirty |\n| disappear | dislike | divide | double | downstairs |\n| drain | drawer | earlier | earn | earth |\n| easier | eighty | either | electric | engine |\n| enough | evening | except | faint | false |\n| famous | fear | feather | felt | fever |\n| few | fifth | fifty | final | follow |\n| forever | forgive | forty | fourth | fright |\n| fruit | gain | garden | gasoline | gather |\n| gentle | giant | glance | gold | grandfather |\n| grandmother | groceries | grown | guard | handsome |\n| happiest | he'll | he's | health | heard |\n| hiking | holiday | honey | honor | hospital |\n\n| hour | however | howl | hundred | hungry |\n|------------|---------|----------|---------|---------|\n| hurry | husband | important| interest| invite |\n| jacket | jaw | judge | juice | kindness|\n| kitchen | kneel | knight | libraries| library |\n| listen | lonely | loyal | machine | mailbox |\n| meant | medal | middle | mirror | mistake |\n| moment | monkey | movement | neighbor| neither|\n| nickel | ninety | ninth | no one | nobody |\n| o'clock | obeyed | odd | office | often |\n| paper | parent | paste | path | peaceful|\n| pencil | perfect | picture | planet | playground|\n| pleasing | police | powerful | proper | public |\n| question | quiet | quilt | quit | quite |\n| railroad | reach | ready | reason | remember|\n| return | ridge | roast | roof | rough |\n| round | ruler | safe | sauce | scrap |\n| search | season | self | seventh | seventy |\n| sharp | she'll | she's | shout | sidewalk|\n| sigh | sign | simple | since | sink |\n| sixth | sixty | sleeve | smooth | sneeze |\n| soften | spare | special | squirrel| steal |\n| steel | strange | studied | studying| style |\n| suppose | tennis | thirty | thumb | tool |\n| towel | tube | tuna | twenty | twice |\n| uncle | understand | useful | useless | village |\n| visit | wait | weather | weight | whenever|\n| whether | wife | wonder | wood | world |\n| worried | wrist | worse | wouldn't| written |\n| yourself | zebra | zero | zipper | zoo |\n\n1. Margo's school has 18 classrooms. Each classroom has 24 desks.\n\nHow many desks are there in all?\n\nA. 42 \nB. 108 \nC. 432 \nD. 648\n\n2. Baily made 100 cookies for a bake sale. She has 8 plates and will place an equal number of whole cookies on each plate.\n\nHow many whole cookies will be left over?\n_________ whole cookies\n\n3. What number in standard form is equal to \\((4 \\times 1000) + (8 \\times 100) + (9 \\times 1)\\)?\n\nA. 489 \nB. 4089 \nC. 4809 \nD. 4890\n\n4. Ella scored 256 reading points in September and 378 points in October. Her goal is to score 1,000 points by the end of December.\n\nHow many more points must Ella score to reach her goal?\n\nA. 744 points \nB. 634 points \nC. 622 points \nD. 366 points\n\n5. Which expression is equivalent to 3,856?\n\nA. \\(38,000 + 50 + 6\\) \nB. \\(3,000 + 800 + 5 + 6\\) \nC. \\(3 \\times 1,000 + 8 \\times 10 + 5 \\times 1\\) \nD. \\(3 \\times 1,000 + 8 \\times 100 + 5 \\times 10 + 6 \\times 1\\)\n\n6. In her vegetable garden, Virginia planted 8 rows of green beans, with 42 plants in each row. She also planted 12 rows of sweet corn, with 33 plants in each row.\n\nHow many more sweet corn plants than green bean plants are there in Virginia's garden?\n_________ more sweet corn plants\n\n7. Every month, Shannon puts the same amount of her allowance money in the bank. During the past seven months, she has put a total of $91 in the bank.\n\nHow much money has Shannon been putting in the bank each month?\n\nA. $12 \nB. $13 \nC. $14 \nD. $15\n\n8. Mason runs 10 laps around the ball field. This is 2 times the number of laps his friend Isabella runs.\n\nHow many laps does Isabella run?\n\n_________ laps\n\n9. Mia sells 60 candy bars for a fundraiser at school. This is 5 times as many candy bars as her friend Charlotte sells.\n\nWhich equation can be used to find out how many candy bars (x) Charlotte sells?\n\nA. \\(5 \\times 60 = x\\) \nB. \\(5 = x \\div 60\\) \nC. \\(5 \\times x = 60\\) \nD. \\(x = 5 \\div 60\\)\n\n10. Choose the scenario best represented by using \\(= 8 \\times 4\\) or \\(= 4 \\times 8\\).\n\nA. Cherie picked 8 pints of blueberries on Monday and 4 pints of blueberries on Tuesday. How many pints of blueberries did she pick altogether?\nB. Antoine earns $8.00 an hour. If he works for 4 hours, how much will he earn altogether?\nC. Raquel wrote an 8-paragraph report for school. Pierre wrote a report that was 4 paragraphs more than Raquel's. How many paragraphs was Pierre's report?\nD. Francois read 8 books last month. Celine read 4 books. How many more books did Francois read than Celine?\n\n11. Which statement represents \"96 is 6 times as many as 16\"?\n\nA. \\(96 = 16 \\div 6\\) \nB. \\(96 - 6 = 16\\) \nC. \\(96 \\times 6 = 16\\) \nD. \\(96 = 6 \\times 16\\)\n\n12. Select a number from each dropdown menu to answer the questions below.\n\nLook at the number 5,837.\n\nPart A\nIn which of the following numbers does the 8 represent ten times the 8 in 5,837?\nChoose...\n\nPart B\nIn which of the following numbers does the 3 represent 10 times the 3 in 5,837?\nChoose...\n\n13. Which two numbers below have a 6 that is 10 times larger than the 6 in 49,568?\n\n- 16,956\n- 28,006\n- 35,692\n- 36,910\n- 45,689\n- 61,380\n\n14. The city council budgets $2,895 per year to take care of each playground in the city. If there are four city playgrounds, what is the total amount budgeted per year for all of the playgrounds?\n\nA. $723\nB. $2,899\nC. $8,685\nD. $11,580\n\n15. Jeremy is rounding the number 6,795.\n\n6,795 rounded to the nearest hundred is Choose...\n6,795 rounded to the nearest ten is Choose...\n\n16. The 4th graders at Hill Top Elementary School were having a canned food drive for their local food bank. Randal's class collected 1,704 cans of food. Tim's class collected 1,493 cans of food.\n\nHow many more cans of food did Randal's class collect than Tim's class?\n\nA. 101 cans\nB. 111 cans\nC. 201 cans\nD. 211 cans\n\n17. There are 1,243 students in attendance at Maplewood Elementary on Thursday. There are 379 students in fourth grade. All fourth grade students go on a field trip on Thursday afternoon.\n\nHow many students are left at Maplewood Elementary on Thursday afternoon?\n\n18. James correctly rounded 5,962 to the nearest thousand. What was his answer?\n\nA. 5,000 \nB. 5,900 \nC. 5,960 \nD. 6,000\n\n19. James drove his bike 16 miles. This is 4 times as many miles as Ben drove.\n\nHow many miles did Ben drive his bike?\n\n__________ miles\n\n20. Which two statements represent the equation?\n\n\\[35 = 7 \\times 5\\]\n\n- 5 is 42 times as many as 7\n- 7 times as many as 5 is 35\n- 7 times as many as 35 is 5\n- 35 is 5 times as many as 7\n- 35 times as many as 7 is 5\n\n21. Divide.\n\n\\[2,642 \\div 8 = \\text{_________ Remainder: __________}\\]\n\n1. Which of these lists four factors of 12?\n A. 2, 3, 4, 6\n B. 4, 5, 7, 8\n C. 4, 6, 9, 12\n D. 24, 36, 48, 60\n\n2. This picture shows that 2 and 5 are factors of 10.\n\n Which picture shows factors of 42?\n\n A. \n\n B. \n\n C. \n\n D. \n\n3. James writes a number pattern following the rule \"add 3 and multiply by 2.\"\n\n If the first number in James' number pattern is 1, what is the 4th number in his pattern?\n A. 8\n B. 22\n C. 50\n D. 106\n\n4. Callie created a number pattern starting at the number 34. She used the rule \"subtract 3.\" Callie's first four numbers are written below.\n\n\\[ 34, 31, 28, 25, \\_, \\_, \\_, \\_ \\]\n\nWhich statement is true about the following numbers in Callie's pattern?\n\nA. The 5th number in this pattern will be an odd number.\nB. The 6th number in this pattern will be an even number.\nC. The 7th number in this pattern will be an odd number.\nD. The 8th number in this pattern will be an odd number.\n\n5. Which rule BEST describes the relationship between \\( X \\) and \\( Y \\) in the table below?\n\n| \\( X \\) | \\( Y \\) |\n|--------|--------|\n| 33 | 11 |\n| 18 | 6 |\n| 3 | 1 |\n| 30 | 10 |\n\nA. divide \\( X \\) by 3\nB. subtract 12 from \\( X \\)\nC. multiply \\( X \\) by 3\nD. add 22 to \\( X \\)\n\n6. Which three sets of numbers are factor pairs for the number 36?\n\n- 2 and 34\n- 3 and 12\n- 4 and 9\n- 5 and 15\n- 6 and 6\n- 8 and 7\n\n7. Which number is an even number that is a multiple of 3 and less than 20?\n\nA. 24\nB. 18\nC. 15\nD. 9\n\n8. Ryan created a number pattern that starts with the number 3 and follows the rule \"multiply by 2 then add 4.\"\n\nThe first five numbers in Ryan's pattern are 3, 10, 24, 52, 108.\n\nWhich of the following statements will be true for the next five numbers in Ryan's pattern? (Choose A or B)\n\nA. All of the numbers will be prime.\nB. All the numbers will continue to increase.\n\n9. Students in a sewing class want to make a rectangular quilt using square pieces of cloth. If they use 24 pieces of cloth, they can sew the four designs shown below.\n\n\\[3 \\times 8 = 24\\]\n\\[4 \\times 6 = 24\\]\n\\[2 \\times 12 = 24\\]\n\\[1 \\times 24 = 24\\]\n\nWhich number of cloth pieces will give the students only one rectangular design for the quilt?\n\nA. 39 \nB. 42 \nC. 45 \nD. 47\n\n10. Mr. Lopez wrote these numbers on the board.\n\n\\[14, 18, 22, 26\\]\n\nWhich tells why this pattern follows the rule of +4?\n\nA. The first number contains a four. \nB. All the numbers are multiples of four. \nC. Each number is four more than the number before. \nD. Each number is four times more than the number before.\n\n11. Which set of expressions shows the factors of a prime number?\n\nA. \n\\[\n\\begin{align*}\n1 & \\times 11 \\\\\n1 & \\times 16 \\\\\n2 & \\times 8 \\\\\n4 & \\times 4\n\\end{align*}\n\\]\n\nB. \n\\[\n\\begin{align*}\n1 & \\times 20 \\\\\n2 & \\times 10 \\\\\n4 & \\times 5\n\\end{align*}\n\\]\n\nC. \n\\[\n\\begin{align*}\n1 & \\times 24 \\\\\n2 & \\times 12 \\\\\n3 & \\times 8 \\\\\n4 & \\times 6\n\\end{align*}\n\\]\n\n12. Twelve squares can be arranged into three different rectangles, as shown below.\n\n\\[ 6 \\times 2 = 12 \\quad 3 \\times 4 = 12 \\quad 12 \\times 1 = 12 \\]\n\nWhich number of squares can be arranged into only one kind of rectangle?\n\nA. 9 \nB. 10 \nC. 13 \nD. 15\n\n13. Each number below is a factor of Miguel’s number.\n\n\\[ 2 \\quad 3 \\quad 6 \\quad 9 \\]\n\nWhich number could be Miguel’s number?\n\nA. 36 \nB. 27 \nC. 24 \nD. 12\n\n14. Ezra wants to count the number of rocks in his collection. He has seven rocks in each row. Which numbers will he say as he counts by seven?\n\nA. 7, 13, 20 \nB. 12, 18, 24 \nC. 27, 36, 45 \nD. 21, 28, 35\n\n1. Which three of the following figures have both of these characteristics?\n - Two or more sets of parallel lines\n - Two or more right angles\n\n2. Which two choices show a drawing of a letter that has more than one line of symmetry?\n\n3. Mark each figure as a line, a line segment, or a ray.\n\n| | ← | → | ↑ | ↘ |\n|-------|----|----|----|----|\n| Ray | | | | |\n| Line Segment | | | | |\n| Line | | | | |\n\n4. Which letter has more than one line of symmetry?\nA. C\nB. F\nC. L\nD. O\n\n5. Which two of the following figures show a line of symmetry?\n\n6. Select the two figures below that have only one line of symmetry?\n\n- [ ] \n- [ ] \n- [ ] \n- [ ] \n- [ ]\n\n7. Find the lines of symmetry of the letters in the first column of the chart below. Mark each letter according to the lines of symmetry it has.\n\n| | One line of Symmetry | More than one line of symmetry | No lines of symmetry |\n|---|----------------------|--------------------------------|----------------------|\n| H | | | |\n| C | | | |\n| R | | | |\n| Y | | | |\n| O | | | |\n\n8. Select an answer from each dropdown menu to make the following sentence true.\n\nIn the trapezoid WXYZ shown above, side WZ is parallel to [Choose...].\n\n9. Look at the figure below.\n\nWhich is a true characteristic of this figure?\n\nA. The figure has 3 obtuse angles.\nB. The figure has exactly 2 acute angles.\nC. The figure contains 2 sets of parallel line segments.\nD. The figure has a pair of perpendicular line segments.\n\n10. Which figure appears to have two pairs of parallel sides?\n\nA. \n\nB. \n\nC. \n\nD.\n\n11. Which set of lines are perpendicular?\n\nA.\n\nB.\n\nC.\n\nD.\n\n12. Select the correct definition for each angle.\n\n| | Acute angle | Obtuse angle | Right angle |\n|----------------|-------------|--------------|------------|\n| | | | |\n| | | | |\n| | | | |\n| | | | |\n| | | | |\n\n13. Classify each of the angles labeled in the figure above as acute, obtuse, or right angles.\n\nClick on the letter of the angle on the right and drag it to the correct label.\n\n- Angle A\n- Angle B\n- Angle C\n- Angle D\n\nAcute\nObtuse\nRight\n\n14. Drag each shape on the left to a characteristic of that shape on the right.\n\n- Has one set of parallel lines\n- Has one $90^\\circ$ angle\n- Has three sets of parallel lines\n\n1) Complete the table by converting cups, pints, quarts & gallons.\n\nHINT) 2 cups = 1 pint (pt) 2 pints = 1 quart (qt) 4 quarts = 1 gallon (gal)\n\n| | 1/8 gal | 1/4 gal | 1/2 gal | | |\n|-------|---------|---------|---------|--------|--------|\n| | | | 2 quarts| | |\n| 1 pint| | | | 8 pints| |\n| | 4 cups | | | 16 cups| 32 cups|\n\n2) Convert the following liquid measurements.\n\n1) 30 pints = [ ] cup(s)\n2) 17 pints = [ ] cup(s)\n3) 3 gal = [ ] quart(s)\n4) 16 quarts = [ ] pint(s)\n5) 26 pints = [ ] quart(s)\n6) 21 quarts = [ ] cup(s)\n7) 102 cups = [ ] pint(s)\n8) 32 quarts = [ ] gal.\n9) 56 pint = [ ] gal\n10) 68 cups = [ ] quart(s)\n11) 72 quarts = [ ] gal\n12) 3 gal = [ ] cup(s)\n13) 32 pint = [ ] gal\n14) 6 quart = [ ] cup(s)\n15) 12 quart = [ ] gal\n16) 26 pint = [ ] gal\n17) 24 cups = [ ] gal\n18) 20 pint = [ ] gal\n\nMetric Units of Length\n\n100 centimeters or 100 cm. = 1 meter or 1 m. 1,000 m. = 1 kilometer or 1 km.\n\nFind the measurement of each item to the nearest meter to finish the sentence.\n\n1. I am about ___________ m. tall.\n2. The door in my house is about ___________ m. tall.\n3. The living room wall is about ___________ m. wide.\n\nFind the equivalent measurement.\n\n4. 100 cm. = ______ m.\n5. 1,000 m. = ______ km.\n6. 500 cm. = ______ m.\n7. 7,000 m. = ______ km.\n8. 1,000 cm. = ______ m.\n9. 10,000 m. = ______ km.\n10. 100,000 m. = ______ km.\n11. 20 km. = ______ m.\n12. 40 km. = ______ m.\n13. 65 km. = ______ m.\n\nFind the equivalent metric and U.S. Customary units of length for each of the following.\n\n14. 4 in. = about ______ cm.\n15. 8 cm. = about ______ in.\n16. 6 in. = about ______ cm.\n17. 23 cm. = about ______ in.\n18. 1 ft. = about ______ cm.\n19. 28 cm. = about ______ in.\n20. 1 yd. = about ______ cm. or close to ______ m.\n\n1. There are 100 crayons in each large box, 10 in each small box, and a few single crayons. How many crayons are shown in all?\n\nA. 54 \nB. 234 \nC. 324 \nD. 900\n\n2. Which number is the greatest?\n A. 9,734 \n B. 9,743 \n C. 9,347 \n D. 9,473\n\n3. What is 145.7 written in word form?\n A. One hundred forty-five and seven tenths \n B. One hundred forty-five and seventy tenths \n C. One hundred forty-five and seven hundredths \n D. One hundred forty-five and seventy thousandths\n\n4. The following number is in expanded form.\n\n\\[ 5,000,000 + 90,000 + 600 \\]\n\nWhat is the number in standard form?\n A. 5,980,000 \n B. 5,090,600 \n C. 5,980,600 \n D. 5,900,600\n\n5. What number is 400 + 40 + 9 in standard form?\n A. 449 \n B. 4,049 \n C. 40,049 \n D. 400,049\n\n6. What is the word name for 9,303?\n A. nine thousand, thirty-three \n B. nine thousand, three hundred thirty \n C. nine thousand, three hundred three \n D. nine thousand, three hundred thirty-three\n\n7. Frankie’s Burger Hut served 3,347 burgers on Wednesday and 3,098 burgers on Thursday.\n\nWrite <, >, or = to complete the expression below.\n\n\\[ 3,347 \\_\\_ 3,098 \\]\n\n8. Zachary wrote the number 8,408,380 in words as shown below.\n\nEight million, four hundred sixty thousand, three hundred eighty\n\nWhich of the following explains Zachary’s mistake?\n A. The number has seven digits. \n B. He forgot the zeroes in the number. \n C. The ones and tens places have been switched. \n D. He switched the thousands and ten thousands places.\n\n9. The number of people who attended a concert is shown below.\n\n\\[ 100,000 + 5,000 + 500 + 20 + 5 \\]\n\nWhich shows this number written in standard form?\n A. 155,205 \n B. 152,055\n\n10. Myra bowled four games. Her bowling scores for the four games were 112, 108, 116, and 121.\n\nA. 108 > 116 \nB. 112 = 121 \nC. 116 > 112 \nD. 121 < 108\n\n11. There are one hundred thirty-four thousand, six hundred eighteen pet owners in one city. Which shows the number of pet owners written in standard form?\n\nA. 130,618 \nB. 134,618 \nC. 134,680 \nD. 143,681\n\n12. The height of Mount Everest is close to 29,028 feet. Which shows 29,028 written in words? Mark your answer.\n\nA. Twenty-nine thousand, two hundred eight \nB. Twenty-nine hundred twenty eight \nC. Twenty-nine thousand, twenty eight \nD. Twenty-nine thousand, eighty two\n\n13. Which of the following is the same as 20 tens?\n\nA. 2 ones \nB. 2 tens \nC. 20 ones \nD. 2 hundreds\n\n14. Barry wrote three numbers using the numerals on the cards shown. He used each numeral only once in each of the three numbers.\n\nWhich shows the three largest numbers he could make? Mark your answer.\n\nA. 9,532 \n9,523 \n9,325 \nB. 2,559 \n2,595 \n2,593 \nC. 9,532 \n9,523 \n9,352 \nD. 3,562 \n5,253 \n3,528\n\n15. The prices of several houses being sold in Marc's neighborhood are listed below.\n\n$67,900 $78,612 $65,120 $73,908\n\nWhich list shows the house prices in order from least to greatest?\n\nA. $67,900 $65,120 $73,908 $78,612 \nB. $78,612 $73,908 $67,900 $65,120 \nC. $65,120 $67,900 $73,908 $78,612 \nD. $65,120 $73,908 $74,612 $67,900\n\n16. The Eiffel Tower has 1665 steps. How is 1665 written in words?\n\nA. One thousand, six hundred sixty-five \nB. One thousand, six hundred fifty-six \nC. Five thousand, six hundred sixty-one \nD. Ten thousand, six hundred sixty-five\n\n17. Mammoth Cave National Park had 2,071,844 visitors in one year. Which of the following shows this number written in expanded form?\n\nA. \\(200,000 + 70,000 + 1,000 + 800 + 40 + 4\\)\n\nB. \\(2,000,000 + 70,000 + 1,000 + 800 + 40 + 4\\)\n\nC. \\(20,000,000 + 70,000 + 1,000 + 800 + 40 + 4\\)\n\nD. \\(2,000,000,000 + 7,000,000 + 10,000 + 6,000 + 40 + 4\\)\n\n18. The population of a town is 40,235. Which shows 40,235 written in words? Mark your answer.\n\nA. Four thousand, two hundred thirty-five\n\nB. Forty thousand, two hundred thirty-five\n\nC. Forty thousand, three hundred twenty-five\n\nD. Fifty-three thousand, two hundred four\n\n19. The number of books in Jane's collection is greater than 880 and less than 1,000. Which of the following could be the number of books in Jane's collection?\n\nA. 819\n\nB. 880\n\nC. 935\n\nD. 1,012\n\n20. Tammy is using the calculator pictured.\n\nWhich digit is in the ten thousands place in the number 204,621?\n\nA. 6\n\nB. 4\n\nC. 1\n\nD. 0\n\n21. The distance between London and New York City is about 3,741 miles. What is 3,741 written in expanded form?\n\nA. \\(30,000 + 700 + 40 + 10\\)\n\nB. \\(3,000 + 700 + 40 + 1\\)\n\nC. \\(3,000 + 700 + 41\\)\n\nD. \\(300 + 700 + 40 + 10\\)\n\n22. A company earned $20,540,005 in one year. Which shows 20,540,005 written in expanded form?\n\nA. \\(20,000,000 + 50,000 + 4,000 + 50\\)\n\nB. \\(20,000,000 + 5,000 + 4,000 + 5\\)\n\nC. \\(20,000,000 + 500,000 + 40,000 + 5\\)\n\nD. \\(20,000,000 + 500,000 + 40,000 + 500\\)\n\n23. The area of Lake Ontario is 7340 square miles. Which shows this number written in expanded form?\n\nA. \\(7,000 + 300 + 40\\)\n\nB. \\(7,000 + 300 + 4\\)\n\nC. \\(7,000 + 30 + 4\\)\n\nD. \\(7,000 + 340\\)\n\n24. The Earth takes 365.26 days to make one trip around the Sun. Which shows the number 365.26 written in words?\n\nA. Three hundred sixty-five and twenty-six hundredths\n\nB. Three hundred sixty-five and twenty-six thousandths\n\nC. Three thousand, sixty-five and twenty-six hundredths\n\nD. Thirty-six thousand, five hundred twenty-six\n\n25. The total number of guests at a hotel during one year was 406,970. How is this number written in word form?\n\nA. Nine hundred seventy thousand, four hundred six\n\nB. Four hundred sixty thousand, nine hundred seven\n\nC. Four hundred six thousand, nine hundred seventy\n\nD. Four hundred six thousand, nine hundred seventeen\n\n26. Click on all the numbers you want to select.\n\nThe weights of several boxcars of a train are listed below. Which weights have a digit in the thousands place that has a value ten times the value of the digit in the hundreds place?\n\nA. 5 \nB. 6 \nC. 7 \nD. 8\n\n27. Ramone bought a mountain bike for $186.75. Which digit is in the tenths place in the number 186.75?\nA. 5 \nB. 6 \nC. 7 \nD. 8\n\n28. A student wrote a number on the board. The student used the digit 4 two times in the problem. One of the digits of 4 is placed so that it represents ten times the other digit of 4. Which could be the student's number?\nA. 41,453 \nB. 43,541 \nC. 44,135 \nD. 45,134\n\n29. Chris and Erin are collecting bottle caps. So far, Chris has collected 3,498 bottle caps, and Erin has collected 3,802.\n\nWhich statement is true?\nA. 3,498 > 3,802 \nB. 3,802 = 3,498 \nC. 3,498 < 3,802 \nD. 3,802 < 3,498\n\n30. The average distance from the Earth to the moon is about 385,000 kilometers. What is the place value of the 5 in the number 385,000?\nA. Tens \nB. Hundreds \nC. Thousands \nD. Ten thousands\n\n31. The table below shows the numbers of different flavors of drinks sold by a grocery store in one day.\n\n| Flavors | Number |\n|-------------|--------|\n| Orange | |\n| Lemon | |\n| Strawberry | |\n| Grape | |\n\nWhich list shows the number of drinks sold in order from least to greatest?\nA. 201, 85, 98, 189 \nB. 98, 85, 189, 201 \nC. 201, 189, 98, 85 \nD. 85, 98, 189, 201\n\n32. The number of pencils bought from a pencil machine in each of 4 months is shown in the table.\n\n| Month | Number of Pencils |\n|---------|-------------------|\n| January | 988 |\n| February| 1,056 |\n| March | 1,354 |\n| April | 1,167 |\n\nWhich shows the months in order from the least number of pencils bought to the greatest number of pencils bought? Mark your answer.\nA. March, February, April, January \nB. January, February, March, April \nC. January, February, April, March \nD. March, April, February, January\n\n33. Jerry used base-ten blocks to represent numbers. The values for each block are listed below.\n\n\\[\n\\begin{array}{cccc}\n1000 & 100 & 10 & 1 \\\\\n\\end{array}\n\\]\n\nWhich shows 2018 written using base-ten blocks?\n\nA. \\[ \\begin{array}{c} \\text{1000} \\\\ \\text{100} \\\\ \\text{10} \\\\ \\text{1} \\end{array} \\]\nB. \\[ \\begin{array}{c} \\text{1000} \\\\ \\text{100} \\\\ \\text{10} \\\\ \\text{1} \\end{array} \\]\nC. \\[ \\begin{array}{c} \\text{1000} \\\\ \\text{100} \\\\ \\text{10} \\\\ \\text{1} \\end{array} \\]\nD. \\[ \\begin{array}{c} \\text{1000} \\\\ \\text{100} \\\\ \\text{10} \\\\ \\text{1} \\end{array} \\]\n\n34. The 3 in 139 is how many times bigger than the 3 in 53?\nA. 3 times\nB. 10 times\nC. 30 times\nD. 100 times\n\n35. In which number is the digit in the tens place the greatest?\nA. 436\nB. 317\nC. 273\nD. 159\n\n36. What number is in the thousands place in 573,485?\nA. 3\nB. 4\nC. 5\nD. 7\n\n37. Which number has a 4 in the tens place?\nA. 3854\nB. 4385\nC. 5843\nD. 8455\n\n38. What is the place value of the 5 in the number 3948,25?\nA. Tens\nB. Tenths\nC. Hundreds\nD. Hundredths\n\n39. There are 1054 houses in Macy's town. What is the value of the digit 4 in the number 1054?\nA. 4\nB. 40\nC. 400\nD. 4000\n\n40. One postal code for Round Rock, Texas, is 78664. Which number in 78664 is in the thousands place? Mark your answer.\n\nA. 8 \nB. 7 \nC. 6 \nD. 4\n\n41. Bernice made the following model to represent a number.\n\nWhat number does Bernice's model represent?\n\nA. 1235 \nB. 1325 \nC. 3125 \nD. 5231\n\n42. A bookstore sold 123,680 books last year. What digit is in the ten thousands place in 123,680?\n\nA. 1 \nB. 2 \nC. 3 \nD. 8\n\n43. The total number of hotdogs sold during a baseball tournament was 120,983. What digit is in the hundred thousands place in 120,983?\n\nA. 1 \nB. 2 \nC. 3 \nD. 6\n\n44. A company sold 4569 video games in one day. Which digit is in the hundreds place in the number 4569?\n\nA. 9 \nB. 6 \nC. 5 \nD. 4\n\n45. In the year 2000, the population of the city of Richmond was 986,512. What digit is in the thousands place in 986,512?\n\nA. 5 \nB. 6 \nC. 8 \nD. 9\n\n46. The workers on a farm gathered 6528 eggs in one day. Which digit is in the tens place in the number 6528?\n\nA. 2 \nB. 5 \nC. 6 \nD. 8\n\n47. Julia has 473 stickers in her sticker book. How many tens of stickers does Julia have?\n\nA. 7 \nB. 40 \nC. 47 \nD. 70\n\n48. In which of the following numbers does the digit 3 have a value of 300?\n\nA. 3601 \nB. 6382 \nC. 7253 \nD. 9835\n\n49. There are 8992 history books in a library. What is the place value of the digit 8 in the number 8992?\nA. Thousands\nB. Hundreds\nC. Eights\nD. Ones\n\n50. The value of the 6 in the number 4,631 is how many times larger than the value of the 6 in the number 4637?\nA. 2 times\nB. 6 times\nC. 10 times\nD. 100 times\n\n51. Which statement is true about the digit 8 in the whole numbers 1,825 and 8,367?\nA. The 8 in 8,367 represents 1 times the 8 in 1,825.\nB. The 8 in 8,367 represents 10 times the 8 in 1,825.\nC. The 8 in 8,367 represents 100 times the 8 in 1,825.\nD. The 8 in 8,367 represents 1000 times the 8 in 1,825.\n\n52. The table shows the number of books a school library has for different subjects.\n\n| Subject | Biology | English | Geography | Math |\n|---------|---------|---------|-----------|------|\n| Number of Books | 1,982 | 2,076 | 2,027 | 2,074 |\n\nWhich list shows the subjects in order from the greatest number of books in the library to the least number of books? Mark your answer.\nA. English, Geography, Math, Biology\nB. Math, English, Biology, Geography\nC. English, Math, Biology, Geography\nD. Geography, Biology, Math, English\n\n1. Select the two shapes below which have $\\frac{1}{3}$ shaded.\n\n2. Ben ate $\\frac{4}{6}$ of his pizza. Which fraction is greater than $\\frac{4}{6}$?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{6}$\nB. $\\frac{2}{6}$\nC. $\\frac{3}{6}$\nD. $\\frac{5}{6}$\n\n3. Keyanna shaded the following model to represent $\\frac{2}{6}$.\n\n4. Which number line shows Point X correctly plotted at $\\frac{1}{6}$?\n\nA. \nB. \nC. \nD. \n\n5. Melinda placed some pictures on the number line shown. Which picture is placed at $\\frac{1}{4}$?\n\nA. \nB. \nC. \nD. \n\n6. Which two fractions below would be located at the same point on this number line?\n\n7. Bryan weighed apples on a scale. Point W on the number line shows the mass in kilograms of the apples.\n\nWhich fraction of a kilogram is closest to point W? Mark your answer.\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{4}$\n\nB. $\\frac{1}{3}$\n\nC. $\\frac{1}{2}$\n\nD. $\\frac{2}{3}$\n\n8. This model is shaded to show 1 whole.\n\nThe picture below models a number sentence with fractions.\n\n$\\frac{6}{8} + \\frac{5}{8} = ?$\n\nWhich shows the sum of the fractions modeled in the picture?\n\nA. $\\frac{6}{8}$\n\nB. $\\frac{5}{8}$\n\nC. $\\frac{3}{8}$\n\nD. $\\frac{2}{8}$\n\n9. $\\frac{1}{16}$ of Wanda's shoes are too small.\n\nWhich fraction is equal to the amount of Wanda's shoes that are too small?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{3}$\n\nB. $\\frac{2}{13}$\n\nC. $\\frac{2}{13}$\n\nD. $\\frac{3}{14}$\n\n10. Rose drank $\\frac{4}{8}$ of her water. Eli drank the same amount of water as Rose.\n\nWhich fraction shows how much Eli drank?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{4}$ of his water\n\nB. $\\frac{1}{2}$ of his water\n\nC. $\\frac{3}{4}$ of his water\n\nD. $\\frac{4}{4}$ of his water\n\n11. Which two fractions are equivalent? Check the 2 boxes that are equivalent.\n\n12. Which point on the number line is located at $\\frac{1}{2}$?\n\nA. J\n\nB. K\n\nC. L\n\nD. M\n\n13. Molly plotted the fraction $\\frac{6}{10}$ on a number line. Which of the following shows $\\frac{6}{10}$ correctly plotted on a number line?\n\nA.\n\nB.\n\nC.\n\nD.\n\n14. Point K on the number line below shows the number of yards of fabric Leonard used to make some curtains.\n\nWhich number best names point $K$?\n\nA. $17\\frac{1}{3}$\n\nB. $16\\frac{1}{2}$\n\nC. $16\\frac{2}{5}$\n\nD. $16\\frac{1}{3}$\n\n15. Which fraction names the location of the point on the number line below?\n\n$\\frac{1}{2}$\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{1}$\n\nB. $\\frac{1}{2}$\n\nC. $\\frac{1}{3}$\n\nD. $\\frac{1}{4}$\n\n16. Use these fraction bars to answer this question.\n\nWhich number sentence is true?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{4} < \\frac{1}{7}$\n\nB. $\\frac{1}{5} > \\frac{1}{4}$\n\nC. $\\frac{1}{6} > \\frac{1}{5}$\n\nD. $\\frac{1}{7} < \\frac{1}{6}$\n\n17. In which figure is less than $\\frac{1}{2}$ shaded?\n\nA. \n\nB. \n\nC. \n\nD.\n\n18. Which fraction is equal to $\\frac{1}{3}$?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{6}$\n\nB. $\\frac{2}{6}$\n\nC. $\\frac{4}{8}$\n\nD. $\\frac{6}{10}$\n\n19. Drag the points labeled on the number line above and listed below on the left to the fraction each point represents.\n\n- A\n- B\n- C\n\n$\\frac{1}{2}$, $\\frac{1}{6}$, $\\frac{4}{5}$, $\\frac{7}{8}$\n\n20. Seth is making a cake for lunch. The amounts of flour, water, sugar, and chocolate chips he needs for the cake are shown below.\n\n| Ingredient | Amount Needed (in cups) |\n|----------------|-------------------------|\n| Flour | $\\frac{1}{3}$ |\n| Water | $\\frac{1}{2}$ |\n| Sugar | $\\frac{1}{4}$ |\n| Chocolate chips| $\\frac{1}{8}$ |\n\nWhich number line shows how much water Seth needs, in cups?\n\nA. \n\nB. \n\nC. \n\nD. \n\n21. These two rectangles are divided into equally-sized squares. Each is shaded to model a fraction.\n\nWhat is the sum of the fractions shown by the models?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{8}$\n\nB. $\\frac{5}{16}$\n\nC. $\\frac{11}{16}$\n\nD. $\\frac{5}{8}$\n\n22. Which number line shows $\\frac{1}{3}$ located at the correct interval?\n\nA. \n\nB. \n\nC. \n\nD. \n\n23. Point Q is marked on the number line below.\n\nWhich of the following fractions is located at Point Q?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{2}$\n\nB. $\\frac{2}{5}$\n\nC. $\\frac{3}{5}$\n\nD. $\\frac{4}{5}$\n\n24. Jalen painted half of the hexagonal patio as shown in the figure.\n\nWanda painted half of the unshaded part.\n\nWhat fraction of the patio did Wanda paint?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{6}$\n\nB. $\\frac{1}{3}$\n\nC. $\\frac{1}{2}$\n\nD. $\\frac{2}{3}$\n\n25. Nicholas bought a cake and cut it into 6 equal slices. Nicholas ate 1 slice of the cake. What fraction of the cake did Nicholas eat?\n\nA. $\\frac{1}{6}$\n\nB. $\\frac{5}{6}$\n\nC. $\\frac{6}{1}$\n\nD. $\\frac{6}{5}$\n\nReading TEST SMASH!\n4th Grade\n\nSYSTEMATIC DAILY\nReading Test Prep\nto Build Confidence and Stamina\n\nTeaching in the Fast Lane\n\n©TeachingInTheFastLaneLLC\n\nTHANK YOU FOR YOUR PURCHASE\n\nDEAR TEACHER,\n\nTHIS RESOURCE IS FOR YOUR PERSONAL CLASSROOM USE IN ONE CLASSROOM ONLY. IF YOU WOULD LIKE ADDITIONAL COPIES FOR YOUR TEAMMATES, YOU CAN PURCHASE ADDITIONAL LICENSES FOR A DISCOUNT. TO PURCHASE ADDITIONAL LICENSES, GO TO YOUR “MY PURCHASES” PAGE ON TPT AND SELECT THE NUMBER OF LICENSES YOU WISH TO PURCHASE.\n\nPLEASE VISIT MY TEACHERS PAY TEACHERS STORE: TEACHING IN THE Fast Lane FOR MANY DIFFERENT PRODUCTS!\n\nBITLY.COM/SHOPTEACHINGINTHEFASTLANE WWW.TEACHINGINTHEFASTLANE.COM\n\nTERMS OF USE: © 2017 TeachingInTheFastLaneLLC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. PURCHASE OF THIS PRODUCT ENTITLES THE PURCHASER THE RIGHT TO REPRODUCE THE PAGES FOR ONE CLASSROOM ONLY. DUPLICATION FOR MORE THAN ONE CLASSROOM SUCH AS ANOTHER TEACHER, GRADE LEVEL, SCHOOL, OR DISTRICT IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION FROM THE AUTHOR. COPYING ANY PART OF THIS PRODUCT AND PLACING IT ON THE INTERNET IN ANY FORM IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN AND IS A VIOLATION OF THE DIGITAL MILLENNIUM COPYRIGHT ACT (DMCA).\n\nPhotos from Deposit Photos\n\n©TeachingInTheFastLaneLLC\n\n| Section | Page |\n|-------------------------------|------|\n| To the Teacher | 4 |\n| Standards by Genre | 7 |\n| I Can Statements | 8 |\n| Test Smash Passages and Questions | 17 |\n| Recording Sheets | 38 |\n| Answer Keys | 49 |\n| Data Sheet | 60 |\n\nTO THE TEACHER\n\nThank you for purchasing this resource. It was created with fourth grade classes in mind. I needed a way to prep my students for the Texas STAAR test with just a few weeks remaining.\n\nThis high impact resource covers each of the readiness standards for fourth grade reading in the state of Texas along with important and widely tested supporting standards. The standards covered in this resource also overlap nicely with standards from Common Core. The standards covered can be found on pages 7-9.\n\nThis resource is set up by genre. Each day a passage from a selected genre is displayed along with questions that go along with the passage.\n\nHOW TO USE THIS RESOURCE\n\nThis resource can be used in a variety of ways to help students build their confidence and practice important skills ahead of a reading standardized test.\n\nThere are two main formats in which you can present this resource to students:\n\nOption 1: Project the passage and questions. Students can answer the questions in their notebooks or on the recording sheet.\n\nOption 2: Copy a page for each student so that they are able to mark up the passage in order to answer the questions.\n\nIn addition to how you present this resource to your students there are also several ways in which you can use it within your ELA block.\n\nAs a Warm-Up\nThis resource is the perfect way to start your ELA block. Upon entering your classroom students can immediately get to work on reading the passage and answering the questions either independently, in partners, or as a team. After giving enough time to complete, read through the passage and answer the questions together modeling the annotation and test taking strategies you would like your students to use.\n\nAs a Cooperative Learning Activity\nThese passages and questions are perfect for completing through cooperative learning strategies such as Sage & Scribe or Find Someone Who. After students have completed their questions, read through the passage and answer the questions together modeling the annotation and test taking strategies your would like your students to use.\n\n- Sage & Scribe\n - Students are partnered and read the passage together alternating paragraphs or verses. Partner A (the scribe) is seated with a writing utensil and partner B (the sage) stands behind them. Partner B reads the question and tells the scribe what to write explaining their thinking and backing it with text evidence. Partner A writes, coaches their partner, and praises them. After each question partners trade positions and roles.\n\n- Find Someone Who\n - Each student has a copy of the passage and questions. Independently students read the passage. When everyone has read the passage students stand up, put their hands in the air, and pair up with a partner. They greet their partner, trade recording sheets, and choose a question to answer then trade papers again. After thanking their partners students repeat the process with a new partner until all their questions are answered. I challenge my students to work with as many partners as possible and answer as many different questions as possible.\n\nHOW TO USE THIS RESOURCE\n\nAs a Home-School Connection\nAre parents asking you what you are doing to prepare their students for the test or what they can do to help their students. Use these passages and questions to occasionally send home so that students can read and complete the passages with their families. After giving to students to complete at home take some time in class to read through the passage and answer the questions together modeling the annotation and test taking strategies you would like your students to use.\n\nSmall Group Re-teaching\nThese passages and questions are perfect for completing in a small group setting with you guiding your students through the process of annotating data, reading the questions, and finding text evidence to support their responses.\n\nWhole Group Lesson\nPrior to the big test students need to become familiar with testing passages as a genre and completing these passages and questions is a great way to get them used to thinking critically. Use this resource as a way to model how students can successfully annotate the passage and answer the questions based on text evidence. I would recommend using this strategy for the first day or two of practice to get students used to the process.\n\nTRACKING THE DATA\nOn page 30 I have included a checklist of standards for each student to check off or color in the standards they answered correctly each day. The standards that are not covered each day are greyed out.\n\nUSING THE DATA\nI have found that having students track their own data is not only helpful, but empowering. By having the responsibility of holding their own data students are able to take ownership of their learning, set goals for growth, and celebrate their successes. This keeps student engagement high throughout the process of prepping for the test. This data can also be used to build your small groups for re-teaching by standard.\n\n## Standards by Genre\n\n| All Genres | TEKS | Common Core |\n|-------------------------------------------------|--------|----------------------|\n| Context Clues | 4.3B | RF.4.4, RI.4.4 |\n| Making Connections | 4.6E & 4.7A | RL.4.7 |\n| Inferences | 4.6F | RL.4.1, RI.4.1 |\n| Details and Key Ideas | 4.6G | RI.4.2 |\n| Retell, Paraphrase, or Summarize | 4.7D | RL.4.3, RI.4.3 |\n\n### Fiction\n\n| Fiction | TEKS | Common Core |\n|-------------------------------------------------|--------|----------------------|\n| Plot Elements | 4.8C | |\n| Characters | 4.8B | RL.4.3 |\n| Point of View | 4.10E | RL4.6 |\n\n### Informational\n\n| Informational | TEKS | Common Core |\n|-------------------------------------------------|--------|----------------------|\n| Structures of Text | 4.9D(ii)| RI.4.7 |\n| Organizational Patterns of Text | 4.9D(iii) | RI.4.5 |\n| Imagery & Figurative Language | 4.10D | |\n\n### Poetry\n\n| Poetry | TEKS | Common Core |\n|-------------------------------------------------|--------|----------------------|\n| Figurative Language | 4.9B | |\n| Sound Devices | 4.10D | |\n| Structure of Poetry | 4.10B | RL.4.5 |\n\nI Can Statements\n\nI can statements are a great way for students to take ownership of their learning.\n\nIdeas for using I Can Statements:\n• Create a display within your classroom using the statements as posters to remind students of what they can do.\n• Create mini-posters for student notebooks by copying multiple I Can Statement posters onto a page.\n• Use I Can Statements in your small group area to help prompt students as to how to answer a question.\n• Use I Can Statements to sort questions from a released test by standard.\n • To complete a sort print and cut apart the questions from a released test. Have students use the I Can Statements to determine which standard the question is asking about. Encourage students to share why they chose a particular statement for each question. This helps students to become more familiar with the format of a standardized test.\n• Use the final I Can Statement, “I can SMASH the test,” to write a note to each student on test day to encourage them.\n\nI can use context within and beyond a sentence to determine the meaning of a word.\n\nI can make connections to personal experiences and other texts and describe them.\n\nI can retell, paraphrase, or summarize text I read.\n\nI can make inferences and support them with text evidence.\n\nI can evaluate details I read to determine key ideas.\n\nI can analyze plot elements of fictional texts.\n\nI can explain character interactions and the changes they undergo.\n\nI can identify and understand the use of literary devices including point of view.\n\nI can explain figurative language such as simile, metaphor, and personification.\n\nI can explain how the text structure of poetry contributes to the author’s purpose.\n\nI can describe how the author uses sound devices to achieve a purpose.\n\nI can recognize characteristics and structures of informational text.\n\nI can recognize organizational patterns of informational text.\n\nI can describe how the use of imagery achieves a purpose.\n\nI can smash the test!\n\nI can smash the test!\n\nTest Smash Passages and Questions\n\nDuring World War I on October 3, 1918 almost two hundred men were trapped on the side of a hill without any food or water. Their own army did not know they were there and had begun firing on them and they became surrounded by enemy troops. Several men tried to carry messages to their army, but all were caught. Major Whittlesey had the idea to send a message by pigeon instead. The first two pigeons did not make it, but the third did.\n\n**Cher Ami**\n\nCher Ami was a homing pigeon. This means she was trained to fly back to a certain location when released. She was donated to the United States Army from Great Britain and trained by American pigeoners to work in France during World War I. Cher Ami was a Blue Check Pigeon, and while she is a hen, the National Museum of American History and other places still list her as male. She can still be seen at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.\n\n**Homing Pigeons**\n\nHoming pigeons are known for their ability to fly long distances to find their way home. They have been known to fly more than 1,000 miles back to their home. They fly about fifty miles per hour over long distances, but have reached speeds of up to ninety miles per hour. Homing pigeons are fascinating birds. This makes homing pigeons a good way to send messages. During WWI homing pigeons were used by troops to send messages across enemy lines by attaching small canisters to their legs to hold slips of paper.\n\n**Cher Ami Saves the Day**\n\nCher Ami was sent off with her message and quickly came under fire from German forces. She was shot down, but was able to fly again. She flew the twenty-five miles back to the American Army. Once there the men on the hillside were able to be saved. Cher Ami had been badly injured and needed surgery to save her life.\n\nCher Ami is now known as a hero of WWI and was awarded the Croix de Guerre Medal for her work.\n\nWhich detail from the text suggests that the men on the hillside were thankful for Cher Ami?\n\nContext Clues\n\nWhich words could you use to determine the meaning of came under fire?\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nWhat words does the author use in paragraph one to paint a picture of the troops?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat connections can you make to the passage?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nWhy is Cher Ami known as a hero of WWI?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nHow could you summarize this text?\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nHow does the author organize the information in paragraph 1?\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nWhich section of the text tells the reader how fast homing pigeons can fly?\n\nJamal and his family had been away from home for a long time. When they left home his parents had told him they were going to visit his grandparents in Dallas, but after arriving there it became clear to Jamal that this wasn't a regular visit.\n\nFor one thing his family had packed way more into their van than they usually would for a short trip. His mother had seemed bothered by something as she continued to hustle back and forth from their home to the car bringing more and more items with her each time. Jamal had only packed a small suitcase himself, but then thought about bringing a few toys and books just in case.\n\nWhen he went into his room he found his mom taking all of the clothes out of his closet and putting them in bags. She saw him and said, \"I just want you to have options. We don't know what the weather is going to be like.\" Jamal grew suspicious as he watched his mom run around the house, but didn't ask questions.\n\nThe drive to Dallas was unremarkable. There seemed to be many more cars on the road than usual, and they were all going in the same direction as Jamal's family. He asked his dad what was going on, but he didn't seem to hear him. Jamal knew his parents must be worried about something, but he couldn't tell quite what.\n\nOnce they reached Dallas and were greeted by his grandparents his own parents seemed to relax a bit. It was late, and while Jamal had spent all day in the car he was still tired. After going to bed he could hear his parents talking to his grandparents about a big storm.\n\nFinally Jamal realized what the hurry was to get out of town. There was a large hurricane headed straight for the Texas coast. Jamal knew storms made his parents nervous, and that must be why they came to Dallas.\n\nThe hurricane came and went. The town Jamal's family live in took a direct hit making them glad they didn't stay. Power lines were knocked down and trees uprooted, but they heard from their neighbors that their own house was alright. Still Jamal's parents decided to stay in Dallas until the community was cleaned up and power was restored.\n\nNow, after almost a month Jamal and his family were packing up the van again, but this time to head home. Jamal couldn't wait to see his friends again. The trip home was much quicker than when they evacuated. When they pulled onto their street a smile broke out across the faces of Jamal and his parents. It felt so good to finally be home.\n\nWhat detail from the last paragraph supports the idea that Jamal is happy to be home?\n\nContext Clues\n\nWhat does the word unremarkable mean?\n\nPlot Elements\n\nWhat can the reader tell about Jamal based on the first paragraph?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat connections can you make to Jamal based on the story?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nHow do you think Jamal’s family felt at the end of the text?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nHow would you paraphrase paragraph 4 of the story?\n\nCharacters\n\nWhat does the dialogue between Jamal and his mom in paragraph 3 tell you about his mom?\n\nPoint of View\n\nWhat point of view does the narrator tell Jamal’s story from?\n\nThe clouds no more are flocking\nAfter the flushing sun;\nBees end their long droning,\nThe bat's hunt is begun;\nAnd the tired wind that went flittering\nUp and down the hill\nLies like a shadow still,\nLike a shadow still.\n\nWho is it that's calling\nOut of the deepening dark,\nCalling, calling, calling?--\nNo!—yet hark!\nThe sleepy wind wakes, carrying\nUp and down the hill\nA voice how small and still,\nHow sweet and still!\n\nWho is it that answers\nOut of a quiet cloud—\n\"Stay, oh stay! I come, I come!\"\nCried at last aloud?\nMy voice, my heart went answering\nUp and down the hill—\nMine so strange and still,\nMine grave and still.\n\n-John Frederick Freeman\n\nWhat is the main message of the poem?\n\nContext Clues\n\nIn the text, what does the word grave mean?\n\nFigurative Language\n\nWhat is an example of personification from the first stanza?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat connections can you make to the poem?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nWhat can the reader conclude from the action in the first stanza?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nWhat is the poem mostly about?\n\nSound Devices\n\nWhat is the rhyme scheme of the first stanza of this poem?\n\nStructures of Poetry\n\nThe structure of the poem helps the reader to know that it is what type of poetry?\n\nThe USS Lexington is an Essex Class aircraft carrier built for the United States Navy. She was commissioned in 1943 and went on to set more records than any other ship in her class. The USS Lexington continued to be active in the Navy until 1991 when it was decommissioned as the oldest working carrier.\n\nThe USS Lexington was being built, under the original name USS Cabot, during World War II in Massachusetts' Fore River Shipyard. This shipyard built the best ships at the time. When they learned that the original aircraft carrier named USS Lexington, CV-2 had been sunk the new aircraft carrier's name was changed to USS Lexington to honor the tradition.\n\nAfter completion, the USS Lexington was taken on several trial runs or cruises before traveling to Pearl Harbor where they joined the Fifth Fleet of the US Navy which made up the main force stationed in the Pacific. The USS Lexington went on to take part in almost every major operation in the Pacific during World War II. The aircraft carrier and her planes were instrumental in destroying Japanese planes time and time again.\n\nThe Japanese tried to boost morale within their ranks by continually reporting that the USS Lexington had been sunk, but she and her crew continued to return to the fight. The Japanese nicknamed her, \"The Blue Ghost,\" due to her ability to continue to fight and sail silently as a shark.\n\nAfter World War II the USS Lexington was taken out of service from 1947 to 1955 when she rejoined the Seventh Fleet based in San Diego, California. She did not return to direct combat, but she did offer support during further operations.\n\nThe USS Lexington was officially decommissioned in 1991 and Corpus Christi, Texas was chosen as her permanent home. Today you can visit the ship which is home to a museum.\n\nWhat key idea do the details in paragraph 3 support?\n\nContext Clues\n\nIn the last paragraph, what does the word decommissioned mean?\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nWhat is an example of simile used in the passage?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat connections can you make to the passage?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nWhy do you think the Japanese claimed to have sunk the USS Lexington to boost morale?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nHow could you summarize this text?\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nWhat cause and effect relationship is shown by the author in paragraph 2?\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nWhat is the most likely reason the author included a photograph with the text?\n\nLindsey had wanted a dog for as long as she could remember. She had spent the last year doing everything that she could to prove to her parents that she was responsible enough and finally they had agreed.\n\nLindsey did her research. She knew she wanted to adopt a dog from the city shelter. She also knew she wanted a larger dog. She went to the library and checked out a book on dog training. She poured through the book reading all about basic commands like sit and stay, but what she really wanted was to teach a dog to shake.\n\nSaturday came and Lindsey went with her dad to the animal shelter. The whole way there Lindsey could not stop talking about all the things she was going to teach their new dog, but Lindsey’s dad reminded her that you don’t always get exactly what you want in life. Still Lindsey kept going on and on, especially about how she was going to teach her dog to shake.\n\nWhen they arrived at the shelter Lindsey jumped out of the car and ran for the door with her dad trailing behind. Inside they were greeted by a volunteer and given basic information before being shown back to the dog kennels.\n\nLindsey slowly walked down the long row of kennels carefully examining each of the dogs inside. When she got about halfway down the aisle she spotted a large brown dog laying patiently. It was love at first sight. Lindsey knew that this was her dog. She and her father went to find the volunteer to get the dog out to play with.\n\nReturning to the kennel with the volunteer Lindsey got a surprise. When the dog stood up she noticed it only had three legs! At first Lindsey was concerned, but as soon as she got a sloppy kiss on the cheek she was back in love. Lindsey and her dad completed the adoption and were on their way. On the way home they decided to name the dog Choc short for chocolate, the color of his fur.\n\nWhen they got home Lindsey excitedly introduced Choc to her younger brother and her mom. She also decided to see what Choc already knew. She stood in front of him and firmly said, “Sit.” Choc immediately sat, his tail wagging. “Good boy!” replied Lindsey. Next she gave the command for lay and he did! She followed up with stay and walked across the room from him. Choc stayed until he was called.\n\nLindsey was so impressed, but was still holding out hope that he would shake. She approached Choc again and greeted him with, “Sit.” He plopped down and waited expectantly. “Now shake,” she said holding out her hand. Choc stood up and Lindsey sighed, but then he started shaking his whole body. Lindsey laughed. It wasn’t the kind of shake she imagined, but it was a different kind of trick!\n\nWhich detail from the last paragraph supports the idea that Lindsey was disappointed?\n\nContext Clues\n\nWhat does the word poured mean in this story?\n\nPlot Elements\n\nHow is Lindsey’s main problem solved in the story?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat is a connection you share with this story?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nHow can the reader tell that “A Different Trick” is realistic fiction?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nRetell the story in three sentences or less.\n\nCharacters\n\nWhat do Lindsey’s actions before going to the shelter suggest?\n\nPoint of View\n\nWho is the narrator of this story?\n\nThe Star\n\nA white star born in the evening glow\nLooked to the round green world below,\nAnd saw a pool in a wooded place\nThat held like a jewel her mirrored face.\nShe said to the pool: \"Oh, wondrous deep,\nI love you, I give you my light to keep.\nOh, more profound than the moving sea\nThat never has shown myself to me!\n\nOh, fathomless as the sky is far,\nHold forever your tremulous star!\"\n\nBut out of the woods as night grew cool\nA brown pig came to the little pool;\nIt grunted and splashed and waded in\nAnd the deepest place but reached its chin.\nThe water gurgled with tender glee\nAnd the mud churned up in it turbidly.\nThe star grew pale and hid her face\nIn a bit of floating cloud like lace.\n\n-Sara Teasdale\n\nWhat detail supports the idea that the star is embarrassed?\n\nContext Clues\n\nIn the text, what does the word churned mean?\n\nFigurative Language\n\nWhat is an example of personification from the third stanza?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat connections can you make to the pig in the poem?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nHow does the star feel when the pig enters the pond?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nWhat is the poem mostly about?\n\nSound Devices\n\nWhat is the rhyme scheme of this poem?\n\nStructures of Poetry\n\nWhy did the poet include a couplet between the first and third stanza?\n\nThe oldest Spanish mission in San Antonio was built in 1718 and was named the San Antonio de Valero. It is known more commonly as the Alamo.\n\n**Birth of the Alamo**\nSpanish colonists in Texas built the Alamo right along the San Antonio River, the mission was home to Catholic priests and friars, Native Americans, and Spanish soldiers.\n\nThe Alamo was built as a stop between missions that were already built in East Texas and Mexico. Missionaries and soldiers used the Alamo as a place to stop and rest while traveling long distances. The Alamo was also used as a place for the Spanish to try and convert Native Americans to the Catholic religion.\n\nAround the Alamo grew a village known as San Fernando de Bexar which is what we now know as San Antonio.\n\nMission San Antonio de Valero continued its mission of converting Native Americans to the Catholic faith for seventy-five years until 1793. After that, the mission was abandoned. Later in the 1800s Spanish soldiers used the mission as a military fort.\n\n**The Battle of the Alamo**\nWhile the Texas Revolution was just getting started a group of Texan volunteer fighters captured the Alamo that was being used as a military fort by the Mexican army. Soon other Texas soldiers joined them, making the Alamo an important military position.\n\nLed by James Bowie and William B. Travis the Texans attempted to defend the Alamo in a thirteen day battle. The small number of Texans were no match for the Mexican army, and nearly all were killed in a bloody battle. The battle took place more than 100 years after the Alamo was first built.\n\n**The Alamo Today**\nYou can still visit the Alamo today in the heart of San Antonio. In fact, more than 2.5 million people come to visit every year. The Alamo is cared for by the National Park Service along with the other four missions found in San Antonio. If you find yourself in San Antonio, the Alamo is a must see!\n\nTest Smash Day 7\n\nDetails and Key Ideas\nAccording to the text, what was the original main goal for building the Alamo?\n\nContext Clues\nIn paragraph 3, what does the word convert mean?\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\nIn the section, “Battle of the Alamo,” what is an example of alliteration used to provide the reader with a mental image?\n\nMaking Connections\nWhat connections can you make to the passage?\n\nMaking Inferences\nWhich sentence from the text best supports the idea that the Texans were defeated at the Alamo?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\nHow could you summarize this text?\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\nWhat cause and effect relationship is shown in the section, “Battle of the Alamo?”\n\nStructures of Informational Text\nWhat is the most likely reason the author included bolded text in the passage?\n\nAnnie had always loved how noisy Chicago was on a summer afternoon. The sound of cars driving by, the L hurtling past, and neighbors talking on the sidewalk brought her joy. Every year Annie could not wait until summer when her mom would load up their car and the family would make the long trip to the city to stay with her maternal aunt.\n\nAnnie was a remarkable young girl who worked hard in school, but liked to play hard when on vacation. She liked to help others, and had even rescued kittens that were stuck in a drain once.\n\nAnnie walked over to the window that looked out over the park. She admired the sun shining down in rays illuminating her world. She couldn’t wait for her friend Jeff to get there so that they could go enjoy the park together.\n\nThen she saw Jeff in the distance. At first she didn’t recognize him. Jeff must have grown six inches since last summer! He was carrying something too, and it wasn’t the usual kickball that Annie knew him with. As Jeff got closer Annie noticed his smile and she smiled back.\n\nWhen Jeff finally made his way to her front stoop Annie jumped up to give him a hug, but instead of hugging her back he asked, “What’s your Wi-Fi password?” Annie was shocked! She hadn’t seen him in almost a year and all he wanted was a Wi-Fi password?\n\nAnnie looked back at Jeff and said, “We won’t need Wi-Fi in the park, let’s go!” Jeff smirked and headed into the house where he plopped down on the couch. Annie’s jaw almost hit the floor. “Don’t you want to go to the park? It is such a nice day and I have been waiting all year to play kickball with you again,” Annie stammered. “Not really, I’d rather play a game,” he replied.\n\nAnnie couldn’t believe her ears. Is this really what she had been waiting for? Annie wasn’t much for online games when the weather was so nice, she thought they were better saved for when it was too cold to go outside.\n\nDisappointed, Annie gave Jeff the Wi-Fi password, grabbed the kickball from the hall closet, and headed out the door. She murmured to herself, “I guess it’s time to meet some new friends.”\n\nWhat detail from the text supports the idea that Annie thinks there is a time to play video games?\n\nContext Clues\n\nWhat does the word smirked mean in this story?\n\nPlot Elements\n\nWhy is Annie disappointed when Jeff wants the Wi-Fi password?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat is a connection you share with this story?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nWhy does Annie think it is time to make new friends at the end of the story?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nHow could you summarize Annie’s problem from the story?\n\nCharacters\n\nWhy is Annie looking forward to seeing Jeff?\n\nPoint of View\n\nWho is the narrator of this story?\n\nSummer\n\nWinter is cold-hearted\nSpring is yea and nay,\nAutumn is a weather-cock\nBlow every way:\nSummer days for me\nWhen every leaf is on its tree\n\nWhen Robin’s not a beggar,\nAnd Jenny Wren’s a bride,\nAnd larks hang singing, singing, singing,\nOver the wheat-fields wide,\nAnd anchored lilies ride,\nAnd the pendulum spider\nSwings from side to side,\n\nAnd blue-black beetles transact business,\nAnd gnats fly in a host,\nAnd furry caterpillars hasten\nThat no time be lost,\nAnd moths grow fat and thrive,\nAnd ladybirds arrive.\n\n-Christina Georgina Rossetti\n\nWhat detail supports the idea that the author does not care for winter?\n\nContext Clues\n\nWhat words from the second stanza help to determine the meaning of pendulum?\n\nFigurative Language\n\nWhat is an example of alliteration from the last stanza?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat connections can you make to the author of the poem?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nWhy is the “Robin not a beggar” as said in the second stanza?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nParaphrase the last stanza of the poem in one sentence.\n\nSound Devices\n\nWhy does the poet repeat the word “singing” in the second stanza?\n\nStructures of Poetry\n\nHow many stanzas are included in the poem?\nHow many lines are included in the poem?\n\nMae Jemison was born on October 17, 1956 in Alabama. At the time she was born the south was still segregated, meaning that there were different schools and other public places for black people and white people. Jemison’s family wanted their children to have the best opportunities, so they moved north to Chicago.\n\nJemison loved to learn and spent all of her extra time reading about science, and especially space. She went on to study chemical engineering at Stanford University and then attended medical school at Cornell University. While she was a student she traveled the world helping those less fortunate than herself, such as refugees.\n\nAfter finishing medical school she worked as a doctor in southern California and for the Peace Corps in Africa. While she was there she also taught others about the medical field and how to perform research. She enjoyed her work as a doctor, but her childhood love of space continued. After returning to the United States she set her sights on becoming an astronaut.\n\nJemison applied and was accepted into NASA’s astronaut training program. This was right before The Challenger disaster, which slowed the process and required her to reapply. She did, and was chosen as the first African-American woman to undergo astronaut training. She trained for over a year, and earned the title of science mission specialist. She was a star within the program. This job put her in charge of performing scientific experiments on board the space shuttle.\n\nOn September 12, 1992 Jemison and six other astronauts were launched in the space shuttle Endeavour, and she became the first African-American woman in space. Their mission was eight days long, and she performed numerous experiments.\n\nMae Jemison has received many awards including having a school in Detroit named after her. She has also continued to volunteer her time for the betterment of all people through medical research and fundraising as well as through teaching.\n\nWhat details from the text support the idea that Mae Jemison is well educated?\n\nContext Clues\n\nIn the second paragraph, what does the word fortunate mean?\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nWhat is an example of metaphor used in paragraph 4 of the passage?\n\nMaking Connections\n\nWhat connections can you make to the passage?\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nBased on the descriptions of Jemison in the text, what can the reader conclude about how she feels towards people?\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nHow could you summarize paragraph 3 of this text?\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nHow did the author organize the passage?\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nWhat is the most likely reason the author included a photograph with the text?\n\nTest Smash Recording Sheets\n\nContext Clues\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nPlot Elements\n\nContext Clues\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nCharacters\n\nPoint of View\n\nContext Clues\n\nFigurative Language\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nSound Devices\n\nStructures of Poetry\n\nContext Clues\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nContext Clues\n\nPlot Elements\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nCharacters\n\nPoint of View\n\nContext Clues\n\nFigurative Language\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRefelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nSound Devices\n\nStructures of Poetry\n\nContext Clues\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nPlot Elements\n\nContext Clues\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nCharacters\n\nPoint of View\n\nContext Clues\n\nFigurative Language\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nSound Devices\n\nStructures of Poetry\n\nContext Clues\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nMaking Connections\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nTest Smash Suggested Answer Keys\n\nAll answers provided are suggested answers. I would encourage you to discuss students’ answers and require them to back up their responses with evidence from the text as answers will vary.\n\nOnce there the men on the hillside were able to be saved.\nor\nCher Ami is now known as a hero of WWI and was awarded the Croix de Guerre Medal for her work.\n\nContext Clues\nshot at\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\ntrapped, surrounded, firing on them, caught\n\nMaking Connections\nAnswers will vary, but may include a connection to a time an animal helped them or a war story they have read.\n\nMaking Inferences\nFor carrying a message that saved the lives of American soldiers.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\nAlmost two hundred men were trapped on a hillside until a homing pigeon named Cher Ami carried a message to their army that was able to save them.\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\nChronologically\n\nStructures of Informational Text\nSection 3\n\"Homing Pigeons\"\n\n...a smile broke out across the faces of Jamal and his parents.\n\nContext Clues\n\nboring\nnormal\nnothing extra\n\nPlot Elements\n\nJamal misses his home.\n\nMaking Connections\n\nAnswers will vary, but may include connections to a time of feeling homesick or not being told the whole truth.\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nRelieved to be back at home.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nThe drive to Dallas seemed to be busier and take longer than usual, but his parents wouldn't tell him why.\n\nCharacters\n\nHis mom isn't telling him the whole truth about why they are visiting his grandparents. His mom doesn't want Jamal to worry.\n\nPoint of View\n\nThird person omniscient because the narrator knows how the characters are feeling.\n\nThe author is lonely at night.\n\nContext Clues\nsad\n\nFigurative Language\ntired wind\n\nMaking Connections\nAnswers will vary, but many include a connection to being awake at night or an animal mentioned.\n\nMaking Inferences\nThe sun is setting and nocturnal animals are beginning to come out.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\nThe sun has set and night is taking over. Night time sounds make it seem that there is a voice calling out, but when you answer there is no one there.\n\nSound Devices\nABABACCC\n\nStructures of Poetry\nLyrical because of the rhyme scheme and equally split stanzas.\n\nThe USS Lexington was an important part of the US Navy’s fleet during WWII.\n\nContext Clues\n\nTaken out of service, retired\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nsail silently as a shark\n\nMaking Connections\n\nAnswers will vary, but may include a connection to a ship or boat.\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nTo boost their morale.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nThe USS Lexington, an American aircraft carrier was built in Massachusetts and went on to play an important role in the Pacific Ocean during WWII. After being repaired the carrier supported other missions until 1991 when it was retired and docked in Corpus Christi, TX.\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nThe original Lexington was sunk, so they renamed this ship USS Lexington to carry on tradition.\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nTo help the reader visualize the USS Lexington.\n\nLindsey sighed\n\nContext Clues\nread quickly and entirely\n\nPlot Elements\nWhen her dog, Choc, shows her a different kind of shake.\n\nMaking Connections\nAnswers will vary, but may include a connection involving a pet or doing something differently than expected.\n\nMaking Inferences\nThe action in the story could happen in real life.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\nLindsey and her family adopt a dog named Choc. Lindsey tries to teach Choc a trick, but is surprised when Choc shows her a different trick.\n\nCharacters\nLindsey wants to be a responsible dog owner by knowing how to train her dog.\n\nPoint of View\nAn outside viewer\n\nThe star grew pale and hid her face\n\nContext Clues\n\nmixed up\n\nFigurative Language\n\nThe star grew pale and hid her face\n\nMaking Connections\n\nAnswers will vary, but may include connections to stars or a time of embarrassment.\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nIt is sad it can no longer see its reflection.\n\nRefelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nA star staring at its own reflection in a pond.\n\nSound Devices\n\nAABBCCDDEEFFGHHBB\n\nStructures of Poetry\n\nTo emphasize the excitement the star has in viewing itself.\n\nTo provide a stop between the missions in East Texas and Mexico.\n\nContext Clues\nto change\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\nbloody battle\n\nMaking Connections\nAnswers will vary, but may include a connection to visiting the Alamo, another historical sight, or the Texas Revolution.\n\nMaking Inferences\nThe small number of Texans were no match for the Mexican army, and nearly all were killed.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\nThe Alamo, the oldest mission in San Antonio, was built as a stop between East Texas and Mexico, but also served to house soldiers and convert Native Americans to the Catholic faith. Later the mission was home to a battle during the Texas Revolution in which the Texans were defeated. You can still visit the Alamo today.\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\nTexans captured the Alamo, so the Mexican army defeated them taking it back.\n\nStructures of Informational Text\nTo clearly show the reader what each section will be about.\n\nAnnie wasn’t much for online games when the weather was so nice, she thought they were better saved for when it was too cold to go outside.\n\nContext Clues\n\nsmiled slyly\nslightly smiled\n\nPlot Elements\n\nShe wants to go play at the park, not play a game inside.\n\nMaking Connections\n\nAnswers will vary, but may include connections to wanting to do one thing while a friend wants to do something else.\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nShe and Jeff no longer like doing the same things.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nAnnie is excited to go to the park to play with Jeff, but when he arrives he is more interested in playing a game online.\n\nCharacters\n\nShe hasn’t seen him since last summer when they went to the park together.\n\nPoint of View\n\nAn outsider, third person\n\nWinter is too cold, spring has a lot of changes, and autumn is too windy.\n\nContext Clues\n\nswings from side to side\n\nFigurative Language\n\nblue-black beetles\n\nMaking Connections\n\nAnswers will vary, but may include connections to a favorite season.\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nIn summer Robins are able to find their own food and not have to beg for scraps from people.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nAll the life that comes out during the summer.\n\nSound Devices\n\nTo emphasize that the lark continues to sing for a long time.\n\nStructures of Poetry\n\n3 stanzas\n19 lines\n\nShe went on to study chemical engineering at Stanford University and then attended medical school at Cornell University.\n\nContext Clues\n\nwell-off\nfavored\nmean?\n\nImagery & Figurative Language\n\nShe was a star within the program.\n\nMaking Connections\n\nAnswers will vary, but may include a connection to space, an accomplishment, or a career for the future.\n\nMaking Inferences\n\nJemison cares deeply about people and taking care of them.\n\nRetelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\nJemison traveled the world taking care of people and helping them learn how to research, but she still thought about becoming an astronaut.\n\nOrganizational Patterns of Text\n\nChronologically\n\nStructures of Informational Text\n\nTo help the reader visualize what an astronaut would wear.\n\nTest Smash Data Sheet\n\n| Day | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 0 |\n|-----|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n| | | | | | | | | | | |\n\n**All Genres**\n- Context Clues\n- Making Connections\n- Making Inferences\n- Details and Key Ideas\n- Retelling, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing\n\n**Fiction**\n- Plot Elements\n- Characters\n- Point of View\n\n**Informational Text**\n- Structures of Informational Text\n- Organizational Patterns of Text\n- Imagery & Figurative Language\n\n**Poetry**\n- Figurative Language\n- Sound Devices\n- Structures of Poetry\n\nPhysical state refers to whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas.\n\nWe generally classify matter as a solid, liquid, or gas.\n\nSolids have a definite shape and size.\n\nLiquids take the shape of their containers.\n\nGases expand to take the shape of their containers.\n\nTry it! Complete the table using examples from the term bank.\n\n| Solid | Liquid | Gas |\n|-------------|------------|------------|\n| | | |\n| | | |\n| | | |\n\nTerm Bank\n\nhoney sugar cube alcohol\noxygen flour state\nplastic cube helium dish soap\ncarbon dioxide\n\nMass refers to the amount of matter in an object.\n\nMass is measured using a pan balance or triple beam balance.\n\nMass is measured in grams, milligrams, and kilograms.\n\nRemember that mass and volume are different. Volume refers to how much space matter takes up. Two balls with the same volume can have different masses. A plastic ball filled with air has less mass than a solid metal ball with the same volume.\n\nTry it! Objects are represented by letters A, B, C, and D. Put the objects in order from least to greatest mass. All amounts are shown in grams.\n\nAnswer\n\nObjects in order from least to greatest mass: ___, ___, ___, ___\n\nSolubility refers to whether or not matter dissolves in water.\n\nDissolving occurs when matter mixed with water gets smaller until it is evenly spread throughout the mixture.\n\nWhen dissolving, matter does NOT change physical state. Dissolving is NOT the same process as melting.\n\nA substance that is soluble dissolves in water.\n\nA substance that is insoluble does not dissolve in water.\n\nTry it! Complete the table using examples from the term bank.\n\n| Solubility of ________________ in Water |\n|----------------------------------------|\n| Insoluble in Water | Soluble in Water |\n|---------------------|------------------|\n| | |\n| | |\n| | |\n| | |\n\nTerm Bank\n\n- baking soda\n- vegetable oil\n- glass lens\n- drink mix\n- lemon juice\n- honey\n- feather\n- sand\n- substances\n\nRelative density refers to whether an object sinks or floats in water.\n\nWe can classify matter as more dense or less dense than water.\n\nA substance that floats in water is **less dense** than water.\n\nA substance that sinks in water is **more dense** than water.\n\nTry it! Complete the table using examples from the term bank.\n\n| Relative Density of ____________________ in Water |\n|---------------------------------------------|\n| Less Dense than Water | More Dense than Water |\n|------------------------|-----------------------|\n| | |\n| | |\n| | |\n| | |\n\n**Term Bank**\n- wood chip\n- vegetable oil\n- sand\n- soap bubble\n- aluminum washer\n- plastic ball\n- syrup\n- brass key\n- substances\n\n2020 The Science Penguin\n\nSLOW CHANGES TO EARTH'S SURFACE\nSCAVENGER HUNT\n\nFind as many items on the list as you can.\n\n☐ 1. deposition of sediments in a new place\n☐ 2. a cracked rock that has been weathered\n☐ 3. a pile of sediments\n☐ 4. a small channel from runoff\n☐ 5. a sedimentary rock that allows sediments to be easily scraped off of it\n☐ 6. evidence of weathering\n☐ 7. exposed tree roots above the ground\n☐ 8. a sidewalk crack\n☐ 9. mud\n☐ 10. a drainage pipe\n☐ 11. a sloped hill\n☐ 12. evidence of ice wedging\n\nGENERAL SCIENCE\nSCAVENGER HUNT\n\nFind as many items on the list as you can.\n\n☐ 1. Water that is in the form of a solid, liquid, or gas\n\n☐ 2. A natural resource\n\n☐ 3. Matter that is solid and sinks in water\n\n☐ 4. Matter that floats in water and is not magnetic\n\n☐ 5. A shadow that is 10 to 20 centimeters long\n\n☐ 6. A mixture of two or more substances\n\n☐ 7. An example of mechanical energy\n\n☐ 8. An animal interacting with its environment\n\n☐ 9. Plant roots\n\n☐ 10. Soil that supports a healthy plant\n\n☐ 11. An organism in the adult stage of its life cycle\n\n☐ 12. A cracked rock"}}},{"rowIdx":204791,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"REGISTRATION AND TUITION\n2024-2025 School Year\n\nChildren will be accepted for enrollment pending a review of records including but not limited to academic, behavior, and financial; admissions testing; and interview with the administration. First priority will be given to children currently enrolled in Our Lady of the Lake School or who have siblings currently enrolled. Second priority will be given to registered parishioners of Our Lady of the Lake Parish who do not currently have children in the school. Third priority will be given to the general public. After March 1, 2024, all applications will be considered on a first-come, first-serve basis as third priority.\n\nThe Our Lady of the Lake School philosophy states “that each child is a special person – a child of God. Through our religious education program, we bring the student into contact with the whole message of Christ in a living school community of faith, which leads naturally to service of others. In partnership with parents and guardians, we strive to complement and supplement the work of parents in fostering the Christian growth of the child at the various levels of development. We provide a program of study which makes the best use of the child’s time and talents. We endeavor to instill in each child, a love of learning and an appreciation of culture. We try to lead the child to realize the dynamic force of his/her life for good in the world by helping him/her to understand the intrinsic value and dignity of every human person.”\n\nThe following tuition/admission policy, which is based on our Catholic philosophy of education, will be effective for the 2024-2025 school year. It is understood that all families registering children at Our Lady of the Lake School agree to abide by the contents of the latest edition of the Our Lady of the Lake School Family Handbook and all policies of the school and parish. It is further understood that all families registering children at Our Lady of the Lake School agree to meet the financial obligations according to the policy set forth below and in the handbook.\n\nTuition and Registration Fee\n\n$6,165.00 per child\n$150.00 PER CHILD REGISTRATION FEE\n\nPLEASE NOTE: The school reserves the right to refuse admission or readmission, to suspend or to expel any student who does not cooperate with the policies established in the Our Lady of the Lake Family Handbook. Policies in this handbook apply to after school hours as well. If any student refuses to follow these policies, then he or she places his or her privilege to attend this school in jeopardy. If any parent refuses to support or follow these policies, the parent places his or her child/children’s privilege of attending this school in jeopardy.\n\nThe education of your child is a partnership between you and your school. If in the opinion of the administration the partnership is irretrievably broken the school reserves the right to require you to withdraw your child.\n\nGENERAL INFORMATION FOR ALL FAMILIES APPLYING TO OUR LADY OF THE LAKE SCHOOL 2024-2025 SCHOOL YEAR\n\nIt is most important that all families wishing to enroll at Our Lady of the Lake School begin by reviewing this Admission and Tuition Policy, completing and submitting the Registration Application with the $150.00 registration fee as soon as possible. Our Lady of the Lake Parish must have an accurate enrollment number in order to arrange staffing for the 2024-2025 school year. Staffing decisions depend heavily upon actual enrollment numbers.\n\nIt is also most important that families, who wish to be considered for additional scholarship money from the diocese or the parish, submit their application no later than March 15, 2024.\n\nImplementation of the Admission and Tuition Policy\nThe implementation of this policy will be the responsibility of the pastor and the principal.\n\nAdmission to Kindergarten\nAll students entering kindergarten are required to participate in the kindergarten screening process. Testing dates and screening dates will be announced annually. It will be the responsibility of the families to present the students for the testing and screening according to the schedule established annually by Our Lady of the Lake School.\n\nKindergarten Enrollment\n- Kindergarten is a full day program.\n- All families who wish to enroll a kindergarten student for the 2024-2025 school year will receive additional information regarding kindergarten screening. Information regarding kindergarten screening will be sent home in the early spring.\n- The Ohio Department of Education recommends that all kindergarten students be five (5) years old before August 1. Euclid City Schools requires kindergarten students to be five (5) years old before August 1. The Office of Catholic Education of the Diocese of Cleveland recommends that the Catholic elementary schools follow the policies of the public school district in which they reside for kindergarten entrance age.\n- Kindergarten students do wear uniforms.\n- Kindergarten students eat lunch at school.\n\nFinancial Obligations\nAll families are required to meet all financial obligations to any and all educational institutions before enrollment in Our Lady of the Lake School can be finalized.\n\nTuition Payment Method\nOur Lady of the Lake School uses a third party tuition collection company (FACTS). All families are required to have tuition payments electronically withdrawn from bank accounts designated by them. Payments will be electronically withdrawn from family designated accounts and deposited electronically into the Our Lady of the Lake account. Families have a choice of a two month, four month, ten-month or twelve-month payment plan for the 2024-2025 academic year. Payments made using FACTS for the 2024-2025 academic year begin June 2024. Families currently enrolled in FACTS will automatically be re-enrolled unless the school office is notified.\n\nFamilies may pay tuition in full by August 23. If payment in full is made by August 23, families need not establish accounts for electronic withdrawal, and they will receive a $100.00 per family tuition discount (only\n\napplies to students in grades kindergarten through eight). Strict adherence to the August 23 deadline will be observed.\n\nFamilies who have received the EdChoice or Cleveland Scholarships are not required to pay tuition electronically. Families receiving the Scholarships are required to come to the school during school hours to endorse tuition checks issued by the Ohio Department of Education by the deadline established by Our Lady of the Lake School (unless families have signed the Scholarship Check waiver). Failure to endorse checks in the school office will result in the families being required to pay the balance of the tuition owed in full. The EdChoice and Cleveland Scholarships cover the cost of tuition. There is no balance due for the 2024-2025 school year.\n\nFamilies who have received the Jon Peterson Scholarship are expected to pay the difference of tuition not covered by the Jon Peterson Scholarship. The balance is due to the school office by November 1, 2024.\n\n**Statement of Non-Discrimination**\nOur Lady of the Lake School admits students of all races, nationalities or ethnic origins to all rights, privileges, programs, and activities. Our Lady of the Lake welcomes students of all faiths.\n\n**Race and Ethnic Origins**\nBy law parents/guardians have the option to designate the race/ethnic category. Please use the following as a guide to designate if you wish to exercise this option. This information can be added to the Registration Application. Our Lady of the Lake School does not require this information for enrollment purposes or any other purposes. If you do not wish to include this information on the Registration Application, please leave that section on the registration application form blank.\n\n| Race/Ethnic Origin | Description |\n|-------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| White/Non-Hispanic | Persons having origins in any of original peoples of Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East |\n| Black/Non-Hispanic | Persons having origins in any of the black racial groups in Africa |\n| Hispanic | Person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South America, or other Spanish Culture or origin, regardless of race |\n| Asian/Pacific Islanders | Persons having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, The Pacific Islands, or the Indian subcontinent. This area includes for example, China, India, Japan, Korea, the Philippine Islands, and Samoa |\n| American Indian/Alaskan Native | Persons having origins in any of the original peoples of North America, and who maintain cultural identification through tribal affiliation or community recognition |\n| Multi-racial | Persons having origins in two or more of the above options |\n\n**Service Projects**\nOur Lady of the Lake School relies heavily on families to perform service projects for the benefit of the overall school program. While deductions from individual tuition plans cannot be made, service projects performed for the benefit of the school help to keep tuition down and provide an enhanced school experience for all students.\n\n**Hot Lunch Program**\nOur Lady of the Lake School provides a hot lunch program through the Nutrition Services department of the Office of Catholic Education of the Diocese of Cleveland. Students must order and pay a month in advance for their lunches. Menus and ordering information are provided monthly by Nutrition Services. Students are welcome to bring their lunches from home as well. Students may order hot lunches only on the days they choose and bring lunches when they do not wish to order the items offered. There are some days during the school year that hot lunches are not served at all. On those days all students need to bring a lunch and a drink. Hot lunches are not provided for students who forget to order a lunch or bring their lunch. Cereal and milk will be provided for students who do not have a lunch. Milk does not need to be pre-ordered and is usually for sale on all days that the hot lunch program is conducted. Federal subsidy is available for all families who\n\nmeet federal requirements. Information regarding free or reduced lunch will be issued to families on the first day of school.\n\n**EdChoice Scholarship**\nThe EdChoice Scholarship is available to those students who have been attending or are scheduled to attend public schools listed by the Ohio Department of Education as schools in the program. Students who have been attending schools such as Our Lady of the Lake, which is not in the program, are not eligible. For more information please contact the Ohio Department of Education or visit their website online, www.ode.state.oh.us. Our Lady of the Lake School accepts the EdChoice, Cleveland, and Jon Peterson Scholarships.\n\n**EdChoice Expansion Scholarship**\nDoes your child meet both of the following criteria?\n- Student is eligible to enter kindergarten through the eighth grade for the upcoming school year; and family household income is at or below 450 percent of the Federal Poverty Guidelines\n- All students are eligible to apply based on the families’ income.\n\nIf “YES” Your Child is Eligible TO APPLY for the Income-Based Scholarship. Income Verification is Required to Apply for the Expansion Scholarship.\n\n**Cleveland Scholarship**\nThe Cleveland Scholarship is available to those students who reside in the city of Cleveland. For more information, please contact the Ohio Department of Education or visit their website at www.ode.state.oh.us.\n\n**Students Not Returning to Our Lady of the Lake School for the 2024-2025 School Year**\nIf your family is not planning to return to Our Lady of the Lake School for the 2024-2025 school year, please notify the office at 216-481-6824. The school office will forward a release of records form to you for completion and signature. This does not apply to graduating 8th grade students. The high school applications completed and signed in January act as a release of records.\n\n**Completing the Registration Application Process and Eligibility**\nEnrollment will be considered complete when:\n- completed all forms\n- paid the $150.00 per child registration fee\n- provided all required records/documents and completed all processes.\n\nAdditionally, enrolling families must be current with all amounts due the school, unless arrangements have been made with the Pastor. All families not meeting established deadlines may forfeit their opportunity to enroll or to re-enroll their child(ren).\n\n*The administration of Our Lady of the Lake School reserves the right to determine eligibility of all applicants. Our Lady of the Lake School admits students of all races, nationalities or ethnic origins to all rights, privileges, programs, and activities. Our Lady of the Lake welcomes students of all faiths.*\n\n**Due Dates**\nMarch 1, 2024 Open registration begins\nMarch 15, 2024 FACTS Grant and Aid Form (if applicable) due\nAugust 23, 2024 Full Tuition Payments for $100 per family discount (K-8 students only)"}}},{"rowIdx":204792,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Boys will be Boys\n\nWhen I hear people say that only female cats need to have surgery to sterilize them, it makes me crazy! Spay and neuter of ALL cats is the best and most basic thing that we can do for them. Male cats may not produce kittens, but they suffer from not being neutered.\n\nA kind lady named Jane called when Oscar showed up at her door with his face distorted and swollen and one eye closed. Oscar loved humans, but as an intact male was working his way through Sutter Creek fighting and begging for food.\n\nA-PAL took Oscar in and sent him to Dr. Alison Pillsbury at Acorn Hills Animal Center where it was discovered that he had a large abscess on his cheek. The abscess was drained and cleaned and Oscar was neutered. Oscar had been named for the Muppets character, Oscar the Grouch.\n\nOscar is anything but a grouch. This cat has the sweet round face of a beautiful tabby cat and is now up for adoption. This sweet boy deserved better from humans than being left to roam the streets and his story is all too common. We regularly get calls from people that stray cats are fighting with their cats. Most often the culprit is an intact male cat.\n\nAcorn Hills Animal Center recently put on three low cost cat spay and neuter days with A-PAL and we were happy to see so many cat owners having their male cats neutered. One pair of beautiful long haired orange and white cats broke our hearts. Examination revealed that one of these boys had several abscesses on his neck. Owners told us that these beautiful cats had begun spraying in their home, so had been kicked outside. They also had been best friend brothers and now hated each other.\n\nAll of this would have been avoided if these two male cats had simply been neutered. Male cats do not need to mark their territory and spray if they are neutered. They also will not usually fight with other cats if they are neutered. Best of all, after about 30 days male cats when neutered will stop these spraying and fighting behaviors.\n\nFeral cats reproducing continues to be one of our greatest challenges. Feeding stray and feral cats may be fun, but it is actually creating a greater problem if nothing else is done. Amador County is the only place I know of that has a FREE feral cat spay/neuter program. Residents are able to make an appointment with one of our amazing local veterinarians and A-PAL pays for these cats to be spay/neutered, ear tipped and rabies vaccinated and returned. These cats will live healthier, longer lives and the suffering from overpopulation will stop.\n\nIf you know of someone who is feeding which increases breeding, please encourage them to take advantage of A-PAL’s feral cat spay/neuter program which is detailed at pawspartners.org.\n\nOur cat population had been steadily going down for 20 years, but with the pandemic, it has nearly doubled in the last three years. We need everyone to participate to create a humane Amador County.\n\nA-PAL Humane Society is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization founded in 1977 to promote the humane treatment of animals in Amador County and to provide services to Amador County residents and animals. A-PAL works in partnership with our Amador County Animal Shelter. For more info, see pawspartners.org or call 209-223-0410.\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS\nSusan Manning, President\nMargaret Blair, Vice President\nJoan Martin, Treasurer\nLisa Peterson, Secretary\nApril Hancock\nWendy Robles\nNicole Todd\n\nEXECUTIVE DIRECTOR\nCooper Steeley\n\nMISSION STATEMENT\nTo ensure the humane treatment of animals in the communities we serve.\n\nGOALS\n• To end euthanasia of homeless dogs and cats in Amador County\n• To increase public awareness and acceptance of responsibility for animal welfare\n• To place homeless animals in good homes through aggressive adoption and foster care programs\n• To raise funds to finance spay/neuter programs in Amador County\n• To end inhumane treatment of animals in Amador County\n• To support legislation encouraging humane treatment of animals\n\nSome ways you can help us help the animals of Amador County...\n• Be sure that your pets are spayed/neutered and don’t be a contributor to pet overpopulation\n• Join A-PAL’s Save the Kittens Team\n• Volunteer as a foster family and care for kittens\n• Adopt an A-PAL dog or kitten and give it a loving and lifelong home\n• Remember A-PAL Humane Society in your will and life insurance policies\n• Donate funds to A-PAL\n\nA-PAL’s accomplishments are the result of a group effort and would not be possible without our many animal-loving partners. Thank you!\n\nLucky Clover\nClover came to A-PAL as a large kitten with a broken jaw. She was sweet, but weak and had an infection in her gums which just would not go away. Most of her teeth were removed and soon she will be ready to go to her forever home.\n\nFollow us on Facebook for updates!\n\nMeet Mister Dooley\n\nIt’s come to drastic measures and I had to hire a ghost writer to help me get adopted and find my furever home. You see, I don’t have access to computer out here, and to be honest, even if I did, it’s really difficult to type with my paws.\n\nSo, my frens (aka friends), I’m gonna tell YOU why I am the bestest doggo ever. But first I want to give you some details about me – consider this my “profile” like, you know, if they had doggie “tinder”.\n\nThey call Mister Dooley or Triple D. I’m a sweet boy and I’m about 1.5 years old. I currently reside at Twin Cedar K9 and my foster mom, Auntie Margaret Blair, takes good care of me. She has trained me - I know my basic commands, and, I will admit, I’m a bit of a goofball. I’m a big lover and will always lean in to you while I’m sitting. And to be honest frens, I’m darn good looking and quite handsome. And all I want is a home and a family - and I deserve it! Cause I’m the bestest boy ever!\n\nI would love a home with other doggo’s but NO cats! I like cats a LOT but for all the wrong reasons, so I won’t be a good fit for a house with cats. Ok, let’s be honest here, cats are tasty!\n\nI love my auntie Margé, and I like hanging out here, but I know there is a perfect family out there for me!\n\nSaturday and Sundays are my favorite days cuz that’s when all the people show up out here at Twin Cedar and do training. I get to play with all the dogs, and I’m not one to be politically incorrect, I like all the dogs - big, small, smelly, playful and there are some good looking “chicks” that come out to train. And I really like to show off how smart I am!\n\nAre YOU my forever family? If so, please contact Margé Blair at (209) 223-3194 or email@example.com\n\nMORE DATES TO SAVE\n\nGIVING TUESDAY\nWHEN AMDAOR GIVES MORE\nIS ON\nNOVEMBER 28th\n\nSANTA PAWS\nWILL BE HERE ON\nDECEMBER 2nd\n\nSTAY CONNECTED & FOLLOW US ON:\n@APalHumaneSociety @apalhumanesociety\n\nWELCOME\nCREEKSIDE SHOPS\nANTIQUE COLLECTIVE\n22 Main Street Sutter Creek, CA 95685\nP.O. Box 304 (209) 267-5520\n\nOpen 10-5\n7 Days a Week\n\nTWIN CEDAR K9\nQuality dog training since 1991\nMargaret Blair\nCertified Master Trainer\n(209) 223-3194\nfirstname.lastname@example.org\nwww.twincedark9.com\n\nTHANK YOU...to all of our donors & supporters\n\nJEFF HOLMAN AUTO PROGRAM\nVucovich, Bill\n\nRUSTY FUND DONORS\nSare, Mavis\nSkrbec, Emelita & Karol\nHall, Tim\nSpiess, Carol\n\nSPECIAL NEEDS ANIMALS\nFOR DRAGO Lacey, Linda\nFOR DRAGO Fisher, Julie\nFOR DRAGO Myers, Shari\nFOR DRAGO Martinelli, Nancy\n\nSPECIAL THANKS TO Barbara Brown for her contributions to A-PAL\n\ndonors continued next page\n\nSUSTAINING AND MONTHLY DONORS\n\nAlexander, Barbara\nBarss, Carolyn\nBaskin, Cathy\nBrown, Barbara\nCapitanich, Haley\nEnyeart, Robert\nFong, Joan\nGarfinkle, Michele\nGarrett, Phyllis\nHarris, Arthur & Janet\nKares, Laura\nKeel, Garth\nKerby, Katherine\nKing, Gregory\nLaird, Larry\nParrish, Bud\nScheeper, Sheryl\nSoracco, Sandi\nSilva, Carlos & Anna Marie\nWilliams, Loni\n\nDONATIONS\n\nAcorn Hills Animal Center\nAloha Products LLC\nAnnalo, Lori\nAnooshian, Joseph & Janet\nAntonen, Sharon\nAnzini, Lori\nARAG\nBailey, Kenneth\nBalston, Robin\nBayha, Stephanie\nBergman, Lee A\nBirmingham, Jim & Joan\nBlackbaud Giving Fund\nBott, Victor & Mary\nBrand, Valerie\nBray, Jan Bernedo\nCampbell, Joan\nChadwick Brett\nChapman, Nancy\nChurch, Hope & Rachel Luxemberg\nCooper, Rochelle\nCosta, Virginia & Frank\nCoudsy, Catherine\nCozzolino, Barbara\nCreating Healthier Communities\nCulver, Allan & Margot\nDana, April\nDaneri, James & Cheryl\nDavis, Gary & Janet Caccia\nDesedare, Linda\nDonahue, Denise\nDunn, Richard & Doris Carrillo\nEstey, Tracy\nFarmer, Katie\nFerrucci, Teresa\nFloyd, Richard\nFogg, Pamela & Dan\nFriel, Sally\nFrison, David & Nellie\nGibson, Ellen\nGoff, William & Noreen\nGrady, Deborah\nGray, Debra\nGrosz, Joan & Doyle\nGrunigen, Carla\nGuardanapo, Robert & Jeanette\nGunter, Gerald\nHall, Tim\nHarmon, Kitty\nHarrison, Lesley\nHeimeyer, L\nHenner, Gloria & Michael\nHeussner, Lisa\nHoffman, William\nHollabaugh, James & Sherilyn\nJones, Harold & Christine\nKammerer, Cora\nKrisman, Deena\nLancaster, Jeff\nLandberg, Janeth\nLarson, Helen\nLegnard, Nancy\nLiedl, Mary\nLinke, John & Diane\nMadden, Frances\nMartin, Joan\nMartz-Mort, Marie\nMatulich, Linda\nMedford, I.E., & Judy\nMiles, Richard & Michelle Roland\nMoore, Sondra\nMoore, Susan\nMoreno, Stephanie\nPatterson, Robert & Janice\nPerlee, Trisha\nPerotti, Lucy\nPeterson, Todd & Lisa\nPhillips, Robert & Jane\nReber, Anne-Marie\nReynolds, William Scott\nRhein, Elizabeth\nRianda, Linda\nRocco, Sharon\nSanderson, D\nSare, Mavis\nSawyer, Ronald & Carla\nScharnow, Eileen & Timothy\nSchmidt, Michael & Kathy\nSchmidt, Susan\nSharp, Pamela\nSierra Service League\nSilver, Andrew\nSkrbec, Emelita & Karol\nSmallfield, Beverly\nSmith, Lovell\nSpiess, Carol\nSpitzer, M.E.\nStacey, Ray\nStarr Shevey LLC\nStevenson, Jan\nSweet, Krista\nTarr, Rachel & Peter\nTaylor, Dave & May Anne\nTerhune, Ardyce\nTessaro, Margaret\nTurnbas, Stephen & Elizabeth\nTzouros, Patricia Ann\nValente, Angela\nWatson, Anita\nWeyrauch III, Henry Martin\nWilliams, Janet & Earl\nWilson, Sara\nWindmiller, Dan\n\nLOVING TRIBUTES\n\nIn Memory of Roberta Patrick from Browley, Roger & Kathleen\nIn Memory of Patty Ziegler from Barss, Carolyn\nIn Memory of Kitty Bliss Haspel from Silver, Paul & Katherine\nIn Memory of Kitty Bliss Haspel from Nieland, Nancy\nIn Memory of Kitty Bliss Haspel from Silver, Nathaniel\nIn Memory of Kitty Bliss Haspel from Schornstein, Jr, Richard\nIn Memory of Carol Joyce Bellotti from McGinley, Casey\n\nIN MEMORY OF OUR FURRY FRIENDS\n\nTammy Gallerio's dog \"Casey\" from Francisco, Jacquelyn\n\"Randi\" from Ohm, Kylie\nColleen Begovich's \"Sabrina\" from Barss, Carolyn\n\"Tiger\" from Todd, Michael & Nicole\n\"Simba\" from Fox, Annette\nDorothy Buchman's \"Baby\" from Crawford, Donna\n\nA-PAL depends on your support to fund our programs!\n\nDonation Levels:\n☐ $20 Friend\n☐ $50 Supporter\n☐ $100 Benefactor\n☐ Other ____________________________\n\nTail Wagger's Club*\n☐ $250-$499 Silver\n☐ $500-$999 Gold\n☐ $1000+ Platinum\n\n☐ Please send me more information about volunteering or becoming a foster parent\n\nOther ways to give:\n☐ Gift (give a donation for birthdays, anniversaries, or other special occasions)\n☐ Honor the memory of a loved one _______________________________________________________\nor a beloved pet (name) _________________________________________________________________\n\nPlease send acknowledgment card to:\n\nName ________________________________________________________\nAddress ________________________________________________________\nCity/State/Zip ________________________________________________________\n\nTotal Amount Enclosed: $ ____________________________\n\n*Gifts of $250 or more receive special recognition in our newsletter.\n\nA-PAL Humane Society is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization supported solely by donations. 100% of donations are used for the benefit of animals in Amador County. A-PAL’s Tax ID is 94-2462789. You may also donate online at www.pawspartners.org\n\nSome really confident cats do well in strange places, but most do not. One thing I learned from Jeff Holman is that cats need to be “grounded” to their new homes before they are released outdoors. I have to admit that I was pleasantly surprised after A-PAL Humane Society’s first year of placing barn cats to discover that over 95% of new owners said that their barn cats were still with them and thriving. Jeff leaves the cats at their new homes in cages for several weeks before they are considered grounded and released.\n\nOur Executive Director, Cooper Steely, called me to ask what to do with a big orange cat that had been rescued from a field in Sutter Creek by Carol Olson and Joan Martin. Carol had seen this cat acting strangely just rolling and she went to the Paws Partners Center in Jackson where she had begun to volunteer and gathered gloves and a crate and Joan Martin for assistance.\n\nWhat they discovered was a cat that was totally unaware of their presence and clearly in need of help. This cat stared ahead and did not even seem to know he was being lifted into a crate and he was unable to stand. Long haired and orange, he put up no protest and he was matted and dirty. Cooper was asked to call Acorn Hills Animal Center to see if they would accept this big orange cat who clearly needed the care of a veterinarian.\n\nAnimals are always a little bit of mystery because they cannot tell us what is wrong, but this cat was more so because we had no owner history. We wondered if he had been dumped or if he was lost. The mystery was that he was so disabled that he could not possibly have gone far in this condition. We also learned that he was neutered and microchipped and as he improved under the care of Dr. Alison Pillsbury and her staff, she showed that he was sweet, so we knew someone had loved him.\n\nThe microchip showed no registry, so the mystery continued for this poor, big orange cat. Initially, he was unable to stand or to eat and was so wobbly that he had to have his head held to be able to take in food. His weight was just over 10lbs and you could feel every rib on his sunken backbone.\n\nAfter a week we received a call that this cat, who was simply being called Big Orange Cat, was ready to come back to A-PAL and go to foster. As I was picking up another cat, Dr. Alison showed this cat to me explaining that he was now able to stand and eat although unsteady. We agreed that he would go to A-PAL after the weekend and Acorn Hills would work on getting his mats out for us. I told Dr. Alison that I would try to find this cat’s owner. I remembered a post and hoped this would be that cat, snapping a few photos of him before I left.\n\nI went to Amador Animals and Pets Facebook page where I had seen the post and began paging through. After about 30 minutes I found the post. The photos seemed similar, but I could not be sure. First I sent the photo to the person who made the post on the string where she had reported her beloved lost cat and then I realized she might not see it, so I sent her a message asking her to call me. To my surprise, Shaylee Hubbs called me immediately and seemed certain that this was her cat, Nacho. Her post was made in early January and I was calling more than a month later. Could this even be possible?\n\nI explained to her that Nacho was at Acorn Hills Animal Center and asked her to call them. I called Acorn Hills too because we were all in disbelief that we may have located Big Orange Cat’s owner. Shaylee told me that she took her two cats that lived with her in Davis to stay with her parents in Sutter Creek over Christmas break. These cats enjoyed ranch life and were allowed outside and one came back, but Nacho did not.\n\nThis cat had weighed 17lbs and dropped 7lbs. during his 5 miles of travel from Quartz Mountain Road to Pine Gulch Road in Sutter Creek. He had endured relentless rain, hail, flooding and extreme cold. The fact that he had gone so far and had escaped predators and extreme weather was a testament to how much he was loved and how determined he was to get home. His family matched his chip number on his paperwork with his chip reading confirming this was indeed their cat Nacho. Shaylee told me many times how grateful they were that he had been found and that all of the family was crying happy tears.\n\nI learned three things from this miracle recovery of Big Orange Cat. First, I would never let a cat outside in a place that may be strange to them. This cat was so loved and well cared for that he miraculously survived. Second is to always double check that your microchip registry actually is recorded. It is possible to think you have successfully recorded your microchip and I encourage everyone to double check. And last, social media can work magic. A big shout out to the Amador Animals and Pets Facebook page and Lori Crisp for getting this Big Orange Cat home. Shaylee posted and this made it possible for her beloved cat to be matched to her and to be returned to the best place for his continued recovery…home.\n\nLike A-PAL on Facebook for “PAWESOME” Updates\n\nLook Inside...\n\nBoys will be Boys ............ 1\n2022 Impact Report .......... 2\nLucky Clover .................. 2\nMeet Mister Dooley ......... 3\nBarn Cat Buddies ............ 3\nSave the Dates ............... 4\nDonor Thank You ............ 4-5\nTributes & Memorials ...... 6\nDonation Form ............... 6\nOrange Cat’s Long Journey .. 7\nPaws & Claws 80’s Bash ..... 8\n\nHi! I’m Dooley and I’m the bestest boy! I’d love to go home with you! See my blog on page 3."}}},{"rowIdx":204793,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Our Lady of Mt. Carmel Church\n120 Prospect Street, Nutley, New Jersey 07110\nJanuary 8, 2023\n\nRev. Paciano A. Barbieto, S.T.L.\nPastor\nRev. Dennis E. Reiff\nPastor Emeritus\nDeacon Aldo Antola\nRetired Deacon\nSr. Mary Rose Conforto, MPF\nDirector of Religious Education\nAndres Cardona\nDirector of Music Ministry\nAmanda Andrade\nParish Administrative Assistant\n\nMass Schedule\nMonday-Friday: 8:00 a.m.\nSaturday Morning: 8:00 a.m.\nSaturday, 5:00 p.m.\nSunday: 7:30 a.m., 9:15 a.m., 10:45 a.m. & 12:15 p.m.\nFilipino Mass ~ Third Sunday of the month: 5:00 p.m.\nHoly Days: As Announced\n\nSacrament of Reconciliation\nWeekdays after the 8:00 a.m. Mass\nSaturday: 2:00 p.m.\n\nDevotions\nOur Lady of Mt. Carmel Novena: Wednesday following the 8:00 a.m. Mass\nFirst Friday Adoration: following the 8:00 a.m. Mass\n\nMission Statement\nOur mission as a holy parish is to communicate and to celebrate the life and spirit of Jesus by our words and actions in order to build a dynamic, loving, caring and outreaching community of faith.\n\nRectory Hours\nMonday-Friday: 9:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. during\nThe rectory is closed between 12:30 p.m. - 1:30 p.m.\nRectory Phone Numbers\n(973) 667-2580\n(973) 661-1623\nFax: (973) 667-0648\nEmails\nemail@example.com\nfirstname.lastname@example.org\nWebsite\nwww.olmc-nutley.org\n\nMarriages\nPlease schedule at least ONE YEAR in advance of your wedding. Pre-Cana and other instruction sessions are required.\n\nSacraments of Healing\nPlease notify the parish office if someone is ill at home.\n\nBaptisms\nWe request parents attend a Baptism Instruction Session before the birth of their child. The Sacrament of Baptism is usually celebrated the third Sunday of each month, except during Lent (when we will not celebrate the sacrament until Easter). All Baptisms are scheduled in person at the rectory.\n\nParish Membership\nAll are welcome to join our Parish Family. Parish policy requires registration to participate in Baptism, Marriage and Religion Classes. Please notify the office when a change of address or move occurs.\n\nMass Intentions\n\nSaturday January 7\n8:00 a.m. Abelardo and Socorro Sison\n5:00 p.m. Stella Ciba\n\nSunday January 8\n7:30 a.m. Paul Wolf\n9:15 a.m. Bill Parker\n10:45 a.m. Ed Palomo\n12:15 p.m. Beverly Gall\n\nMonday January 9\n8:00 a.m. Anthony Testa\n\nTuesday January 10\n8:00 a.m. Elizabeth Ng\n\nWednesday January 11\n8:00 a.m. Julia Quiles\n\nThursday January 12\n8:00 a.m. Dennis Bronner Jr.\n\nFriday January 13\n8:00 a.m. Benito Libunao\n\nSaturday January 14\n8:00 a.m. Living and Deceased Members of the Cucinello and Mazza Families\n5:00 p.m. Frank Rocco Santo\n\nSunday January 15\n7:30 a.m. Josephine Wolf\n9:15 a.m. Aries Nano\n10:45 a.m. Betty Fusaro\n12:15 p.m. James and Lina Rizzi\n\nPrayers for Health Reasons\n\nDelfina Alessio, Frank Alvarenga, Ariel Andrade, Caren Angrisano, Melissa Benimeo, George Berkovich, Dorothy Bogacz, Charles Brunquell, Jesse Bruno, Eleanor Brush, Erlinda Cajigas, Rose Marie Candiloro, Rudolfo Clavecilla, Ronald Cozzarelli, Marion Dellanno, Ana Marie de Vera, Donald Di Benedetto, Joshua Di Costanzo, Richard Dinzes, Veronica Duff, Melanie Entena, Domenick Falduto, Anna Marie Ferrante, Connie Garcia, Robert Griffin, Patricia Holevas, Justin, Carol Kaufman, Robert Krupinski, Lucille Victoria Magalong, Rodrigo Magalong, Peter Maioriello, Rita Mata, Cynthia McDevitt, Melanie McGowan, Eve McKay, Madeline Micael, Lawrence Miller, Carmela Moeller, Frances Nawolski, Karen Ann Niles, Jack Nitz, Raffaela Notari, Karen P., Robert Palmer, Maria A. Penaranda, Evelyn Perry, Rosalie Petracca, Vincent Petracco, Anthony Petrillo, Simplicia Ramirez, Richard Reidy, Albert Reyes, Jocelyn Reyes, Marie Rispoli, Jaxson Rivera, Robert D. Roberto, Roberto N. Roberto, Anne Rotonda, Joanne Sacchetti, Josephine Senek, Damaso (Jun) Serrano, Susan, Margaret Strawn, John Tiseo, Mariana Toledo, James Tressito, Margarita Ufret, Diana Vaicels, Mary Ann Vialu, Gina Villaggio, Eileen Wohlert, Dominick Zungri, Romona Zungri\n\nMass Intentions\n\nMasses are available for the 2023 year. Also, come to the rectory to: Make an offering in honor or in memory of a loved one for The Sanctuary Light, Bread and Wine or Church Flowers.\n\nIf you need to visit or call the rectory on Mondays and it is not an emergency, we would sincerely appreciate your consideration and assistance in delaying your visit or call until after 11:30 a.m. Thank You!\n\nBaptism Information\n\nIf you are expectant parents, please arrange to attend our Baptismal Instruction Program before the birth of your child. Baptismal Instruction and Baptisms must be scheduled in person, at the rectory. The next Baptism is January 15. Please visit our website to read guidelines for Godparents and for a complete Baptismal Schedule.\n\nThe Sanctuary Light honoring the Eucharistic Presence of Our Lord in the Tabernacle is lit in Honor and Memory of Dan Spera\n\nThe Bread and Wine offering this week is in Honor and Memory of People of the Parish\n\nChristmas Collection: $14,650\n\nEpiphany Prayer\n\nThat I May Find You There\n\nLord of all nations,\nI asked how you will know me.\n\nYou answered that you will know the ones\nwho have fed you\nWhen they have fed the least of your people.\nSend me out to the most famished land\nThat I may find you there\nAnd give of my portion to eat.\n\nYou answered that you will know the ones\nwho have given you water\nWhen they have given water to the least of\nyour people.\nSend me out to the driest land\nThat I may find you there\nAnd give of my portion to drink.\n\nYou answered that you will know the ones\nwho have clothed you\nWhen they have clothed the least of your\npeople.\nSend me to where the elements have made\ntoo large a claim\nThat I may find you there\nAnd share with you my cloak.\n\nYou told me I will know you in the sick:\nSend me among the most plagued.\nYou told me I will know you in the prisoner:\nSend me into the midst of the darkest cell,\nInto the slave master’s marketplace,\nFor I seek you with all my heart.\n\nAs you were revealed in your glory to all\nnations\nThrough the miracle of the Epiphany\nMay you so be revealed through all ages\nIn the faces of your people:\nIn their joy and in their struggle\nIn their dignity and in their vulnerability.\n\nAnd when I find you in these,\nLet them ask who is this Lord who has\nsent me,\nSo that they may find you in me as well.\n\nAmen\n\nSource: https://www.crs.org/resource-center/epiphany-god-all\n\nReligious Education\n\nA complete Calendar of Classes is available on our website at:\n\nwww.olmc-nutley.org/religious-education\n\nCome Sing With Us!\n\nWe are looking for members to join both Adult and Youth Choir! If you or your child enjoys singing, please contact Andres at 347-678-6702. Adult choir practice is each Wednesday night 7:30 p.m. (singing at the 12:15 Mass) and Youth choir practice is each Thursday night 7:00 p.m. (singing at the 10:45 Mass).\n\nYou Are Not Alone (YANA)\n\nThe Parish Bereavement Support Group meets the second Wednesday of the month from 7:30 - 9:00 p.m. in the Parish Hall. Meetings are postponed until further notice. In the meantime, St. Mary’s Church in Nutley has a group that meets Wednesday evenings in Monsignor Walsh Hall from 5:30 – 7:00 p.m. Please contact Taji at email@example.com if you are interested.\n\nCommunion for the Homebound\n\nUpon request, Communion will be brought to any parishioner confined to the home. Please contact Denise at 973-542-0191. Reminder: those who are seriously ill, or weak from the burden of years, should request the Anointing of the Sick ~ to schedule: please contact the Rectory.\n\nOLMC Website\n\nVisit our website www.olmc-nutley.org to read updated information, check out the latest bulletin, get Religious Education news, Mass schedules, find out more information about our various organizations events, and much more. Pay us a visit!\n\nJoin Us...\n\nKnights of Columbus\n\nThe group meets the first and third Tuesday of the month at 8:00 p.m. Meetings are held September through June. To join: email Ken at firstname.lastname@example.org or call the Rectory.\n\nOLMC Rosary Society\n\nThe group meets the first Thursday of the month at 1:00 p.m. Our meetings will resume at a later date. For more information call Denise (973) 542-0191. New members welcome!\n\nWomen’s Auxiliary\n\nThe group meets the second Monday of the month at 1:00 p.m. Our next meeting will be January 9. For more information call Linda, (973) 661-0090 or email at email@example.com. New members welcome!\n\nAccountability With Heartfelt Thanks\n\nCatholic Charities received $979.00 as a result of your generosity to our Donation Bin(s) in our parish parking lot from June 1, 2022 to November 30, 2022. These funds combined with monies from other parishes in a similar program throughout the Archdiocese enabled Catholic Charities to show the compassion of Christ through 79,566 mental health services provided to 3,768 people (FY 21/22). Thank you for being our partner and enabling us to bring Christ’s love to the most vulnerable in our society.\n\nPrayer for the Baptism of the Lord\n\nAlmighty ever-living God, who, when Christ had been baptized in the River Jordan and as the Holy Spirit descended upon him, solemnly declared him your beloved Son, grant that your children by adoption, reborn of water and the Holy Spirit, may always be well pleasing to you. Through our Lord Jesus Christ, your Son, who lives and reigns with you in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, for ever and ever. Amen\n\nFood Pantry\n\nMany people only donate to food pantries at holiday times. We sincerely appreciate your generosity throughout the year. Donations to our Food Pantry may include non-perishable foods: such as soups, sauces, pasta, rice, cereals, dry milk, canned foods, as well as toiletries.\n\nPlease check expiration dates before donating food. Please drop off food donations in one of the church vestibules. Please refrain from leaving donations on the porch of the rectory.\n\nParish Membership … Why is it Important?\n\nIn order for the parish to keep accurate records, please notify the parish office of any changes in your address or phone number. In order for us to testify to your ability for sponsorship in Baptism, Confirmation or witness to a Catholic marriage, it is necessary to be a registered member of this parish. To register, fill out the form below and place in the collection basket.\n\nQuick Parish Registration Request\n\nOur welcome mat is always out. If you enjoy worshipping at Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church, make us your official Parish by taking a few moments to register. You may also download a registration form on our website. All information is confidential.\n\nI wish to register as a Parishioner of OLMC.\n\nName: _______________________________________\nAddress: _____________________________________\nCity/Town: ____________________________________\nTelephone: ____________________________________\n\n☐ New Registration ☐ Change of Address\n\nStewardship\n\nWe have an obligation to share with others that which God has given us. Share your time and talents. Everyone can become involved in the life of our Parish by becoming an Altar Server, Catechist, Choir Member, Lector or Usher. By taking an active role in the liturgical life, and service of the Parish, you can have a wonderful experience. Please complete the below form, and drop it in the collection basket or call the rectory.\n\nMinistry Sign Up Form\n\nName: _______________________________________\nAddress: _____________________________________\nTown/Zip: ____________________________________\nPhone: _______________________________________\n\nI am interested in the following Ministry(ies):\n\n☐ Altar Server\n☐ Catechist\n☐ Lector\n☐ Choir\n☐ Other _____________\n\nEpiphany\n\nEpiphany, also Theophany, Denha, Little Christmas, or Three Kings’ Day, is a Christian feast day that celebrates the revelation of God incarnate as Jesus Christ. In Western Christianity, the feast commemorates principally (but not solely) the visit of the Magi to the Christ Child, and thus Jesus’ physical manifestation to the Gentiles. Moreover, the feast of the Epiphany, in some Western Christian denominations, also initiates the liturgical season of Epiphanytide. Eastern Christians, on the other hand, commemorate the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, seen as his manifestation to the world as the Son of God. Qasr el Yahud in the West Bank, and Al-Maghtas in Jordan, on the east bank, is considered to be the original site of the baptism of Jesus and the ministry of John the Baptist. The traditional date for the feast is January 6. Eastern Churches following the Julian calendar observe the feast on what for most countries is January 19 because of the 13-day difference today between that calendar and the generally used Gregorian calendar. In many Western Christian Churches, the eve of the feast is celebrated as Twelfth Night. The Monday after Epiphany is known as Plough Monday."}}},{"rowIdx":204794,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Hydrography and circulation near the crest of the East Pacific Rise between 9° and 10°N\n\nA.M. Thurnherr a,*, J.R. Ledwell b, J.W. Lavelle c, L.S. Mullineaux d\n\na Division of Ocean and Climate Physics, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, NY 10964-8000, United States\nb Department of Applied Ocean Physics and Engineering, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, United States\nc NOAA/Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, Seattle, WA 98115, United States\nd Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, United States\n\nARTICLE INFO\n\nArticle history:\nReceived 25 May 2010\nReceived in revised form 12 December 2010\nAccepted 25 January 2011\nAvailable online 3 March 2011\n\nKeywords:\nDeep circulation\nHydrography\nEast Pacific Rise\nMid-ocean ridge\n\nABSTRACT\n\nTopography has a strong effect on the physical oceanography over the flanks and crests of the global mid-ocean ridge system. Here, we present an analysis of the hydrography and circulation near the crest of the East Pacific Rise (EPR) between 9° and 10°N, which coincides with an integrated study site (ISS) of the RIDGE2000 program. The analysis is based primarily on survey and mooring data collected during the LADDER project, which aimed to investigate oceanographic and topographic influences on larval retention and dispersal in hydrothermal vent communities. Results indicate that the yearly averaged regional mean circulation is characterized by a westward drift of 0.5–1 cm s⁻¹ across the EPR axis and by north- and southward flows along the western and eastern upper ridge flanks, respectively. The westward drift is part of a basin-scale zonal flow that extends across most of the Pacific ocean near 10°N, whereas the meridional currents near the ridge crest are a topographic effect. In spite of considerable mesoscale variability, which dominates the regional circulation and dispersal on weekly to monthly time scales, quasi-synoptic surveys carried out during the mooring deployment and recovery cruises indicate sub-inertial circulations that are qualitatively similar to the yearly averaged flow but associated with significantly stronger velocities. Weekly averaged mooring data indicate that the anticyclonically sheared along-flank flows are associated with core speeds as high as 10 cm s⁻¹ and extend ≈10 km off axis and 200 m above the ridge-crest topography. Near the northern limit of the study region, the Lamont Seamount Chain rises from the western ridge flank and restricts along-EPR flow to five narrow passages, where peak velocities in excess of 20 cm s⁻¹ were observed. Outside the region of the ridge-crest boundary currents the density field over the EPR near 10°N is characterized by isopycnals dipping into the ridge flanks. Directly above the EPR axis the ridge-crest boundary currents give rise to an isopycnal dome. During times of strong westward cross-EPR flow isopycnal uplift over the eastern flank causes the cross-ridge density field below the doming isopycnals to be asymmetric, with higher densities over the eastern than over the western flank. The data collected during the LADDER project indicate that dispersal of hydrothermal products from the EPR ISS on long time scales is predominantly to the west, whereas mesoscale variability dominates dispersal on weekly to monthly time scales, which are particularly important in the context of larval dispersal.\n\n© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.\n\n1. Introduction\n\nDespite significant advances in measurement technology and numerical modeling, regional circulation patterns in many parts of the deep ocean remain largely unknown. This is particularly true near mid-ocean ridges, where topography affects the oceanic velocity field across a wide range of scales. Some topographic effects, such as kinematic steering and blocking, affect the circulation directly. Other topographically mediated processes, such as internal waves and hydraulic transitions, result in spatially inhomogeneous diapycnal mixing, which in turn sets up horizontal density gradients that drive secondary flows. Topographic rectification of oscillatory flows constitutes yet another mechanism affecting the oceanic circulation near topography.\n\nThe physical oceanography in the vicinity of topography is important in a variety of contexts. Topographic blocking by ridges separating deep ocean basins, for example, controls the hydrographic properties of the densest bottom waters in the downstream basins and, thus, sets the stratifications in large parts of the deep ocean. On a global scale, closing the overturning circulation requires the production of dense water at high latitudes to be balanced by buoyancy gain elsewhere. Observational evidence collected during...\n\nthe last few decades indicates that, except near the sea surface, diapycnal buoyancy fluxes are elevated primarily near topography, in particular over the rough flanks of mid-ocean ridges (Polzin et al., 1997; Kunze et al., 2006). On regional scales, circulation and mixing near the crests of mid-ocean ridges largely control the initial dispersal of materials released at hydrothermal sources (e.g. German et al., 1998; Thomson et al., 2003; Jackson et al., 2010; Walter et al., 2010), including the larvae of chemosynthetic organisms, many of which are endemic to hydrothermal vent fields.\n\nGiven the distribution of hydrothermal sources along the crests of the global mid-ocean ridge system and the finite life span of invertebrate larvae there are many open questions related to how the populations of the chemosynthetic communities associated with hydrothermal vent fields can be maintained, how sites destroyed, for example, by volcanic eruptions can be re-populated, and how newly established sites can be colonized. In order to address these questions a project called LADDER (LArval Dispersal along the Deep East-Pacific Rise) was carried out to investigate oceanographic and topographic influences on larval retention and dispersal in hydrothermal vent communities on the crest of the EPR between 9° and 10°N (Mullineaux et al., 2008). Typical for fast-spreading ridges, the EPR crest in this region hosts numerous hydrothermal sources (e.g. Baker et al., 1994), which is one of the reasons that it has been designated by the US RIDGE2000 program as an Integrated Study Site (ISS) with a “bullseye” centered at 9°50′N.\n\nBefore the LADDER project was carried out, little had been known about the regional circulation near the EPR crest between 9° and 10°N. During a survey of hydrothermal plumes over the ridge crest Baker et al. (1994) found zonally asymmetric distributions of hydrothermal particle- and temperature anomalies, indicating preferentially westward cross-ridge flow in November/December 1991. Westward large-scale mean flow near the EPR crest depth (∼2500 m) in this region is consistent with the deep helium distribution in the tropical North Pacific (Lupton, 1998) and with the circulation analysis of Reid (1997) (who uses the helium data as a constraint). In addition to those indirect inferences there are also current-meter records from a few mooring deployments on the EPR crest at 9°50′N. One example is the ∼5-month record, obtained 170 m above the seabed, that was used by Marsh et al. (2001) to assess the dispersal potential of a particular hydrothermal organism. The corresponding time series of sub-inertial velocities is characterized by periodic reversals of the along-ridge flow and sustained episodes of both east- and westward across-ridge flow. The zonal record mean is 0.3 cm s⁻¹ to the west, consistent with the indirect inferences of westward large-scale mean flow across the EPR crest in this region. The corresponding meridional record-mean flow is 0.8 cm s⁻¹ to the south. In their analysis of data from two zonal hydrographic sections across the EPR, including one at 9°30′N, Thompson and Johnson (1996) found an ∼700–900 m thick layer where the deep isotherms and isopycnals dip downward into the ridge flanks. If the flow in this layer, which Thompson and Johnson (1996) attribute to a combination of enhanced diapycnal mixing and geothermal heating on the ridge flank, is geostrophically balanced, and if the meridional velocities vanish above the layer of dipping isotherms and isopycnals, the hydrographic data imply a southward boundary current along the western ridge flank with a mean velocity of a few mm s⁻¹.\n\nThe primary goal of the present study consists of an analysis of the regional circulation near the EPR crest between 9° and 10°N, based on observations collected during the LADDER project augmented with publicly available historical data (Section 2). Following a description of the large-scale context of the physical oceanography near the ridge crest (Section 3) pertinent aspects of the LADDER observations are presented in Section 4. Analysis of the LADDER results includes a detailed description of the density field over the EPR crest and upper flanks (Section 4.1), yearly averaged mean velocities recorded by instruments deployed on the LADDER mooring array (Section 4.2), weekly averaged velocities observed during a 1-month tracer-release experiment (Section 4.3), as well as details of the circulation observed near the Lamont Seamount Chain rising above the upper western EPR flank near 10°N (Section 4.4). Synthesis of the main results (Section 5) is followed by a discussion in Section 6.\n\n2. Methods\n\n2.1. Instruments and data\n\nWork carried out in the context of the LADDER project includes larval sampling using pumps and sediment traps (Mullineaux et al., in preparation), an SF₆ tracer-release experiment (Jackson et al., 2010), a one-year deployment of a mooring array, three quasi-synoptic regional surveys carried out with Conductivity–Temperature–Depth (CTD) and Lowered Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (LADCP) instruments, as well as numerical experiments with 2- and 3-dimensional regional circulation models (McGillicuddy et al., 2010; Lavelle et al., 2010).\n\nDuring the first LADDER cruise (LADDER-1; October 30–November 15, 2006) seven physical oceanography moorings were deployed in a cross-shaped configuration extending ∼35 km from the array center on the EPR crest at 9°30′N—see Fig. 4 for mooring locations and station names. The center of the mooring array coincided with the release location of SF₆ in the LADDER tracer-dispersion experiment (Jackson et al., 2010). The three axial moorings (NA, CA and SA) and the two moorings farthest from the ridge axis (EF and WF) were each equipped with three Aanderaa RCM-11 current meters. The uppermost instruments recorded the velocities near 2450 m in the core of the hydrothermal plumes observed in this region (Baker et al., 1996; Jackson et al., 2010). The lowermost instruments on the three axial moorings were located 6 m above the seabed, near the rim depth of the shallow axial trough running along the EPR crest in this region (Fornari et al., 1998). Each axial mooring additionally had an instrument placed 24 m above the seabed. The lower two instruments on the EF and WF moorings were installed near the EPR crest depth (nominally 2550 m) and ∼60 m above the seabed. All current meters were programmed to sample the velocity field every 20 min. With the exception of the EF mooring, where the deepest instrument flooded during deployment, all current meters returned full year-long records without any indications for instrument problems.\n\nTwo additional moorings equipped with McLane Moored Profilers (MMPs) were deployed on the western ridge flank ∼10 and 25 km off axis (W1 and W3 in Fig. 4). At W1, velocity profiles were recorded every 7 h between 2300 and 2775 m (∼10 m.a.b. = meters above the bottom). Since this MMP was ballasted light, the downcasts took about twice as long to execute (∼60 min) than the upcasts (∼30 min). Inspection of the raw magnetometer data from the W1 MMP indicates that a compass problem (non-linear magnetometer response) developed after 176 days (603 good profiles). At W3, velocity profiles were recorded every 8:50 h between 2255 and 3025 m (∼10 m.a.b.). This MMP, too, was ballasted light, resulting in longer downcast- (∼80 min, initially) than upcast-times (∼50 min). After the first 2 months of deployment the downcast-times started increasing significantly as the instrument began struggling against buoyancy and after a further 2 months the termination depths of the downcasts became progressively shallower. Toward the end of the deployment the typical maximum depth of the W3 MMP profiles had decreased to ∼2800 m.\n\nDuring LADDER-1, a survey of the regional hydrography and velocity field was carried out with an SBE 911 CTD mounted on a frame together with a rosette and one or two Teledyne RDI Workhorse 300 kHz ADCPs. The CTD was equipped with sensors for pressure, temperature and conductivity. Temperature and conductivity were measured with two thermistors and two conductivity cells, respectively. The ADCPs were programmed to collect single-ping velocity “ensembles” in beam coordinates. The bin length was set to 8 m, the blanking distance to 0 m and data from the first bin were excluded from processing. In order to minimize the effects of previous-ping interference from the seabed, alternating ping intervals of 1.5 and 2 s were used. During the LADDER-1 survey, 36 full-depth profiles were collected on 15 stations in a cross-shaped pattern coinciding with the mooring array but with higher spatial resolution, in particular along the EPR crest and on the eastern ridge flank—for station locations, see Fig. 5. In order to be able to account for high-frequency variability, most of the LADDER-1 CTD/LADCP stations were occupied two or three times at different phases of the semi-diurnal tide, which accounts for 55–72% of the velocity variance on time scales shorter than 5 days in this region. (The inertial period at this latitude is ≈ 3 days.) The good agreement of vertical velocity shear of ensemble-averaged LADCP profiles collected on the ridge flanks during LADDER-1 with corresponding geostrophic estimates (Fig. 12) implies that tidal influence in the ensemble averages is significantly reduced compared to individual LADCP profiles.\n\nThe second LADDER cruise (LADDER-2; December 12, 2006–January 3, 2007) was primarily dedicated to sampling the tracer released during LADDER-1. CTD/LADCP data were collected with instruments identical to those used during LADDER-1 at all 100 tracer-sampling stations shown in Fig. 1 of Jackson et al. (2010). However, since tidal variability dominates instantaneous velocity samples in this region, and since only a few of the LADDER-2 stations were occupied multiple times (and without regard to the tidal phase) only a small subset of the LADDER-2 survey data is used here. During the third LADDER cruise (LADDER-3; November 15–December 1, 2007) the mooring array was recovered and an additional CTD/LADCP survey was carried out, again with identical instruments. About a third of the 50 LADDER-3 CTD/LADCP profiles were collected on stations occupied during LADDER-1 while most of the remainder were used to sample the velocity field and hydrography near the Lamont Seamount Chain rising above the western flank of the EPR near 10°N (for details, see Section 4.4).\n\nIn addition to the data collected during LADDER, this study makes use of hydrographic and helium isotope measurements obtained during World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) hydrographic sections (in particular the zonal P04 section along 9°30′N) in the tropical north Pacific. Furthermore, the trajectory of a METOCEAN PROVOR float, which was deployed in May 2006 on the EPR crest at 9°50′N, is also used. The float was programmed to drift at its maximum rated pressure (2000 dbar, corresponding to a depth of ≈ 1980 m) and to surface every 30 days for 18 h for data telemetry and position fixes. The float carried out 29 complete drift cycles before failing to re-surface.\n\n### 2.2. Data processing\n\nThe velocities from the Aanderaa current meters were corrected for magnetic declination. Processing of MMP velocities is significantly more complex and potentially involves corrections for heading errors, as well as for velocity bias and scale of the FSI acoustic travel-time current meters (Toole, 2001). In order to determine heading corrections, post-cruise spin tests were carried out. In the case of the W1 instrument the post-cruise test indicates sizeable heading-dependent compass errors (15° max., 9° rms) while the errors of the W3 compass were significantly smaller (< 1.5° rms). Since the W1 compass errors detected during the post-cruise spin test are likely related to the non-linear magnetometer response that developed while the instrument was in the water (Section 2.1), no compass correction was applied and only the initial portion of the W1 velocity record was used. In order to correct for velocity bias, the *in situ* method of Toole (2001) was applied. It was found that this calibration procedure has a strong effect on the velocities, changing the direction of the record-averaged mean flow recorded by the W1 instrument by up to 20° and reducing the corresponding mean velocity magnitude in the core of the along-flank boundary current (see Section 4.3) from 4.1 to 2.4 cm s⁻¹. In terms of flow direction, the calibrated velocities are clearly superior to the uncalibrated ones as indicated, for example, by histograms of the angle of flow incidence relative to the instrument (not shown). Since no laboratory calibrations of the FSI current meters were carried out the accuracy of the velocity scaling could not be verified, but comparisons of weekly averaged velocities recorded on the W3 and WF moorings (e.g. Fig. 7) suggest that MMP scale errors are small.\n\nDuring each CTD/LADCP survey the salinity calibration of the CTD was monitored with water samples analyzed on a Guildline Autosal salinometer. The accuracy of the salinity data determined from the Autosal measurements is ≤ 10⁻³ for LADDER-1 and -2, and ≤ 2 × 10⁻³ for LADDER-3. The *rms* salinity scatter on deep isopycnals during LADDER-1 is ≈ 10⁻³, as is the cruise-to-cruise salinity uncertainty between LADDER-1 and -2 (Jackson et al., 2010). Near the EPR crest, a salinity bias of 10⁻³ corresponds to a potential-density error of < 10⁻² kg m⁻³. The temperature accuracy is estimated from the mean differences between the two CTD temperature sensors; the corresponding values for the LADDER-1, -2 and -3 surveys are ≈ 5 × 10⁻⁴, 10⁻³, and 1.5 × 10⁻³ °C, respectively. Near the EPR crest, a temperature bias of 10⁻³ °C corresponds to a potential-density error of ≈ 10⁻⁴ kg m⁻³. The manufacturer-specified nominal accuracy of the CTD pressure sensor is ≈ 1 dbar.\n\nThe LADCP data collected during the three LADDER cruises were processed dozens of times with different programs and velocity-referencing constraints in the context of an investigation of LADCP velocity errors (Thurnherr, 2010). Based on comparisons with nearby current-meter measurements the *rms* errors associated with the individual velocity components of the LADDER LADCP data, processed with the LDEO software (Version IX_5) and constrained by navigational data, shipboard-ADCP and bottom-tracking, are < 3 cm s⁻¹ near the seabed and < 4 cm s⁻¹ throughout the water column. Only the data from the downward-looking ADCP are used for the LADDER-3 LADCP profiles because of inconsistencies between the ADCP data from the two heads used during that cruise (Thurnherr, 2010).\n\n### 3. Large-scale context\n\nThe study region of the LADDER project was centered on the crest of the EPR near 9°30′N. Hydrographic and tracer data were collected in 1989 along 9°30′N during a trans-Pacific cruise both known as the EPIC trans-pacific section at 10°N (Thompson and Johnson, 1996) and as WOCE P04. On the basin scale, the distribution of terrigenic helium along 9°30′N is dominated by a plume with a core depth between 2000 and 2500 m (Fig. 1, shading and light contours). The highest helium concentrations are found near the EPR crest at 104°15′W. Meridional WOCE cross-sections of the plume at 110°W (P18), 135°W (P17), 150°W\n\n(P16), 179°E (P14), 165°E (P13) and 137°E (P09) all show a helium core meridionally centered at $10 \\pm 5°N$, i.e. the plume extends almost exactly zonally westward over more than 13,000 km. Overall, the helium distribution in the deep tropical north Pacific is consistent with a source on the EPR crest and predominantly westward mean flow (Lupton, 1998). As the plume is advected to the west its core is progressively found on lighter isopycnals (dark contours in Fig. 1). This effect can be caused both by vertical shear in the mean zonal flow and by vertical gradients in the eddy-diffusive helium fluxes along the dispersal path of the plume.\n\nThe track of a float that was deployed in May 2006 over the EPR crest at 9°50′N and that drifted for 900 days near 2000 m shows predominantly westward advection, although about a third of the individual drift cycles were associated with eastward displacements (Fig. 2). During its voyage, the float carried out three anticyclonic loops, each lasting several months and associated with meridional displacements of $\\approx 100$ km, although the net meridional displacement over the float’s entire life time was only 30 km. The net zonal displacement was 640 km, which corresponds to a mean westward velocity with a speed of 0.8 cm s$^{-1}$. Thus, both the helium and float data indicate mean westward flow across the EPR crest near 9°30′N. It is noted that the high $\\delta^{3}$He observed in the Guatemala basin east of the EPR crest (Fig. 1) does not require an additional source or eastward mean flow as eddy-diffusive effects, e.g. associated with the oceanic mesoscale, can cause dispersion of passive tracers against a sufficiently weak mean flow (e.g. Speer et al., 2003).\n\n4. LADDER observations\n\n4.1. Ridge-crest hydrography\n\nTypical for hydrographic sections across mid-ocean ridges, the deep isopycnals observed during WOCE P04 dip downward into both flanks of the EPR (Fig. 1). This effect is sometimes attributed to elevated levels of diapycnal mixing over the sloping and topographically rough ridge flanks, possibly in combination with geothermal heating (e.g. Thompson and Johnson, 1996; Thurnherr and Speer, 2003). Zooming in on the EPR reveals that the hydrography near the crest is complex and associated with horizontal scales that are too small to be resolved by the WOCE station spacing (Fig. 3). The isopycnal surfaces dome upward over the ridge crest both in the WOCE P04 data and in a cross-ridge section along 9°30′N occupied during LADDER-1. During LADDER-1 this doming extended at least up to 2200 m, whereas the corresponding vertical extent is difficult...\n\nto estimate from the WOCE data because the station spacing (≈ 37 km over the crest) is larger than the width of the isopycnal dome (20–30 km in the LADDER-1 data). Beyond the doming region the isopycnals at and below crest depth dip downward into the western ridge flank in both the WOCE and LADDER-1 data. Over the eastern ridge flank the isopycnals in the WOCE data dip downward into the topography east of station 191 (i.e. outside the LADDER-1 sampling region). The LADDER-1 data, on the other hand, show the isopycnals below crest depth rising toward the west between the eastern edge of the sampling region and the ridge crest. As a result, the density stratification below crest depth on the western EPR flank close to the ridge axis was significantly weaker than the stratification on the eastern flank. This is apparent from the fact that the two deepest LADDER-1 density contours in Fig. 3 do not appear on the western flank at all. Farther down on the ridge flanks, i.e. outside the LADDER sampling region, the situation is reversed with significantly weaker stratification east of the EPR crest than in the west (WOCE-derived density contours in Figs. 1 and 3).\n\n4.2. Yearly averaged mean flow\n\nRecord-averaged velocities from the LADDER mooring array are shown in Fig. 4. The corresponding current-meter locations and MMP record depths are marked with bullets and diamonds in Fig. 3. Table 1 lists additional instrument details of the records nominally collected at 2450 m, which corresponds to the core depth of the neutrally buoyant hydrothermal plumes observed in this region (Baker et al., 1994; Jackson et al., 2010), as well as the corresponding record means with standard-error estimates derived using the method of Flierl and McWilliams (1978). As this method yields conservative estimates we consider the yearly averages marginally significant, as long as the standard-error estimates are only slightly (1–2 mm s⁻¹) larger than the corresponding means. Except for the current meters on the northern axial mooring at 9°50′N (NA) all instruments recorded mean zonal flow to the west, with record-averaged zonal speeds ranging from 0.3 to 0.7 cm s⁻¹. The meridional velocities recorded directly on the EPR axis as well as over the eastern flank indicate mean southward flow during LADDER. Over the western ridge flank, on the other hand, the record-averaged currents at W1 and WF were to the north while weak southward mean flow was recorded at W3 throughout the entire depth range where velocities were sampled during the full deployment period (≈ 2300–2800 m; Section 2.1). Comparing the record-averaged velocities at plume level to the corresponding standard errors (Table 1) indicates that the westward zonal velocities are all marginally statistically significant, whereas the apparent eastward flow at NA is not. The only plume-level meridional velocities that are (marginally) statistically significant are those at NA, EF and WF.\n\nData from the axial moorings (NA, CA and SA) all show slightly higher record-averaged speeds 20 m.a.b. than at plume level (Fig. 4), indicating bottom intensification of the low-frequency flow above the EPR crest. At 6 m.a.b., the mean velocities are ≈ 50% weaker than the corresponding velocities recorded 20 m.a.b., consistent with the effects of a turbulent bottom-boundary layer. Furthermore, the deepest velocities are associated with approximately southward directions (not shown), which likely reflects topographic steering by the shallow axial trough running along the EPR crest in this region (Fornari et al., 1998).\n\nThe largest record-averaged velocities of 2.4(± 1.0) cm s⁻¹ were observed between 2730 and 2750 m (60–80 m.a.b.) by the MMP deployed at W1 (Fig. 4). Between the upper cycling limit of this profiler (2300 m) and the velocity maximum the record-averaged speed increases monotonically with depth. Inspection of multibeam bathymetry near the W1 mooring location indicates that the flow direction in the velocity core (≈ 320° true) is parallel to the topographic contours upstream of the mooring (not shown). The maximum velocity variance associated with the sub-inertial flow at this location is oriented in the same direction, whereas the semi-diurnal tidal variance, which dominates the super-inertial variability, is oriented approximately perpendicularly along 70° true\n\nFig. 4. Record-averaged current-meter velocities from the LADDER mooring array; the 6-month W1 record is approximately half as long as all the others (Table 1). White, gray, and black arrows show velocities at plume level ($\\approx 2450$ m), crest level (20 m.a.b. on axis, $\\approx 2550$ m over the ridge flanks) and 60 m.a.b. (2745 m at W1, 2930 m at WF), respectively. The depths of the velocity records are indicated with bullets and diamonds in Fig. 3.\n\nTable 1\n\nInstrument details and record-average velocities near 2450 m obtained on the LADDER mooring array; velocity components that are considered (marginally) significantly different from zero are shown in bold.\n\n| id | Location | Rec. length (days) | Depth (m) | Instr. | Zonal velocity (cm s$^{-1}$) | Meridional velocity (cm s$^{-1}$) |\n|----|-------------------|--------------------|-----------|--------|-----------------------------|----------------------------------|\n| NA | 9 50.0'N, 104 17.4'W | 388 | 2430 | RCM-11 | 0.5(±0.9) | −0.6(±0.6) |\n| CA | 9 29.9'N, 104 14.5'W | 381 | 2440 | RCM-11 | −0.5(±0.6) | −0.4(±0.7) |\n| SA | 9 09.0'N, 104 12.5'W | 366 | 2440 | RCM-11 | −0.6(±0.7) | −0.6(±0.9) |\n| EF | 9 33.1'N, 103 52.3'W | 392 | 2460 | RCM-11 | −0.6(±0.6) | −0.5(±0.4) |\n| WF | 9 26.6'N, 104 32.3'W | 384 | 2480 | RCM-11 | −0.3(±0.4) | 0.4(±0.4) |\n| W1 | 9 29.8'N, 104 19.8'W | 176 | 2450 | MMP | −0.7(±0.9) | 0.4(±0.9) |\n| W3 | 9 28.2'N, 104 29.0'W | 333 | 2450 | MMP | −0.5(±0.4) | −0.1(±0.6) |\n\n(not shown). Therefore, 320° true is taken as the local along-flank direction at the W1 mooring site. (The mean along-flank velocity profile shown in Fig. 4 of McGillicuddy et al. (2010) is also oriented along 320° true.)\n\n4.3. Circulation during the tracer-release experiment\n\nBetween mid-November 2006 and the beginning of January 2007 a tracer-dispersion experiment was carried out in the LADDER study region (Jackson et al., 2010). The LADCP data from the tracer-release cruise (LADDER-1; October 30–November 15) reveal a coherent mean circulation characterized by a broad westward drift of several cm s$^{-1}$ across the EPR and predominantly southward flow of similar magnitude along the eastern ridge flank at and below the core depth of the regional hydrothermal plumes (Fig. 5). On the western ridge flank at 2000 m, i.e. 500–600 m above the EPR crest, the meridional component of the LADDER-1 LADCP velocities was consistently to the north (left panel). At plume level (right panel), northward flow over the western ridge flank was restricted to the first station west of the ridge crest (W1). A cross-ridge section of velocity constructed from the LADDER-1 profiles at 9°30′N indicates that the westward flow across the EPR crest generally increased upward and extended all the way to the sea surface (Fig. 6). The meridional velocities, on the other hand, were more variable with the comparatively strong along-flank flows restricted to the steep (rise/run $\\approx 0.03$) inner flanks of the EPR (roughly between stations W2 and E2).\n\nOn November 12, 2006, shortly before the end of the LADDER-1 cruise, 3 kg of SF$_6$ was injected a few meters above the seabed on the EPR crest at 9°30′N (Jackson et al., 2010). Approximately a\n\nFig. 5. LADCP-derived velocities observed during LADDER-1. Each arrow represents an average over a 100 m-thick layer using the data from all profiles collected at a particular station. Except for the northern- and southernmost locations, each station was occupied two or three times at different phases of the semi-diurnal tide. Left panel: Flow at 2000 m. Right panel: Flow at 2450 m near the core depth of the regional hydrothermal plumes.\n\nFig. 6. Temporally averaged LADCP-velocity sections and potential-density contours across the EPR observed during LADDER-1. Each station, labeled above the figure panels, was occupied two or three times at different phases of the semi-diurnal tide. The potential-density contours are also shown in Fig. 3. Red/blue colors indicate positive/negative velocity components; unshaded regions indicate speeds < 2 cm s\\(^{-1}\\), which is the approximate magnitude of the ensemble-average velocity uncertainties at each station. Left panel: Zonal velocities. Right panel: Meridional velocities.\n\nmonth after the tracer release the distribution of SF\\(_6\\) was sampled during the 3-week-long LADDER-2 cruise (December 15–January 3). In the first four weeks after tracer injection the sub-inertial flow at the tracer-release location in the center of the mooring array (CA) at 2450 m gradually turned clockwise from approximately northwestward while first increasing and then decreasing in strength (Fig. 7, left panel). A similar evolution of the plume-level sub-inertial velocities was observed 10 km off axis over the western\n\nflank at 9°30′N (W1), as well as on-axis at 9°50′N (NA) and at 9°10′N (SA). Clockwise turning of the sub-inertial currents at 2450 m was also observed at 9°30′N 30–35 km off axis on the western flank (W3 and WF) although the velocities there were significantly weaker and generally dominated by the westward zonal component. The plume-level velocities recorded on the eastern ridge flank 35 km off axis (EF), on the other hand, exhibited neither the consistent clockwise turning nor the velocity maximum between November 26 and December 2. During the following three weeks (December 10–December 30), which coincide approximately with the tracer-sampling cruise (LADDER-2), the regional flow field at 2450 m was markedly different with predominantly southward flow recorded over the entire mooring array and comparatively small temporal variability (Fig. 7, right panel).\n\nWeekly averaged along- and cross-flank velocity profiles observed by the W1 MMP during the tracer-release experiment indicate consistently northward along-flank flow during the first 4 weeks, followed by 3 weeks of consistently southward flow (Fig. 8). During all 7 weeks the northward component of the along-flank flow generally increased with increasing depth between 2400 and 2700 m. In contrast to the along-flank velocities, the weekly averaged cross-flank velocities at W1 during the tracer-release experiment were characterized by comparatively small temporal variability and little vertical structure.\n\nAs part of the LADDER project, a high-resolution numerical circulation model was constructed to simulate the regional velocity field during the tracer-release experiment (Lavelle et al., 2010). While the model forcing was derived from velocity measurements at CA alone, the model has significant skill in simulating the flow in the entire study region, as is apparent from a comparison of our Fig. 8 with Fig. 13 of Lavelle et al. (2010), and by the generally good agreement between the simulated and observed tracer distributions (Lavelle et al., 2010). Therefore, the model can be used to put the LADDER measurements into context. For example, the model simulation indicates that the observed differences in vertical structure of the northward along-flank flow at W1 between weeks 1/2 and 3/4 (Fig. 8) primarily reflect a broadening of the along-flank flow during the first half of the tracer experiment (Fig. 12 of Lavelle et al., 2010), rather than a fundamental change in flow structure as suggested by the observations alone.\n\n4.4. Flow across the Lamont Seamount Chain\n\nThe topography near the northern end of the EPR segment that constitutes the LADDER study region is dominated by the Lamont Seamount Chain, which rises above the western ridge flank (Fig. 9). With individual peaks reaching depths as shallow as 1650 m the seamounts extend nearly 1000 m above the EPR crest. Due to their close spacing the Lamont Seamounts restrict meridional flow near 10°N above the western flank of the EPR below ≈ 2000 m to five narrow (≈ 2–5 km) passages with sill depths between 2500 and 2800 m (P1–P5).\n\nThe flow across passage P1 between the EPR crest and the easternmost of the Lamont seamounts was sampled with LADCPs during each of the three LADDER cruises (Fig. 10). Below ≈ 2000 m, which coincides with the peak depth of the easternmost seamount, all three velocity profiles obtained during LADDER-1 and -3 are characterized by a 100–200 m thick layer of southward flow near the seabed underlying a layer of variable but weak flow above. (The arrows in Fig. 9 show the velocities at 2450 m, i.e. above the layer of southward flow.) This contrasts with the situation encountered during the tracer-sampling cruise (LADDER-2) when three velocity profiles collected in passage P1 all show consistently southward flow below 2000 m, with the velocities decreasing from a maximum of ≈ 10 cm s⁻¹ between 2300 and 2500 m to zero near the seabed. Results from the regional circulation model indicate weak and variable mean flow below 2000 m across P1 during LADDER-1 and strong southward flow during LADDER-2 (red curve in Fig. 17B of Lavelle et al., 2010, where “Period 1” corresponds to LADDER-1 and “Period 3” to\n\nLADDER-2), further increasing our confidence in the model simulation.\n\nDuring LADDER-3 the velocities in the remaining deep passages between the seamounts (P2–P5) were also sampled with a LADCP system (Figs. 9 and 11). Below 2000 m the observed flow across the seamount chain was predominantly to the north (northeast across P4) with mean velocities between 0.7 cm s\\(^{-1}\\) (P1) and 6.0 cm s\\(^{-1}\\) (P4). In the passages P2–P4 the north/eastward flow across the seamount chain observed during LADDER-3 was bottom intensified and associated with peak speeds between \\( \\approx 10 \\) and 25 cm s\\(^{-1}\\). The velocity profiles collected in the passages between the seamounts during LADDER-3 are associated with large temporal variability (Figs. 10(right) and 11). Of particular interest are the four velocity profiles from passage P4, which are similar above 1500 m or so but cluster into two groups characterized by velocity differences of \\( \\approx 10 \\) cm s\\(^{-1}\\) below that depth (Fig. 11). The LADDER current-meter data indicate that the temporal variability in the semi-diurnal band accounts for between 55% and 72% of the variance on time scales shorter than 5 days in this region (not shown). Therefore, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that the temporal variability observed during LADDER-3 in the passages between the seamounts was also dominated by the M\\(_2\\) tide. This hypothesis is consistent with the timing of the P4 profiles, as the M\\(_2\\) phase differences between the similar profiles (\\(29 \\pm 2^\\circ\\)) are considerably smaller than the corresponding phase differences between the dissimilar profiles (\\(81 \\pm 29^\\circ\\)). Even more striking in this respect are the LADCP data collected in the P1 passage during LADDER-3 (Fig. 10(right)): While both meridional velocity profiles show the same thin layer of southward flow near the seabed, they resemble mirror images of each other above that layer. As the second profile was taken 2.4 semi-diurnal tidal periods after...\n\nthe first one (155° $M_2$ phase difference), the velocity differences are most likely dominated by the local internal $M_2$ tide, which appears similar to a standing wave with an amplitude of $\\approx 10 \\text{ cm s}^{-1}$. Fortuitously, two of the repeat profiles collected in passage P1 during LADDER-2 (Fig. 10(middle)) are also characterized by an $M_2$ phase difference of 155°, but the velocity differences are both qualitatively and quantitatively very different from those observed during LADDER-3. From this we infer that the internal tide in this region is associated with significant temporal variability.\n\n5. Synthesis of observations\n\nThe sub-inertial circulation near the EPR crest between 9° and 10°N observed during LADDER-1 was characterized by westward flow of several cm s$^{-1}$ across the ridge axis and similarly strong, narrow northward- and southward-flowing “ridge-crest boundary currents” along the western and eastern flanks, respectively. While these along-flank flows extended only a few hundred meters above the crest depth, the westward currents spanned the entire water column. The yearly averaged velocities from the LADDER mooring array show qualitatively similar patterns at and below the depth of the regional hydrothermal plumes (the velocities at higher levels were not sampled by the moored instruments), although the yearly averaged speeds are significantly smaller than those observed during LADDER-1. Additionally, the LADDER-3 LADCP data are also characterized by mean westward flow between the EPR crest and the sea surface, and by northward flow along the western EPR flank close to the crest (not shown), but sampling on the eastern flank was insufficient to determine the direction and strength of the flow there. The thin, bottom-intensified layer of southward flow observed in the saddle between the EPR crest and the easternmost of the Lamont seamounts both during LADDER-1 and -3 adds support to the inference that the circulation during those two surveys was similar. In contrast, the regional circulation during LADDER-2 was neither characterized by westward cross-ridge flow, nor by anticyclonically sheared ridge-crest boundary currents but, rather, by mean southward flow across the entire LADDER current-meter array.\n\nAway from the Lamont Seamount Chain the horizontal density gradients near the EPR crest observed during LADDER were dominated by the cross-ridge component. Centered directly over the crest there was a layer of anomalously high density extending 10–15 km off axis over both flanks and a few hundred meters above the topography. If a layer-of-no-meridional-motion is assumed farther up in the water column the horizontal density gradients associated with the isopycnal dome over the EPR crest is consistent with anticyclonically sheared meridional flows over the upper ridge flanks. Additionally, the regions of the steepest isopycnal slopes associated with the doming coincide with the cores of the along-flank boundary currents observed during LADDER-1, suggesting that the isopycnal doming is the hydrographic expression of the ridge-crest boundary currents. This inference is consistent with the agreement between the geostrophic vertical shear in the boundary-current cores and the corresponding vertical shear of the mean LADCP-derived along-flank flows observed during LADDER-1 (Fig. 12).\n\n6. Discussion\n\nThe basin-scale helium distribution in the tropical North Pacific and the float trajectory shown in Fig. 2 indicate that the westward year-long zonal flow recorded by the moored instruments of the LADDER array is part of the large-scale circulation, which is characterized by westward mean flow near 10°N extending across most of the tropical North Pacific. Whether the westward cross-ridge velocities observed during the LADDER-1 and -3 surveys are related to that large-scale circulation or whether they reflect mesoscale processes is not clear from our analysis. The cross-ridge asymmetry of the density field below the isopycnal dome observed during LADDER-1 is likely related to the westward sub-inertial flow across the EPR crest at that time. It is commonly observed in stratified flows that isopycnals shoal upstream of topographic obstacles (e.g. Kinder and Bryden, 1990). Whether a particular isopycnal is lifted sufficiently to clear the obstacle or whether the obstacle blocks flow on that isopycnal depends on whether the approaching flow has sufficient kinetic energy to provide the potential-energy increase required for the uplift. For uniformly stratified, steady, rotating flow across a Gaussian ridge, uplift is possible when $N\\Delta h/u \\gtrsim 1.5$, where $N$ and $u$ are the upstream buoyancy frequency and velocity, respectively, and $\\Delta h$ is the required vertical uplift (Pierrehumbert and Wyman, 1985). Using representative values from LADDER-1 ($u \\approx 2–3$ cm s$^{-1}$, $N \\approx 4 \\times 10^{-4}$ s$^{-1}$) $\\Delta h \\approx 100$ m, which is consistent with the isopycnal uplift observed over the eastern EPR flank during LADDER-1 (Figs. 3 and 6). Regardless of what causes the isopycnal uplift over the eastern ridge flank, the corresponding cross-flank density gradients are expected to be geostrophically balanced by vertical shear in the along-flank flow, which provides a plausible explanation for the observation that the eastern-flank southward ridge-crest boundary current observed during LADDER-1 was stronger and broader than the corresponding northward flow along the western flank.\n\nWhile a detailed analysis of the dynamics of the ridge-crest boundary currents, which extend no more than 20 km off the EPR axis and 100–200 m above the ridge-crest depth, is beyond the scope of our paper, we note that the inviscid, linear, hydrostatic, 2-layer, Boussinesq model of temporally variable flow across an infinitely long ridge of Allen and Thomson (1993) does not predict any mean crest-parallel currents. On the other hand, ridge-crest boundary currents that are qualitatively and quantitatively very similar to the LADDER observations are reproduced by the 2-D numerical model of McGillicuddy et al. (2010) and by the 3-D model of Lavelle et al. (2010), both of which include friction, mixing and non-linear terms in the equations of motion. Since the low-frequency forcing in the model of McGillicuddy et al. (2010) is nearly zero, we conclude that the ridge-crest boundary currents result from topographic rectification of temporally varying forcing, and that their dynamics depend on friction, mixing and/or advection of momentum.\n\nThe LADDER observations and model simulations of anticyclonically sheared along-flank boundary currents near the EPR crest are remarkably similar to observations from the Juan de Fuca Ridge near 45°N (Cannon et al., 1991; Cannon and Pashinski, 1997; Helfrich et al., 1998). In that region, too, there are anticyclonically sheared boundary currents associated with mean speeds of several cm s$^{-1}$ a few km from the ridge crest and limited to off-axial distances of less than 25 km (Cannon and Pashinski, 1997). While the claim of Helfrich et al. (1998) that the along-ridge flows are strongest at the depth of the regional neutrally buoyant hydrothermal plumes is apparently inconsistent with the LADDER observations and model results it is noted that the current meters used by Helfrich et al. (1998) neither sampled the velocities over the ridge flanks below crest level (where the velocities in the boundary currents on the EPR are largest) nor laterally bracketed the velocity maxima on the ridge flanks (their Fig. 2). This implies that the locations of the along-flank velocity maxima are not well constrained by the data of Helfrich et al. (1998).\n\nNear the northern end of the EPR segment studied here the Lamont Seamount Chain topographically constrains the velocity field, in particular the northward boundary current flowing along the western ridge flank. As a result, the largest instantaneous velocities (up to 25 cm s$^{-1}$) were observed in the narrow passages between the seamounts. Whereas the LADDER instantaneous velocity measurements everywhere else are dominated by high-frequency (primarily tidal) variability, the data suggest that the direction of flow through the deep passages between the Lamont Seamounts varies on longer time scales and may be related to the regional mesoscale circulation. In addition to large mean velocities and significant vertical shear, the flow in the seamount passages is also characterized by high-vertical-mode internal tides with amplitudes on the order of 10 cm s$^{-1}$. Both these observations suggest that diapycnal mixing in the seamount passages may be elevated.\n\nThe weekly averaged current-meter data presented in Section 4.3 indicate a high degree of coherence of the sub-inertial circulation above the EPR during the LADDER tracer-release experiment across most of the study region. Notably, however, the flow recorded only\n\n≈ 35 km off axis over the eastern ridge flank shows little coherence with the velocities recorded by the remaining instruments. This suggests that the circulation transition between LADDER-1 and -2 and, hence, the southward flow observed during LADDER-2, is not simply caused by the passage of a mesoscale eddy, as this would be expected to affect all current-meter records. Inspection of all weekly averaged velocity maps indicates that the sub-inertial circulation is highly variable and, at least some of the time, associated with significant inhomogeneities over small horizontal scales. This implies that dispersal trajectories derived from single-point current-meter records in this region are unlikely to be accurate, as they implicitly assume that the velocity field is horizontally homogeneous over the region of dispersion (> 150 km along axis and > 50 km off axis in case of the calculations of Marsh et al., 2001).\n\nThe WOCE P04 hydrographic section occupied in 1989 indicates that, away from the immediate vicinity of the EPR axis, the isopycnals dip downward into the topography over the ridge flanks, which extend more than 2800 km west and 800 km east of the ridge crest. Isopycnals and isotherms dipping downward over ridge flanks are commonly observed in hydrographic sections crossing mid-ocean ridges (e.g. Thompson and Johnson, 1996; Thurnherr and Speer, 2003). While it is tempting to ascribe these observations to the effects of bottom-enhanced diapycnal mixing over the ridge flanks, possibly in conjunction with geothermal heating, the vertical scales of the observed layers where the isopycnals dip into the ridge flanks are too large to be consistent with diffusive boundary layers, such as the ones described by Wunsch (1970) and Phillips (1970), which are associated with vertical scales of no more than a few 10 s of meter (Thurnherr and Speer, 2003). In order to reproduce the observed vertical scale of the layer of dipping isotherms over the western flank of the EPR with a numerical model, Thompson and Johnson (1996) had to postulate that water parcels remain within the region of enhanced ridge-flank mixing for 30 years, which is clearly inconsistent with the sub-inertial circulation observed during LADDER. The observation that the deep isopycnals during WOCE P04 sloped downward toward the east not just over the western flank of the EPR but also over the relatively flat abyssal plain between 200° and 230°E (Fig. 1) implies that the processes causing the thick layers of dipping isopycnals and isotherms over the flanks of mid-ocean ridges are not yet fully understood.\n\nAcknowledgments\n\nCo-funding of the LADDER project by the biological and physical oceanography divisions of the National Science Foundation under Grants OCE-0425361 and OCE-0424953 is gratefully acknowledged, as is support of J.W. Lavelle by NOAA's Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory and by the NOAA Vents Program. In addition to the co-authors of this study and the very capable and helpful officers and crew of the R/V Atlantis II, collection and calibration of the LADDER PO data involved several students (A. Guan, F. Terenzi, A. Kohli, X. Liang, J. Stewart), two post-doctoral researchers (A. Ruiz Angulo, R. Jackson), as well as a mooring group from WHOI (S. Worrollow, B. Hogue, P. Fraser). Without the excellent data collected during the WOCE P04 cruise in 1989 it would not have been possible to put the LADDER data into a wider context. M. Visbeck donated the neutrally buoyant float deployed on the EPR crest in 2006.\n\nReferences\n\nAllen, S.E., Thomson, R.E., 1993. Bottom-trapped subinertial motions over mid-ocean ridges in a stratified rotating fluid. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 566–581.\n\nBaker, E.T., Chen, Y.L., Morgan, J.P., 1996. The relationship between near-axis hydrothermal cooling and the spreading rate of mid-ocean ridges. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 142, 137–147.\n\nBaker, E.T., Feely, R.A., Mottl, M.J., Sansone, F.T., Wheat, C.G., Resing, J.A., 1994. Hydrothermal plumes along the East Pacific Rise, 8°40′N to 11°50′N: plume distribution and relationship to the apparent magmatic budget. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 128, 1–17.\n\nCannon, G.A., Pashinski, D.J., Lemon, M.R., 1991. Mid-depth flow near hydrothermal venting sites on the southern Juan de Fuca Ridge. J. Geophys. Res. 96, 12815–12831.\n\nCannon, G.A., Pashinski, D.J., 1997. Variations in mean currents affecting hydrothermal plumes on the Juan de Fuca Ridge. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 24965–24976.\n\nClarke, W.B., Feely, R.A., Craig, H., 1996. Excess $^{3}He$ in the sea: evidence for terrestrial primordial helium. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 142, 213–220.\n\nFlierl, G.R., McWilliams, J.C., 1978. On the sampling requirements for measuring moments of eddy variability. J. Mar. Res. 35, 797–820.\n\nFornari, D.J., Haymon, R.M., Perfitt, M.R., Gregg, T.K.P., Edwards, M.H., 1998. Axial summit trough of the East Pacific Rise 9°–10 N: geological characteristics and evolution of the axial zone on fast spreading mid-ocean ridges. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 9827–9855.\n\nGerman, C.R., Richards, K.J., Rudnicki, M.D., Lam, M.M., Charlou, J.L. The FLAME Scientific Party, 1998. Topographic control of a dispersing hydrothermal plume. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 156, 267–273.\n\nHelfrich, K.R., Johnson, C.A., Cannon, G.A., Harrington, S.A., Pashinski, D.J., 1998. Mean hydrographic and velocity sections near Pipe Organ vent at Juan de Fuca Ridge. J. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 1737–1740.\n\nJackson, P.R., Ledwell, J.R., Thurnherr, A.M., 2010. Dispersion of a tracer on the East Pacific Rise (9° N to 10° N), including the influence of hydrothermal plumes. Deep-Sea Res. I 57, 37–52.\n\nKinder, T.H., Bryden, H.L., 1990. Aspiration of deep waters through straits. In: Pratt, L.J. (Ed.), The Physical Oceanography of Sea Straits. Kluwer Academy, Norwell, MA, pp. 295–319.\n\nKunze, E., Firing, E., Hunmann, J.M., Chereskin, T.K., Thurnherr, A.M., 2006. Global abyssal mixing inferred from lowered ADCP shear and CTD strain profiles. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 36, 1553–1576.\n\nLavelle, J.W., Mullineaux, L.S., Thurnherr, A.M., Ledwell, J.R., McGillivuddy, D.J., 2010. Deep ocean circulation and transport where the East Pacific Rise at 9–10 N meets the Lamont Seamount chain. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 115, C12073. doi:10.1029/2010JC006426.\n\nLupton, J., 1998. Hydrothermal helium plumes in the Pacific Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 15853–15868.\n\nMacdonald, K.C., Fox, P.J., Miller, S., Carbotte, S., Elsen, M.H., Fornari, M., Perram, J.L., Pockalny, R., Scheirer, D., Tighe, S., Welland, C., Wilson, D., 1992. The East Pacific Rise and its flanks 8–8° N: History of segmentation, propagation and spreading direction based on SeaMARC II and Sea Beam studies. Marine Geophysical Researches 14, 299–344.\n\nMarsh, A.C., Munnecke, L.S., Young, C.M., Manahan, D.T., 2001. Larval dispersal potential of the tubeworm Riftia pachyptila at deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Nature 411, 77–80.\n\nMcGillicuddy, D.J., Lavelle, J.W., Thurnherr, A.M., Kosyniev, V.K., Mullineaux, L.S., 2010. Larval dispersion along an axially symmetric mid-ocean ridge. Deep-Sea Res. I 57 (7), 880–892.\n\nMullineaux, L.S., et al. Deep-Sea Res, in preparation.\n\nMullineaux, L.S., Thurnherr, A.M., Ledwell, J.R., McGillicuddy, D.J., Lavelle, J.W., 2008. Larval dispersal on the deep East Pacific Rise. <http://www.whoi.edu/projects/LADDER>.\n\nPhillips, O.M., 1970. On flows induced by diffusion in a stably stratified fluid. Deep-Sea Res. 17, 435–443.\n\nPierrehumbert, R.T., Wyman, B., 1985. Upstream effects of mesoscale mountains. J. Atmos. Sci. 42, 977–1003.\n\nPolzin, K.L., Toole, J.M., Ledwell, J.R., Schmitt, R.W., 1997. Spatial variability of turbulent mixing in the abyssal ocean. Science 276, 93–96.\n\nReid, J.L., 1997. On the total geostrophic circulation of the Pacific Ocean: flow patterns, tracers, and transports. Prog. Oceanogr. 39, 263–352.\n\nSpeer, K.G., Maltrud, M.E., Thurnherr, A.M., 2003. A global view of dispersion above the mid-ocean ridge. In: Halbach, P.E., Tunnicliffe, V., Hein, J.R. (Eds.), Energy and Mass Transfer in Marine Hydrothermal Systems. Number 89 in Dahlem Workshop Reports. Dahlem University Press, Berlin, pp. 287–302.\n\nThompson, R.E., Johnson, G.C., 1996. Abyssal currents generated by diffusion and geothermal heating over rises. Deep-Sea Res. 43, 193–211.\n\nThomson, R.E., Mihaly, S.F., Rabinovich, A.B., McDuff, R.E., Veirs, S.R., Stahr, F.R., 2003. Constrained circulation at endeavour ridge facilitates colonization by vent larvae. Nature 424, 545–549.\n\nThurnherr, A.M., Speer, K.G., 2003. Boundary mixing and topographic blocking on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the South Atlantic. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 33, 848–862.\n\nThurnherr, A.M., 2010. A practical assessment of uncertainties in full-depth velocity profiles obtained with Teledyne/RDI Workhorse Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler. J. Atmos Oceanic Technol. 27, 1215–1227.\n\nToole, J.M., McLane, L., 2000. Moored profiler data reduction and processing procedures. WHOI Technical Report (Nov. 2000 version).\n\nWalter, M., Mertens, C., Stöber, U., German, C.R., Voegler, D., Sültenfuß, J., Rhein, M., Melchert, B., Baker, E.T., 2010. Rapid dispersal of a hydrothermal plume by turbulent mixing. Deep-Sea Res. I 57, 931–945.\n\nWunsch, C., 1970. On oceanic boundary mixing. Deep-Sea Res. 17, 293–301."}}},{"rowIdx":204795,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"STUDIO SOUND\nAND BROADCAST ENGINEERING\n\nEQUALISERS\nMASTERING\n\nDesigned to give your studio an unfair advantage.\n\nAll top studios need an edge.\nLike the revolutionary Saturn multitrack with 'Total Remote' control.\nThe most advanced multitrack of its kind today, allying the new purity of analogue audio to the precision of digital control.\nSimilarly, unrivalled ergonomics and sonic transparency place the TS24 console in a class of its own.\nBoth are designed to give the exceptional operating flexibility that comes as standard from Soundcraft.\nSaturn. Total Remote. And the TS24. Classic technology, created for music.\nFor further information, contact us today.\n\nSoundcraft\nSTUDIO SERIES\n\nSoundcraft Electronics Ltd, Unit 2, Borehamwood Ind. Park, Rowley Lane, Borehamwood, Herts WD6 5PZ, England. Tel: 01-207 5050. Tlx: 21198 (SCRAFTG). Fax: 01-207 0194.\nSoundcraft USA (213) 453 4591. Soundcraft Canada (514) 685 1610. Soundcraft Japan (03) 341 6201.\n\nREGULARS\n\n5 Editorial: Carl A. Snape speculates on the role of the recording engineer\n\n14 Diary: TV and recording consultancy—K-Tek purchases M&A—Teac DASH in—Pop Music Recording Diploma—IBC Brighton—Literature received—AES London meeting—Plug makers take note—in brief—Stolen property—Contracts—WDR Neve DSP now in use—Agencies—Address changes—People—The role of the programmer in today's studio—Syco and Fairlight—Music video payments issue—Oral History Society opposes tape levy—Contracts—IOA at Salford University—Awards for Philips scientists—People—Forthcoming events—Glossary\n\n26 New products: Daturr shielded racks—Optex Amsync audio system—Mitsubishi video interface—Soundtracs FM mixer—Patchprints—Portasol soldering iron—Toa KY condenser mic—MS-Audiotron MCA Multimix—in brief—Rush outboard EQ—JBL 6215 amplifier—Adams-Smith controller—Ibanez SDR1000 reverb—Nexo PCLine speaker systems\n\n32 Music page: Greengate DS:3 and DS:4—360 Systems MIDI Bass—C-Lab Supertrack—Beetle accessories. By Mark Jenkins\n\n50 Studiofile: Sierra Recordings, Athens—Sirocco, Kilmarnock—Fairview, Hull\n\n60 Business: CD pressing capacity—Less hiss more coverage. By Barry Fox\n\nFEATURE\n\n48 In perspective: US columnist Martin Polon comments on changes surrounding illegal copying\n\nSPECIAL FEATURES\n\n36 Digital Mastering Tape One: Bill Foster talks to Janet Angus about the first fully digital recording facility\n\n42 Equalisers: A brief look at equalisers introduced last year\n\n44 Mastering: New disc cutting equipment and the changing role of the disc mastering facility\n\nREVIEWS\n\n64 JVC VP-900: Hugh Ford reviews this Digital Audio Mastering System\n\n72 Rane RE27 graphic equaliser: A technical evaluation by Hugh Ford\n\n78 QuPlay QP1: A user report on a programmable drop-in and drop-out unit by Patrick Stapley\n\nEDITORIAL\n\nEditor:\nKeith Spencer-Allen\n\nDeputy Editor:\nCarl Anthony Snape\n\nProduction Editor:\nAnn Horan\n\nProduction Assistant:\nBeverley Hudec\n\nConsultant:\nHugh Ford\n\nUS Commentator:\nMartin Polon\n\nSecretary:\nCarrie Love\n\nADVERTISEMENTS\n\nSales Manager:\nMark Walsh\n\nSales:\nAdrian Tippin\n\nSecretary:\nMandy Paul\n\nProduction Manager:\nJacky Thompson\n\nJapan and Far East Agent:\nMedia Sales Japan Inc, Tamuracho Bldg No.4, Shimbashi Minato-Ku Tokyo, Japan.\n\nUSA Agent: Joe Statuto, Rt 1, Box 40A, Montague, TX 76251, USA. Tel: (817) 894-6923.\n\nCOMMERCIAL MANAGER\nPhil Guy\n\nEditorial and advertising offices:\nLINK HOUSE, DINGWALL AVENUE, CROYDON CR9 2TA, GREAT BRITAIN\nPhone: 01-686 2599\nInternational: +44 1 686 2599\nTelex: 947709\nE-mail: 78-DGS1071\nIMC: STUDIO SOUND—UK\nFax: 01-760 0973\n© Link House Publications PLC 1986. All rights reserved.\n\nA LINK HOUSE PUBLICATION\n\nPublisher and consultant to APRS for Studio Sound's Producer's Guide to APRS Members 1984/85\n\nAugust 1986 Number 8\nVolume 28 ISSN 0133-5944\n\nIf it's a demo or a digital album\n\nMUSIC LAB HIRE\nleading the way\n\n76 EVERSHOLT STREET, LONDON NW1 1BY TEL 01-387 9356 24 HRS\n\nThe mix they couldn’t fix\n\nIt’s interesting to speculate on just where precisely the recording engineer’s responsibilities finish these days. Most engineers and studio owners would no doubt say with the satisfactory completion of the master tape and therein lies the rub. Just what precisely is a satisfactory master tape? Is it simply the take that the producer is happiest with, or does the recording engineer have a responsibility beyond that? The master may be the definitive statement as far as the session is concerned but that doesn’t always mean that it will transfer satisfactorily to tape, disc or CD.\n\nIn the early days of recording, recording engineers were all too familiar with the problems of tape to disc transfer: they had to be for in many cases it would be they who cut the acetates for the artists, publisher and record companies. With the coming of the compact cassette the need for recording engineers to be adept at disc cutting has all but disappeared. In many ways this is a great pity because a year or so working in a disc cutting suite would almost certainly teach a novice engineer more about good and bad recordings than any other form of training. In the course of a few weeks, the average disc cutting engineer is exposed to an unbelievable variety of master tapes and in a short period of time will quickly develop an intuitive feel for what types of recordings transfer well and which cause problems.\n\nNowadays the role of the disc cutting engineer has been extended. In the early days with few independent recording studios the major record company studios worked closely with the disc cutting engineer. In a lot of cases all that was required was a straight ‘one to one’ transfer—a precise (or as near as possible) duplication of the original master tape on disc. Then with the coming of the multitrack machine and the ‘fix it in the mix’ syndrome things started to change and the typical cutting room moved into the area of audio sweetening or post-production.\n\nNow I’m not a firm believer in the idea that thousands of engineers across the world are forever saying they will fix it in the mix. There are occasions, however, when things end up on the multitrack that shouldn’t have. Things also finish up on the master tape that shouldn’t have and there is many a disc cutting engineer who will tell you tales of desperate producers trying to salvage something usable from a particularly fraught mixing session. This is life. What is not so funny are the master tapes that on the surface may seem okay but for a whole host of reasons won’t necessarily transfer well (or even at all) to vinyl without at least some compromise either in level or frequency response or stereo integrity.\n\nPhase is and always will be a problem simply because of the electro-geometric relationship of the cutting process and now with the proliferation of keyboard instruments the thought of what a random 20 Hz out of phase signal could do to the geometry of the groove is enough to make the average disc cutter’s toes curl. The same applies to high levels of extended high frequencies. They may sound great on the monitors but they will inevitably cause problems later on at the disc cutting and/or manufacturing stage.\n\nWith perhaps eight or nine synths all chained together the chances of finding something out of phase could be quite high. Especially if the equipment has been connected together with just any likely looking lead that appeared to work. Even small amounts of out of phase signals can diffuse the stereo image and the accumulative effects through equalisers, op-amps, azimuth settings, replay amplifiers and crossovers will undoubtedly take their toll on the sound in the control room and the final replay of the disc. Keeping the phase as coherent as possible right from the start would seem the best form of defence.\n\nPerhaps there is even a reasonable case for fitting a post EQ ‘phase trim’ pot on each input channel during recording and remix to ensure that the sound stays as coherent as possible then at lease any subsequent degradation and likely problems for the disc cutting engineer would tend to have; overall, a far less dramatic effect and the mix they couldn’t fix may well, for some producers, become a thing of the past.\n\nAPRS\n\nCOURSE FOR STUDIO ENGINEERS\nTHE NEXT COURSE IN THE SERIES WILL BE HELD\nSEPTEMBER 5-12 1986\nUNIVERSITY OF SURREY\n\nThis highly-successful series is designed for sound engineers, artist engineers, managers, directors and other personnel involved in the recording of sound for records, radio, television, theatre, video, film and educational purposes.\n\nThe Course includes lectures on each link in the chain of operations, Microphone to Finished Product, to record sound for:\nProfessional Recording Studios · Radio\nTelevision · Video\nusing a large range of modern equipment assembled especially for this Course + workshops.\n\nProspectus from:\n\nAPRS\n23 Chestnut Avenue,\nChorleywood, Herts., U.K.\nTelephone: 0923 772907\n\nPA-VS 01-540 2164\nExpress studio equipment rental service\n\nDIGITAL RECORDERS\nSYNCHRONISERS\nDRUM COMPUTERS\nKEYBOARDS\n\nDIGITAL DELAY\nDIGITAL REVERB\nANALOGUE EFFECTS\nVIDEO EQUIPMENT\n\nSALES AND TECHNICAL SERVICES\nPA-VS offers a range of new and used studio equipment for sale at competitive prices plus a comprehensive studio and studio equipment design and installation service. Repairs and modifications carried out on most makes of equipment.\nPalmer A-V Systems Ltd. 67 Mostyn Road, London SW19 3LL.\n\nBERLITE LTD\n\nRecording & Video Studios\nDesign & Construction\nSound Proofing Specialists\n\nTel: 01-749 3536\n\nTreat your ears to ours...\n\nE.A.R. 660 Lim/Comp.\nRemember the Fairchild Lim/Comp? Well here is its modern equivalent. The all tube EAR 660. Keeps levelling under control without destroying the music. No more gritty clipping. Get your EARS on good buddy and do your ears a favour.\n\nE.A.R. 823MQ Mid Eq. and E.A.R. 822Q.\nBoth models are vacuum tube no loss Passive equalizers that are balanced input and output to 600 ohm standards. The amplification circuits are all balanced push-pull with 3 tubes that are readily obtainable types and engineered to provide at least ten thousand hours before re-tubing. The dynamic qualities and headroom are highly appreciated.\n\nTRAD ELECTRONICS SALES LTD\n149B ST. ALBANS ROAD · WATFORD · HERTS · WD2 5BB · ENGLAND\nTEL: WATFORD (0923) 47988/9 · TELEX: 262741 Answerback TRADEQ\n\nMick turned down the title. So we'll take it, for the HC 6 Headphone Console. From the outside, it looks like a straight-forward, powerful headphone distribution amplifier. But in addition to the main stereo inputs, the HC 6 provides a separate mono balanced/unbalanced input for each of the six amplifiers. So whenever a signal is plugged in, the main stereo signal is automatically disconnected from only that amplifier, allowing the remaining stages to be fed either from the master stereo inputs or another separate input. It means a myriad of applications for the HC 6, operating as a standard distribution amplifier, as six separate amplifiers, or any combination of both. And the suggested list price is just $349.\n\nIt also lets you practice anywhere, at any volume without a rehearsal studio or eviction notice. Because instead of amps and speakers, you use headphones. Just plug the HC 6 into the mixer and you can play at earshattering levels, without feedback. At Rane, we never say never. Are you listening to us, Mick?\n\nRane Corporation, 6510 216th Southwest, Mountlake Terrace, WA 98043. 206/774-7309.\n\nTHE FUTURE IS... SOUND\n\nAltec Lansing manufactures audio equipment using a total concept for fixed installations. We interact with sound design professionals to provide them with the flexibility to meet the most complex specifications. The Professional Sound Contractors we are members of our worldwide sales and installation network transform our concepts into reality. Acoustical Consultants, Sound Design Engineers and Sound Contractors the world over have worked together to design and install Altec Lansing sound systems. They've specified Altec Lansing because of our uncompromised quality and dependability in auditoriums, convention centers and warning systems to theaters, churches and teleconferencing suites. Professionals whose reputations depend on every installation have made us the premier supplier to our industry. Fixed installations are our only business. We've dedicated our 50 years of expertise in support of our Professional Sound Contractors and Consultants who rely on Altec Lansing equipment to meet the most exacting standards of audio reproduction. As a result, our systems have been selected for many of the most sophisticated installations in the world. We're proud of our image as a leader in our industry. And we realize much of the credit for our recognition is a reflection of the confidence sound system professionals have had in our products. Together we've built a sound foundation for the future.\n\nAltec Lansing Takes The Words, The Emotions, The Music Of Man And Projects Them To Mankind.\n\nP.O. Box 26105 • Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73126 USA • 405-324-5311 • Telex 160-396 • Europe • North America • Asia\nEuropean Office: 6 Market Hill, Royston, Herts SG8 3UL • England • Tele: 0763 47722 • Telex: 818757 Altec G\nPhoto: Roger Stevens Center, Winston-Salem, NC • Contractor: Long Communications Group, Winston-Salem, NC • Consultant: Peter George Associates, Inc., New York, NY • Architect: Newman Calloway Johnson Winfree, Winston-Salem, NC\n\nLyrec TR 533\n\n'BUILT'\n\nThe one word that describes, not only our engineering, but also our concept of uncomplicated design solutions.\n\nTechnology where it counts – and only where it counts – is Lyrec policy. We have gone to great length to ensure that high technology and \"bells and whistles\" are kept out of designs unless really required. Microprocessors, for arguments sake, are only used where they are at their advantage. Uncomplicated and easily understood solutions to design problems are always preferred as long as performance remains uncompromised. Readily available and well proven components keep production and end user maintenance costs down.\n\nThe standard version has its VU meter panel built into the compact mainframe, thus reducing overall size. Optionally the machine is available with its metering panel mounted in the more traditional overbridge fashion.\n\n- User friendly tape transport logic.\n- Servo controlled solenoids.\n- Crystal controlled tape speed.\n- Phase locked loop capstan drive.\n- Phase compensated record amplifiers.\n- Self aligning servo guide rollers.\n- Comprehensive and compact Autolocator and\n- Full audio remote control.\n- Double indemnity record function.\n- 14\" capacity.\n\nDistributors to the Recording Industry\nSCENIC SOUNDS (Equipment) Ltd.,\n10, William Road, London, NW1 3EN.\nTel: (01) 387 1262 Telex: 2739 SCENIC G\n\nLyrec Manufacturing A/S Box 199 Hollandsvej 12, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark.\nTel: 02-876322 22. Telex 37568 lyrec dk.\n\nU.K. (Broadcast and duplicators only)\nLYREC (U.K.) Ltd. 13, Hampden Hill,\nBeaconsfield, Bucks. HP9 1BP.\nTel: (04946) 4425 Telex: 838725 TTLG\n\nLyrec\nOF DENMARK\nTechnology where it counts\n\nThe DS:4-8 is a 16-Bit linear sampler/sequencer with 8-voice, 8-channel plus MIDI outputs. The sampling frequency is 44.1kHz and the sampling time is 12 seconds. A double memory model is available with 24 seconds capability.\n\nThe host computer is the APPLE II and existing DS:3 owners will already have the computer and peripherals required. Large capacity disk drives are available ensuring excellent sound storage facilities.\n\nSoftware controlled digital delay programs allow the full 16-bit quality of the DS:4 to be used in the studio in addition to the very powerful sampler/sequencer facilities.\n\nThe DS:4-8 is expandable. Software updates and new programs will ensure continuous development and progression and, well, like the DS:3, demonstrate Greengate's commitment to a policy of non-obsolescence. We do not believe in the concepts of 'Last year's model'.\n\nSMASHING WINDOWS!\n\nDIGITAL SAMPLING & DELAY UNITS\nBDE SERIES\n\nThe BEL BDE Series lets you set up, sequence and edit up to 99 windows. BDE3200 gives you 32 seconds @ 15kHz bandwidth. BDE2400 gives you 24 seconds @ 18kHz bandwidth. Delay times may be doubled at reduced bandwidth.\n\n- Reverse Play\n- Samples can be stored to disk\n- MIDI keyboard compatible\n- Manual/auto deglitch\n- Options: twin floppy disk drive, Remote control\n\n29 Guildford Street, Luton, Beds. LU1 2NQ.\nTel. Luton (0582) 452495.\n\nStudio Equipment Distribution\n\nWho wants a stereo digital reverb with Midi for under £400?\n\nThe MIDIVERB from Alesis\n\nAt £395 including VAT, you may not believe it, but the MIDIVERB is a top-class device. So good, it will impress even the most difficult A&R man. So quiet, it will put the average mixing console to shame. So powerful, that you will wonder why people even consider anything else!\n\nThe flexibility is remarkable — 63 programmes in full stereo, everything from plates to massive halls, decay time from 0.2 secs to 20 secs, and nine gated and four reverse room programmes, so clear, they will astound you.\n\nEasily interfaced with most mixing desks, instruments and home recording studios, the MIDIVERB can be used stereo in/stereo out or mono in/stereo out. The reverb programmes in the MIDIVERB can be changed rapidly either manually on the unit, or from another MIDI device through any of 16 selectable MIDI channels.\n\nNew Digital Reverb Design\n\nAll this has been made possible by a new design approach, borrowed from the most recent trends in computer hardware: RISC Architecture (Reduced Instruction Set Computer). RISC designs provide the programmer with a very small set of possible instructions that execute very quickly as opposed to more complex machines that offer more apparent power but operate slowly. RISC machines are simpler and less expensive and even though at first glance seem to have limited power, they often out-perform their bulkier counterparts.\n\nThe MIDIVERB uses an extremely specialised instruction set that runs at 3 million instructions per second, much faster than most systems on the market today.\n\nContact Sound Technology for your nearest dealer, or send £1 for a demonstration cassette.\n\nSpecifications\n- Frequency response: 20Hz to 10kHz\n- Dynamic range: 80dB Typical\n- Programmes: 63, Preset\n- Inputs: Stereo & Mono, Phono Jack, 50 Ohms\n- Outputs: Stereo, Phono Jack, 600 Ohms\n- Controls: Increment Prog/Midi, Decrement Prog/Midi, Midi channel select, By-pass, Mix (on rear)\n- Midi Connections: Midi In, Midi Through\n\nSound Technology Limited,\n6, Letchworth Business Centre,\nAvenue One, Letchworth,\nHertfordshire SG6 2HR.\nTelephone: 0462 675675\nTelex: 826967\n\nDOES YOUR LIMITER MASSACRE YOUR SOUND?\n\nMost limiters are far from perfect...literally chopping up your sound. The new Aphex Dominator™ is the perfect solution.\n\nUnlike dumb, over-threshold devices, the Dominator is an intelligent 3-band limiter with a proprietary circuit which varies the threshold for limiting. The result is an absolute peak ceiling while maintaining a transparent sound. Selectable crossover frequencies, plus high and low frequency drive controls allow creative flexibility.\n\nYou can run hotter levels to maximize signal-to-noise levels without fear of overloading your recording or transfer mediums.\n\nThe Dominator is ideal for any situation where clipping is a problem, such as digital audio, disc mastering, video post production and film. Stop massacering your sound. Ask your audio professional for a free trial of the Aphex Dominator. Once you've heard it, you'll never be satisfied with your old limiters.\n\n- Provides Absolute Peak Ceiling.\n- Total transparency below processing threshold.\n- Increased loudness\n- Freedom from spectral gain intermodulation\n- Minimal loss of transient feel\n- High density capability\n- Flexible—easy to use\n- Multiple applications\n- Made in U.S.A.\n\nAphex Systems Ltd.\n13340 Saticoy Street • North Hollywood, Ca 91605 • (818) 765-2212 • TWX: 910-321-5762\n\nDominator is a trademark of Aphex Systems Ltd.\n\nSAJE DEALS THE WINNING HAND!\n\nODYSSEY\nMEMORY\nUN II\nUN II\nRACKY\nAUX\n\nSAJE AUDIO CONSOLES\n“Leaders of the Pack”\n\n3 Rue Verte 95100 Argenteuil France. Telephone: (1) 220.127.116.11 Telex: 699672F SAJE.\n\nTV and recording consultancy\n\nAudio Facilities Ltd is a company set up to provide a professional service for the television and recording industries. To this purpose they have recruited a team of technicians whose experience encompasses all areas of audio production and post-production.\n\nServices provided include consultancy, provision of all types of audio equipment, planning, design and installation work in all areas of professional audio and operational staff from one boom operator to a team of operators experienced in digital audio for television.\n\nAudio Facilities, Limehouse Studios, Canary Wharf, West India Docks, London E14 9SJ. Tel: 01-987 2090.\n\nK-Tek purchases M&A\n\nK-Tek has recently purchased the entire rights to the M&A series 4 mixing console and has moved the business to the company's Surbiton, Surrey, UK base. All series 4 components will remain available with modules now being available in kit form. With the series 4 it is possible to build a mixer up to 70 modules with 4 aux sends as standard but with user modifications allowing an increase to 6, and up to 16 output groups.\n\nThe series 4 system has been in production for five years and there are currently around 200 such mixers in use in the UK and a further number in other countries.\n\nK-Tek, PO Box 172A, Surbiton. Surrey KT6 6HN, UK. Tel: 01-399 3990.\n\nTeac DASH in\n\nTeac has joined Sony, Studer and Matsushita on the DASH standards committee by announcing a commitment to producing DASH format digital recorders within two years. Tim Frost of Harman UK (Teac's UK distributor) explains that one of the reasons for the decision to go with DASH was that it offers a distinct format advantage for 4-, 8- and 16-channel machines allowing for ¼ in 8-track and 16-track possibilities later this decade. Parameters covered by the DASH format are tape speed, tape width, sampling frequency, track formation, number of channels and writing format. Manufacturers are free in all other design respects to produce their own facilities and performance characteristics.\n\nTeac feels that by 1987/8 the principle of digital multitrack will be well accepted by the recording industry and it should be possible to produce somewhat more attractively priced systems by then.\n\nPop Music Recording Diploma\n\nSalford College of Technology in Manchester launches a new higher diploma in popular music recording, commencing September. Courses in this area have been offered since 1982; they are now streamlined to appeal to the musician whose orientation is towards popular/jazz idioms within a recording studio context, studio projects are an integral feature throughout. For more information and application forms contact Mrs B Cohen, PMR Course, Salford College of Technology, Peru Street, Salford M3 6EQ.\n\nIBC Brighton\n\nTo cope with the increased number of exhibitors at this year's IBC the exhibition has expanded into three separate sites—the Metropolitan Conference Centre, the Brighton Centre and the Grand Hotel. The three sites will be linked by the outside display of OB vehicles along the sea front. The exhibition floor space has increased from 11,000 to 13,500 m² and even that has proved insufficient to house all the possible space applications.\n\nLiterature Received\n\n- European edition of the Instrument Society of America's 1986 Publications and Training Aids Catalogue, available in Europe through American Technical Publishers Ltd, 68a Wilbury Way, Hitchin, Herts SG4 0TP, UK. Contents include references and training materials, instrument technician training programme, standards and recommended practices, directories, periodicals, reprints, other ISA services.\n\n- The latest electronic components product guide is available from Argosy Components Ltd. Products include those by Neutrik, Radiall, Cambridge Connectors, Spectraship and other wiring and PCB accessories. For further information contact Mike Purnell, director, Argosy Components Ltd, PO Box 137, Beaconsfield, Bucks, HP9 1RJ. Tel: (09496) 3491.\n\n- Microlease Electronic Equipment Rental has produced a new '86/87 hire catalogue of over 1200 items of test and measurement, computer and development systems and audio and video equipment. From video cameras to microphones, mixing desks, loudspeakers, equalisers, amplifiers and mobile communications equipment to Marconi 2955 Radio Test Set. Copies available from Sandie Petrie, Microlease plc, Forbes House, Whitefriars Estate, Tudor Road, Harrow, Middx. Tel: 01-427 8822.\n\n- Alpha Omega Instruments has published an A to Z of Instruments and Accessories. They are a new company specialising in lower cost instruments and accessories via this free direct mail order catalogue detailing some 80 items. For copies write to Unit 5, Linstock Trading Estate, Linstock Way, Wigan Road, Atherton, Lancs M29 0QA, tel: (0942) 873 448.\n\n- Semiconductor Supplies International has brought out a new data guide and product price list with active and passive components through mechanical components such as plugs, sockets and switches to complete computer systems.\n\n- From FWO Bauch Ltd the EMT Courier Special Issue One—20 pages of 25 years of reverberation, looking at the development of artificial reverberation.\n\nAES London meeting\n\nBBC Radio—Digital Control Vehicle Systems, is the subject of the next AES London meeting on 8 July 1986. The speakers will be John McErlean, Brian Binding and Sean Meehan of the BBC Radio Capital Projects Department. Design and constructional details will be covered including some novel techniques involved in the provision of high specification OB vehicles. These will be specifically related to the systems and the mixing consoles used in both the recent Stereo Control Vehicles and the Digital Control Vehicle.\n\nThe lecture starts at 7pm at the IEE, Savoy Place, London WC2, tea at 6.30 pm. If you wish to join AES you can apply at one of the meetings or write to The Secretariat, AES (British Section), Lent Rise Road, Burnham, Slough SL1 7NY. Tel: (06286) 63725.\n\nPlug makers take note\n\nA significant change has been made to the British Standard for 13 A plugs which now specifies insulating sleeving on the line and neutral pins. This has been done to prevent the risk of electric shock to users caused by physical contact with the pins during insertion or removal of plugs. Details of the new requirements, including additional tests, have been published as an amendment (AM 5052) to BS 1363 13A Fused plugs and switched and unswitched socket-outlets.\n\nSince the amended standard is likely to become mandatory under new government regulations now being considered, some manufacturers may need to modify their plug designs.\n\nJohn, These people stock everything and ship out in an hour. Phone 01-482-1692 or collect a catalogue from their trade counter. Better get an account opened NOW!\n\nThanks, Adrian\n\nIn brief\n\nThe magnetic tape division of Agfa-Gevaert Inc, Teterboro, New Jersey has donated a $1,000 scholarship to The Society of Professional Audio Recording Studios (SPARS) to be awarded to a promising young student who demonstrates potential in the recording field and has challenged other SPARS advisory associated members to match this gift... Due to the name Digitech being a registered trade mark of J Hornby-Skewes in the UK, the DOD Electronics range of rack-mount processors previously marketed under the Digitech name will in future be known as DOD Effects within the UK... 3M's Magnetic Media Division and the Mitsubishi Pro Audio Group have recently announced approval of the new Scotch 275 digital audio mastering tape for use in Mitsubishi 32- and 2-channel digital tape recorders...\n\nOdyssey, Paris is the first French recording studio specialising in music computer systems. Built on the LEDE principle, Odyssey is equipped with SAJE ULN Mark II automated console, Sony PCM 3324 and 701 digital recorders, Otari 2- and 4-track, Tascam 8- and 16-track and MCI JH-24 24-track recorders among its tape recorder complement. Tel: (1) 47 50 95 64...\n\nPhil Ramone has been using the new Dolby SR spectrum recording or mastering work for Touchstone Films production Ruthless People at Power Station, NY subsequent to attending demonstrations of the system at MGM screening room, also in New York...\n\nModern Circuit Industries—Amek's manufacturing facility has expanded its facilities with a BICC-VERO computer numerical controlled 3-head drill... BPI reports that the first quarter of 1986 was fairly flat for the UK record industry with the value of sales (deliveries to trade) increasing only by 3.4% over that of the same period last year; the number of singles shipped to retailers experienced a sharp fall; sales of LPs also fell while sales of cassettes continue to increase, although at a lower rate. The best results, proportionately were in the CD sector where sales this quarter were just over double those for last year. Overall value of recorded music deliveries in this first quarter was £71.9 m, compared with £69.5 m in January to March 1985...\n\nPrime Leasing and Finance Ltd recently announced a 33% increase in its level of investment. With 60% of the company's business coming from the recording industry and a further 35% from the broadcasting industry this is seen to represent rapid expansion within the industry and greater investment in more sophisticated and expensive equipment. In the company's recently published annual report it was stated that the basic business emphasis is gradually switching from leasing to hire purchase.\n\nContracts\n\n- Audio Kinetics has installed over 100 MasterMix computer assisted mixing systems worldwide. Recent UK contracts have included Alan Parson's studio with Amek Angela, Saunders and Gordon's Amek 2500, The Tape Gallery's Amek 2500 and Tyne Tapes (MCI JH600). Japanese installations have included Pioneer Laser Disc with a Calrec console, Sunrise Studio's Neve V48 and Sound Atelier's Soundcraft TS24.\n\n- Amek has completed several recent contracts including two Amek BC2 consoles to the BBC; 51-input Angela to Alan Parsons' studio—other Angelas have gone to Peter Hooke of New Order, Steve Lillywhite, the new Planetarium in Paris, and Craig Huxley of the Enterprise Studios in Los Angeles; U2 have hired an M2500 for two months while working on their new album in Dublin; and AVM Recording in Madras has purchased a number of BC2 consoles as well as the very first Classic console.\n\n- Eastlake Audio has recently completed a record and music to film facility at Sound and Vision OY, Helsinki which features a Harrison Raven with MasterMix and Otari multitrack and mastering recorders. PWL's second studio—The Bunker; Eastlake is now preparing to construct another studio and isolation room at the PWL complex in South London.\n\nOther current Eastlake projects include a 48 track mobile facility for touring sound operator Lil Service SA in Barcelona.\n\n- Soundcraft TS24 mixing consoles have recently been installed at TVi, London, and Lansdowne Studios in Dublin. Stirling Audio supplied TVi's 32-channel desk with MasterMix automation for their new post-production suite. Lansdowne's update follows destruction of the facility by fire earlier this year—the original desk was a Soundcraft Series 3B.\n\n- Kelsey Acoustic has supplied 150 GPO316 patchfields to Elliott Brothers as part of the worldwide refurbishment of British Forces sound and vision studios.\n\n- Acesonic International has been appointed Otari distributor for the Republic of China/Taiwan. Frank LJ Wang of Acesonic visited the Matsumoto factory for a week of technical training with Haruo Taguchi, manager of the customer service section. Acesonic International Co Ltd, SF1, 147 Lung Chiang Road, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC. Tel: (02) 71688 96.\n\n- Gerr Electro Acoustics of Toronto has supplied a Sound Workshop Series 34 mixing console to Bryan Adams and songwriting partner Jim Vallance for their private studio in Vancouver; the equipment choice was made on the recommendation of Bob Clearmountain.\n\n- London's Swaynany studio has recently installed a Sony PCM-3324 digital multitrack machine, 24-channels of Dolby SR, EAR valve equalisers and valve limiters and four Yamaha SPX 90s.\n\n- Recent Studer contracts supplied by FWO Bauch have included a 900 series mixing console to the Royal Northern College of Music fitted with A series modules and reverse action faders; a 24-track 2 in A800 to Central Television; A800s to Master Rock studios and PWL studios in London, Jeff Wayne Music, Hertfordshire, Howard Jones, Redwood Studios, Westland Studios, Parkgate Studios and Windmill Lane Studios. Studer 960 series compact mixing consoles have been ordered by NBC London, Voice of America London, EMI Records, Ash International and Regentport. Hollywood Studios has placed an order for the Harrison MR4 mixing console.\n\n- DDA has received an order from Abbey Road Studios for an 8/8/2 D Series console with Theatre input modules. The console is being supplied in a 16-input frame and will be used in the film transfer room. A 16/8 Theatre/Matrix D Series console has been ordered by the Royal Shakespeare Company for the new theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon.\n\n- Audio & Design Calrec has recently supplied Pioneer Laservision studios in Tokyo with a 48-channel UA 8000 console complete with MasterMix automation.\n\nStolen Property\n\n- On the night of April 23, several items were stolen from EGE Sound Studio, Germany. Those with serial numbers were: Roland SRV2000 (SN:552787), Eventide H949 (SN:1723), Onkyo P3060 (SN:21050813), JVC HR2200 video (SN:156L 1221) and Sony PCM701 (SN:12736114). Other items included Yamaha REV7, UREI 1136 compressor, Lexicon PCM41 and various hi-fi equipment. EGE Sound Studio GmbH, Kohlplate, D-7953 Bad Schussenreid, West Germany. Tel: 0 75 83/27 68.\n\n- Stolen in California from Danny Wallen, a special custom case containing 10 new Neumann TLM 170 Jubilee microphones. The serial numbers are 23/100, 24/100, 62/100, 63/100, 74/100, 75/100, 76/100, 77/100, 80/100 and 81/100. Any information as to the whereabouts of any of these microphones should be given to Jerry Graham, eastern sales manager, Gotham Audio, 1790 Broadway, New York, NY 10019-1412. Tel: (212) 765-3410.\n\nContracts\n\n- Marquee Electronics has delivered three Adams-Smith chase synchroniser systems to Town House Studios. Additional units have been supplied to Eel Pie Recording, Eden Studios, Central TV in Nottingham and Birmingham and Barclays Bank Video. Other new users include Mullard Laserdisc, Marcus Music, Park Gate Studios, BBC TV music studio, Huddersfield Polytechnic, Southern Films and Air TV facilities, Camden Lock.\n\n- Sound Associates installed the sound system at the first European IMAX film festival at the National Museum of Photography, Film and Television in Bradford earlier this year. The IMAX film system generates large screen pictures on to a screen many times the size of a conventional cinema screen, effectively filling the viewer's field of vision. The accompanying sound quality was required to give wide frequency range, no distortion and very high sound levels. IMAX has sound on a separate 6-track 35 mm film running in sync with the special 70 mm picture, giving tracks for rear left and right, and screen left, centre, right and top. Electro-Voice speakers were used for the screen left centre and right: DL15W loaded 606D bass cabinets and HP9040 horns with DH1 drivers. The sub-woofer system comprises four Electro-Voice 3512 cabinets with DL18W drivers operating only high signal levels at frequencies below 100 Hz.\n\n- The Mitsubishi Pro-Audio Group has announced sales of X-850 PD format digital multitrack machines to two London-based studios—Battery, a four studio complex; and Konk where the machine will be installed in a machine room allowing it to be patched between the existing room and the second room currently under construction.\n\nAmbience: A property ascribed to studios that have just had an expensive rebuild (but do not sound any better) in order to justify higher rates.\n\nAmbience mic: (1) A spare mic at the back of the studio that accidentally gets recorded on a spare track that saves an otherwise turgid mix. (2) A non-directional mic (qv).\n\nAssign: The traditional means of distinguishing between say the tape store and the artists' powder room.\n\nBacking track: Anything useful you can salvage from the first six weeks/months of recording.\n\nBi-directional: American for AC/DC.\n\nBounce: A primary characteristic of receptionists. Measured in handfuls.\n\nCompressor: A processing device that gives a track more feel by increasing noise and distortion to 1960s levels.\n\nConcert pitch: Wembley Arena, etc.\n\nCue: A wooden rod used for hitting balls.\n\nDead sound: The result of doing 37 takes to get the track note perfect.\n\nEcho: The sound of £10,000 of digital ICs crammed into a little black box.\n\nEngineer: Someone who wanted to drive a train when he grew up.\n\nFader: A control for reducing noise at the expense of increasing distortion, or vice versa.\n\nFigure-of-eight: An exotic form of balanced line.\n\nHeadroom: A property of some larger control rooms where the distance between the top of the engineer's head and the bottom of the bass trap has a positive value.\n\nHertz: What happens to the engineer's ears when the fuses in the monitor amps fail to fail.\n\nkHz: The sound of the producer contemplating tomorrow's session.\n\nLeader: The biggest member of the band.\n\nLED: Heavy metal.\n\nLine input: Nostril.\n\nMaintenance engineer: A studio employee who's never there when anything goes wrong with the equipment.\n\nMicrophone: A device that makes loudspeakers scream when pointed at them.\n\nMixing: Trying to convert a dead sound (qv) into a hit record.\n\nNon-directional: A mic that picks up everything happening in the studio except the instrument in front of it.\n\nOmnidirectional: Likes and dislikes that's warm and wet (or bi-directional).\n\nOverdue: The practice of getting more mileage out of backing tracks by using the same tracks for a number of songs, such as a succession of singles. Particularly popular with Reggae producers who have great difficulty in getting all the rhythm section capable of playing at the same time.\n\nPA: Pain in the neck.\n\nPad: Place to which an engineer returns occasionally to change his socks.\n\nPanning: The critical response to the end product of vast amounts of time and money spent in a studio.\n\nPanpot: A device that converts mono recordings to stereo.\n\nPre-emphasis: Increasing the noise level to counteract the effects of noise reduction.\n\nPresence: If your studio has one of these, keep quiet about it. Most clients are paranoid enough without having ghosts to worry about.\n\nProducer: (1) Someone who sits next to the engineer and makes unhelpful comments at awkward moments. (2) Person who takes all the credit for the engineer's hard work.\n\nReverberation: £5,000 worth of digital ICs in a black box.\n\nReverb: Addiction time. The time it takes to get a studio to pay £13,000 for £5,000 of ICs in a black box.\n\nRoute: The heavily worn path between the studio and the nearest pub.\n\nSelsync: A marketing man's explanation for why semi-pro multitracks have one head for recording and playback.\n\nStagebox: A small upturned wooden box used as a prop by superstars who try to get more feeling in their playing by reliving their early days playing in pubs.\n\nSubmixing: Mixing one track at a time so the computer can learn what to do.\n\nSynchroniser: A device used to link two machines for 46-track tape phasing.\n\nSynthesiser: An unmusical instrument.\n\nUnbalanced line: Where the producer takes more than half.\n\nUnidirectional: The type of mic that rotates towards the floor during an otherwise perfect take.\n\nWDR Neve DSP now in use\n\nThe first Neve digital mixing console to be installed outside the UK has been delivered and commissioned for the WDR broadcast network in West Germany. The console is installed as part of an installation within a new concert hall being built as part of a new DM 300 million cultural centre in Cologne which is due to be opened in September. The console facilities include 56 faders, 48 mic/line analogue inputs, 16 line analogue inputs, 32 analogue outputs, 32 digital inputs and outputs for multitrack use. The system also benefits from the inclusion of remote stage input boxes with fibre-optic transmission to the console.\n\nThe console was delivered and commissioned on time and was officially launched at a digital seminar held in Cologne in April.\n\nAgencies\n\n- FM Acoustics of Switzerland has reached an agreement with Professional Audio Ltd of London under which Professional Audio will distribute the complete range of FM Acoustics professional products in the UK. They will carry stock, parts, service products and supervise installations etc.\n\n- Theatre Sound & Lighting (Services) Ltd (TSL) have been appointed sole and exclusive UK distributors for the Clear-Com Intercom Systems. TSL are headed by directors Matthew Griffiths and Peter Maciuk. New addition is Zounie Falli as sales administrator who previously handled the Clear-Com business for TBA. TSL, Queen's Theatre, 51 Shaftesbury Avenue, London W1V 8BA. Tel: 01-439 2441.\n\n- Rhino Distribution has been appointed distributor for American Audio Logic processors including MT74 quad noise gate, X324 crossover and MT66 stereo compressor/limiter featuring dbx noise reduction. Rhino also distributes DOD rack mounting signal processors and instrument effects pedals. Rhino Distribution, Equipment Division, Burnham Road, Dartford, Kent DA1 5BN. Tel: (0322) 74003.\n\n- Kelsey Acoustics are now supplying NEK bulk microphone/instrument and multicore cables. Kelsey Acoustics Ltd, 28 Powis Terrace, London W11 1JH. Tel: 01-727 1046.\n\n- Adams-Smith has appointed Professional Equipment srl of Milan as Italian distributor for the System 2600. Professional Equipment srl, Viale Famagosta 37, Milano 20142, Italy. Tel: 02-81 78 39. Telex: 843-312239.\n\n- Recently established UK audio equipment sales company Professional Audio has been appointed sole UK distributor for FM Acoustics. Professional Audio Ltd, Professional Audio House, 53 Corsica Street, London N5 1JT. Tel: 01-226 1226. Telex: 24282.\n\nAddress changes\n\n- Italian distributor Audio International SRL, has moved to Via Santa Maria, 100, 20090 San Maurizio al Lambro, Milan. Tel: (02) 25 390 121.\n\n- Theatre Projects has changed address to Theatre Projects Services Ltd, 8-34 Blundell Street, London N7 9BW. Tel: 01-609 2121. Telex: 885659.\n\n- Amek and TAC now have facsimile machines in operation. The numbers are: Amek 061-834 0593; TAC 0602 785112.\n\n- Alangrove Builders has moved to Mountbatten House, Victoria Street, Windsor, Berks SL4 1HE. Tel: (0753) 857181.\n\n- Elliott Brothers (Audio Systems) Ltd has moved and is now located at Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ER, UK. Tel: (0865) 249259.\n\n- TracSystems has moved to the Archway area of London and has doubled its floor area. The new address is Belgravia Works, G08/157 Marlborough Road, London N19 4NF, UK. Tel: 01-281 4955.\n\nPeople\n\n- Simaen Skolfield has joined the Amek sales team and brings 15 years experience as a Grammy award winning recording engineer who has worked in many and varied facilities. Simaen will be responsible for introducing London facilities to APC and assisting any customers who visit London. He may be contacted at 218 Bowes Road, London N11 2JH. Tel: 01-361 8552.\n\n- Amek has also promoted Henry Goodman from shipping manager to sales co-ordinator; Richard Hollingworth has taken over as shipping manager and Selwyn Hotz has joined Amek and TAC as financial controller.\n\n- Otari Corporation has appointed three new regional sales managers: James Goodman, previously with Eventide, for Northern States; Emil Handke, formerly with Valley Audio as general manager for Southern States and Bill Ford, previously with Cramer Video, for Western States.\n\n- Mark Calice, formerly in charge of Otari Corporation’s MTR series technical support has become technical training manager for a newly created training department. Details of Otari dealer/user training seminars may be obtained by calling (415) 592-8311.\n\n- Two new IBC corresponding members have taken up invitations to the position, succeeding TJ Murphy and P Mainwaring who have now retired. K O’Connell is director of engineering at Radio Telefis Eireann and NL Lane is director of engineering at the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand. The role of corresponding members is to represent the IBC around the world and lend their support to the IBC UK committees in the organisation of the convention and their liaison with broadcasting and allied industries.\n\n- Soundcraft has promoted Adrian Curtis, formerly senior engineer in Soundcraft technical services, to senior sales engineer to Soundcraft Electronics. His main area of responsibility will be technical sales support to international and direct UK customers.\n\n- Norman Crocker, managing director of Tannoy Ltd, has been elected chairman of the Association of Sound and Communications Engineers.\n\n- David Hopkins, managing director of Delta Sound (PA) Ltd, has been elected vice-chairman.\n\n- AMS has appointed John Gluck to sales department taking over sales co-ordination of the company’s established range of products.\n\n- Focusrite Ltd has appointed Mike Bowers as sales manager. Formerly sales and marketing manager for Noblelight Ltd, he will be responsible for the ‘new’ range of professional sound control modules for the recording, broadcasting and film industries worldwide.\n\n- The BPI has appointed Rob Dickins to succeed Maurice Oberstein as the next chairman. Chairman and managing director of WEA Records UK, Dickins has been an active member of the BPI council since 1983.\n\n- Virgin Group has appointed Nick Alexander managing director of SynthAxe Ltd. Previously managing director of Virgin’s computer game company he continues with this responsibility including new technology developments and has assumed responsibility for SynthAxe as Bill Aitken, who headed the development of SynthAxe, has rejoined Solid State Logic Ltd.\n\n- Phil Neighbour has joined Court Acoustics Sales Ltd as sales manager, responsible for the sales of RCF products in the UK and for distribution of Court equipment worldwide.\n\n- Trident Audio Developments has announced Wayne Freeman’s appointment as the new president of Trident USA Inc. Mr Freeman previously with Soundcraft Inc in the USA has had many years experience in the pro audio industry particularly in the field of recording consoles.\n\n- David McVittie has joined Elliott Bros (Audio Systems) Ltd as sales manager. He will be responsible for sales to the broadcast sector freeing Bruce Elliott to concentrate on the theatre area. David McVittie was previously International Sales manager with Audio Design Calrec.\n\nLow-cost digital audio comes of age.\n\nThe Sony PCM series has now been available for several years. In this time recording and broadcast organisations, government, educational and industrial establishments, as well as individual users have all acknowledged the unique value of these units, and made them a new standard. It is the superlative quality of Sony PCM digital, coupled with extremely low cost that has brought about this professional acceptance of the range. This is borne out by the number of new ancillary products from other manufacturers, that have further increased the flexibility and versatility of the range. Examples of these products are the 'CLUE' logging and editing system from HHB, as well as various interfaces which allow digital communication with the PCM 1610.\n\nSony has acknowledged that this acceptance by professional users necessitates a change of policy towards these products. Accordingly they have upgraded them from the domestic catalogue, and, realising the need for professional support and all that that entails, have appointed HHB as specialist dealers to represent them in the pro-audio market.\n\nWe are proud to announce this appointment, and happy to assure our customers of continued availability of the PCM range. The re-instatement of the PCM production line has been very largely due to pressure from end-users, who are after all the motivating force in the audio world. So if you are involved with audio recording and are still unfamiliar with Sony digital, then you owe it to yourself to call HHB – the No. 1 name in Digital Audio.\n\nHHB HIRE & SALES, UNIT F, NEW CRESCENT WORKS, NICOLL ROAD, LONDON NW10 9AX TELEPHONE: 01-961 3295 TELEX: 923393.\n\nThe list of credits on a modern album sleeve is growing all the time; along with performers and songwriters it is quite common to see the producer, engineer, session musicians, recording studio and mastering suite included and now a new title has joined the list—that of programmer.\n\nSo who is this person hiding behind the vague title and what exactly does he do to deserve getting his name on the sleeve? In reality, he probably hasn't programmed anything at all but is only the user of other people's software and the traditionalist in the computer world would only credit him as an operator or worse as a machine tender.\n\nWhatever we decide to call him, he's the person who understands the world of sequencers, FM and analogue/digital keyboards, expanders, drum machines, MIDI-controlled effects and the various boxes which keep them all in sync with the tape machines. A good programmer combines many of the tasks of both the engineer and producer with the creative qualities of the writer and performer. Those of us who have worked with computer controlled equipment for any length of time appreciate all that a good programmer does.\n\nThe shortage of experienced music programmers is partly the result of the speed at which technology is progressing: even the traditional tea boy, tape op, engineer, producer route has changed in recent years. Another contributory factor is the wide range of skills which must be acquired including the ability to read and write music, and perfect pitch is a distinct advantage. Entering musical notation from a manuscript soon brings back sight reading but when the producer sings a bass line—even assuming that you know what he means—in can you immediately enter the correct pitch and note values in to the step time sequencer? When the keyboard player wants his timing auto-corrected, can you confidently choose between a demi-semi-quaver and a 16th triplet and won't he be pleased if you get it wrong?\n\nOne benefit of computer production is speed but if one particular piece has to be played several times in order to practise auto-correction, or if it takes an hour to work out that funky bass line in step time, or if your programmer's on the phone to the Royal College of Music because he doesn't know his andante from his pizzicato, then perhaps it's time to think again.\n\nProgramming original sounds into keyboards, particularly the FM kind, can be extremely time consuming and it is probably a job well worth doing away from the studio. However, it is still often necessary, even with a comprehensive sound library, to edit, re-edit and re-edit a session. Again this is where a good programmer will save time, money and frayed tempers, by translating a request for 'more zing' into carriers, modulators and frequencies, or by providing more decay without losing the fundamental sound.\n\nComputer drums are often a controversial subject. Can they sound natural? Should they sound natural? Can they replace the real thing, or should they be regarded as an instrument in their own right? Whatever personal views are, the programmer should be able to provide what each individual producer wants and this ability to create original and interesting patterns and breaks to suit all types of music must be allied to a knowledge of the drummers' limitations, both real and machine. If attempting to simulate a live kit, it should be remembered that a drummer only has two hands—an obvious point but a common mistake. An easy way to spot the machine is listening to the hi-hat tapping continuously eight to the bar, throughout breaks, rolls and entire albums. At the same time it is worth remembering that although the machine can play with many hands and keeps perfect time, if a producer brings in a Scottish country dance band or wants to record the National Anthem, then a quick phone call to the Musicians' Union is perhaps a good idea.\n\nEver since the music programmer appeared on the scene, the job has grown in importance. At the beginning of 1984, we took the Commodore 64, which was being discarded by our accounts department and put it in the studio to control the growing number of keyboards (see Studio Sound March 1986). Then we were trying to save tape tracks but on a recent production the multitrack contained only two vocal tracks and a sync code, whilst the desk had a further 22 channels of 'live' sound from the assorted keyboards, samplers, drums and effects. The only people involved in the production were a singer/songwriter and the programmer.\n\nWith the increasing range of MIDI effects, today's programmer can often find himself with a separate sequencer purely for effects and keyboard patch changes, and now that some desks are reading MIDI and SMPTE for routing and switching, the chain seems to be almost complete. The tape machine is at present the only area free from the programmer's attentions but for how long? As the trend towards digital recording gathers speed and hard disk-based systems and even RAM storage become commonplace, it should not be too long before someone decides to process the digital information in the recorder before playback, rather than using external processors involving further D/A and A/D conversion. Imagine a multitrack recorder with an effects unit built into each channel. Now give it user-definable memories with MIDI control and the chain is well and truly complete.\n\nIt's interesting to note how experience is helping the music programmer overcome some of the problems of various systems. Let's return to the problem of auto-correction. No one would think of experimenting with a master tape instead of working on a copy and similarly most sequencers will copy a keyboard part in seconds which the programmer can then use for practice.\n\nA common problem with sequencers is that while attempting to overdub a sequence with another part which starts on the first beat of the first bar, the first note never records. Programmers have now discovered how to use a separate track to re-record the first note late and auto-correct it back to the first beat. Systems using FSK code for tape sync can be extremely frustrating when the tape must be started at the beginning of the track each time and why is it that the last chorus always needs 20 takes?\n\nThe trick is to run a monitor mix on to tape at the same time as the sync code and use this instead of running the computer each time. Most people would leave a guard track next to the sync code but if the monitor mix is recorded about 20 dB down it will not interfere with the code and can be used as the guard track as well. Any increased noise doesn't matter as the track will not appear on the master. If tape tracks are of a premium, then the monitor mix can be erased later and used as the final track.\n\nSequencers have even been used to provide a form of level automation. Many keyboards have voice output as a programmable parameter and by copying the same voice several times but with different output levels and using MIDI to switch between voices, the keyboards will mix themselves.\n\nSo what sort of person are we looking for in the guise of an ideal music programmer? He is obviously a child prodigy electronics wizard who studied classical piano at the Royal College of Music but gave it all up to become the drummer with a funk band before opting for a career as a successful recording engineer/producer. No wonder he gets his name on the album sleeve! In fact the day must surely be approaching when the expanding list of credits begins to decrease once again, until the only names remaining are those of the artiste and programmer.\n\nAnd who will get top billing? □\n\nRoger Jackson, West Coast Music, Luib, Isle of Skye.\n\nFirst Class Sound... ANYWHERE!\n\nBritannia Row offers you a total Audio Hire service from a complete customised 24 track recording package through the range of our extensive analogue and digital recorders to any individual studio effect you may require.\n\nThe equipment is cased and delivered by our professional and efficient staff to anywhere in the UK or overseas.\n\nOur technical engineers will fully install the equipment and leave you assured of a smooth recording session with 24 hour back-up guaranteed ... Call now for an immediate quotation.\n\nCOMPLETE SERVICE AUDIO HIRE\n\n35 BRITANNIA ROW, LONDON N1 8QH\nTEL: DAY 01-226 3377 NIGHT 01-231901 BLACK 281\nTELEX: 268279 BRITRO G\n\nSyco and Fairlight\n\nAs sole UK distributor for the Fairlight Computer Video Instrument System Syco Video is aware that units are being offered on direct import from Europe and possibly America. As sole UK and Irish distributor Syco points out that it is unable to offer service support and software updates for these units. They also point out that these units are not necessarily calibrated and tested for British power supply and although not necessarily hazardous, the software stability of the unit is likely to be affected. If in doubt, contact Syco Video on 01-724 2451.\n\nMusic video payments issue\n\nThe BPI council decided to seek payment for music videos which had until now been supplied free, or virtually free to television programmers; and to advise BPI member companies to cease to supply free music videos after May 31 1986 unless constructive negotiations were in hand. Negotiations were opened with the BBC and ITV companies and a proposal from the BPI on the principle of payment was put at meeting with ITCA companies, Channel 4 and the BBC during May.\n\nAfter the initial meetings BPI legal adviser Patrick Isherwood reported that further meetings had been arranged with the BBC. The BPI council has reiterated its decision on video payments and will strongly advise members (accounting for about 95% of the UK record releases) to stand by the deadline decision.\n\nOral History Society opposes tape levy\n\nThe Oral History Society has opposed the government's intention to introduce a levy on blank audio tape. The society makes use of tape recorded interviews with older people to produce articles, pamphlets, books and exhibitions based on living memory. The society sees no reason why it should pay copyright to owners of recorded music and has no wish to take on the additional administrative burden which claiming exemption would involve. The society states 'The Government's proposal to impose a levy on blank tape is a totally inadequate response to the problems of copyright in a period of technological change. As they stand the proposals are unfair and are likely to prove costly and unworkable.'\n\nContracts\n\n- TracSystems has recently received large orders for their in-cassette duplication systems: from Hany Mehanna Studio, Cairo, Egypt for a six slave 5,000 cassette/day system; a 20 slave system to Jack Carney of TDC Dublin via Sound Control Belfast to meet a current 30,000 cassette/month requirement; and to Richard Garrido SCV in Paris.\n- Millbank Electronics has supplied amplifiers from their PAC System range for the National Garden Festival, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, UK. This six month festival takes place on 180 acres of reclaimed land featuring arenas, displays, 80 theme gardens, artificial lakes and theatres. The sound installation was by Animated Projection Ltd of Widnes, Cheshire and is divided into 12 separate zones.\n- Different Fur Recording of San Francisco, has taken delivery of a Sony PCM 3324 multitrack. This system is owned by Windham Hill Records but will be housed at the studio and will be available to studio clients.\n- Unique Recording, New York has installed two Sony PCM 3324 multitracks for 24 and 48 digital recording. Also the Fairlight 11X has been updated to a 111.\n\nIOA at Salford University\n\nThe Applied Acoustics department at Salford University opened their new laboratory during the recent IOA conference. Opened by Dr Per Bruel of Bruel and Kjaer it comprises a transmission suite enabling measurement of new glazing systems or lightweight partitions to be measured and an anechoic chamber allows for testing of hearing protectors.\n\nIOA's 4 day conference was attended by over 100 delegates and topics discussed included the latest findings of research in underwater acoustics, environmental noise and building acoustics. Three special lectures were given.\n\nProfessor Heinrich Kuttruff from Aachen University talked about the design of auditoria; Professor Elfyn Richards from the Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, Southampton University talked on an engineer's approach to the study of noise; and Dr Peter Thorne of the Institute of Oceanographic Science, Taunton on underwater sediment transport studies.\n\nSalford's Applied Acoustics Department is the second largest university based acoustics group in the UK and the only one which runs a distinctive undergraduate course in electroacoustics.\n\nAwards for Philips scientists\n\nInternational recognition was recently accorded to Philips research scientists in the form of the Rank Prize Funds Awards. Dr P Kramer, senior managing director of Philips Research, Mr G Bouwhuis, senior scientist at the Philips Research Laboratories and Dr K Compaan, now retired received recognition for a basic invention in the early seventies which has led to the LaserVision optical disc, the CD and the disc for storage of digital data, along with the corresponding electronic systems.\n\nAt the end of the sixties, scientists at Philips Research Laboratories embarked on a study intending to record image and sound signals on a disc in such a way that the information could be read without contact using laser light. The three award winners invented a technique for doing this and thus development got underway.\n\nPeople\n\n- Former Neve area sales manager Tom Belshaw has moved to Britannia Row Equipment where he is now manager of the sales department, working on the company's expansion in the UK and Europe.\n- 3M has announced that Christopher Hobbs is now general marketing manager for Magnetic A/V products. He has been with the company for 14 years in marketing and sales, and key account executive for Scotch household products, sales manager for Scotch consumer products, sales and marketing manager for Scotch audio tape and most recently as general marketing manager for home video and household products.\n- Soundtracs has appointed Simon Phillips to their technical sales team. Simon was previously with ITA and prior to that Turnkey.\n\nForthcoming events\n\nAugust 1 to 3 British Music Fair, Olympia 2, London, UK.\nSeptember 19 to 23 International Broadcasting Convention, Brighton, UK.\nOctober 28 Sound Broadcasting Equipment Show, Albany Hotel, Birmingham, UK.\nNovember 6 to 9 Institute of Acoustics 2nd Annual Conference: Reproduced Sound, Hydro Hotel, Windermere, UK.\nNovember 12 to 16 81st AES Convention, Los Angeles, USA.\nNovember 19 to 22 14th Tonmeistertagung Munchen 86, Deutsche Museum, Munich, West Germany.\n\nAuto line-up.\n\nThis cunning attempt to grab your attention is to let you know about the long-awaited arrival of the Otari MTR20 Series of master recorders at ITA.\n\nThe MTR20's unique automatic alignment system employs its own microcomputer to faithfully reproduce a set of line-up parameters that have been determined by the engineer. In other words, YOU decide exactly how the machine is to be lined-up, and the MTR20 remembers for evermore, faithfully reproducing YOUR procedure every time.\n\nAuto line-up is just one of the features of this most advanced recorder. A massive cast deck-plate, PWM-controlled reel motors, 14\" reel capacity, rapid interchangeability between formats; transformerless electronics; serial control; the list goes on.\n\nAnd of course, things for which Otari recorders are already renowned; utter reliability and ease of maintenance, for example.\n\nThe MTR20 is now available for demonstration in your studio; don't delay in making your booking.\n\nITA was first with Otari 13 years ago, and we are proud to be first with the MTR20 in 1986. Our commitment to the world's best range of professional recorders has never wavered in between. There are many exciting new Otari products on the way – we'll be there first too.\n\nINDUSTRIAL TAPE APPLICATIONS\nPROFESSIONAL PRODUCTS DIVISION\n\n1 Felgate Mews, Studland St, London W6 9JT Tel: 01-748 9009 Telex: 21879\n\nOur consoles have always been quiet.\n\nHave we been too quiet about our consoles?\n\nPerhaps we have. Thanks to the success of STUDER recorders, we're often thought of as strictly a tape recorder company. But, STUDER has also been making audio consoles for over 16 years, and hundreds of our 169/269 compact mixers are now at work in broadcast and video production facilities all around the world. Recently, with the introduction of the Series 900, STUDER has become a major supplier of studio production consoles.\n\nSo we're not keeping quiet about this any longer.\n\n**Name your frame.** Series 900 frame sizes from 12 to 50-plus inputs are available for any application, from remote recording and OB vans to sophisticated broadcast production and multi-track recording. Within these frame sizes, we configure the console to fit your requirements. The secret is our wide array of module options.\n\n**Mix and Match Your Modules.** The 900 is a true system console offering custom configurability at standard prices. Choose from 10 different metering modules, 3 multi-track monitor options (including separate monitor EQ), mono or stereo faders, audio subgroups, automation compatible VCA groups, video switcher interfaces, subgroup reassignment modules, up to 3 solo systems, multi-function test generator, input selectors, limiters, compressors, patchbays with bantam or ¼\" systems, and up to 10 auxiliary busses.\n\nBasic input modules feature 3 or 4 band EQ, microphone/line inputs, 5 pre/post-lade auxiliary sends, and channel overload indicators. Options include transformerless mic pre amps on a subcard, separate transformerless TAPE input for remix, stereo input modules, stereo EQ, internal stereo XY/MS active matrix, stereo blend control, dual line inputs, variable HP and LP filters, user defined panel switches, and the list goes on.\n\n**Listen to the quiet.** The entire 900 console frame design is consistent with the advanced module design. A completely independent signal reference ground system assures preservation of individual circuit CMRR figures. The result is overall noise performance compatible with digital recording.\n\n**As time goes by.** All 900 consoles adhere to strict STUDER standards for precision and reliability. The frame is built on a rigid channel and brace structure, and each module uses pin-and-socket Eurocard connectors.\n\nFrame connectors are mounted on longitudinal master boards with solid support from horizontal and vertical frame members. All components, switches and pots are commercial/industrial grade from the best US and European manufacturers. In sum, a 900 is built to last as long as a STUDER recorder.\n\nFor quality, flexibility, and the reliability, it ranks among the world's finest, and you may find the pricing surprisingly competitive.\n\nFor more information on STUDER consoles please contact:\n\nSTUDER INTERNATIONAL AG\nCH-8105 Regensdorf Telephone (01) 840 29 60\n\nSTUDER REVOX AMERICA INC Nashville Telephone (615) 254 5651\nSTUDER REVOX S A R L Paris Telephone 533 5858\nSTUDER REVOX CANADA LTD Toronto Telephone (416) 423-2831\n\nF.W.O. Bauch Limited\n49 Theobald Street, Boreham Wood, Hertfordshire WD6 4RZ\nTelephone 01-953 0091, Telex 27502 Fax 01-2075970\nwww.americanradiohistory.com\n\nDaturr shielded racks\n\nDaturr Ltd is able to supply specialised 19 in equipment racks designed to offer full protection against EMI/RFI interference. Manufactured by Daturr's parent company Knurr AG of Munich and fabricated from steel, the complete enclosure consists of a welded rack shielded by a cabinet of detachable panels. The special design allows access to the enclosed equipment without impairing the RF shielding, even when panels are removed for maintenance and special panels are available to cover gaps left between individual pieces of equipment.\n\nThe RF shielded rack is available in both fixed and mobile versions and can readily be used with various accessories included for use with the standard steel rack.\n\nDaturr Ltd, Albany Park, Camberley, Surrey GU15 2PL, UK. Tel: 0276 681212.\n\nOpTex Amsync audio system\n\nOpTex has developed a compact, crystal controlled stereo recording system for use with either the Sony TC-D5 portable cassette recorder or the Sony WMD 6 C Professional Walkman. The package includes the modified cassette recorder and APS-I resolver. The system retains full stereo capability without resorting to one direction only running.\n\nCrystal control is applied as a sub-audio signal and subsequently filtered out by the APS-I during transfer. An additional timecode head can be fitted but this prevents turning of the cassette.\n\nWhile the TC-D5 provides facilities for powering mics and can be used for recording two separate tracks rather than stereo, the manufacturers suggest using the WM-D6 C in combination with an SQN mixer providing powering, microphone mixing, PPM level control and Dolby C all in a package similar in size to a 4 Ah battery pack.\n\nOptical & Textile Ltd, 22-26 Victoria Road, New Barnet, Herts EN4 9PF. Tel: 01-441 2199. Telex: 8955869.\n\nSoundtracs FM mixer\n\nSoundtracs has announced the FM series 19 in rack-mounting mixer which will be available for fixed installations or fitted in a flight case. The steel and aluminium mainframe which is 15 U high can hold up to 14 (1 unit wide) modules. Current 1 unit wide modules include Mono Input; Mono Input with Remote Start; Stereo Input with Remote Start; Monitor Input; Group Output (8-track monitoring); and Monitor Output. Three other modules are available; the 2 unit wide PA Rec Master; the Monitor Master; and a 4 unit wide Group Output with 4-track monitoring.\n\nWith the modular system a number of configurations are possible including a 8/4/8/2 recording/PA mixer with mono and stereo inputs, an 8/1/0 monitor mixer and a 12/2 PA or 12/2 broadcast version with mono and/or stereo inputs. An external 3 U high power supply is also available.\n\nSoundout Laboratories Ltd, 91 Ewell Road, Surbiton, Surrey KT6 6AH, UK. Tel: 01-399 3392.\n\nUSA: MCI-Intertek Inc, 745 109th Street, Arlington, TX 76011. Tel: (817) 640-6447.\n\nMitsubishi video interface\n\nThe Mitsubishi Pro Audio Group has introduced an interface which will allow communications to the recently introduced IDF (Intelligent Digital Fader) from a CMX editing system or other similar video editing system, providing software for the support of external audio-follow-video devices. The interface will contain protocol information allowing total real-time automation control of fader level and mute commands by an edit system. The IDF system offers 16 groups in four levels of operation and the architecture provides for further interfaces with other automation devices. Each fader is a self contained computer system that provides \\( \\frac{1}{2} \\) frame accurate muting and 0.25 dB fader resolution.\n\nMitsubishi Pro Audio Group, 225 Parkside Drive, San Fernando, CA 91340, USA. Tel: (818) 898-2341.\n\nUK: Mitsubishi Pro Audio Group, Unit 1, Fairway Drive, Greenford, Middx UB6 8PW. Tel: 01-578 0957.\n\nPatchPrints\n\nThe Patch Bay Designation Company is offering a custom labelling service for audio and video patchbays, control panels, racks, consoles, rear illuminated button switches and all field designated areas. The thin plastic PatchPrints are washable and designed not to shrink, stretch or fade. Options include black lettering on a white background or white on black and colour coding.\n\nCorrect specification is important and special layout sheets are available from the company.\n\nThe Patch Bay Designation Company, PO Box 6278, Glendale, CA 91205, USA. Tel: (818) 241-5585.\n\nPortasol soldering iron\n\nThe Portasol soldering iron is a gas powered, lightweight, variable temperature iron available with either a 2.4 mm, 3.2 mm (supplied as standard) or 4.8 mm tip. The iron is simply filled with standard butane gas lighter fuel; the cap has an in-built ignition system and the working temperature is easily controlled in a range equivalent to a standard 10 to 60 W electric iron. In addition to its portability, an obvious asset is the reduced risk of damage to electrically sensitive components.\n\nJEM Marketing, 180 Princes Avenue, Palmers Green, London N13 6HL, UK. Tel: 01-889 1415.\n\nA sound choice all round...\n\nCourt Acoustics now offer you a range of graphic equalisers, each ruggedly designed for professional life. The GE30 and GE60 mono and stereo 30-band third-octave graphics; ISO centres from 25Hz to 20kHz. The GE1515 stereo half-octave equaliser, with 15 bands from 25Hz to 16kHz, or the GE1515X with additional built-in 12dB/octave 2- or 3-way variable crossover.\n\nOther facilities include 10dB boost and cut with centre detents. Electronically balanced inputs and outputs – XLR and 1/4 in jack – with optional transformer balancing. The relays giving hard-wired bypass in power-off. Top and bottom sliders offer low-pass and high-pass filter characteristics respectively – at 18dB/octave.\n\nOur special 'Uniloop' design makes our graphics unique. The fact that even with all the faders at maximum or minimum, you'll get a largely flat response.\n\nCourt Acoustics, 29 Beethoven Street, London W10 Tel 01-960 8178\n\n**Toa KY condenser mic**\n\nAimed at a variety of on-stage and studio applications the Toa KY condenser mic is a modular design featuring a newly developed thin, gold vapourised diaphragm. A YMM musical instrument mic capsule is supplied as standard but optional YMV and YFV capsules for male and female tenor voices are available.\n\nThe mic includes a built-in voltage regulator and can be used with external voltages between 9 to 52 V. Other features include a red LED to indicate live status, lockable On/Off switch, removable windshield and a grey matt finish to reduce glare under stage lighting.\n\n**UK:** Toa Electronics Ltd., Tallon Road, Hutton Industrial Estate, Brentwood, Essex CM13 1TG, UK. Tel: 0277 233882.\n\n**USA:** Toa Electronics Inc, 480 Carlton Court, San Francisco, CA 94080. Tel: (415) 588-2538.\n\n---\n\n**MS-Audiotron MCA-Multimix**\n\nDescribed by the Finnish manufacturer as a unique computer-controlled audio system for theatre, musical and similar applications, the MCA system is part of the Multimix audio console. The system is based on a Rockwell FORTH microcomputer with a 3.5 in disk drive. Communication is via a CRT terminal and the MCA system also supports an optional printer. Modifications to the basic Multimix console include replacement GC8 computer-controlled grouping modules on all mic or line channels requiring MCA control and an LCS level control module fed from the group output.\n\nSoftware is used to control (via a serial interface) tape machines under direct command of the MCA system. Commands available are start and stop the tape on cue and autolocate. Four relay start outputs (without autolocate) are available for tape machines without serial interface.\n\nThe complete system is designed to handle input channel routing, output matrix switching with level control and speaker matrix switching and tape machine control. Subroutings for fade in and/or fade out and multichannel panning are a feature of the software. Panning can be carried out either manually or alternatively the channel sequence, mixing and panning velocities can be saved in the situation memory. In order to facilitate the setting up of theatre sound effects the MCA system can be controlled via a portable terminal either on stage or from the auditorium.\n\n**MS-Audiotron, Laitilantie 10, 00420 Helsinki 42, Finland. Tel: 90-566 4644.**\n\n---\n\n**In brief**\n\n**TMK Instruments** has released details of the CLM1 and CLM2 digital cable length meters. In addition to measuring general lengths of at least 2-core or core and screen cable, the new meters can be used to measure a full reel and monitor the amount used over a period of time. Both instruments have three ranges (2 m, 200 m and 2 km) and are claimed to be accurate to within 1%. The CLM1 is for use with most general purpose cables (capacitance range: 85-275 pF/m) and the CLM2 for lower capacitance cables (<40-100 pF/m). Free accessories include test leads, test prods, battery, instruction manual and carrying case. Harris Electronics (London) Ltd, 138 Grays Inn Road, London WC1N 8AX, UK. Tel: 01-837 7777.\n\n**Switchcraft Inc** has introduced a new range of black non-insulative QG connectors with gold contacts. The range is available in 3-pin A and D series connectors.\n\n**Ampex** is providing an extra 4 min of tape on its 672 series professional audio C-30, C-45, C-60 and C-90 cassettes. This is primarily to cater for the spoken word recording market’s requirements.\n\n**Agfa-Gevaert Inc** has announced the availability of PEM 469 in 5,000 ft lengths. The new 2 in version is wound on 14 in spools.\n\n**Yale Audio** has introduced C-1 and C-2 self-adhesive vinyl labels for professional users. The C-1 sheet which is available in either black, red or white contains various positional markers for labelling knobs, switches, pushbuttons, etc. The sheet includes a variety of graphic switch positions, arrows and ‘pointing fingers’. C-2 is for use in identifying cables and includes various symbols, numbers and commonly used letters. Yale Audio of Florida Corp, PO Box 2661, Tampa, FL 33601, USA.\n\n**Audio Precision** has just released new optional plug-in filters for its System One to allow the individual measurement of second or third harmonic distortion. Commonly used fundamental frequencies (1 kHz, 400 Hz and 315 Hz) are available to order and the new filters can be custom made for any frequency in the audio range. Also new is the wow and flutter option. In addition to NAB, IEC (DIN) and JIS weighted and unweighted measurements the new option has a scrape flutter bandwidth extended to 5 kHz. New routing switcher modules now permit multitrack tape machines, analogue or digital to be connected to System One.\n\n**Levell Electronics’ HM208** digital storage oscilloscope is now available. The instrument can be used as a dual 20 MHz real time oscilloscope or as a digital storage oscilloscope with digitising rate up to 20 MHz. Maximum sensitivity is 1 mV/cm.\n\n**Sound Technology** has introduced **Audio Test Software** for use with the 1500A or 1510A audio test system and IBM compatible computer. The menu driven software measures 2-channel AC volts, azimuth, 2nd, 3rd and THD, frequency response, flat and weighted noise, maximum operating level and channel separation. In addition to the graphic and general test module there is a tape test module which performs an automatic pass/fail testing sequence for 2- or 3-head tape recorders.\n\nIT MAKES TAPE MORE FLEXIBLE\n\nOtari would like to draw your attention to a remarkable new recorder: The MX70. The MX70's microprocessor-controlled tape transport, closed-loop tension control and real-time tape counters give you instant, accurate tape control. And that gives you more time to do a better job.\n\nThe MX70 is designed for ease of use with machine controllers and synchronisers, meeting a variety of standards, including SMPTE. This makes it as valuable in video post-production and broadcast studios as it is in audio recording.\n\nFeatures like these, and many others, make the MX70 one of the most flexible tools any growing studio could wish for.\n\nBut there's one area where Otari's MX70 really does offer the kind of flexibility that no other machine can match. In formats.\n\nThe MX70's option list lets you choose between 1\" 8-track and 1\" 16-track formats. Convert to ½\" 8-track. Or even switch between all three options on the same machine.\n\nBut while the MX70 sets new standards for flexibility, the men at Otari have stuck rigidly to tradition.\n\nThey haven't budged an inch on quality.\n\nJBL 6215 amplifier\n\nJBL Professional has introduced a new power amplifier designed to fit into a single 19 in rack space. The 6215 has a rated output of 35 W into 8 Ω, 45 W into 4 Ω or 90 W into 8 Ω, mono bridged mode and is recommended for use where power requirements are minimal such as driving headphones or small speakers in confined studio or broadcast applications.\n\nThe amplifier is housed in a heavy gauge, rugged steel chassis and features fully complementary devices in all pre-driver, driver and output stages. Reduced audible distortion is claimed by using a low transient intermodulation design (pre-driver stage local feedback) with minimal overall negative feedback required to set the overall circuit operating points.\n\nInputs are standard ¼ in TRS, XL connectors or barrier strip, output terminations feature 5-way binding posts. Individually stepped gain controls allow precise setting of input sensitivity.\n\nJBL Professional, 8500 Balboa Boulevard, Northridge, CA 91329, USA. Tel: (818) 893-8411.\n\nUK: Harman (Audio) UK Ltd, Mill Street, Slough SL2 5DD. Tel: (0753) 76911.\n\nNexo PCLine speaker systems\n\nFrench manufacturer Nexo has released a new range of small loudspeaker enclosures. Initially three models will be available—the PC115, an 8 Ω four unit enclosure suitable for use with 250 to 450 W amplifiers; the PC212, a 4 Ω, five unit enclosure for use with 500 to 700 W amplifiers and the PCSub, a sub woofer system using a single 18 in drive unit and suitable for 500 to 700 W amplifiers. Wedge versions of the PC115 and PC212 are due to be released in the near future.\n\nAll the loudspeakers feature five rigging points and with the exception of the sub woofer have provision for stands and brackets.\n\nAccording to the manufacturer new computer optimised bass loading allows volume reduction and increased low frequency extension. Overall frequency response (+3 dB) for the PC115 is 55 Hz to 17 kHz; for the PC212, 50 Hz to 17 kHz and for the sub woofer 40 to 100 Hz. nominal peak SPL specifications are 130, 133 and 130 dB SPL/1 m respectively.\n\nNexo Distribution, 153, Allée des Erables, ZAC de Paris Nord II, BP 50107, F-95950 ROISSY, Charles-de-Gaulle, Cedex, France.\n\nAdams-Smith controller\n\nAdams-Smith recently announced the availability of the new 2600 CC compact controller. The new controller can operate five tape synchroniser modules and a timecode generator to control and synchronise up to five audio or video recorders. Fully automated previewing, recording and replay can be implemented using only the system in and out points with all offsets, pre- and post-rolls and durations calculated automatically. Other traditional editing functions such as auto cueing, looping, stopping, recording, etc. are also provided.\n\nThe new controller also includes eight non-volatile function keys enabling the user to store often used routines; 100-position, 12-digit, non-volatile scratch pad memory; timecode/ft and frames conversion; drop/non-drop frame conversion; ATR varispeed and optional — frame accurate audio punch in/punch out and/or aux equipment turn on or turn off.\n\nThe 2600 CC, which is small and light enough to be held in one hand, can be connected up to 500 ft (150 m) from the System 2600 chassis and is compatible with other System 2600 modules.\n\nAdams-Smith, 34 Tower Street, Hudson, MA 01749, USA. Tel: (617) 562-3801.\n\nUK: Adams Smith UK Ltd, Barnwell House, Room 9, Barnwell Drive, Cambridge CB5 8UJ. Tel: 0223 215 366.\n\nIbanez SDR1000 reverb\n\nIbanez has introduced the SDR1000 stereo digital reverb. Using high speed parallel digital processing the two channels can either be programmed independently using different modes or set for identical reverb characteristics. A choice of 30 preset programs or 70 user-definable presets are provided. Eight overall characteristics: Hall, Room, Plate, Gate, Reverse, Dual Delay, Dual Reverb and Auto Panning provide the basis from which all the presets are derived.\n\nFront panel facilities include 4-band EQ, 12 edit modes and three MIDI parameters, and in-built software allows direct comparison of new sounds against sounds already in the memory.\n\nInput and output levels are quoted at −20, +4 dBV, impedance 47 kΩ (input), 600 Ω (output). The unit is 16-bit linear (26 kHz sampling) providing a 90 dB dynamic range and a frequency range (on effects) from 20 Hz to 10 kHz. Total harmonic distortion is claimed to be less than 0.03%.\n\nUK: C Summerfield Ltd, Dukesway, Team Valley, Gateshead, Tyne & Wear NE11 OUR. UK. Tel: 091 482 2228.\n\nUSA: Hoshino (USA) Inc, 1726 Winchester Road, PO Box 886, Bensalem, PA 19020. Tel: (215) 638-8670.\n\nRush outboard EQ\n\nDesigned in response to requests from users of computer-controlled consoles who desire the smoother sound usually associated with older desks which have inductors and shelving type circuitry Rush Electronics has announced its new outboard equaliser. The unit features high and low frequency shelving controls each with five switchable frequencies, two mid frequency presence controls each with 10 switchable frequencies and high and low pass filters, 18 dB/octave at five switchable frequencies. Gain is adjustable between −10 and +10 dB and each module has polarity, equaliser in/out and filter in/out switches.\n\nUp to eight individual modules and power supply can be mounted in a 10½ in (265.9 mm) Eurocard frame and either transformer or active balanced inputs and outputs can be specified.\n\nThe module is also available with a mic input using a 23 position gain switch (−80 to −20 dB mic/−10 to +20 dB line) in 5 dB steps. On line input a trim control is also provided for fine adjustment. Also available is a single chip microprocessor system which can recall all control settings and has up to 20 memories. An onboard battery backup retains memory information when the power is switched off.\n\nRush Electronics Ltd, 29 Alexandra Road, London N8 0PL, UK. Tel: 01-889 2200.\n\nThe finest touring consoles never stand still.\n\nMany of the world's top artists regard Soundcraft touring consoles as outstanding. However, that hasn't made us complacent. We've made a few enhancements to the Series Four, derived from listening to the people who use it.\n\nAnd based on the world's most successful live sound desk, the 800B, we've developed an exceptional new touring console – the Series 8000.\n\nBoth possess the advanced ergonomics, operational simplicity and reliability you've grown to expect.\n\nSeries Four and Series 8000. Classic technology, created for music.\n\nFor further information, contact us today.\n\nSoundcraft\n\nPERFORMANCE SERIES\n\nSoundcraft Electronics Ltd, Unit 2, Borehamwood Inc Park, Rowley Lane, Borehamwood, Herts WD6 5PZ, England. Tel: 01 2075060 Fax: 01 21998 (SCRAFT@). Fax: 01 2070194\nSoundcraft USA (1)313-453-4591 Soundcraft Canada (514) 685-1610 Soundcraft Japan (03) 341-6201.\n\nGreengate DS:3 and DS:4\n\nGreengate recently announced major additions to its Apple-based sampling sequencer package.\n\nA MIDI card and updated software allows the DS:3 sampler to be controlled from the Greengate keyboard or to interface with other MIDI devices.\n\nThe MEG-1 board is an add-on memory card which fits inside the system's Apple computer to give vastly extended memory facilities. MEG-1 samples at up to 85 kHz and gives a maximum 148 s sample at around 3 kHz response. The whole sample can be visually edited and dumped to disk even if up to nine disks are required—an alternative is to use the new Apple High Capacity disk drive.\n\nIn the Performer mode MEG-1 can hold 32 sounds for full-time monophonic playing or 4-note polyphonic playing of the first 2 s of the sample. Sounds for a live performance can be loaded into the MEG-1 from disk and pulled down virtually instantaneously.\n\nSYN 1 is a software disk for the DS:3 which allows the system to synthesise its own sounds from scratch, or combine and edit sampled sounds. Two sampled or synthesised waveforms may be put through an 'in-betweening' process which transforms one into the other during the course of a note. Sound envelopes can be edited or reversed. All sounds are audible during editing.\n\nThe GDX 7 software allows the DS:3 to be used as an editing and library system for the Yamaha DX-7. The display lists all DX-7 parameters and allows you to edit sounds using the computer's keyboard and to play sounds from the Apple keyboard for TX-7 and TX-816 FM module editing.\n\nEnvelope generators can be copied and voices initialised instantly, and it is possible to enter upper and lower case names into the DX-7. Banks of sounds can be re-arranged and it is possible to save 29 x 32 sounds (total 928) on to a single Apple disk.\n\nSoon to be released is Greengate's DS:4, a 16-bit, 8- or 16-voice, 12 or 24 s sampler with MIDI, 'intelligent' SMPTE, optional waveform creation and digital delay software.\n\nGreengate Productions, Unit D, Happy Valley Industrial Park, Primrose Hill, Kings Langley, Herts WD4 8HZ, UK. Tel: 09277 69149.\nUSA: Greengate Productions, 2041 Pioneer Court, Suite 15, San Mateo, CA 94403. Tel: (415) 345-3064.\n\n360 Systems MIDI Bass\n\n360 Systems is now shipping the MIDI Bass, a monophonic bass sample-playing unit with interchangeable EPROMs.\n\nThumb/Slap, Fretless, Gibson, Fender, Synth and many other bass sounds are available and the unit is supplied with picked, slapped, upright and MiniMoog bass sounds. Programmable split point and velocity sensitivity are featured.\n\n360 Systems, 18730 Oxnard Street, Tarzana, CA 91356, USA. Tel: (213) 342-3127.\nUK: Rod Argent's Keyboards, 20 Denmark Street, London WC2H 8NA. Tel: 01-379 6690.\n\nC-Lab Supertrack\n\nSupertrack is a 16-channel polyphonic MIDI recording system for the Commodore 64 micro and the C-Lab, Steinberg, Jellinghaus, Korg, Yamaha or other interface.\n\nThe 16 tracks are assignable to any MIDI channel and are labelled with channel number, on/off status, velocity level, transpose value, quantise value and loop length. Tempo can be altered as the patterns play, tracks can loop around any portion of their total length independently. Maximum pattern length is 256 quarter-notes in any time signature. Sixty-three patterns can be held before disk dumping and used to create 8,500 note compositions comprising up to 255 patterns.\n\nPlaying can be auto-corrected for timing or mixed with step time entry and patterns can be repeated in different keys or with different tracks muted. Any of the 16 tracks of a pattern can be edited using a display of every MIDI event including note, velocity and patch change information.\n\nCompleted tracks can be transposed, delayed for echo effects, doubled or halved in speed, copied or 'ghosted' to experiment with new velocity or transpose values, merged or 'punched in' for overdubbing and saved to disk. MIDI or clock pulse drum machines and sequencers can be synchronised depending on the interface used and the package is SMPTE-compatible using a Roland SPX-80 or similar unit.\n\nC-Lab, PO Box 710446, 2000 Hamburg 71, West Germany.\nUK: Sound Technology, 6 Letchworth Business Centre, Avenue One, Letchworth, Herts SG6 2HR. Tel: 0462 675675.\n\nBeetle accessories\n\nThe Beetle PR-7 is an editing device laid out to resemble the front panel of a Yamaha DX-7 synthesiser. It allows the user to edit sounds on Yamaha's TX-7 or TX-816 FM modules without a DX-7 and has a slot for a ROM or RAM sound cartridge. Beetle's QR-1 is a 'RAM Disc' which replaces the Yamaha DX and RX, Casio CZ and Roland TR series cartridges.\n\nBeetle Inc, 117E Colorado Boulevard #8250, Pasadena, CA 91105 USA.\n\nAMEK\n\nAPC 1000\nASSIGNABLE PRODUCTION CONSOLE\n\nWith Reset, Recall, 64 Busses, Keyboard Control and the GML Moving Fader System, AMEK APC 1000 ASSIGNABLE PRODUCTION CONSOLE offers the recording industry its first viable alternative in years.\n\nThe Next Revolution in Console Technology is here\n\nHead Office and Sales:\nAMEK SYSTEMS AND CONTROLS LTD,\nIslington Mill, James St,\nSalford M3 5HW, England\ntel: 061/834 6747\ntelex: 668127 AMEK G\n\nIn the USA:\nAMEK CONSOLES INC,\n10815 Burbank Blvd,\nNorth Hollywood, Ca 91601\ntel: (818) 508 9788\ntelex: 662526 AMEK USA.\n\nwww.americanradiohistory.com\n\nWE’VE GOT THE BEST OF 24 TRACK WRAPPED UP FOR YOU.\n\nWhen you’re going 24 track, choosing the right equipment is vital, because you’ll be working with it for the next few years.\n\nSo we put ourselves in your position. And brought together the best in 24 track.\n\nThe result is the UK’s only professional 24 track centre.\n\nHere, for the first time, you can get your hands on and discuss a unique range of equipment – all under one roof.\n\nWe’ve consoles like the Trident Series 75, the Soundcraft TS24 and, for the first time in a UK show-room, the new automated Amek Angela.\n\nTogether with multitracks and mastering recorders from Otari and Soundcraft – and the latest in synchronisers.\n\nOur advice is free, our back-up comprehensive.\n\nSo come and test the best in 24 track for yourself. We’ll help you get it well wrapped up.\n\nStirling\nAUDIO SYSTEMS LTD\n\nTHE FIRST STUDIO SYSTEM CENTRE\n\n1 Canfield Place, London NW6 3BT Tel: 01-625 4515 Telex 946240 CWEASY G Ref No. I90 I4280\n\nDIGITAL MASTERING\nTAPE ONE\n\nTape One studios rose to fame when they became the first facility capable of processing digital recordings fully digital. Janet Angus talks to co-owner Bill Foster about their rooms, equipment, and philosophy and his thoughts on digital and the future.\n\nTape One has been in the disc cutting business since 1975 and was therefore well placed to take what at the time, was a very radical, or at least risky step. As early as 1983 co-owners Bill Foster and Barry Ainsworth came to the conclusion that the future of recording was going to be very heavily digitally orientated and they decided to order two digital consoles from Neve. The first took one year to arrive; the other took two. The first to arrive was nicknamed Attila because it looks just like a cash register! Not a conventional multitrack mixing console as such, as it only has two channels but it is capable of providing EQ and level correction in the digital domain. This meant that if you brought in your 1610 digital master cassette it was no longer necessary to go through the previously unavoidable DA and A/D conversion when mastering.\n\nBill: \"The effect of an all-digital chain is to give greater separation left and right. Look at something like Return of the Jedi, which was done at Abbey Road/Anvil. We got it here to cut and as an experiment we bypassed the analogue desk completely. The difference was astounding. That was one of the things that prompted us to go for all this.\"\n\nHaving already acquired the first Sony 1610 in 1982, they met with a certain amount of resistance from Neve in early 1983 when they put to them the idea of developing a small digital console. \"They wanted to make big music consoles, not silly little two channel things like that.\"\n\nAttila now has its home in Digit One situated in the basement of the Windmill Street premises. The room was formerly a jingles studio with voiceover booth, then it was used for cassette mastering and is now about to undergo the Tom Hidley studio treatment to bring it in line with the other two digital rooms in the building.\n\nAttila is fed from Sony 1610/1630s, has EQ, limiter/compressor and gain control and gives a 1610/1630 compatible signal out. As a lot of CD work is on the 1610/1630 format this made more sense than converting a digital recording to analogue and back again.\n\nAnother radical step was the arrival of a Philips PQ subcode editor around the same time as the Attila, making Tape One the first facility to offer PQ editing outside a CD manufacturing plant. This is installed in Digit Two. Other equipment in Digit One and Two includes Sony DAE 1100 editor and PCM 701.\n\nThe new Digit Two and Cutting Room One are located on the top floor; although it is not ideal having the rooms split in this fashion it was preferable to moving somewhere different. Bill: \"We were restricted for space and our hands were tied, apart from moving. It would be mad to go though because at least 60% of our clients—the record companies—have WI addresses. And anyway, to move would be too great an upheaval.\"\n\nA couple of flights of stairs, however, is no hardship. The only real handicaps were restricted room space and possibly, ceiling height. Cutting Room One was opened January 2 1986. A Tom Hidley '30 Hz Room' (\"we would have liked the 20 Hz version but there just wasn't enough room\"), it is roughly 14 x 10 ft. with finishes in light oak and white and blue fabrics. At the moment with the Neve console, Tape One have an advantage over the competition.\n\n\"Neve were very bold really. It was a hell of a step to design a digital console from the ground up and the result really is a remarkable piece of equipment. The market in DSP is going to be post-production for the next few years until there are enough digital multitracks in the field. But for post-production—having recorded your master at any studio of your choice—you now have your stereo in digital. Once you reach this stage I don't like to put it back into analogue until the last possible moment; too many DA and A/D conversions degrade the sound. Nowhere in the chain here does it go into analogue!\"\n\nThe Neve has 48 kHz sampling and there are two custom built sampling rate converters (44.1 kHz to 48 kHz to 44.1 kHz) for 1610/Neve. The Neumann VMS80 cutting lathe is controlled from the desk and has all metering and indicators remotied to the desk position. The Neve has a programmable 40-event memory. EQ, compressor, limiter, lathe settings and level may all be stored on a 3 1/2 floppy disk and each album stored on a separate disk.\n\nThe monitoring section of the console can input analogue or digital sources (two of each). Copy tape output can be pre- or post-EQ. There are a couple of analogue insertion points...\n\nThe Dolby XP Series\n\nProfessional Cost-effective\n\nThe Dolby XP Series contains up to 24 channels of Dolby A-type noise reduction in 12\\(\\frac{3}{4}\\)” of rack space, including power supply. The XP Series utilizes an on-board, integrated noise reduction circuit instead of the interchangeable Cat. No. 22 modules used in the SP Series, providing the same A-type noise reduction at a price over 20% lower.\n\nEach XP noise reduction channel consists of a plug-in Cat. No. 331 module which contains the Dolby A-type noise reduction circuitry, precision input and output amplifiers with low distortion, controls, and an accurate LED calibration display. The separate, regulated PS3 power supply, designed for rack mounting directly above the noise reduction unit chassis, contains fan cooling and electronically-controlled output protection.\n\nThe XP Series includes “uncal” controls, permitting convenient resetting of Dolby level for playback of and punch-in on tapes from studios with different Dolby level standards. The user can select the option of “hard-wired” or electronically-buffered bypass of individual channels or all channels simultaneously. The XP offers discrete FET switching for reliable, noise-free routing of audio signals. For convenience of wiring and for stability, a new detachable multi-channel connector plate is used, with tie bar for the cable form.\n\nDolby noise reduction is a mainstay of professional multi-track recording in studios throughout the world for music, film, broadcast, television, and videotape production. Over 90,000 channels are now in use world-wide. The benefits of Dolby A-type — improved signal-to-noise ratio, lower distortion, and reduced cross-talk and print-through — are achieved with a minimum of signal processing and with resultant high signal integrity.\n\nDolby Laboratories Inc., 100 Paterno Avenue, San Francisco CA 94103. Telephone (415) 538 0200 Telex 34109\n\n346 Clapham Road, London SW9 9AP. Telephone (01) 720-1111, Telex 919109\n\n“Dolby” and the double-D symbol are trademarks of Dolby Laboratories Licensing Corporation L85 300\n\nbeing the first to take in a DSP and now with their new digital disc mastering console Tape One has gained a wealth of experience. From a practical point of view Bill finds the digital EQ much more precise than the conventional analogue. Rather than sweep EQ, the Neve has selectable spot frequencies which are fairly close. It has variable Q and high and low pass filters.\n\n\"For EQ in the digital domain—the same rules apply as in analogue. But it is unlike analogue EQ in that there you are changing a pot against a painted number and depending on the manufacturer having screwed the pot on in the right place to make it accurate—or not.\"\n\n\"But digital EQ has one huge advantage over analogue EQ because it is only a string of numbers. If you were foolish enough to want to put in for example 6.7 dB of boost at 8.3 kHz, you add that to the left hand channel and exactly the same on the right hand channel so you don't introduce any phase error. In analogue it is always slightly different. There is no ringing from the EQs or any other nasty side effects and that exact EQ can be instantly recalled.\"\n\n\"With limiting, because you are processing a digital signal as it passes through, problems such as overshoot are eliminated.\"\n\n\"If you are cutting a vinyl disc, obviously ultimately it is going to be analogue. We feel we would prefer a digital signal to stay that way for as long as possible, ie the front end of the disc cutting amp.\"\n\nBill feels that audio post-production facilities will all go digital quite quickly, although at the moment there is not really room for every cutting room in England to have a DSP. During a recent interview at the CBS pressing plant it was suggested that a lot of pressing problems are being created by the misuse of digital recording equipment. Although Bill agrees that this might well be the case he feels that it is a problem for the producer rather than the cutting room. By the time it reaches cutting those sort of problems should have been eliminated.\n\n\"Obviously I don't mean that we would just ignore it if it was there. For example we can do different versions for vinyl or CD to change the dynamic range but we are set by the maximum levels of the vinyl noise. Yes digital does allow you to do things which vinyl doesn't necessarily like.\"\n\nThe monitors in Cutting Room One are a Tom Hidley design and feature Kinoshita horns with TAD bass drivers set in concrete. They are driven by an FM Acoustics 800 series amp. Nearfield monitors are Yamaha NS10s and they are novelly mounted slung across either end of the console angled in to the engineering position.\n\nAll the cabling on the top floor was designed by Rod Duggan of TotalSystems. In the cutting room there are insertion points for three machine positions: standard analogue in/out, parallel remote for the A80-type machine, serial remote RS422 for the 820 and D820 when they eventually get one (the Neve remote control system is serial), and remote for the 5850 DAs—1610-type U-matics, there are three video cables: left, right and clock for 1610; and an AES/EBU interface in both directions—the latter runs the Mitsubishi X-80 coupled to a custom built box which converts the Mitsubishi signal to AES/EBU enabling us to plug straight into the Neve without going into analogue.\n\nOther equipment in here includes a Yamaha REV 7.\n\n\"It's a very competent little unit and you can use it to add a bit of echo or if a producer wants anything specific we can hire it in.\"\n\nTape recorders include Studer A80, A820 (will be two) for analogue copies, A710 cassette recorder, Sony 701 and C9 (seven of which are in the building). There are currently two channels of Dolby A although Tape One has ordered a pair of Dolby SRs because they anticipate SR tapes coming in from the States in the near future. Plans to add the Studer D820 to this tape machine complement have been abandoned for the time being. Originally marked down for the first UK available machine, Tape One have relinquished their option. \"As DASH 2-track appeared so late we are unsure how fast it is going to be accepted. We felt it would be better if the first machines went to the hire companies. We still have an option but we will bide our time. There is not much point in us having the only machine. Had DASH appeared in 1984 it would have had more impact on the market than it is going to now.\"\n\nDigit Two is again a Hidley room. Used for CD pre-mastering the room has not been designed to do complete remix work, although it can accept analogue sources. It is generally utilised for working on masters or production masters which are EQ'd and ready to roll.\n\nThe console is a DDA S series 4-channel with very basic facilities. Any really heavy EQ requirements will go into Digit One. Digital metering, again by TotalSystems, gives a readout of 1610/1630, level, error correction, peak hold and overmodulation.\n\nThe monitors are Studer 2706s, driven by an HIT amplifier. They apparently tried out various monitors in this room and eventually came across the Studers which turned out to suit the room perfectly.\n\nJust arrived was another UK first: the bu102 from Harmonia Mundi for use in CD pre-mastering. Future updates to this will include the addition of EQ.\n\nThe procedure in Digit Two goes like this: transfer to tape master; check CD record level; check emphasis status, transfer from F1 and digitally (with the Harmonia Mundi), adjust the programme time correction if it is wrong.\n\nOrdered in 1983, the PQ editor arrived in May 1984, the same time as the first Neve DSP. This facility is advantageous for a number of reasons. If the CD plant is busy and they have a backlog you may well have to wait two weeks for them to be able to fit your CD in for PQ editing. If you are able to supply the tape master with PQ already on it, it is ready to go straight into production, thus saving an unnecessary wait.\n\n\"With PQ code, there is often an artistic point to put the track change and it is not necessarily where the white coated engineer at the CD plant would think. We felt that this was a decision that engineers and producers would like to take part in.\n\nTechnically it is not possible to overlap between tracks on a CD—what does the player do when you select your tracks? It cuts off and picks up at specific points, you cannot have a crossfade. If it is a complex album we can spend quite some time on this aspect.\"\n\nThe Sony CD mastering system comprises a range of independent, yet fully compatible products to give you total financial control during your integration into the world of digital sound. Just clip the coupon and we will send you a copy of 'CD Masters' that will tell you how to build, from a simple digital recording system to a complete CD Master post production suite.\n\n**CD MASTER GUARANTEE**\n\nSony Pro-Audio guarantee that all compact disc manufacturers accept the Sony format, and more tape duplicating plants and cutting centres are equipped with Sony equipment than that of any other manufacturer.\n\n**Sony Pro-Audio**\n\nSony Broadcast Ltd.\nBelgrave House\nBasing View, Basingstoke\nHampshire RG21 2LA\nUnited Kingdom\n\nTelephone (0256) 55 0 11\nInternational + 44 256 55 0.11\nTelex 85 84 24\nFax G2/G3 (0256) 4745 85\n\nMarketing Services,\nSony Broadcast Ltd.,\nBelgrave House,\nBasing View, Basingstoke,\nHampshire RG21 2LA\nTelephone (0256) 55011\n\nPlease send me my copy of Sony 'CD Masters' to:\n\nName ____________________________\nPosition ___________________________\nCompany __________________________\nAddress ___________________________\n_______________________________\nTel _____________________________\n\nSS/8/86\n\n\"The Sony PQ editor gives you a print out as does this Philips one we have, but the advantage of the Philips is that it also allows you to type in track listings and technical information. You can put remarks at the end for the CD plant. For example, if there is any clicking or hiss you can tell them where it is. Otherwise you may have the thing sent back to you unnecessarily. They are particularly 'unusual' about this in Japan—any little hiss or click and it's straight back. This way you can tell the mastering engineer at the plant and save everybody a lot of trouble. There was an example once of a Japanese plant sending a CD master back because it had some noise on it which turned out to be the musicians picking up their instruments. So it saves time and money if you can tell them things like that at the start. Other common things include it sounding like the beginning is chopped off, you can tell them in advance.\"\n\nThe final process is digital verification of the tape with the Sony DTA 2000.\n\n\"This room was designed for critical monitoring. In here we are listening for audio defects such as image shifting, or granular distortion on some of the earlier digital recording at lower levels. We can also use the room for straight editing. Being intended for working with digital recording the noise level of these rooms is critical and all machinery which may possibly be housed elsewhere is. The machine room is located in between Digit Two and Cutting Room One. Powered in two halves it contains the DSP computer, two Sony 1610s, 5850 DA, Sony tape analyser, Editor and Philips PQ editor, three Sony BVU200 U-matics for Digit Two (considered more robust for CD mastering than the more usual 5850 DAs). Bill: \"The third can be assigned to the disc cutting room if they need it.\" Also housed in here are the analogue input/outputs and sampling rate converters for the Neve.\n\nIt is relatively recently that digital work has really taken off outside the world of classical music recording. Although digital recording ultimately comes into its own in that type of recording it nevertheless has a pretty strong case in all types of music recording. For evidence of this you only need to look at the amount and type of work going through Tape One every day.\n\nClassical music accounts for only 40% of CDs now. Classical music will generally either be recorded by the majors (eg EMI) where they have their own mastering suite or Decca where they have their own digital system) and it will probably go to either digital multitrack or straight to stereo. They don't usually want to re-EQ because they do that when they are recording. The level of post-production required in classical music with regard to EQ is fairly minimal. Classical engineers coming to Tape One will generally want to simply make copies, get rid of pre-emphasis or correct traffic noise.\n\nBill: \"Digital multitrack will make a difference with pop. You only have to listen to something like Tina Turner's Private Dancer. That is probably the best pop CD to come out of this country. On tracks like I can't stand the Rain, where the beginning of the track is really quiet, you really notice the difference; it is very apparent. Some of it was analogue I think but it has been very carefully laid. Icehouse is another one—the clarity on an all-digital album is unbeatable.\n\n\"I think digital is very valid in pop. Mixing to digital is perhaps the key, or the first copy from the analogue mix. The problem in post-production is that you go into so many generations. The normal procedure is that you get a master mix or even a collection of master mixes done at various studios which probably have to be copied onto a production master. It is impractical to send that to both the cutting room and the cassette plant—the cutting room might be in London and the cassette plant in Leicester. So you copy the production master for cassette. Then the CD plant will need a dub...\n\n\"For purely economic reasons, if a copy tape is sent to England from America they will have that re-copied for Europe. Coming into England, EEC taxes have to be paid. Once within the EEC it can be distributed throughout Europe without the tax being levied again. If the production master is digital, all those copies can be done in the digital domain without degradation. You still have multiple digital generations, but I think that it is accepted that the losses in the digital domain are undetectable.\n\n\"When you get producers with digital recordings coming in they want to keep it digital. While you are cutting the lacquers a copy for CD can be made without going back into analogue. You can simultaneously make a separate copy for CD without the EQ for the disc.\"\n\nCutting Room One may also be used for compiling CDs. A recent example of this was Bryan Ferry's Street Life. We transferred it from Mitsubishi X-80, EQ'd and made it up. We did the lacquers, cassette master and a 74-minute CD (the longest pop CD ever?) all in digital, all done in here and all in one hit. That is an example of this digital audio post-production set-up working perfectly.\n\nThe standard of tapes arriving at the cutting/CD pre-mastering facility has, Bill feels, improved quite a lot in the last three years—indirectly because of digital.\n\n\"A lot of pop balance engineers are a bit respectful of digital and are therefore taking more care over things they might hitherto have neglected. They are having to be a lot more disciplined. With analogue you can usually sort it out in the mix, digital, if you go over the top you've had it, you glitched it and you've lost it.\n\n\"There is a growing awareness of digital and some of the early problems (such as undermodulation giving much increased noise floor, bad edits, varying emphasis status), have now gone away. Most engineers are much more aware of the discipline required in digital.\n\n\"A lot of the engineers who grew up in the 70s got used to not having to worry about the equipment. It's like driving a car at 70 mph—you can forget that one wrong move and you are dead because the machinery these days is so sophisticated you can do 70 and hardly notice it. When I got my first car, it did 70 but you really knew about it; it rattled and shook and the tappets were flying up through the bonnet. The same thing happened with the early days of recording when you had those consoles with the big knobs. Now we have digital technology and it's back to the goggles and flying hat!\"\n\nIt's 4am, you are suffering from an incurable bout of inspiration, the studio is vacant, even the overworked tape-op has sneaked home. Just one more run through before the 8.30am presentation, the final mix-down. The reassuring glow from the CM4400 memory indicator was all it took to trigger the enthusiasm, and you know that the onboard computer will take over the workload speeding up your creativity.\n\nThe CM4400 features:\n- Up to 44 inputs, 24 track monitor.\n- Internal computer allowing 30 different mixes to be pre-programmed.\n- Pre-programmed triggerable routing patches.\n- RS232 interface for personal computer to display track sheet.\n- Using CMS2: Automated muting using SMPTE time base,\n- 8 events controller & video synchronisation.\n\nTHE CM4400 BY\n\naffordable quality\n\nSOUNDTRACS LTD\n91 Ewell Road, Surbiton, Surrey KT6 6AH\nTel: 01-399 3392 Fax: 01-399 6821\nTelex: 8951073/SNDOUT/G\n\nU.K. Distributor\n\nDon Larking\naudio sales\nLuton: 29 Guildford Street, Luton, Beds\nTelephone: Luton (0582) 450066\nTelex: 825488 DONLAR\n\nwww.americanradiohistory.com\n\nHave we ever really been aware of how closely interconnected equipment relationships were in the typical recording studio signal chain? Improvements in one area stimulated updates and gradual improvements in other areas. Equally (although less obviously) deficiencies in some areas were covered up by shortcomings either in specific areas or in general performance levels accumulative throughout the signal chain. These observations really hit home when a piece of equipment is introduced into the signal chain that is either quite different in concept or of a completely new generation of development. The items of equipment in question that can upset the internal balance of a signal chain are medium sized high definition monitors, high performance microphones and almost any variety of digital recording.\n\nOne of the initially upsetting things when there has been an upgrade in the signal chain is that the equaliser sounds different. Now, of course, the equaliser is still performing the same action but we may perceive the sound differently as the results are not masked in the same way. For reasons such as this the equaliser has become an area of heavy interest again and there has been quite a considerable amount of activity from manufacturers with new ideas and approaches over the last year or so.\n\nSome of the first to respond to this interest were the mixing console manufacturers. With consoles normally being chosen for their sound and the EQ contributing heavily towards this, the logical step for some manufacturers has been to offer EQ options. In the case of SSL there are now three equaliser options which mainly differ in the area of low frequency section. The standard equaliser 82E02 has brown knob caps on the LF section. There is now a new standard EQ, the 82E242 which has replaced the 82E02 for future consoles and this is recognised by black knob caps on the LF section. A further option is the 82E132 'valve-type' EQ which has orange LF knob caps. Both 82E242 and the 82E132 are available to existing or new clients at extra cost.\n\nSony and Quad-Eight have chosen a different path by making their equaliser sections removable in addition to other critical areas of the console. The Sony MX-P3000 is the top of the range multitrack console and there is a choice of five plug-in equalisers. The Quad-Eight Westar and Superstar consoles have a similar approach to design, both offer a wide selection of plug-in equalisers. Currently available are EQ modules with 4-band frequency selectable, 4-band fully parametric and 10-band graphic facilities with more units to follow.\n\nAmek has a lot of devotees of the standard in-console equalisers and recently introduced the RMO1 rack mount signal processing system. The PM01 module for this system is a full 4-band parametric unit that is identical to those used in the M1000 and M2500 consoles with fully variable Q, frequency and amplitude on each band.\n\nThe power of a popular equaliser is clearly demonstrated by the development of the Neve V series console. This is based upon the 51 series console that had a quite persistent reputation for being a 'good equaliser' lasting beyond several new series of dedicated multitrack consoles.\n\nWhile on the topic of equalisers for mixing consoles, a small US company by the name of Troisi edc has recently shown a number of modular equalisers such as the FLTR 510 dual parametric filter, the EQ 517 and 518 parametric equalisers which form part of a modular rack system; a retrofit equaliser for the original MCI 600 series consoles and most interesting the DQ 520. This is based upon the EQ 518 parametric but with the addition of a dynamics feature that allows the introduction of the equalisation at a user predetermined level. The equaliser section is a 2-band design and the threshold is adjustable from -40 to +20 dB. The dynamic control is designed for a smooth transition across the threshold. Further there is a direction switch that selects whether the EQ is active below or above the threshold level. The dynamics can also be triggered internally or by a broadband external source.\n\nIn the area of more traditional equalisers, JBL has introduced a new range of graphic equalisers in the form of the 5547 and the 5549. The 5547 is a 30-band 1/2-octave equaliser with front panel input and output level controls.\n\nThe bands are between 25 Hz to 20 kHz ±12 dB. The 5549 is a room equaliser with the same number of bands but with a cut-only range of −15 dB.\n\nRane products have become widely available in Europe over the last year and these are interesting due to the company's widely publicised views on constant Q equalisation ('Constant Q' Studio Sound October 1985 by Terry Pennington of Rane). In practical terms Rane advocates design of equalisers that have a minimum of effect on adjacent equalisation bands with the Q remaining a constant with independent of the gain setting. Traditionally this approach has been avoided due to the likelihood of large amounts of ripple but Rane takes a different design stance as demonstrated in the article. There have been three recent additions to the Rane range, these being the GE30 which is a 30-band 1/2-octave graphic with +12 dB/−15 dB in the cut/boost mode or it can be switched to a cut-only mode where the range is −18 dB; and the ME30 and ME15 microGraphic equalisers which are 30-band 1/6-octave and 2-channel 15-band 2/3-octave respectively in single U formats.\n\nFrench manufacturer Société Nouvelle Etelac markets products under the brand name of Amix. Two new graphic equalisers were recently introduced in the form of the EMH 127 1/2-octave 27-band single channel and the ESH 211 stereo 11-band. The 211 uses octave spacing at mid/high frequencies with 1/2-octave spacing at the lower frequencies.\n\nIn the area of specialised units there are a number of new models that deserve mention. Although designed mainly for room tuning the Meyer Sound Labs CP/10 is a high quality 5-band 2-channel fully parametric equaliser. Each band may be switched in/out independently. Meyer claims that the complementary phase circuitry creates minimum phase distortion even at extreme situations while maintaining a dynamic range of greater than 110 dB. The unit is a rack mount 2U design.\n\nAlthough not so new, the Massenburg parametric equaliser has recently become available in the UK and is beginning to find a lot of interest once possible users can come to terms with a hefty price tag. This is a rack mount system which we understand from the UK distributor is being acquired by producers and engineers rather than facilities, which probably explains the appeal of the unit.\n\nWhile in the area of the esoteric, we should mention the products of the UK company Esoteric Audio Research. EAR introduced two new valve (tube) equalisers about a year ago. The 822Q is a general programme equaliser and features four low, continuously variable frequencies, five high boost and three high cut frequencies. The 823MQ provides +8 dB/−16 dB range at switched frequencies between 200 Hz and 5 kHz together with a mid frequency cut at 7 kHz. Both are 19 in rack mount units and have been designed to operate for at least 10,000 hours before valve replacement is necessary.\n\nThe West German company EMS/Rehberg has introduced the Filterbank B1. This is a free standing unit with eight bands of cut-only from 250 Hz to 8 kHz with high and low pass filters. The amount of attenuation available is very high with the high and low pass filters having 40 dB/octave attenuation and the equaliser bands having 50 dB/octave. Applications suggested are in removal of problem noise from audio such as hum, unwanted tones etc.\n\nAutomated equalisation is another area that is receiving more interest. Aside from automated EQ systems appearing on consoles from SSL, Trident, Harrison and possible automation on the Neve and Amek, there are a number of other products. The Neumann ame 591 equaliser system is based around a central control panel and with W 591 modules which show the equaliser status for that particular channel designed to be fitted into a console channel strip. The control unit allows manipulation of three frequency bands together with high and low pass filters. The automated aspect allows 64 channels to be run, stored and reproduced and these settings may be stored on data cassette. There is also possibility of master/slave operation, A/B comparison for each channel with EQ changes being made in real time.\n\nThe Stage Accompany PPE2400 programmable 2-channel 4-band programmable parametric equaliser is now up and running. This is a rack mount device that will soon form part of a larger digitally controlled system. The EQ allows digital control of all variable functions with a memory capable of recalling up to 64 different settings. There are a number of optional interfaces for computers and other data buses.\n\nNew disc cutting equipment and the changing role of the disc mastering facility\n\nWhile it would be fair to say that recording studios are almost spoilt for choice when it comes to updating their facilities, the same cannot be said for the disc mastering community.\n\nInevitably this stems from the fact that as the sale of discs declines, the amount of technical innovation falls accordingly.\n\nDisc cutting engineers tend to be caught in the middle. It is not the hardware as such that has traditionally been the limiting factor but the raw materials and subsequent processing. In fact, in many ways the Achilles heel of the whole operation is the lacquer. At the moment things seem on a relatively even keel, although recently there have been a number of major scares that have rocked the industry.\n\nA year or so ago, one major lacquer manufacturer couldn't deliver and with essentially only four suppliers of lacquers for the entire world record industry the results were touch and go for a while for many mastering facilities. Earlier cutting engineers had already become somewhat jittery when there was the threat of problems with the supply of aluminium blanks. Put in the context of a recording studio, deciding to update a cutting system would be similar to deciding whether or not to go digital, if for example the quality of recording tape couldn't be guaranteed.\n\nOf course one way round the problem would be to do without tape or in the case of the cutting room dispense with the lacquer. In what will perhaps be the very last major innovation in disc cutting that is exactly what researchers at the German company Teldec did.\n\nAvailable as the VMS 82 from Georg Neumann, the Teldec/Neumann DMM (Direct Metal Mastering) cutting system uses copper coated steel blanks: the diamond cutting stylus being used to cut a groove directly into the copper master. The process first appeared in 1981 and to date there are 25 DMM systems in use in various parts of the world including the UK, Austria, East and West Germany, France, Spain, the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Sweden, America and Australia.\n\nIt may be reasonable to speculate that given the eventual decline in record pressing—particularly as a mass market medium—the production of conventional lacquers may well cease leaving only the DMM process as the only means to (un) conventional record pressing. Speculation on how soon this will happen varies, at the moment seven to 10 years maximum appears to be the average expectation.\n\nGiven the fact that there is still a demand for vinyl discs the short term prospects for disc cutting look quite healthy and there is a surprisingly buoyant market at the moment for second hand equipment. Tony Batchelor of TAM, a disc cutting facility and specialist disc cutting equipment supplier in North London, reports healthy sales of second hand lathes and ancillary equipment. It would appear that while some of the larger cutting facilities may be reducing the total number of lathes they operate, enterprising studios seeing the chance to offer custom acetates for DJs or special mixes for discs, are picking up a reasonable lathe at a realistic price. Even though this may only be a temporary reprieve for the equipment it is nevertheless an interesting phenomenon—a bit like elephants returning to their spiritual homeland before they die.\n\nBefore this update turns into an obituary it must be said that the industry, although realistic about its long term future, is still nevertheless continuing to improve standards in some areas. Neve for example is currently producing second generation digital mastering consoles alongside its analogue (9022 ADN) disc mastering equivalent. The new digital systems, DTCT (digital tape console) and DDM (digital disc mastering) are applications of the company's DSP technology specifically for CD and disc mastering.\n\nProcessing of the signal takes place purely within the digital domain and the consoles provide dynamic control, delay facilities and EQ accurate to within 0.5 dB/channel. Should further lacquers be required at a future date, or if a track is being used on a compilation, console settings can be memorised against timecode ensuring accurate repeatable results the second time around.\n\nThe crossover between pure vinyl mastering and CD preparation is becoming increasingly blurred. Certainly the emphasis on new products is moving towards digital and products such as the Neve digital console, the Sony K-1105 digital 8-channel mixing system and the Harmonia Mundi Acoustica bw102, probably indicate the way things will continue to develop at least for the time being.\n\nEssentially the bw102 is a digital processor and at first glance would appear to have little to do with analogue disc cutting but in fact the bw102 can be supplied with a preview delay module and a high performance digital to analogue converter, thereby allowing analogue discs to be made from virtually any conventional digital source. A rack mounted unit, the bw102 provides a useful crossover point for disc cutting studios moving towards the digital domain.\n\nA number of facilities have already taken the plunge and committed themselves to CD mastering but the area is so new that even those involved in it are currently trying to agree on what they should call themselves. At the moment the favourite appears to be pre-mastering engineer and/or facility which basically covers the tape mastering process for CD (roughly the CD equivalent of the conventional disc cutting facility) avoiding the obvious confusion with mastering as in disc cutting, mastering as in tape duplication and mastering as applied to CD manufacturing ie resist master disc preparation.\n\nInterestingly not all improvements in the disc cutting world are spin-offs from the development of digital techniques. According to TAM there is a growing interest in the old Ortofon 661 cutterhead. The 'black' head as opposed to the much more recent 821 'green' head is finding a new lease of life cutting material where a heavily modulated programme with a persistent bass line is required at above average cutting levels. Repairs and modifications are carried out by TAM and the company even keeps a spare head which can be loaned to customers while work is carried out. Esoteric Audio Research (EAR), who has done a considerable amount of work in the UK on valve-based disc cutting equipment, provides yet another alternative to the conventional equipment list. In addition to cutting system modifications EAR also provides specialist valve programme equalisers including a mid EQ unit, the 823MQ.\n\nDespite the publicity surrounding digital, vinyl records still have a high consumer profile and although digital replay systems may ultimately kill off the black disc for the time being at least there would still seem to be plenty of life left in analogue. □\n\nNeumann VMS 82 cutting system for direct metal mastering\n\nTHIS IS NOT THE END OF THE GUITAR...\n\nThe electric guitar hasn’t changed much since the 50’s. Music has.\n\nSynthesizers and digital technology have revolutionized popular music with the result that guitarists have to some extent been left behind. Quite a few have taken to the keyboard synthesizer only to sound like every other guitarist turned synth player.\n\nGuitar synthesizers have been around for a while but they have been shunned by guitarists because they are basically keyboard synthesizers you can plug a guitar into.\n\nNo one has built a guitar-dedicated system.\n\nUntil now.\n\nThe STEPP DGI is the first digital guitar designed totally and solely for the guitarist – the only other thing you need to plug into is your amp or mixing desk. It comes as a complete unit, giving you the control essential for dramatic guitar performance.\n\nAnd it speaks your language.\n\nPreviously so called guitar synthesizers and MIDI guitars failed because they were locked into a keyboard language far too limiting for the enormous range of expression and subtlety of the guitar.\n\nThe DGI is capable of instantly analysing every chord, solo or strum, and via its dedicated synthesizer section can translate every nuance into a whole new palette of sounds. These can be stored in 100 memory locations on the guitar itself.\n\nIn addition every new guitar sound can be modelled in performance by the way you play.\n\nSTEPP'S unique open architecture and active performance software (APS) allows parameters to be routed to 'real time' controls such as the wang bar, frets or strum area.\n\nTo take one example you can wang volume, bend resonance and strum filter cut-off, or just stick to the traditional parameters such as bending pitch.\n\nIn short it's the most expressive guitar ever developed. And with MIDI-IN you can use a sequencer to record and playback your last solo or play bass while playing rhythm and drums. All on one guitar.\n\nThe STEPP DGI is a very sophisticated instrument harnessing the very latest in 16 bit microprocessor technology.\n\nBut happily it is technology that doesn't herald the end of the guitar. Just a new beginning.\n\nCall or write for a brochure:\n\nTHE STEPP DGI\n\nYOU'RE A GUITARIST - SO PLAY THE GUITAR\n\nThe man warily entered the back room—isolated as it was from the rest of the house. A youngish face belied his appearance. A small walkie-talkie was held firmly in his hand to communicate with the two lookouts outside. The dirty greys and browns of the old building revealed much about their location. The young man had a pleasant face; unlike his compatriots. The girl moved through the doorway to join him. She showed surprise, for the room was not in the least like the rest of the house—no tatty furniture and filthy walls here. The room was painted matte black, with heavy blackout curtains at all the windows; a reddish light glowed from the equipment in the centre of the room. Prominent amongst the units was a cassette deck, like the altar of this temple of ageing consumer electronic equipment.\n\n\"Where did you get that?\" the girl gasped. \"I've kept it here all along,\" he replied. \"But the police...\" was all she could say. Suddenly another man had joined them; he was very well dressed, from silk tie to leather brief case.\n\n\"I need this copied for one of my clients and I need it tonight.\"\n\nHe reached into his brief case and withdrew a copy of Mick Jagger's latest album.\n\nThe girl wheeled and exclaimed, \"Where did you get that?\"\n\nThe fashionable gentleman eyed her briefly and then ignoring her, spoke to the man with the youngish face: \"He's turned 50 you know—Jagger I mean.\"\n\nThe young face continued to flick switches and began to load a cassette.\n\n\"This is an unprotected recorder?\"\n\n\"Absolutely,\" stated the equipment owner to his client. The rainbow hued CD was placed on to a tray in a compact disc player and the whole assembly rammed home. The recorder was started and then the disc played and the whole room was filled with the rousing melodies that only an artist like Mick Jagger can create.\n\nThat was a shame really because the harried warning from the lookouts was drowned out by the cacophony of the music. The young faced man saw a reflection in the corner of his eye. It was the glint of cold steel. He reached into his pocket for the Beretta 93S. He had 20 good reasons in 9 mm why the police would not win here without experiencing some pain. The girl screamed as the wooden baton struck her lover at the base of the neck. He collapsed. Minutes later he began to see, hear and feel again. The room was swaying a bit but he could see the client and his girl trussed up in handcuffs. The last thing he saw before he lapsed into unconsciousness again was the legend Record Police on the overalls of the SWAT team member smashing his beloved Revox to dust with a sledgehammer.\n\nOne can assume that this scenario is hopefully not a rock and roll road show version of '1984 plus five.' And yet in Great Britain the government has announced a major revision of the copyright laws that would include a 10% tax on blank audio tapes as part of a sweeping away of old laws protecting copyright owners from the threats of 'electronic infringement.' The White Paper from the Department of Trade and Industry is intended to protect copyrights, patent and trademarks from 'advances of technology.' The blank tape tariff would make cassettes playing more than 35 min and could raise as much as £6 million ($9 million) per year. These funds would be used to reimburse copyright owners and artists for losses due to copying, according to department of Trade and Industry spokespersons.\n\nThe carrot that would accompany this particular anti-copying stick in the UK is the unlimited audio copying of broadcasts and pre-recorded materials—as long as the ultimate usage was private. Blank video tapes would remain exempt from any presumptive duties and copying television programming would remain fair game. Copying pre-recorded video material would remain illegal.\n\nIn the US, the record industry has been offered a solution to its problem of illegal copying. A major label insider commented recently on the US Senate hearings concerning illegal audio taping. \"To hear the US record industry tell the story, illegal copying makes acid rain look a bromo-seltzer in a pond. The supposed losses from copying are rumoured to run into billions of dollars. But while the industry complains of copying, it is suffering from shortages in compact discs. At the same time, the record industry has relinquished half of the classical market or better to European labels. Better the record industry relaxes a little about the losses from illegal copying and puts some energies into building CD plants in the US and supporting classical music production.\"\n\nWhatever your leanings towards record company complaints happen to be, the US Senate has had enough belief in the hue and cry to hold hearings on a bill (S 1739) imposing a surcharge on blank audio tape and on home recording equipment. At these hearings, the well respected CBS Technology Center with the encouragement of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), has offered up a way to prevent copying by placing a copy code of an 'inaudible notch' in recorded material. A companion chip would be built into all recorders to scan for the coding. If the coding was present, the recorder would cease to record for 25 s at a time leaving another 20 s or so of unaffected recording. The coding system with its notch in the frequency spectrum would be used on CDs, cassettes and LP records. Of course there would be another class of recording made available at a higher price that could be copied because these premium releases would be notchless. Recorder manufacturers would be required to include the chip or pay a substantial royalty fee on products manufactured without the chip.\n\nThe recorder chip would be very inexpensive to install in mass production. According to a scientist at the CBS Technology Center as quoted in Broadcasting Magazine: \"The decoder chip is expected to cost less than $1 when mass quantities are produced and equipment manufacturers are free to develop a compatible integrated circuit that can perform the same functions more efficiently or at lower cost. In any event, CBS has pledged to licence both the encoder and the decoder that it has developed on a royalty-free basis for all hardware and software applications.\"\n\nSeveral US senators thought the idea an excellent alternative to imposing fees on blank tapes and machines. One US senator was quoted as saying that he was intrigued by the prospect that \"technology might be able to solve the problem that it has helped to create\".\n\nFor once, this columnist is left without words. Or at least without words for 25 s at a time.\n\nIntroducing the Lexicon PCM 70, our extraordinary new digital effects processor with dynamic MIDI. Designed, creatively speaking, to thrust you into the future.\n\nTo begin with, the PCM 70 gives you access to the same astonishing Lexicon digital effects used by the world's top artists and studios. With complete, variable parameter control, and registers that let you create and store your own programs.\n\nNow, about dynamic MIDI. With this pioneering Lexicon development, you can vary any PCM 70 parameter through a MIDI keyboard while you're actually playing. Just imagine being able to vary the wet-dry mix, for example, through finger pressure on the keys. Or by your choice of other controls, like the modulation wheel. Or even by a computer.\n\nThere's more. The Lexicon PCM 70 digital effects processor is also a full-fledged digital reverb, with a complete selection of Lexicon reverb programs. And the price? Shockingly reasonable.\n\nYou'll want our detailed PCM 70 brochure. At your Lexicon dealer, or contact us. Lexicon Inc., 60 Turner Street, Waltham, MA 02154, USA. (617) 891-6790. Telex: 923468. Lexicon International, PO. Box 122, 8105 Regensdorf, Switzerland. Telex: 59222.\n\nCome to the future.\n\nMusic business is the operative term when applied to Greece as live performance is inextricably linked with the recording industry. Whereas in Europe and the USA studio performers who only occasionally—if ever—perform in public are not unusual, in Greece recording artists are obliged to play concerts if they want to stay in the public eye and ear. This means frequent night club engagements and concert tours all over Greece with just a brief respite between the end of the summer and the start of the autumn season.\n\nThe mainstay of the Greek music scene is folk—or popular—music and it would be very rare not to find a bouzouki amongst the instrumentation! But though the traditions are observed, performers are not impervious to outside influences. Jazz and rock music have slowly been making inroads and there is a hardcore of dedicated musicians determined to break the lock that popular music has had on the music scene.\n\nAs the Greek public is oriented towards live performance it is not essential to have a recording contract to be a star—rare but not impossible. When not touring most artists concentrate their activities in what are familiarly known as 'bouzouki clubs'. These are essentially large nightclubs but with a difference: in Greece it is not unusual to have five or six national stars on the same billing! The general enthusiasm is very high and the atmosphere is quite electric and it is these appearances which promote record sales. It only needs one mention that 'this is my latest record' and the shops will be taken by storm the following day. Airplay on the radio and television does play its part, of course, but forsaking the stage for three months would be tantamount to commercial suicide.\n\nThe need for performers to develop such a strong stage presence can be a disadvantage in the recording studio. Records tend to be made very quickly without much experimentation or involved production. The resulting records are not poor by any means but many could benefit from the advantages of modern recording techniques. Things are changing now, however, the movement being spearheaded by Sierra.\n\nLocated in what was once a large cinema on one of the main roads leading out of Athens, the studio is away from the centre of the city in an area that houses offices, shops and other distractions. The original cinema foyer has been preserved and doubles as the main office area and waiting room/lounge. At present the studio has no in-house catering but the local restaurant is just a telephone call away—on a private line.\n\nSierra Recordings is run by three go-ahead young men—two brothers, Elias and Mike Achladiotis, and close family friend, Christos Zorbas. Their close-knit way of working tends to earn them the general nickname of 'the brothers'.\n\n\"We all started playing music when we were teenagers—maybe even before that—and in common with a lot of aspiring musicians the world over, wanted to make records. Studios were either very rudimentary or very expensive so we decided the best thing would be to get one of the new Teac 3340 4-track recorders and a simple console—an Alice—and record ourselves. This way we could take our time and experiment without having to worry about the studio clock.\n\n\"After a fairly short time we were getting pretty good results and we even had a couple of songs released as 45s. We had a lot to learn, however, both about recording and music, and we hit upon the idea of all of us going to the Berklee College of Music in Boston. There we could pursue our proper instruments as well as taking classes in the recording programme, thus getting a proper grounding which would stand us in good stead for opening a studio.\"\n\nFor the record, Elias plays drums, Mike is a guitarist and Christos plays keyboards. There is also quite a bit of instrument doubling.\n\nMike: \"Berklee was a very good experience for us from many points of view. We all got a good education musically and an introduction to the finer points of recording.\n\nHowever, I think the big plus was being in America and having the opportunity to meet and play with so many other musicians, as well as being able to visit working studios and get a real idea of what the music business was all about. We wanted to go back to Greece armed with the knowledge that we could operate a modern recording studio and our time in Boston provided us with that.\"\n\nSierra Recordings got off to a rather dramatic start. The original owner wanted an up-to-date studio with no expense spared and it seems the acoustics were designed by Tom Hidley and built by Westlake Audio. The evening before the studio was to open its doors, someone forgot that the fumes from the carpet glue were highly inflammable, lit a cigarette and the studio became a flaming success! All that was worth saving was the premises and some of the equipment in the control room. The brand new Neve desk had some burns but still performed perfectly. Armed with loans from their respective families, the brothers went to work to rebuild the studio.\n\n\"The previous owner had just lost interest in the whole thing so we were able to make a good deal for the premises and the equipment that was worth taking over. Of course, the console was given a full overhaul by the Neve engineers who made it just like the day it was made.\"\n\nTom Hidley was called back and the studio rebuilt by Eastlake Audio—together with strict fire precautions.\n\nThe main studio—Studio A—is built where the auditorium used to be with the control room wall roughly falling where the screen would previously have been. The studio floor is 2000 ft² and includes a large isolation room, a vocal booth and 'open' drum cage. The first impression one gets on entering the studio is of space, aided and abetted by the very high ceiling. Though not quite a small concert hall in feel, the studio atmosphere can be changed from fairly intimate to quite live by use of floor to ceiling drapes positioned at various key points around the room. There is a fair amount of trapping of course but just\n\nMitsubishi X-850.\n\n32 Channel Digital\n45 Tracks\nCut-and-Splice Edit\nFully Compatible\nRS-232/RS-422/Parallel Interface\nSync to 9.6/8 kHz • 60/50/59.94 Hz\nComposite Video\nSMPTE/EBU Non-drop / Drop\nVarispeed\n\nFor World-Class Studios.\n\nMITSUBISHI PRO AUDIO GROUP\n\nDIGITAL ENTERTAINMENT CORPORATION\nHeadquarters: 225 Parkside Drive, San Fernando, CA 91340 • Phone (818) 898-2341 • Telex 311786\nNew York: Suite 1530, 555 W. 57th Street, New York, NY 10019 • Phone (212) 713-1600 • Telex 703547\nNashville: 2200 Hillsboro Road, Nashville, TN 37212 • Phone (615) 298-6613\nCanada: 363 Adelaide Street E., Toronto, ONT. M5A 1N3 • Phone (416) 865-1899\nUnited Kingdom: 1 Fairway Drive, Greenford, MIDDX UB6 8PW • Phone (01) 578-0957 • Telex 923003\n\nSierra, continued\n\nfor owing to the large space available \"... and rock groups like it as it gives them room to move around as if they were on a big stage!\"\n\nThe microphone complement includes Neumann U87, U67 and U89, Telefunken stereo microphones (used a lot for orchestral sessions), AKG 414 and 451, Sennheiser MD441, Electro-Voice RE20, Beyer M88 and others. Distribution to the control room is via large XLR panels which parallel up all the microphone lines going to the control room, as well as foldback feeds and tie lines.\n\nAccess to the control room is either from the studio or from the main corridor that runs around the outside wall of the studio and connects with doors at each side of the control room. In comparison with the studio the room is fairly small. We really could have done with a bit more depth but it would have meant modifying the basic structure which would have been very expensive.\"\n\nCentrepiece is the Neve 8078 console fitted with 40 inputs to 24 groups and 32-track monitor section. The desk is also equipped with Necam automation. \"We find that the visual aspect of the Necam system makes it very easy to use. You can see at a glance where you are and updating just happens naturally. We like it a lot.\"\n\nThe bulk of the recording is done with a Studer A800 Mk 3 24-track machine but there is also an A80 16-track recorder for the enthusiasts. The two machines can also be locked up for 38-track working if required. Mastering is on Studer A80 and B67 recorders with two Revox PR99s for general duties. All recorders including the multitracks have Dolby.\n\nMonitoring is the Eastlake 3-way system with TAD drivers for the bass and mid frequencies. Secondary speakers include JBL 4311s, Auratones and the in-built elliptical speakers in the console. Power is provided by Bryston amplifiers.\n\nThe design is fairly typical of Eastlake with a wood panelled monitor bridge and side walls with bark facing together with some rough marble tiles next to the outside edge of the speakers. All the tape machines are softfitted at the rear of the room keeping the floor area clear of obstruction. The floor is carpeted with a parquet area underneath and behind the console. There are heavy drapes that can be pulled in front of the control room window to minimise front to back reflections during mixdown.\n\nThough there is rack space in the soffits, the majority of the outboard gear is housed in low profile wooden racks to the left of the console. Equipment includes Lexicon Super Prime Time and model 93 delay line, Publison Pitch Transposer, dbx and UREI compressors plus Audio & Design Compex compressors/gates, Valley People rack with Kepexes and Gain Brains, UREI graphic and parametric equalisers and Orban de-essers. Aural excitement is courtesy of Aphex with reverberation effects from three EMT 140 plates (two matched for stereo) and a Lexicon 224X. In order to keep everything handy the machine remotes are built into...\n\nHere’s the right answer to most audio test problems: NFA-1\n\nWhatever it is you need to measure in the audio range, the NFA-1 makes it easier to get the right answer. A unique concept that handles over 30 test functions.\n\nThe NFA-1 can measure:\n★ selective level\n★ wideband level\n★ phase and frequency\n★ noise level\n★ difference-frequency- and harmonic distortion\n★ wow & flutter\n★ run-up time\n★ rumble voltage\nand it’s a signal generator too!\n\nNo more piles of equipment, miles of cable, matching problems, time-wasting calibrations. With the NFA-1, you’ll get the results quicker and with less chance of operator error.\n\nVersatile: Acceptance tests, development/production tests, in-service and maintenance tests on audio equipment of all types in recording- or broadcasting studios, in short: anywhere where you need to test audio frequency equipment and sound recorders. The NFA-1 will give you the answers accurately and in a form that’s easy to understand.\n\nEasy to use: A structured menu system makes the NFA-1 simple to operate. You can set up 49 different test sequences to suit your own needs, and anyone can quickly get correct test results, as the NFA-1 leads you step by step through the test process.\n\n★ Paired balanced inputs and outputs for 2-channel testing.\n★ Special end-to-end measurements, can also be used with external signal sources\n★ Results displayed graphically and alphanumerically\n★ IEC/IEEE bus controllable\n\nTo find out just how easy it is to get the right answers, send off the coupon!\n\nWandel & Goltermann\nElectronic Measurement Technology\n\nI would like:\n☐ a copy of the NFA-1 colour brochure\n☐ a sales engineer to call\n\nName\nCompany\nAddress\nCountry\nTel. No.\n\nSS/8/86\nWandel & Goltermann Abt. PMW\nP.O.B. 45 · D-7412 Eningen\nFed. Rep. of Germany\nTel. +(49) 7121 89 11 · Tx. 729 833\n\nSierra, continued\n\nStudio A looking into Control Room\n\neither for mixdowns or tracklaying—so we found the most convenient thing to do was duplicate the effects equipment for the two rooms. That way people could work in either and feel at home. Though there are slight differences in sound and atmosphere, we find that people adjust very quickly and we have had no problems in this area.\"\n\nAdjoining Control Room B at 90° is the studio, with a floor area of 740 ft². The room is large enough for most rhythm sections and has a very lively sound, which makes it popular with rock and rollers. The main décor—and treatment—is wood panelling matching that in the control room and parquet floor with strategically placed trapping behind the walls and in the ceiling. The Steinway grand piano, for instance, is usually left in a corner that opens into the trapping. There are two booths with sliding glass doors to one side of the studio, with a window between the two in the communicating wall. One booth is for overdubs and vocals and is very dry and the other, larger, booth is used for drums and general isolation work. It is also possible to alter the acoustics. Two of the walls are faced with sliding glass panels with traps behind. It is also good for expanding thin-sounding electric guitars without making a dive for the first DDL that comes to hand.\n\nThe entrance to the studio is via the control room with the twin sliding glass doors forming an extension of the control room window. When space is really at a premium, the area between the two doors forms a vocal booth.\n\nStudio B houses a Steinway grand and would be suitable for chamber music, string quartets, solo piano, etc.\n\nOn average Sierra is booked 700 to 750 hours per month and has even exceeded 1,000 hours on several occasions. In practical terms this means that both studios are working around the clock.\n\nSierra is slowly expanding its clientele internationally with artists such as Nana Mouskouri, Demis Roussos, Vangelis, producer Vic Coppersmith and lyricist Gary Osborne.\n\n\"The biggest demand at the moment is that we install a video facility. We certainly have the room and we are thinking about it very seriously—it is the next logical step. However, video is a lot more expensive than audio and we would not want to put in anything that wasn't less than professional. I think we will see things a lot more clearly as to future expansion towards the end of '86.\" Terry Nelson\nSierra Recordings, Sound Recording SA, 99 Messogion Street, GR-115 Athens, Greece. Tel: 6926019/6927097.\n\nSirocco Studios, Kilmarnock\n\nSirocco Studio's two man band Musician, musical director and producer as well as engineer he is the presence and much of the inspiration which is giving the Kilmarnock recording unit a growing reputation.\n\nThe link up with Hungarian pop star Klari Katona, a girl with a big international reputation but seeking an entry to the British market, has all the potential Sirocco needs. Unfortunately, Klari has disappeared back to Budapest in a cloud of influenza and Clark can already see the dream fading, the contract falling apart but he works on with the same meticulous precision.\n\nAlthough Sirocco goes back only eight years, for 29-year-old Clark, it really all began when he took up piano playing when he was three. With 26 years of music behind him, \"That's what gives me my ear,\" he claims.\n\nIn the early '70s, he transferred his musical allegiance and became another of the thousands of boys with a guitar. He took his music more seriously than most as far as practice and proficiency were concerned but lacked drive and direction. He threw over the idea of a university education and a career in law for his music (no accolades of parental approval here) but considered himself lucky to be playing one gig a month.\n\nHe was 'drifting'. Drifting in Kilmarnock is as scintillating as a conversion with a Trappist monk. It lasted six months.\n\nThen he was drafted into the family building firm—\"a soul destroying experience\"—which\n\nBy-pass Spaghetti Junction\n\nThe MG1212 Recorder/Mixer – the complete recording system from Akai – offers unparalleled flexibility for all your recording needs. So compact, it’s as much at home in your front room, when you’re putting songs together or trying out an arrangement, as it is in the studio, when you’re working on masters.\n\nWhatever your application, the Akai MG1212 Recorder/Mixer’s got the edge over the competition. If you were limited by 8-track before, now look at this: the MG1212 has 12 audio tracks plus a special sync track – ideal for synchronising your MIDI sequencer to tape for overdubs with a small instrument set-up. If you hated the hassle of wiring between machine and mixer – finding enough leads that worked every time you wanted to put down an idea – the MG1212 has the answer to that too: it’s a combined mixer and recorder, and both sections of the MG1212 have the flexibility, versatility and professional quality you expect from a company like Akai. At a price you can afford.\n\nThe mixer section features XLR inputs, insert points, LED bargraph metering, and a full 3-band sweep EQ. A centralised routing matrix deals simply and quickly with the task of getting the right sounds to the right tracks.\n\nAkai’s unique ½” cassette system is at the heart of a recorder section that’s crammed with the features you need: an autolocator with pinpoint accuracy; dbx noise reduction; and much more. It’s as simple to use as a home video recorder.\n\nAnd talking of video, the MG1212 has all the facilities you need for synchronising a video recorder with SMPTE time code.\n\nWhat you won’t find is a load of gimmicks that slow you down. The Akai MG1212 is designed to get top-quality results. Quickly. Easily. The way you want.\n\nAKAI professional\n\nAkai (UK) Limited - Electronic Music Division, Flasenhurst Heathrow Estate, Silver Jubilee Way, Parkway, Hounslow, Middlesex TW4 6NQ Tel: 01-897 6388 Telex: 892555 AKAIUK G. Scotland Sound Control Tel: 0383-733353 Newcastle Rock City Music Tel: 0783-78058 London Syco Systems Tel: 01-724 2451 London Chromatix Tel: 01-567 3623 London Junokey Tel: 01-202 4366 Surrey Juice Music Tel: 97-48454\n\nwww.americanradiohistory.com\n\ntaught him what work was all about and gave him an invaluable insight into business and its organisation.\n\nBy 1976 the music scene was showing signs of improvement. An amalgamation of Kilmarnock groups brought some of the best musicians together including Clark and his other half, as far as Sirocco is concerned, sax player and telecommunications engineer, Spike Bain.\n\nSix musicians and two roadies, they travelled Scotland in a couple of builder’s vans. Their band and their music were not the height of fashion—punk was in. By comparison, they considered themselves “to a degree more sophisticated” for “we played in tune”.\n\nIt was a desire to have something permanent to show for their effort—transforming the ephemeral into the concrete—that brought them into recording. There were no suitable facilities in Glasgow so in 1978 they took over two first floor rooms in Glencairn Square, Kilmarnock.\n\nFormerly part of a red sandstone, residential establishment, this was a building in decline. Their neighbours were a French polisher, a plumber and a knitting machine operator. The access alley still runs by the open kitchen door of the Chinese take-away which operates from the ground floor.\n\nThe previous occupants had already installed carpet and curtain insulation which was a “wee bit makeshift” but with the thick sandstone walls already proving effective, it’s a makeshift pattern they have expanded rather than replaced over the years. Performers sometimes fail to appreciate the natural feedback but recording does not appear to suffer.\n\nThey installed their ‘live concert’ mixing unit and with two 2-track Sony tape recorders they could overdub voices. With a Bank of Scotland loan Sirocco Studios were in business.\n\n“Credibility has always been a problem for someone like me,” says Clark Sorley, getting people to “take it seriously.”\n\n“Why Kilmarnock?” he was and still is asked. “Why not Kilmarlock?” is and was his reply.\n\nIf some did not take them seriously, the bands in and around Glasgow certainly did. At £4.50 an hour, they were queuing for recording time. Many were punk groups placing more strain on the studio’s equipment than on recording expertise. A number of their customers were destined for greater things, however, and are remembered with a mixture of fondness and pride—Simple Minds, Aztec Camera and Kissing the Pink.\n\nIt was all business, however, and by the end of the year they had moved on to 8-track recording and had redesigned the layout. It was a DIY operation. Experience in the building trade and in electronics was proving advantageous.\n\nTwo years later they were using 16 tracks and their own music making was bowing out to the pressure of the part-time work load at Sirocco. In the meantime, Clark Sorley had built his last wall, laid his last brick.\n\nPleading letters to recording and radio companies struck pay dirt. Radio Clyde were, by chance, looking to expand their technical team and Clark found a berth with that successful and innovative commercial station.\n\nAt the time, 1979, Andy Park was in charge. Programming was varied and expansive. In the next year and a half, Clark was covering everything from run of the mill station productions to outside broadcasts, from pop music to jazz and symphonies.\n\nThen he went freelance, juggling his time between Sirocco and various outside commitments. Spike continued to work at the studio part-time. Both still found they were recording other people more and playing themselves less than they would have liked. It was a pattern which was destined to continue into 1985 and which nourished the continued expansion at Glencairn Square.\n\nThere is still a steady procession of hopefuls gracing Sirocco’s portals. Hope, like all else, is subject to inflation but today’s Sirocco price is still one of the cheapest around.\n\nStill with the striving spirit in mind, there are four, rough and ready rehearsal rooms across the yard with three 2-track recorders (Revox, Bias and Teac) available. A second studio currently awaits completion.\n\nThe tradesmen have moved out and a lounge, office and kitchen have taken their place. A new pre-production unit has been introduced by agreement with a freelance audio technician seeking a base. He provides the electronics while Sirocco provide the space.\n\nIn November, they purchased a new 24-track Amek Angela mixing desk and an MC1 JH 114 multitrack recorder, secondhand from Mobile One. The recorder is not without teething problems. It has a propensity for chewing tape and the autolocate warning lights flash on and off in hysterical abandon, from time to time. Not a situation which will be allowed to continue. The Rebis effects rack with a Yamaha RE7-7 digital reverb, MXR and RDS digital delay lines, an MXR graphic equaliser plus Audio & Design compressor limiters and an Aphex Aural Extender may not be in the same league as many of the larger studios, but it competently meets customers’ requirements.\n\n“Total Cheaters!” claims Clark Sorley of some of the effects at their disposal but concedes that generally, “as technology does advance, the musicians are improving.” Everything links up to Tannoy SRM 15S monitors, Yamaha NS10s and Auratones.\n\nIn studio one, a battery of microphones (Calrec, Shure, AKG, Beyer, Neumann, Sennheiser and Electro-Voice) overcome the problems of insulation and a variety of musical sounds—everything from accordion dance bands and fiddle music to folk guitar, pop and jazz.\n\nCentral piece to the casual visitor is the Scheidmayer grand piano, a legacy of days at Radio Clyde, but Clark and Spike are just as likely to be putting sounds together with the two synthesisers (DX7 and guitar), electric guitar and bass, the Roland drum machine or the QX7 digital sequencer.\n\nIt all attracts a ready market of musicians and record companies to Kilmarnock. Lismore Records which recently bought record production rights for the Channel 4 Down Home fiddle music series, used Sirocco equipment for editing. Folk artist Alistair MacDonald with his own Corban label is another customer as is Gus MacDonald’s Klub Records. Klub produces about three pop LPs per year and Clark Sorley nurses an old dream that here might lie an outlet for his own music.\n\nBoth men still cling to their musical roots. Spike Bain has recently taken up the saxophone again, preferring the arpeggios à la John Coltrane to the electronic tailoring of other men’s music. With a regular job behind him, he can afford to be cavalier, however. “Making money,” he said, “is more like playing at Monopoly than life.” It is Clark Sorley who has burned his bridges.\n\nIn many ways then, Sirocco is at another crossroads. The company must leave their Glencairn Square premises this year. Attempts to obtain a Kilmarnock local authority Business unit have run into red tape supplied by bureaucrats who, as Sorley sees it, cling to an outmoded manufacturing past. A service industry is within their compass but a service industry based on music is an idea which they are taking time to accommodate.\n\nSpike is all for moving out: “West of Scotland culture is a pint of beer,” he explains. He sees no real future for himself there.\n\n“Why not Kilmarnock?” Clark Sorley asks. Kilmarnock itself appears to be coming up with the answer.\n\nThe Scottish Development Agency is considering initiating a central Glasgow recording complex. Clark Sorley is in on the early consultancy discussions. If it goes ahead, perhaps Sirocco’s future will need a move to the city.\n\nBill Melville\nSirocco Studios, 1 Glencairn Square, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire KA1 4AQ, UK.\nTel: 0563 36377.\n\nWE ARE RATHER GOOD AT ASSEMBLING PACKAGES\n\nWe think the Soundtracs CM4400 with the CMS2 SMPTE Automation and Soundcraft SCM762 24 track machine represents unbeatable value.\n\nThe Soundtracs CM4400 with CMS2 gives you automated routing, channel and group muting, pre-programming of effects, sends and returns, programmable record drop in via events recorder, control of eight external devices and 30 different mixing combinations all under SMPTE timecode control.\n\nThe Soundcraft SCM762 Mk III recorder comes complete with remote control, varispeed, zero locate and cycle functions. It will run at 15 or 30 ips and is widely used by many professionals in master recording and video post-production work.\n\nPackage consists of:\n- Soundtracs CM4400 – 32 input mixing console.\n- Soundtracs CMS2 – automation system.\n- Soundcraft SCM762 Mk III 24 track recorder.\n- Commodore PC and disk drive.\n- Video monitor.\n- Set of interconnecting cables.\n\nPlease ring for a full demonstration.\n\nDon Larking\naudio sales\n\n29 Guildford Street, Luton, Beds. LU1 2NQ Telephone Luton (0582) 450066 Telex 825488 DONLAR\n\nHidden in the Yorkshire Wolds on the north western side of Hull lies Fairview Studio. A wooden sign pointing down a lane is the only indication that the end house of the terrace is in fact a studio, or rather part of a studio. This line of houses marks the end of suburban Hull and Fairview is an apt name as beyond the studio lies mile after mile of rolling countryside.\n\nAt first sight it seems a strange location for a studio but over the last 10 years Fairview has drawn customers from all over Britain and at the time of writing a rock band from Croydon was completing the end of a week's block booking.\n\nThe studio began like many rural studios - a hobby that outgrew itself as Keith Herd soon saw the potential of a small studio catering for local needs. Keith actually began to run Fairview professionally in 1973 although he had operated a studio of some description for the previous 10 years. In the beginning it consisted of a Farfisa with a 'lean-to' as the control room and access gained via the window!\n\nKeith's new 8-track studio got a welcome shot in the arm in its first year when in 1973, David Bowie's group the Spiders From Mars booked in to try out new singers after Mr Bowie went his own way. The studio's success continued with less glamorous bread and butter work in the form of albums for local club bands; at one stage Fairview was producing two of these albums every week!\n\nThings have progressed since then and Fairview is now a well established 24-track studio with a large cassette winding and duplicating operation. Cassette duplication takes place in the house whilst the studio occupies a converted barn at the bottom of the garden. The majority of people using the studio are rock bands although the place is rather expensive for most local bands needing demos. A recent visitor was Sister Of Mercy's Andy Eldritch doing work for his own label Merciful Release. The studio often handles work for the larger independent labels such as Red Rhino and Powerstation records as well as occasional work for larger labels who don't want to go to the expense of taking a new band to London.\n\nKeith's technical ability is obvious; his consoles have always been custom made and he looks after the maintenance and repair of Fairview as well as a number of other local studios. The existing desk is a 24/24 with 7-band EQ on all input channels, 5 aux sends, 5 effects returns and full patchbay facilities. An eyecatcher the desk isn't - effective it is.\n\nThe studio has an air of professionalism without the trimmings found in central studios. The room available has been used practically rather than attempting to recreate a New York studio in Hull. No bar or pool table in Yorkshire for poor overworked musicians, although they are able to relax in an adequately equipped reception area with coffee machine, TV and video. This is no criticism, an exclusive studio would find very little work in this part of the country.\n\nThe converted barn which houses the studio is divided into four areas; the largest is the control room and the others studios which give a variety of sound qualities. All the areas are divided by large sliding glass doors which give excellent visual contact and of course provide good separation when they are closed.\n\nThe 16×12×12 ft control room is impressive. Keith designed and built it from a picture of one Eastlake's designs and it has been done well. The room is sensibly organised for work with modern rock bands, with a good view of the two main studios through the control room window. The desk, Soundcraft SCM 762-24B tape machine and auxiliary equipment are on a raised platform at the rear of the room leaving seating space for up to 10 people in front of the console. This area may also be used for DI-ing the studio's selection of synths. Inquisitive band members are free to congregate in the control room without getting in the engineer's way, although there is enough space left behind the desk for one or two 'helpers' to take part in the mixdown. Variable lighting and air-conditioning make the control room a comfortable place to work.\n\nWhen the control room was rebuilt in its present position in 1982, the original Tannoy Gold monitors were replaced with JBL 4350s which were mounted above the control room window and bi-amped with two Monogram 260 W power amps. In addition Yamaha NS 10s have been mounted at either end of the desk.\n\nThe studio's engineers, John and Roy, are both very pleased with the acoustics of the control room although John mentioned that the JBLs could be a little overpowering at mixdown. Relatively high volume monitoring of a rock band's material can often hide errors in the mix which miraculously appear when played back at home on the band's own stereo deck: to avoid this problem John often uses the NS 10s to get a more realistic balance on the mix, whilst using the JBLs for referencing.\n\nThe outboard gear is arranged on the right of the desk along the wall. In this position the engineer can trim the majority of the equipment from his chair giving him constant balance from the monitors.\n\nBoth engineers have found that the desk is very flexible as far as routing is concerned, with any track from the machine capable of being sent to any input channel; if equalisation isn't needed the monitor channels can also be used as returns. The fixed frequency EQ on every channel is perhaps a little limiting when compared to the cut or boost available on modern mass produced desks. Having said this, the results achieved compare very favourably with the quality produced by a sophisticated\n\nKeith Herd at his custom made console\n\nCassette copying at Fairview\n\noff the shelf model.\n\nIn the central recording area, which measures 13x8x13 ft, the relatively high ceiling of the original barn has been retained. This, along with 'Eastlake-type' stone walls, provide an extremely short reverberation time giving good separation and an uncoloured sound even with distant miking.\n\nThe second main recording area is larger than the first although the ceiling has been lowered by 2 ft and the cavity filled with hessian wool; carpet has been laid to make the room less reflective so that it can be used as the drum area. With the walls left hard and reflective a controlled live sound can be obtained from the kit.\n\nTo complete the studio a third area has been prepared as a live separation booth. Irregularly shaped to avoid parallel reflections and with a hardwood floor, reflective walls and hard ceiling, Keith has found it ideal for brass instruments or for any other sounds which are enhanced by ambience.\n\nFairview's mics are studio standards: Neumann, AKG, Beyer and Shure. The range of effects and signal processing equipment is comprehensive including, AMS RMX 16, AKG BX20 and Yamaha SPX90 reverb, an Aphex Aural Exciter (Type B), Marshall Time Modulator and Drawmer Multi-Tracker. An AMS DMX 15.80S is available with a 6½ s loop edit facility plus keyboard interface for sampling. Stereo mastering is handled by an Otari 5050B and Revox A77.\n\nThe studio is well booked, yet this is only half of Fairview's business; the cassette winding and duplicating is growing rapidly and the studio has international distribution of blank cassettes and copies. Some 25% of the copying is educational or instructive providing a lucrative second string to Fairview's bow. The studio is using Technics M216 tape machines although they are in the process of re-equipping with Denon DR-M22 stereo decks.\n\nFairview is a practical place. Its purpose is to produce a high quality, professional recording at a reasonable price; whether it's copying computer instruction tapes for Rank Xerox or creating an album for an independent label.\n\nThe studio continues to expand. Keith has recently added a studio manager to the staff, joining the two present freelance engineers who work in the studio and the cassette winder who prepares tapes to any required length for distribution.\n\nDespite its position Fairview is a busy place. Keith is content to watch his business grow together with his reputation.\n\nTony Draper\nFairview Studios, Great Gutter Lane, Willerby, Hull, North Humberside, UK.\nTel: (0482) 653116.\n\nTHERE MUST BE OTHER WAYS OF ACHIEVING ACOUSTIC EFFECTS MUSED ROXANNE!\n\nBritannia Row offers a total Audio Hire service from a complete customised 24 track recording package through the range of our extensive analogue and digital recorders to any individual studio effect you may require.\n\nThe equipment is cased and delivered by our professional and efficient staff to anywhere in the UK or overseas.\n\nOur technical engineers will fully install the equipment and leave you assured of a smooth recording session with 24 hour back-up guaranteed... Even Albert will be happy.\n\n35 BRITANNIA ROW LONDON N1 8QH\nBRITANNIA ROW 01 226 3377\nCOMPLETE SERVICE AUDIO HIRE\nTEL: DAY 01-226 3377 NIGHT 01-223 1901 BLACK 281\nTELEX:268279 BRITRO G\n\nCD pressing capacity\n\nPolyGram's CD factory in Hannover, West Germany, still has the largest capacity in the world—it should churn out 50 million this year. And it's still nowhere near enough.\n\nHead of production at Hannover, Dieter Soine, says he is always looking for new ways of pressing more discs faster. But you can forget about the continuous strip process, at least for the time being. Several companies are trying to press and punch from plastics strip but no one has yet seen a sample of saleable quality.\n\nPolyGram is looking for other ways to speed production. The presses at Hannover work on the injection-plus-compression principle. So far this has limited cycle time. At first it was 35 s per disc. Now it is down to around 22 s. The Japanese use injection-only presses and are down to 18 s and less. PolyGram won't yet switch to injection because the mould parts, which hold the stampers, cost 10 times as much in an injection press; 10,000 DM instead 1,000 DM per set. PolyGram is now pushing compress-inject cycle time to 18 s, which looks like being the bottom limit. Stamper life is already down to 1,000 cycles.\n\nThe other bottlenecks are in metallisation and QC. The clear polycarbonate disc has to be coated with aluminium after pressing. So far this has been done by placing the disc in a vacuum chamber and sputtering it with metal. The chambers hold 700 discs at a time. It takes 15 minutes to pump the vacuum and another 10 minutes to create aluminium dust by bombarding a metal sheet with argon ions. Hannover is now installing machines which work on a conveyor system. The discs go in one end, pass through a series of pressure bulkheads into the vacuum chamber, where they hit a cloud of metal dust, and from there pass through another string of bulkheads out into atmosphere again.\n\nEven after four years of mass production, PolyGram's plant still has a reject rate of around 15%; a fraction of a percent reject at every one of 60 production steps. The polycarbonate material can't be recycled, it has to be sold for scrap. So far QC has been all down to Mark One Eyeball, visual inspection by trained girls. Now a 2 s laser scan does the same job. Pressing prices are around 7.5 DM per disc, including jewel box and printed insert and the minimum initial run is 3,000 discs.\n\nThe cleverest move is to get the factory running seven days a week. In Germany it is against the law to work a factory over the weekend. PolyGram did a deal with the government. The company employs only unemployed people on Saturdays and Sundays.\n\nTalking of unemployment and despite Philips denials, the Blackburn videodisc pressing plant is now pressing CDs on an experimental basis. There weren't enough orders for Laservision, so it was the obvious thing to do. Blackburn has now made CDs of saleable quality but it's not yet decided whether the factory will press CDs for sale.\n\nLess hiss more coverage\n\nHere we go again. From those wonderful people who gave us the EVR video system which wouldn't record, SQ quadrophonics with its magical effects in mono and stereo, and the CX compatible disc noise reduction system which was so incompatible engineers wouldn't use it—we now have FMX from CBS.\n\nCBS claims FMX will quadruple the area of FM stereo coverage. It reduces hiss by compassion and yes, of course, it's compatible. Or so CBS says.\n\nNo doubt you will be hearing a lot more about FMX over the next few months before—like EVR, SQ and CX—it disappears. The whole thing looks like being a re-run of the CX debacle, and for that matter, the CBS anti-copying spoiler system. CBS UK knows nothing about FMX and cares even less. 'Try New York', they say. Telexes to NY are ignored.\n\nHaving now seen the publicity claims for FMX I can understand why they would prefer some journalists didn't see them. They look as if they've come from the same word processor which was previously programmed to puff SQ, CX and the spoiler.\n\nAlthough hi-fi manufacturers are now excited about FMX, and some already promise to sell FMX receivers, I have to warn CBS that both the BBC and IBA have doubts about its compatibility.\n\nNo one has any plans yet even to stage broadcast tests.\n\nThe same system is used all round the world to transmit FM stereo on the VHF wavebands. The sum signal, a simple mix of left and right channels, is transmitted on the main RF carrier frequency. This gives mono reception on mono receivers. The stereo information for stereo receivers is carried piggy-back on the sum signal, as a high frequency AM sub-carrier. The sub carrier signal is the difference between left and right channels of stereo. A stereo receiver mixes the difference signal with the sum signal to give separate left and right channels.\n\nThe snag with this conventional system is that the high frequency sub-carrier is at low level and more difficult to receive than the main signal. Its usefulness falls off with distance much faster than the mono sum. For clear stereo the received signal must be around 14 times stronger than for mono. If it is not, the listener must either put up with hissy stereo or switch to mono.\n\nWith FMX, CBS compresses the difference signal before transmission. The compressor slope is oddly shaped, with 2:1 gradient, a spike and dip. An FMX receiver expands the signal in mirror image. Doubtless this causes hiss but even CBS admits it would normally destroy all chance of good reception for people with conventional receivers. So FMX uses two sub-carriers in quadrature; one is of conventional type and the other of new compressed type.\n\nIn theory an ordinary receiver ignores the extra phase-shifted carrier while a new FMX receiver will latch on to it. CBS claims baldly that FMX \"will not affect existing FM broadcasting methods and present consumer receivers\".\n\nBoth the BBC and IBA have already told me that they have grave doubts on this claim. They worry about multipath. When broadcast signals are reflected off a building or hill, there is inevitably a phase shift which will confuse receivers into picking up the wrong sub-carrier. \"It may work in East Anglia, where there are no hills,\" says the BBC, \"but we would want to check it on the Wenvoe transmitter, where the signals are bounced around the Welsh valleys.\" Perhaps significantly, the CBS tests were run in Connecticut, where the terrain is pretty flat and there are no city skyscrapers.\n\nAs Dolby Labs found out when they tested Dolby FM 10 years ago (encoded signal and modified time constant) there are some pretty odd receivers in use out there. If even a couple of listeners complain on a small test, that will translate into vociferous hordes when the system is widely adopted in unfavourable conditions. Hasn't CBS learnt anything from SQ and CX?\n\nEven if they wanted to, neither the BBC nor IBA can change their transmission standards without permission from the Department of Trade and Industry. The DTI will only authorise a change after extensive on-air tests have proved near-perfect compatibility.\n\nCommercial radio stations, which would of course jump at the chance of extending their stereo coverage area, cannot go it alone because the IBA owns and controls their transmitters. There is also a good chance that if the local stations, like Capital in London, extended their range with FMX, the DTI would respond by demanding a cut in transmitter power to maintain the status quo.\n\n911. DRIVE THE HIGH PERFORMER\n\nBASF Studio Master 911. The new professional analogue tape designed to meet the extreme demands of tomorrow's multi-track technology.\n\n911 is a significant design achievement – outstanding audio performance matched with excellent mechanical properties.\n\n- High dynamic range at all frequencies (74.5dB at 1kHz)\n- Very low modulation noise (DC ratio 54.5 dB)\n- Excellent winding characteristics\n- Low print-through (signal to print at 1kHz 56.5dB)\n\nMORE SOUND. LESS NOISE.\n\nWith Syco, you too can be a Mecca star...\n\nSyco\n\n20 CONDUIT PLACE, LONDON W3 TEL 01-724 2451\nTELEX 22278 SYCO G FAX 01-262 608\n\nJVC DIGITAL AUDIO MASTERING SYSTEM\n\nThe core of the JVC editing system is the type VP-900 digital audio processor which interfaces with a professional VHS or U-matic video recorder to provide up to two hours of digitally recorded audio. The unit unfortunately is restricted to the NTSC video standard requiring an NTSC-type recorder and an NTSC television monitor to monitor visually data from tape.\n\nThe stereo audio is coded into a 16-bit linear code with the sampling frequency switchable between 44.1 kHz and 44.056 kHz, the latter is essential when working with composite syncs where the audio is associated with video systems.\n\nWhilst I do not have details of the coding system used, the data rate of 3.087 Mbit/s or 3.084 Mbit/s which depends on the sampling frequency in use, is quite low. Data is recorded in blocks and parity, in addition to some form of cyclic redundancy check, is used to protect the audio data as well as recording a JVC form of timecode.\n\nFurther data is recorded, such as flags to identify the sampling frequency and the use of pre-emphasis and all data is corrected for errors.\n\nPre-emphasis may be set to 50 µs plus 15 µs giving a 3 dB boost at 3.183 kHz, standard for many broadcast systems but with the 15 µs time constant rolling off the boost at 10.61 kHz to lead to a maximum boost of about 8.6 dB at the upper frequency limit of the system around 20 kHz. Alternatively pre-emphasis may be switched out giving a flat frequency response at all signal levels.\n\nThe second part of the JVC editing system is the AE-900V editor which uses the JVC TC-900V timecode generator if it is needed to synchronise with video systems. The system as such does not use SMPTE timecode but a bi-parity (BP) timecode which ties up with the signal data format on tape.\n\nThe timecode generator has several functions for use with SMPTE timecode but not drop frame code which it does not handle. Firstly it can generate SMPTE and BP timecode for dubbing from external systems to the JVC system or recording on the JVC system in sync with external SMPTE codes.\n\nSecondly it can accept an external SMPTE code and output both SMPTE and BP timecode for dubbing between JVC system tapes or for adding SMPTE code to existing JVC system recordings.\n\nThe editor itself is a two part system comprising the electronics and a separate keyboard which connects to the electronics by two multi-way cables fitted with locking connectors.\n\nIn addition to this a remote control unit is available for the digital audio processor. A further item not included in the review is a synchroniser which requires the use of a source of video sync pulses such as a camera or picture generator. The unit converts the incoming EBU timecode into the BP timecode and locks the digital audio VCR to the incoming timecode capable of handling both NTSC and PAL video systems.\n\nOffsets may be entered into the unit and placed in memory with the ability to increment or decrement the offsets with displays showing the EBU timecode from the picture source, and the SMPTE timecode from the audio source. In addition the current difference in time is displayed in frames.\n\nThe FC-900 is a bi-directional interface allowing the transfer of audio between the JVC system and the Sony format as used in the 1600/1610 units.\n\nThe VP-900 digital audio processor, the AE-900V digital audio editor and the TC-900V timecode unit complete with the remote control unit for the processor; two VCRs—BR-6800U professional VHS recorder and a CR-8250U 'U' format machine plus an NTSC video monitor were provided for this review. The three sections of electronics are 17 in wide, such that they will fit into a standard 19 in rack with all the connections at the rear. Signal connections are via multi-way locking connectors and BNC sockets with power supplied via IEC connectors next to which are re-settable circuit breakers.\n\nTo the front of the audio processor and the editor removable panels reveal electronics on good quality horizontal circuit boards, these have clear component identifications. The power supplies are to the right behind the control panels and the editor's only control is the power on/off switch.\n\nDigital audio processor\n\nThe electronics of the audio processor is contained on six large printed circuit boards all of which have user controls and/or LED indicators. The top board which is the playback board has four toggle switches, the first sets the detector level for the incoming signal from the video cassette recorder. This switch is set for minimum activity of the CRC (cyclic redundancy check) error indicator on the same board.\n\nNext, the address switch allows the address display to be either held or set to zero when the VCR is stopped. One of the other switches selects the 44.1/44.056 kHz sampling frequency. The function of this switch, however, depends upon the setting of the sampling frequency auto/manual switch which has rather complicated functions that I will avoid going into. As a result of the switch's possible automatic overrides all except the detector level switch have associated LEDs.\n\nFurther LEDs are illuminated when the output is unmuted (ie normal playback data is present), when a...\n\nTWO DEFINITIONS OF THE PERFECT ECLIPSE\n\nA SOLAR ECLIPSE\nA natural phenomenon occurring when the moon passes between the earth and the sun, resulting in total darkness. This unique event is the result of a complex chain of events culminating in the perfect alignment of their orbital trajectories.\n\nIt's cause was for centuries beyond the comprehension of man, who's imagination and superstition associated it with the supernatural and religious ritual. Magicians and alchemists made the most of the awesome spectacle to assert control over their bewildered followers, until astronomers were able to disprove the mystical theories by offering a scientific explanation.\n\nTHE ECLIPSE EDITOR\nA technological phenomenon in the form of an Intelligent Audio Edit Controller which puts rival products in the shade. Having a capacity to control a large number of events, firing complex user-programmable sequences in perfect alignment from a single Q-key, The Eclipse is capable of supporting 32 machines.\n\nMany of The Eclipse's unique functions were beyond the wildest imagination of Audio engineers until Audio Kinetics applied their advanced research technology to create an electronic edit controller which will, when interfaced with Q-LOCK Synchronisers, add a little magic to modern post production facilities.\n\nsyndrome error has been detected and when an uncorrectable error has been found, in which case the previous data is held.\n\nFollowing down, the record board has a single momentary pushbutton switch for initialising the section when composite external syncs are used. A LED next to the switch identified as Compo is normally illuminated in this mode with automatic initialisation but the switch will re-initialise the unit. Four further LEDs are illuminated for various error conditions including parity errors in data and address errors.\n\nThe control and metering board has switches to set the unit to one of five possible modes, the modes of interest being the normal recording mode, the editing mode and the digital dubbing mode. Further switches select pre-emphasis ON/OFF and select the source of sync between external composite (black burst), internal or an external 44.1 kHz source.\n\nThe A/D (analogue/digital) board has two user controls in the form of multi-turn potentiometers for setting the offset in the A/D converters for the two channels. These controls are set whilst using the video monitor and are adjusted such that the least significant 3/4 bits are exercised.\n\nSo far the boards have very few internal switches or adjustments. Not so on the two remaining boards, each of which have about 10 adjustments for each audio channel, it is not known what these adjustments do. In addition each channel has a toggle switch on each board for setting the gain to a fixed level or allowing front panel potentiometers to set levels.\n\nTo the right of the front panel is the illuminated power on/off button; ¼ in stereo headphone jack and a detented monitoring level potentiometer—the remainder of the features are hidden behind a black translucent panel.\n\nTwin vertical bar displays are used for the level indicators which work in 2 dB steps down to −30 dB with an extra step at −15 dB and then have −40 dB and −60 dB indications. At and below −15 dB the indications are green, the remainder yellow and a red Over at the top of the displays is used to indicate overload.\n\nThe −15 dB indication corresponds to the reference level of −4 dBm and a special reference level display may be switched in for accurate alignment of this level. This secondary display has a range of ±0.3 dB in 0.1 dB steps.\n\nThree modes of operation of the main level display may be selected so that it may operate as a peak level meter, hold peak indications for 2 s or may hold peaks until the reset button is pressed. The latter modes also hold the Over indicators.\n\n‘Secret’ displays illuminate showing the mode of operation set on the control and metering printed circuit board; they show if pre/de-emphasis is on and warn of internal error conditions.\n\nTo the bottom of the panel is a 4-digit time display showing min and s. In the replay mode this follows the timecode from tape but in the record mode it may be reset or held as needed.\n\n**Inputs and outputs**\n\nThe two pairs of audio inputs and outputs at XLR connectors on the rear panel are balanced with a switch allowing the outputs to be internally unbalanced if desired.\n\nThe input impedance was 19.9 kΩ constant with frequency up to 20 kHz with the output impedance of 22.7 Ω also constant with frequency—both are sensible impedances. Table 1 shows the input and output levels for 100% modulation at 1 kHz in the fixed gain and variable gain modes. It also shows that the balance between the two channels is very accurate—the overall gain at fixed gain is within better than 0.1 dB. Furthermore Fig 1 shows that the common mode rejection of both channels is extremely good.\n\nTurning to the stereo headphone jack, this had a source impedance of 47 Ω with the level control working in approximately 1 dB steps. As is shown in Table 2, however, the balance between the channels left something to be desired whilst the voltage levels were sensible for most types of headphone.\n\nWhilst the multi-way remote and interface connections are probably of little user interest, the BNC video and sync connections are. Strangely the video out and the sync out connections had a source impedance of approximately 600 Ω as opposed to the normal (and specified) 75 Ω.\n\nThe composite video output had a black level of +0.7 V, sync tip at +0.11 V and peak white at +2.03 V at two separately buffered connections. The VCR sync output at three lines supplied negative going sync pulses from +0.6 V to −6.9 V again at separately buffered outputs.\n\nThe VCR play input was accurately terminated with 75 Ω (the external sync input is a switchable 75 Ω termination).\n\n**Metering**\n\nThe metering which follows pre-emphasis (when used) consists of two parts: the normal level display and the reference level display. The latter, intended for precise alignment of levels, has its 0 dB indication corresponding to −15 dB on the main display which in turn normally corresponds to +4 dBm. The latter was found to be within 0.01 dB for both channels with the 0.1 dB increments over the ±0.3 dB range of the display also within 0.01 dB. These figures applied up to 10 kHz above which minor errors appeared but these had little significance for alignment purposes.\n\nChecking the accuracy of the main metering steps showed it to be within 0.1 dB from 0 dB to −28 dB with an error of only 0.2 dB at the −30 dB indication. The final lower indications were less accurate with a reading of −40 dB being −40.75 dB and −60 dB being −63 dB—such errors are of no consequence.\n\nBoth metering systems were true peak responding devices with rise time of the main metering and the Over indication extremely fast, so that they fully responded to a single cycle at 10 kHz. The fall time of the main display was...\n\nConnectors by NEUTRIK\n\nDISTRIBUTION NATIONWIDE\n\nSole Agent U.K.\nEardley Electronics Ltd.\nTelephone: 01-221 0606/01-727 0711 Telex: 23894 Telefax: 01-727 9556\n\nFFD Noriyuki Time-Code FFD\n\n● Generates & reads standard SMPTE/EBU Time-Code.\n● Jam-sync capability.\n● Runs on own 9v battery.\n● Very low power consumption.\n\nRCA Connectors for input and output. A multipin connector is also provided for single cable operation.\n\nContact our sales desk for further information on NORIYUKI time-code products.\n\nFFD FUTURE FILM DEVELOPMENTS\nP.O. Box 3DG, 114 Wardour Street, London W1A 3DG, England.\nTelephone: 01-434 3344 & 01-437 1892. Telex: 21624 ALOFFD G.\nCables: Allotrope-London W1.\n\nAUDIO JACKFIELDS & JACK SOCKETS\n\nMosses & Mitchell are the largest manufacturer of Audio Jacks and Jackfields in the UK. We are approved suppliers to the BBC, British Telecom, Pye Telecommunications and many other major telecommunication companies throughout the world. We manufacture a complete range of Audio Jacks & Jackfields and offer a design and manufacturing service geared to meet your specific requirements. For further information and technical data on our products contact:\n\nMosses & Mitchell Limited\nWeydon Lane, Farnham Surrey GU9 8QL\nTelephone: Farnham 721236 (STD 0252)\nTelex: 850020\n\n385 ms—giving good readability, with the 2 s peak hold lasting for 1.56 s and the hold mode offering a permanent hold of true peaks.\n\n**Frequency response and noise**\n\nThe overall frequency response from 10 Hz to 20 kHz without pre-emphasis is shown in Fig 2 to be within +0.2/−0.4 dB reference 1 kHz. The four curves show the response to be the same at maximum modulation and at three steps at 1 dB increments below maximum modulation. When using the headphone monitor output the response was as shown in Fig 3 where there is a possibly significant high frequency roll-off.\n\nAs the same anti-aliasing filters are used at both sampling frequencies the high frequency limits are the same giving a −1 dB point at 20.37/20.26 kHz for the two channels, falling to −3 dB at 20.56/20.54 kHz and −50 dB at 21.83/21.83 kHz.\n\nNoise in the outputs was measured with and without de-emphasis in the unmuted condition with no signal input as shown in Table 3. The cause of the slight noise variations between channels is not known as the outputs were completely free from any power line artefacts or sampling frequency products. It may be that dither is incorporated making these small differences.\n\nOften more interesting in digital systems is the noise in the presence of a signal caused by quantising errors. Fig 4 shows the total harmonic distortion (THD) and noise in dB on the vertical axis versus frequency on the horizontal axis for 10 dB level steps referred to −5 dB below maximum modulation. As expected THD and noise decreases at high frequencies because the harmonics are outside the passband of the internal filters.\n\nReference to Fig 5 again shows THD and noise on the vertical axis with signal level reference full modulation on the horizontal axis. THD and noise are plotted whilst the signal level at 1 kHz was reduced from full modulation to −100 dB in 0.1 dB steps. Whilst there is a slight peculiarity around −10 dB the THD and noise increases linearly with reduced signal level until the noise floor is reached around −90 dB.\n\n**Distortion**\n\nWhilst Figs 4 and 5 show the overall pattern of harmonic distortion the performance was investigated in more detail. Individual second and third harmonics plus THD and noise over the band <10 Hz to 80 kHz were measured for both channels at 1 kHz at 10 dB increments below full modulation.\n\nTable 4 shows a good consistency between channels with both channels offering good performance. Similar comments apply to intermodulation distortion to both the SMPTE method and the CCIF twin tone method. SMPTE-type intermodulation distortion was less than 0.03% at levels above 20 dB below full modulation; CCIF intermodulation distortion was better than 0.03% at levels above −30 dB. Square wave reproduction showed the usual ringing associated with sharp filters as shown in Fig 6 for a 1 kHz square wave.\n\n**Other matters**\n\nCrosstalk between the two channels was at a very low level and almost constant with frequency as shown in Fig 7 confirming the lack of power line frequencies in the outputs.\n\nThe phase difference between the channels was less than 1° over the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz with zero timing difference between the channels maintaining monophonic compatibility. Furthermore any timing jitter was\n\nminimal. As with many video-based systems, however, some jitter did occur at the frame rate of 60 Hz, leading to sidebands at ±60 Hz about a recorded tone but at only −80 dB relative to the tone.\n\nDuring practical use no audible effects of tape dropout were noted with the CRC light blinking at intervals but the hold light (indicating uncorrectable errors) remaining extinguished. It was therefore decided to corrupt intentionally the replayed video by inserting bursts of noise to see how much data could be lost before trouble occurred. In the unlikely event that every video line was corrupted the processor was quite sensitive to data errors with the CRC coping with up to 140 ns of corruption before the hold mode was entered and the processor muting with errors in excess of 440 ns.\n\nSuch conditions are only likely to be met with a very poor VCR and corrupting once in every 10 video lines showed that up to four sequential lines could be lost before the unit muted. Decreasing the corruption rate to once in every 100 lines showed that extensive data corruption could occur even before the hold mode was entered.\n\n**Remote control unit**\n\nThis small free standing box duplicates the level indicator on the processor together with its peak hold functions but not the reference level facility. The address counter is also duplicated together with its reset and start/stop pushbuttons.\n\nAn added facility is a 4-digit display which may be preset to any address in minutes and seconds by using four pushbuttons below the display, each button incrementing one digit. This display is then used in conjunction with a search button as a simple autolocator.\n\nThe remaining buttons are tape movement buttons duplicating those on the VCR including the record function and a Load button which sets the\n\n---\n\n**TABLE 3**\n\n| Measurement method | Noise reference maximum modulation |\n|--------------------|-------------------------------------|\n| 22 Hz to 22 kHz RMS | De-emphasis out: −92.5/−93.5 dB |\n| A-weighted RMS | De-emphasis in: −94.5/−96.1 dB |\n| CCIR-weighted RMS | −96.0/−97.0 dB |\n| CCIR-weighted quasi-peak | −87.5/−88.5 dB |\n| CCIR/ARM ref 2 kHz | −83.5/−84.0 dB |\n| | −94.5/−95.2 dB |\n\n**TABLE 4**\n\n| Level | Second harmonic | Third harmonic | Total |\n|-------|-----------------|----------------|-------|\n| 0 dB | 0.015<0.01% | 0.014±0.013% | 0.021±0.015% |\n| −10 dB| 0.015±0.011% | <0.01<0.01% | 0.021±0.017% |\n| −20 dB| <0.01<0.01% | <0.01<0.01% | 0.028±0.030% |\n| −30 dB| 0.013<0.01% | 0.013<0.01% | 0.087±0.091% |\n| −40 dB| <0.01<0.01% | 0.009±0.01% | 0.277±0.22% |\n| −50 dB| 0.22±0.20% | 0.50±0.45% | 0.977±1.000% |\n| −60 dB| <0.10<0.40% | 1.3±2.8% | 2.880±2.880% |\n| −70 dB| <0.30<0.30% | 3.00±3.00% | 9.770±9.770% |\n| −80 dB| 4.47±1.00% | 12.6±8.9% | 39.80±39.80% |\n\n---\n\n**FIG 6 JVC VP-900**\n1 kHz SQUARE WAVE\n\n**FIG. 7**\nJVC VP-900\nCROSSTALK BETWEEN CHANNELS\n\nTools of the Trade\n\nSignal Processors by Orban\n\n672A/67A Equalisers\nA parametric EQ with graphic controls, including variable high and low-pass filters usable as an electronic crossover (mono or stereo)\n\n622B Parametric Equaliser\nAn exceptionally versatile EQ which has become the standard in studios, broadcast and road shows.\n\nOrban Associates Inc\n\nEuropean Master Distributor\n\nScenic Sounds Equipment Marketing Ltd\nUnit 2, 12 William Road, London NW1 3EN. Tel: 01-387 1262 Telex 27939\n\nBelgium Trans European Music (Bruxelles) Finland Studiotec (Espoo) France 3M France SA Minoom Div (Paris) Germany Estemac (Hamburg)\nGermany Hausman Electronic (Berlin) Greece Audiolab (Athens) Holland Cadac Holland (Hilversum) Italy Audio Products International (Milano)\nNorway LydRommet (Oslo) Portugal Amperel (Lisbon) Spain Singleton Productions (Barcelona) Sweden Tal & Ton (Gothenburg) Switzerland Audio Bauer (Zurich)\n\ncurrent tape address into the autolocator display.\n\n**Editing system**\n\nThe main frame of the editing system has a similar configuration to that of the digital audio processor with the electronics contained on six horizontal printed circuit boards which plug into a mother board. Several of the boards have LED indicators of unknown functions with only the user controls on the main processor board.\n\nThis contains a master reset button and an auto/manual toggle switch in addition to two 8-way DIL switches. One of these is used to set the baud rate of the RS-232 interface, details of which were not available. The second DIL switch, not all sections of which are used, performs three user functions: the editing mode may be set to assembly or insert editing, the timecode mode may be set to SMPTE or BP and the pre-roll time may be set to 10 s or to 30 s.\n\nTo the rear of the electronics unit are the video inputs from the two VCRs with a feed from the editor to the audio processor, all these at BNC sockets. The remaining connectors are locking multiway types feeding the processor, the remote control of the VCRs and the control section of the editor. The latter is a table top-mounted unit about 17 in wide by 12 in deep with a sloping front panel. Depending upon the setting of the DIL switch in the electronics unit the editor may be used for assembly editing or for insert editing. In either case the function of the control section is to identify the edit points, rehearse the editing without recording and once satisfied with the edit to record the edit. In the insert editing mode, however, the rehearsal functions are limited.\n\nThis involves two VCRs (the Original and the Master) so the very clear LED display at the top of the control section is divided into two almost identical sections to display data for the original and the master VCRs.\n\nThe top row of digits in each display shows the current tape time in min, sec and frames; the frame display relates to either TV frames when the BP timecode is used or SMPTE frames when the SMPTE timecode facility is used.\n\nBelow the current time display the sec display is normally used to identify edit points in min, s and frames plus three further digits which are identified as W×2 where the latter is related to the sampling data word. The final digital display is a single digit which indicates which one of four possible cross-fade times is selected. The range is from 0 to 40 ms in 10 ms steps selected by sequentially pressing a button on the control panel, a 45° splice at 15 in/s being equivalent to 16.66 ms.\n\nBelow the information display a transverse row of LEDs is used in the edit location mode. This display has seven LEDs at about 1.5 in intervals dimly illuminated in the edit location mode with intervening LEDs forming a horizontal bar display with one of the intervening LEDs illuminated.\n\nThe length of this display corresponds to a 6 digital audio store with 6 LEDs at 1 s intervals and the intervening LEDs showing the current position within the store when illuminated.\n\nThe display is used for edit point location for which purposes there are actually two 6 s digital stores for inserting two edit points, both stores reproducing very good quality audio. In order to locate an edit point the master or original are replayed using the master/original selection buttons together with the usual tape movement controls on the panel. The Set Up button is then pressed followed by the EDP (edit point) button at the approximate edit point. The editing store then grabs 6 s of audio which includes 2 s of audio before the EDP button was pressed and 4 s after it was pressed the tape stops.\n\nFrom here the accurate location of the desired edit point involves replaying the stored audio in one of two modes using a large diameter knob which was rather stiff in operation. Selection of the Replay mode replays the stored audio continuously at a variable speed forward or backwards as set by the large knob. Alternatively selecting the Search mode allows the equivalent of moving the tape very slowly with one rotation of the large knob equivalent to about 0.4 s of tape time. In either mode the horizontal LED display shows the current position within the store and once the desired edit point has been found the EDP button is again pressed.\n\nAt this stage it is possible to audition the edit point in one of two modes. Pressing one button replays the stored audio and mutes at the edit point whilst pressing another button replays the stored audio and remains muted until the edit point. This system allows drop-in or drop-out point to be monitored.\n\nIf it is then desired to trim the edit point, this may be done by again pressing the Search or Replay button and using the rotary control with the edit timecode being shown in the display. Alternatively the edit point may be trimmed in 2 ms intervals (corresponding to 0.03 in of tape at 15 in/s) by using the ← or the → buttons.\n\nThe same procedure is used for the original and master tapes in the assembly edit mode after which there are several ways of rehearsing the edit.\n\nUsing the audio stores the edit may be replayed over a short period in mono, or alternatively pressing a Check button rehearses the edit using the original and master tapes as sources in stereo reproduction but without performing the edit. Once satisfied pressing the Edit button automatically performs the edit.\n\nA further feature is the inclusion of a digital fader which allows fading in or out of the original at any time. After a little practice the editor was very easy to use and the facilities for rehearsing edits were excellent. The insert editing mode is useful for replacing sections of a recording such as clicks or badly played notes. The first operation in this mode is to find the desired insert and exit points on the master tape and to note their timecodes—easily done in the assembly editing mode. Next the start of the required insert on the original tape is found in the insert editing mode and entered as in the assembly mode. After this simultaneously pressing the Stop and EDP buttons allows the timecode of the insert and exit points on the master tape to be entered, the latter with the reduced resolution of 1 frame (33.33 ms). From this point the edit may be auditioned using the Check button and subsequently performed using the Edit button. This form of editing relies on the tempo of the original being the same as that of the master, thus running the risk of timing errors if long inserts are made.\n\nThe remaining facilities include the insertion of edit points from a known timecode, searching for edit points or going to an edit point and erasing play. These functions are initiated by holding down the stop button whilst pressing the EDP, Search or Play buttons.\n\nFinally there is the facility to assign the fader to the left or right channels whilst maintaining unity gain in the other channel by pressing the Stop button together with the ← or → keys; this could be useful for correcting stereo balance or other effects.\n\n**Summary**\n\nAll the units were very well made and easy to use once set up. The initial setting up, however, is complicated by the large number of controls on the video cassette recorders none of which are needed during operation.\n\nThe VP-900 digital audio processor is an excellent recording system in its own right which can work with the common NTSC-type video cassette recorders. As the unit uses a powerful error correction system, normal tape dropout is fully corrected without any interpolation.\n\nDuring tests no uncorrected errors were heard or seen and intentionally corrupting the replayed video to produce hold errors had no significant audible effect before the machine muted at excessive error rates.\n\nThe AE-900V digital editing system was a delight to use, its rehearsal possibilities offering an untold advantage over the normal manual editing of tape. The accuracy of edit points was far better than is possible by conventional methods with the added advantage of being able to fade in/out whilst editing.\n\n---\n\n**Manufacturer's Specification**\n\n**Equaliser section**\nConfiguration: (27) ½-octave state variable derived filters on ISO centres from 40 Hz to 16 kHz.\nCentre frequency accuracy: ±3% maximum.\nFilter type: constant Q, state variable derived (no inducive or gyrators).\nSliders: 45 mm full-throw, positive centre detent (grounded).\nRange: boost 12 dB, +2/-1 dB, cut 15 dB, +2/-1 dB.\nSignal/noise ratios: ref +4 dBm, unweighted, 20 kHz bandwidths sliders centred, unity gain −90 dB, sliders centred, maximum gain −85 dB, sliders maximum, unity gain −70 dB, sliders maximum, maximum gain −64 dB.\nFrequency response: 31.5 Hz to 27 kHz, −0/−3 dB.\nTotal harmonic distortion + noise: less than 0.002%, 22 Hz to 20 kHz with +4 dBm output.\nIM distortion: less than 0.02%, 60 Hz × 7 kHz, 4:1.\nMaximum gain: +6dB (+3/−0 dB) with sliders centred.\nInput impedance: 20 kΩ.\nOutput impedance: 50 Ω.\nMaximum input level: +22 dBm (9.7 VRMS) level control below −10, +19 dBm (7.0 VRMS) level control at unity gain, +14 dBm (+4.0 VRMS) level control maximum.\nMaximum output level 600 Ω: +20 dBm (7.8 VRMS) level control maximum, +18 dBm (6.2 VRMS) level control unity gain.\nSubsonic filter: fixed at 31.5 Hz, 18 dB/octave.\nUltrasonic filter: fixed at 27 kHz, 18 dB/octave.\nOverload indicator: red LED, lights at 4 dB below clipping.\nSignal present indicator: green LED, lights above −20 dBm input RFI input filters.\nBypass switch: passive hard-wire type, red LED indicates bypass on/off.\nOutput relay: turn on/off transient control.\nAnalyser section\nDisplay range: ±1 dB or ±3 dB ‘green window’, selectable.\nMeasurement level range: 70 dB to 120 dB SPL calibrated.\nCuts: spectrum or normal flat from 40 Hz to 16 kHz, ±0 dB, linear −3 dB attenuation between 400 Hz and 1.6 kHz.\nDisplay attack time: peak instantaneous.\nFrequency accuracy: ±3% maximum.\nAnalogue filters: ANSI S1.10-1980.\nPink noise: pseudo-random NMOS digitally synthesised, 23-bit word length, 1 min repetition rate. Output level adjustable, −10 dBm.\nResponse: 16 Hz to 20 kHz, ±1 dB, equal factor 4.0.\nMicrophones: two directional back-electret condenser type, powered by front panel jack (not phantom power), sensitivity −65 dB; frequency response 10 Hz to 16 kHz; maximum SPL: 140 dB.\nDimensions: (w/h/d) 19×3.5×8.5 in.\nWeight: 11 lb net.\n\nManufacturer: Rane Corporation, 6510 216th SW Mountlake Terrace, WA 98043, USA.\nUK: Music Lab Sales, 72/74 Eversholt Street, London NW1 1BY.\n\n**Manufacturer’s comment**\n\nMr Ford is correct in his findings that the peak overload LED does not indicate first-stage overload, this is something that we were late in recognising but have now taken steps to correct in all existing and future products. We would like to point out that the RE 27’s unbalanced output stage is also floating, which makes it compatible with all balanced input stages.\n\nThe Rane RE 27 and RE 14 are constant Q graphic equalisers using state variable derived filters and mounted into 2U steel 19 in rack mounting cases. The RE 27 is a 27-section single-channel \\( \\frac{1}{3} \\)-octave equaliser and the RE 14 a 2-channel 14-section \\( \\frac{1}{3} \\)-octave equaliser. The specifications only vary slightly in the noise performance.\n\nMost of the RE 27's charcoal front panel is occupied by 27 vertical slider controls giving +12/-15 dB range to the 27 equalisers centred on ISO standard centre frequencies from 40 Hz to 16 kHz. Each equaliser has a rather weak detent at 0 dB gain with calibrations at 3 dB increments. Above each equaliser control are red, green and yellow LEDs identified as '+', '0' and '-''. These operate such that the equaliser may be used as an analyser.\n\nTo the left of the front panel is the power on/off rocker switch which operates on the secondary of the mains transformer, the primary being permanently connected to the line cord via a fuse located within the unit. At the top of the panel an uncalibrated potentiometer controls the overall gain of the unit following the electronically balanced input stage. Near this input level control a green LED is illuminated when signals in excess of -20 dBm are present. A second red LED is illuminated when signal level reaches -4 dB below clipping at the input to the equalisers or output from the equalisers—this does not protect the balanced input stage or the final output stage.\n\nBelow the level pot are two locking pushbuttons, one with a red warning LED bypassing the equaliser by hard wiring the input to the output and the second energising an internal source of pink noise.\n\nTo the right of the front panel are an unbalanced \\( \\frac{1}{4} \\) in microphone input jack socket and the real-time analyser (RTA) controls consisting of a potentiometer and two locking pushbutton switches. The analyser section is normally fed from the equaliser output but inserting the microphone jack feeds the analyser from the microphone input which is non-standard and designed for use only with the electret microphone supplied with the unit. If this microphone is used the calibrations around the RTA level control represent SPLs from 70 dB to 120 dB in 10 dB increments.\n\nThe analyser works in conjunction with the '+', '0' and '-' LEDs above the individual equaliser controls with one of the pushbutton switches selecting a \\( \\pm 1 \\) dB or \\( \\pm 3 \\) dB window. If the signal exceeds the window level the red '+' LED is illuminated, if it is below the yellow '-' LED is illuminated and if the signal level is within the window the green '0' LED is illuminated.\n\nIt follows that the equaliser may be used to define or measure spectra or frequency responses in conjunction with the internal pink noise generator using either the supplied microphone or any other type of input.\n\nThe final front panel control is the Normal/House curve switch which affects the frequency response of the analyser section which is flat in the normal position. In the House position the response between 400 Hz and 1.6 kHz is modified—the manufacturer claims \"This reduction in midrange results in a warmer more desirable sound at lower sound pressure levels.\"\n\nAt the rear of the unit the audio input, audio output and pink noise output are at \\( \\frac{1}{4} \\) in jack sockets with the outputs being unbalanced except in the bypass mode when the output is directly connected to the input terminals which may be fed from a balanced or unbalanced source.\n\nWithin the unit printed circuit boards extend the width of the chassis at the top and bottom and across the front. The latter supports all the slider controls and the filters and level detectors are on the other two boards. The only pre-set controls are single potentiometers for each filter, setting the level.\n\nAcross the left side of the unit the...\n\npower supply and input/output circuits are on a vertically mounted board with a similar board to the right having the random noise generator and microphone input circuits.\n\nThe only hand wiring is the connections to the power transformer; the printed circuit board interconnects with sockets and pin connectors making the unit very tidy. Whilst there are no component identifications the user's manual includes layout diagrams and circuits in addition to other user information.\n\nThe unit is well finished internally and externally with clear off-white panel markings and the chassis is painted inside and out.\n\n**Inputs and outputs**\n\nThe electronically balanced audio input could accept a maximum of 9.58 VRMS (+21.8 dBm) into a load impedance constant with gain at 22 kΩ with the common mode rejection remaining at 80 dB within the audio pass band.\n\nThe gain to the unbalanced audio output with the equalisers set to their flat positions was a maximum of 6.7 dB with the output source impedance being 47 Ω. Measuring the maximum output capability showed it to vary widely with the gain set by the equaliser level control, this control affecting the input and output stages.\n\nAt maximum gain the output could deliver 9.51 VRMS (+21.8 dB.V) falling to 7.26 VRMS (+19.4 dB.V) at unity overall gain and thence to 1.05 VRMS (+2.6 dB.V) at low overall gains.\n\nThe microphone input to the real-time analyser section is dedicated to the microphone supplied; the input has +2.19 VDC powering and the input impedance is 2.07 kΩ. The sensitivity for '0' indication with the window set to ±1 dB was −72 dBm at maximum gain increasing to −25 dBm at minimum gain with the calibrations of the RTA level control being rather rough and ready as shown in Table 1.\n\nPink noise at the unbalanced output could drive a maximum of +2 dBm over the bandwidth 22 Hz to 22 kHz from a very low source impedance. A constant bandwidth analysis of the pink noise as shown in Fig 1 reveals that the frequency distribution of the pink noise is within ±0.5 dB from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.\n\nThe signal present indicator illuminated at −21 dBm input with the overload indicator becoming illuminated 3.5 dB below clipping, the latter giving a visible indication with clipping conditions exceeding 300 μs.\n\nWhilst the peak indicator shows overloading conditions at the feed to and from the equaliser sections, it does not operate with input overloads and will not necessarily indicate overload at the output stage.\n\n**Frequency response**\n\nThe overall frequency response with the equalisers in their flat positions is shown in Fig 2 to be within +0/−1 dB from 40 Hz to 12.6 kHz falling to −3 dB at 32 Hz and 22 kHz and then rolling off to provide a sensible restriction on the bandwidth.\n\nThe performance of all the 27 equalisers at their maximum cut and boost is shown in Fig 3 where the centre frequencies are accurate but the alignment of the gain leaves something to be desired, particularly in the case of the 630 Hz stage. It was also noted that the three highest frequency sections had an available cut in excess of the specified −15 dB.\n\n---\n\n**TABLE 1**\n\n| RTA level setting | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 110 | 120 |\n|-------------------|----|----|----|-----|-----|-----|\n| Input level (dBm) | −72| −64| −51.5| −45| −37| −25|\n\n---\n\n**FIG.1**\nRANE RE 27\nSPECTRUM ANALYSIS OF PINK NOISE\n\n**FIG.2**\nRANE RE 27\nFREQUENCY RESPONSE FLAT\n\n**FIG.3**\nRANE RE27\nEQUALISERS\n\n**FIG.4**\nRANE RE27\n40Hz, 1kHz AND 10kHz\nEQUALISERS\nAT MAX +6dB AND FLAT\n\nThe D 112: The new bass microphone from AKG will take some punishment, deliver the new sound, and is a regular show-piece.\n\nThe result of technical wizardry and engineering experience, a new type of dynamic transducer finally enables extremely punchy and powerful bass sounds to be reproduced with utmost accuracy. An incredibly high sound level capability (a theoretical 168 dB!) ensures distortion-free reproduction of the bass, guitars, and bass drum as well as wind instruments. A special presence lift at 4 kHz creates that extra sparkle and punch that will make any bass instrument clearly distinguishable within the mix.\n\nThe new transducer, the strong protective basket, and the rugged die-cast housing are the results of intensive R & D. The superb sound is the result of the most advanced technology.\n\nFig 4 shows the performance of the 40 Hz, 1 kHz and 10 kHz equalisers at their maximum settings and at the ±6 dB settings, the control law being good and the shape remaining constant with gain.\n\nWithin the analyser section the frequency response was flat within the readability of the display in the normal mode with the 'House' mode introducing a boost in sensitivity commencing at 100 Hz, rising to 3 dB between 400 Hz and 1.5 kHz and then falling to zero at 6 kHz.\n\nA typical frequency response of the 1/3-octave filters is shown in Fig 5 for the 1 kHz filter. This curve just falls within the outer limits for the ANSI standard class II response.\n\nNoise and distortion\n\nNoise in the output was completely free from power line hum or other constant tones with the output noise depending upon the setting of the gain control and the equalisers. With all equalisers set for unity gain the gain control influenced noise as shown in Table 2.\n\nThe use of the equalisers to cut or boost, increased the output noise but not to any alarming degree. Table 3 shows the effect of fully cutting or boosting the mid-band equalisers from 315 Hz to 2 kHz with the nominal range being +12 dB to −15 dB.\n\nReferring these noise levels to the maximum output capability shows that the noise performance is good under any likely conditions of operation. Operation of the pink noise source did not show any audible crosstalk into the equaliser section but operation of the analyser section produced very slight clicks as the level LEDs became illuminated.\n\nThe operation of the equaliser controls and the level control were completely silent and switching the unit on/off did not produce any unwarranted clicks.\n\nSecond and third harmonic distortion was measured under a variety of conditions of gain and equalisation, and was always to a high standard. The worst case shown in Fig 6 was at +20 dBm output at maximum gain, the use of the equalisers having little effect upon the harmonic distortion which was related to output level rather than other conditions.\n\nIntermodulation distortion to the CCIF twin tone method exhibited similar characteristics with the second order products (F2.F1) being always at a very low level—less than 0.01%. The worst case for the third order products was at high frequencies and high levels as shown in Fig 7 for +20 dBm equivalent peak output.\n\nOther matters\n\nTesting the analyser in comparison with a Bruel & Kjaer type 4165 measuring microphone in conjunction with a Bruel & Kjaer 2606 measuring amplifier and a 1/3-octave filter set showed remarkably good results.\n\nThe Rane unit was first used to equalise the room using the ±1 dB sensitivity range with the input sensitivity set to 70 dB SPL. The Rane microphone was then replaced with the Bruel & Kjaer microphone and the room measured with the Bruel & Kjaer equipment. The resulting sound pressure level indicated at 70 dB with the Rane equipment measured 69 dB SPL with the B & K equipment, the two systems agreeing to within ±1 dB over the 27 1/3-octave bands. The Rane microphone, however, was sensitive to hum pickup and unless the microphone stand was grounded, erroneous results could occur at low frequencies.\n\nSummary\n\nThe Rane RE 27 is an unusual combination of a 1/3-octave, constant Q, graphic equaliser and a real-time analyser with limited abilities. This combination, however, has all the facilities needed for obtaining a flat room response or equalising a room to the internal 'House' curve, using the internal pink noise source if required.\n\nAll sections of the unit offered a very good performance but the accuracy of alignment of the equalisers could be improved. However this has no effect upon the measurement capabilities which were remarkably accurate for a simple device.\n\nEVERYTHING YOU EXPECT FROM JAPANESE CASSETTES... except the price\n\nBy importing top quality Japanese Tape and assembling the cassettes in the UK using the finest C zeros available we can now offer you everything you’d expect from Japanese cassettes... except the price.\n\nAvailable in custom lengths, retail packaged and also in pancakes for duplicators.\n\nTelephone P.M.D. for full details on 01-627 3760 or 0789 68579 or complete the coupon below to obtain sample cassettes.\n\nTo Pangbourne Musical Distributors Ltd., PO Box 19, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire CV37 6SA. Please supply details and sample cassette.\n\nNAME ........................................ POSITION ........................................ TEL NO .......................\nADDRESS ..................................................................................................................................\n\nPMD ... NUMBER ONE IN MAGNETIC MEDIA\n\nThe QuPlay QPI is a programmable drop-in and drop-out control unit that plugs directly into the tape machine using tach pulses as its reference. There are, at present, some 200 units in studios around the world with a quarter of these being in Britain. The system I examined was in use at producer Colin Thurston's studio in London where it is used in conjunction with an Otari MTR90 mk II.\n\nThe unit measures $17 \\times 11 \\times 15$ cm and is small enough to sit neatly on most consoles with little problem. The controls are divided into two areas consisting of a remote section providing normal transport facilities, and the programming section with five pushbuttons and three status LEDs. The unit can be programmed with the tape machine running at normal speed, half speed or in edit mode depending upon the degree of accuracy required but whichever method is used the procedure is the same. Firstly the QPI must be primed to receive commands by pressing the Prog button which will light the green Program Enabled LED. With the transport running the In button is pressed at the drop-in point and the Out button at the drop-out point. The Program Enabled LED will extinguish and one now has a programmed drop-in or window. The accuracy of this window can be checked by the orange Window Cue LED which illuminates for the duration of the drop-in. Once satisfied with the positioning of the window the QPI should be 'record armed' and this is achieved by simultaneously pressing both Arm buttons lighting the red Record Armed LED. The tape machine is run back either normally or by using Loc, which will put the machine into rewind and apply the brakes at the In point parking the tape a few seconds before the drop-in. The track or tracks to record on are selected on the tape machine, Play is pressed and the drop-in is carried out automatically. When the QPI drops out it also disarms itself, so to repeat the same drop-in the unit must be re-armed. However, there is a switch at the rear of the control box that allows 'continuous arming' and this can be useful if one is anticipating a number of passes over the same section or putting the tape machine into cycle mode but remember to switch back to Normal for a playback. The unit does not interfere with the operation of any existing remote or autolocator as it connects to an independent socket, so if preferred these can be used to perform transport functions, although the QPI's remote will work in exactly the same way as the tape machine.\n\nOnce a program has been entered it will remain intact until another program is entered or changes are made to the existing program. A window may be shortened or lengthened by pressing Prog leaving the In point untouched and selecting an earlier or later Out point. If at any time one wants to disarm the QPI either before or during the window by pressing Arm the unit will immediately disarm and drop the machine out of record without effecting the program.\n\nIt is possible to create an Inverse Window by programming the unit in reverse. For example, if you enter an In point at two minutes and an Out point...\n\nat one minute, then wind back to zero and Continuously Arm the unit, by pressing Play it will go into record from zero to 1 min, drop out until 2 min and then go back to record until stopped.\n\nThere is also the facility to program the unit by using a standard press-to-make footswitch which plugs into a standard ¼ in jack socket on the rear panel. In Program Enabled mode the first press of the switch creates the In point, the second the Out. This is particularly useful for anyone working single-handed and by arming the unit directly after enabling the program it is possible to do live drop-ins and program the memory whilst having the freedom to play a keyboard or guitar. The footswitch can also be patched through to the studio on a mic line allowing the artist to do his own drop-ins. The QPI is supplied with a 5 m cable joining it to the tape machine. If required longer cables can be provided so that the control box can be taken into the studio area or another room making it possible to have full control over the tape machine outside the control room.\n\nWhen not in Program Enabled mode the footswitch has another function which is to shift the window to a different tape position. For example if there is a window of 30 s starting at 1 min into the track, by spooling the tape to 2 min and pressing the footswitch one now has a drop-in programmed to start at 2 min and end at 2 min 30 s. This opens up some interesting possibilities with strict tempo tracks where there are a number of identical sections.\n\nThe spot erase capability depends on the speed at which the tape machine will drop in and out. To test this I decided to select a double bass drum beat and lose the second. The MTR 90 was put into edit and rocked over the second beat marking the In and Out points on the QPI. The window length was approximately 300 ms. Both QPI and the Otari had no problems in dealing with it but it is worth checking that the tape machine will respond to a quick window as the effect can be to drop-in correctly but ignore coming out!\n\nApart from the record functions, there is also a triggering facility. Next to the footswitch socket is the Trigger Output jack socket and above this is a switch that toggles between M (Momentary) and C (Continuous). Momentary causes a brief contact closure at both the start and end of the window, and Continuous gives an uninterrupted closure for the duration of the window. The trigger output can be used to activate all manner of drum machines, sequencers, effect units, etc, starting and stopping them at the beginning and end of the window. The beauty of this system is that one can trigger an effect and drop it in and out all by the press of one button, and by using the footswitch a number of fixed length sections can be dealt with quickly easily.\n\nThe QPI does not interface successfully with all tape machines, so it is advisable to check that it is compatible with your machine before taking it any further. Generally speaking, it works well with modern Japanese machines like Otari, Tascam and Fostex. By the nature of the system working from tach pulses, it is essential that tape machines are well maintained and free from any clock or tape slippage. At present, QPI is customised to fit the client’s machine but a series II model should be available soon which will incorporate internal dip switches and plug in leads making it simple to swap tape machines.\n\nIf you own a machine which will interface with the QPI and don’t already have any programmable drop-in device, then this unit could be of interest to you. It is not expensive.\n\nColin Thurston is impressed with this unit and uses it exclusively to do all his drop-ins. I asked him if using it slowed the session down: “I prefer accuracy to speed and QuPlay rules out any human error, so at the end of the session there’s no time wasted by mistakes. I’ve never seen anything like it before and I will use it all the time.” □\n\nSuperior Sound Control\nUtilising the most advanced Microchip technology, HARRISON have been able to introduce the GP-SERIES Graphic Equalisers which not only have superior audio performance characteristics but which also outperform existing models. The GP-SERIES are precision designed with response and facilities to match the requirements of today’s sophisticated sound systems.\n\nPrecision Model Range\nThe GP215 is a 7 x 15 band 3rd octave instrument or a 11 x 19” rack mount unit\nThe GP180 offers real precision 30 band 1/3rd octave control plus a three band Notch Filter in a one rack package. Last but not least the GP240 combines two channels to cover the full 6th and octave 30 band 1/3rd octave frequencies from 20Hz to 20kHz.\n\nPlus Extra Features\nEach model is more than a precision Graphic Equaliser – it also includes extra features that are essential to today’s application. These include variable low and high pass filters, e.g. Range Switches, On/Off Switches, Peak LED’s and Auto Reset. Variable Channel Levels are all provided. Electronic balanced Inputs and Outputs with sockets for balanced and unbalanced are other features, and built-in Pink Noise generators are included, as well as silent modes and a full-scale bypass cut-out and much more.\n\nSecurity Cover Included\nAt no extra cost each model comes with a tinted Perspex Security Cover which protects the controls largely while your control settings once the GP-Series have been set up to give you the sound you want.\n\nNotch Filters\nThe GP150 Model also includes a 1 band 1/3rd octave sweeping Notch Filter set to 1kHz. A really fast effective means of getting up to a full 10dB of system gain from your sound system.\n\nThis is the sort of last annoying feedback can be “notched out” and you can get more sound level without sacrificing quality.\n\nContact your nearest dealer or Harrison direct for a detailed information brochure.\n\nHARRISON INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY LTD., UNIT 3 BUTTON END, HARSTON, CAMBRIDGE CB2 5NX. 0223 871711. TELEX 81687\n\nThe first 2 editions of ONE TO ONE (as shown) proved to be extremely well received by readers and advertisers alike.\n\nONE TO ONE seems to have filled a gap in a market hungry for information.\n\nNews and commentary are the mainstay of the magazine keeping the professional in the many areas of mastering, pressing and duplicating up-to-date on developments and techniques throughout the world. In addition to this there are articles covering the use of equipment, profiles, overviews on the international industry plus the interface between producers and the record industry as a whole and much more.\n\nCirculated to over 70 countries and published by the same world renowned team who produce STUDIO SOUND magazine, the third edition of ONE TO ONE will be published in October.\n\nTo coincide with the Los Angeles AES (12th to 16th November) and the Japanese International Broadcast Equipment Exhibition (19th to 21st November) ONE TO ONE will be available free of charge during these two important events.\n\nTo ensure that your message is seen contact Carl Anthony Snape, Editor; Phil Guy, Commercial Manager or Adrian Tippin, Advertisement Sales by the final dates to be included in this important new magazine.\n\nCOPY DEADLINES\n\nEditorial copy date: 20th August latest.\nAdvertising copy date: 8th September.\n\nFurther information on advertising rates are available from\n\nONE TO ONE, Link House Magazines Ltd., Link House, Dingwall Avenue, Croydon CR9 2TA, U.K. Tel: 01-686 2599. Telex: 947709. Fax: 760 0973.\n\nDynamic Range Control at its best.\n\nSymetrix\n\nSOUND TECHNOLOGY LTD\n6 Letchworth Business Centre\nAvenue One, Letchworth\nHerts SG6 2HR\nTelephone: 04626 75675\n\n525 Dual Gated Compressor/Limiter\nSimultaneous compress/limit and expand/gate.\n\nCL150 Fast RMS™ Compressor/Limiter\nA highly cost-effective single channel automatic gain controller.\n\n501 Peak-RMS Compressor/Limiter\nSimultaneous peak and RMS detection. An indispensable tool for PA.\n\n522 Compressor/Limiter/Expander/Gate/Ducker\nVersatile multi-function processing for studio, stage, or production.\n\n511 Noise Reduction System\nRemoves noise from any source, pre-recorded or live, mono or stereo.\n\nSymetrix products are sold and supported world-wide. When you specify Symetrix you specify quality, performance, and reliability.\n\nYOU CAN PAY LESS FOR A REVERB THAN THE RMX 16 BUT IT WON'T BE HALF AS GOOD\n\nWe would be the first to admit that the RMX 16 is not the only digital reverb on the market which benefits from AMS know-how. When our unit has been continually updated to maintain it as the world's number one digital device, a level of flattering imitation is inevitable.\n\nBut nothing comes half as close to the sound quality, features, ease of use and updatability of the RMX 16. And at a price which represents such a modest proportion of your studio spend. Remember, choosing AMS means never doing things by halves.\n\nFor full details on the RMX 16 contact us today.\n\nAMS Industries plc, AMS Industries Park, Burnley, Lancs. BB11 5ES. England.\nTel: (0282) 57011 Telex: 63108 AMS-G.\n\nHarris Sound Inc. (Los Angeles)\nFor nationwide sales, rental or service. Tel: (800) 233 1580\n\nRMX-16\nAMS\nSOUND + WITH + VISION\n\nAdvanced Music Systems.\nThe Queen's Award for Export Achievement to Edacackle Ltd.\nIn July 1985 Edacackle Ltd. became AMS Industries plc.\n\nBreathing Heavy?\n\nTired of signal processors that pump and breathe? Looking for something that's kind to your ears? Then, look to the Leveller from USAudio!\n\nThe Leveller is a new breed of signal processor whose capabilities begin where those of ordinary limiters and compressors end. Linear Integration Detection is the heart of the Leveller's control section and it enables the unit to understand loudness as perceived by the human ear. This remarkable circuitry maintains sonically correct musical relationships, while processing the wide spectrum of sounds from musical instruments and voice, to mixed program material. The processed signal exits the device tree from \"pumping\" and \"breathing\".\n\nThe Leveller is a sophisticated device, yet it remains easy to operate, with a minimum of front panel controls. Its intelligent circuitry handles the signal just as if your ears were calling the shots.\n\nOnce you've heard the Leveller handle your signal, you'll breathe more easily. See your USAudio dealer today for a demonstration.\n\nVALLEY PEOPLE INTERNATIONAL\nC/O Gotham AG Regensdorf 5w Switzerland\nTelex 69222 gotham ch. Tel: 0041 1 840 0144\n\nStirling\nAUDIO SYSTEMS LTD\nI Canfield Place London NW6 3BT ☎ 01 625 4515\nTelex 946240 CWEASY G Ref No. 990 14280\n\nMCA/MULTIMIX, a modular audio console with computer control\n\nMULTIMIX audio console\n\n- True modularity to really meet your requirements in special applications.\n- A family of some 20 different input, routing, fader or rotary pot, metering and output modules.\n- Special modules for control room and headphone monitoring, test signals, talkback, remote control etc.\n- Heavy duty steel chassis\n- Transformer balanced inputs and outputs.\n- Wide range meter modules, 60 dB display.\n\nMCA processing unit\n\n- Computer controlled routing, matrix mix processing and multichannel panning.\n- Assignable digital fader and meter to set and control matrix crosspoint levels.\n- A single floppy disk stores up to 600 sound effect cues (scenes).\n- Controls the tape transport and locator functions of up to four tape recorders.\n- Pocket terminal for remote control and sound effect evaluation in the audience area.\n- System operation by a single cue entry push button.\n\nMCA MULTIMIX\n\n\"Custom design\" your console for special applications such as theatres, musical productions, planetariums, fiction venues and all applications requiring a \"non-standard\" console with computer control.\n\nSubscribe. Now.\n\nSTUDIO SOUND\nAND BROADCAST ENGINEERING\n\nJOIN THE AUDIO PROFESSIONALS\n\nYou're obviously interested in professional audio.\n\nYou want to know what's going on in the world of professional sound, be it in music recording, new equipment, techniques or live sound reinforcement.\n\nThere's only one answer, subscribe to STUDIO SOUND.\n\nSTUDIO SOUND gives you the hard facts, techniques and opinions which cannot be matched by any other publication in the field.\n\nKeep in touch\nSubscribe to Studio Sound Now\nThe International Publication for the Professionals in Sound\n\nPlease send me ____________ magazine for 12 issues.\n\nI enclose a cheque/postal order/International Money Order payable to LINK HOUSE MAGAZINES for £18.00 UK or £24.50 Overseas. US rates: $40 surface, $75 airmail.\n\nOr debit my credit card account\n\n[please tick box] □ □ □ □\n\nCREDIT CARD NO _______________________\n\nSIGNATURE _______________________\n\nCredit card holders can order simply by ringing 01-760 0054, quoting your credit card number\n\nNAME ________________________________________________________________\n\nADDRESS ______________________________________________________________\n\n[please print in block capitals]\n\nCommencing with the ____________ issue I understand that I am committed to one year's subscription to the above magazine, and should I wish to cancel my subscription, no refund will be made.\n\nTo:\nThe Subscriptions Department, Link House Magazines Ltd,\nCentral House, 27 Park Street, Croydon CR10 1YD\nTel: 01-760 0054\n\nThe Definitive Gate\n\nThe Rebis RA701 has been developed for the new breed of studios where perfection is the only standard. It combines the very best of digital and analogue technology to meet that standard.\n\n- Fixed or tracking four stage envelope lets you create envelopes as well as modifying them.\n- High resolution filters for frequency conscious gating or programme equalisation.\n- Trigger mask up to four seconds can be used to remove offbeats or change accent levels.\n- Envelope delay up to two seconds gives slapback and repeat effects.\n- Velocity sensitive MIDI output drives synths and drum machines without the need for special pads or interfaces.\n- Merge input allows units to be chained to give a single MIDI output.\n- 90dB attenuation range, stereo and duck facilities, external key input and 5 volt trigger outputs.\n\nGive yourself the creative edge—get the full facts today!\n\nRebis Audio Ltd. Kinver Street, Stourbridge West Midlands DY8 5AB. ENGLAND.\nTelephone: (0384) 71865. Telex: 335494.\n\nAustralia: John Barry Group; Artorman S.W. 02-439 6955. Austria: Baue Sound; Hainberg 02235 89 298. Belgium: S.E.D.; Bruxelles 322 701-4. Canada: Henri Electronics Inc.; Ontario 721-1951. Denmark: Kimvox A/S; Lyngby 02-1876 17. Finland: Studiore; Espoo 514 33. France: Lazure Electronique; Paris 87865 10. High Fidelity Services; Paris 285 140. Germany: Thun & Mahr Audio; Leverkusen 2113 7806-0. Hong Kong & China: Audio Consultants Co. Ltd.; Kowloon 17175251. Italy: Startek; Bologna 32 1063. Jamaica: Audioloft Systems Ltd.; Kingston 926-2569. Japan: Hibino Electro Sound Inc.; Tokyo 442-1161. Netherlands: Special Audio Products B.V.; Amsterdam 140035. New Zealand: Master Broadcast Systems Ltd.; Glenfield 444-3583. Saudi Arabia: Farid Halwany & Sons; Dammam 8570848. South Africa: Tru-F Electronics; Johannesburg 786 7177. Spain: Singleton Productions; Barcelona 237 7060. Sweden: Iai & Ton; Gothenburg 803630. Switzerland: E.M.M. Studio; Basel 061 54 20 45. U.S.A.; Rebis U.S.; Atlanta; Georgia 404 633 6626.\n\nSTAGING EUROPE\nEQUIPMENT & SERVICES\nDIRECTORY 1986\n\nFrom the publishing house which gives you the world renown Studio Sound and the highly respected Broadcast Systems Engineering magazines comes our latest publishing first – STAGING EUROPE.\n\nSTAGING EUROPE 1986 covers all aspects of staging a live performance, whether this be theatre, a classical concert, ballet or rock gig.\n\nOver 3,500 European companies are featured divided into seven main sections:\n\nThe Manufacturers section includes chapters on Amplifiers to Portable Stages, Hydraulics to Microphones, Lighting Effects through to Makeup & Wigs.\n\nThe Hire section provides a comprehensive listing of Companies throughout Europe, and includes all aspects of production equipment as well as Portable Stages, Properties, Furniture & Armouries and Light & Lazer Shows.\n\nThe Service section ranges from Wardrobe & Costume, Designers & Consultants, Set Construction and Catering.\n\nThe Venues section is a unique compilation of major venues in Europe listed alphabetically and divided by country.\n\nEuropean Sources is a unique guide to where equipment can be obtained in any country.\n\nThe Address Index includes the full address details of all the companies featured in the directory, each with telephone/telex numbers as well as key contact names.\n\nSTAGING EUROPE 1986 brings together these important sections for the first time in one directory ensuring it is the most comprehensive information source available.\n\nProfessional Publications Group, Link House Magazines Ltd, Dingwall Avenue, Croydon CR9 2TA, United Kingdom.\n\nPlease send me copies of Staging Europe Directory 1986.\n\n£11 (UK) £14.50 Europe $22 USA Airmail\n£16.50 World Airmail Includes Postage and Packing\n\nI enclose a cheque/postal order/international money order payable to Link House Magazines for the amount\n\nOr debit my credit card\n\nCredit card No.\n\nCredit card holders can order by simply ringing 01-686 2599 ext 550, quoting credit card No.\n\nSigned\n\nName\n\nAddress\n\n(please print)\n\nPlease return the completed order form enclosing full remittance (including delivery) or giving your credit card number to Professional Publications Group, Link House Magazines Ltd, Dingwall Avenue, Croydon, CR9 2TA, United Kingdom.\n\nPlease allow 28 days delivery in Britain, extra overseas depending on country and delivery method.\n\nAdvertisements for this section must be pre-paid. The rate is 55p per word, minimum £13.75. Box Nos. £3.50 extra. Semi-display rates on application. Copy and remittance for advertisements in OCTOBER issue must reach these offices by 12th AUGUST addressed to: The Advertisement Manager, Studio Sound, Link House, Dingwall Avenue, Croydon CR9 2TA. Cheques made payable to Link House Publications (Croydon) Ltd. Note: Advertisers' copy must be clearly printed in block capitals or typewritten.\n\nReplies to Box Nos. should be addressed to the Advertisement Manager, Studio Sound, Link House, Dingwall Avenue, Croydon CR9 2TA, and the Box No., quoted, typed outside of the envelope. The district after Box No. indicates its locality. SEX DISCRIMINATION ACT 1975: No job advertisement which indicates or can reasonably be understood as indicating an intention to discriminate on grounds of sex (e.g. by inviting applications only from males or only from females) may be accepted, unless (1) the job is for the purpose of a private householder or (2) it is in a business employing less than six persons or (3) it is otherwise excepted from the requirements of the Sex Discrimination Act. A statement must be made at the time the advertisement is placed saying which of the exceptions in the Act is considered to apply.\n\nThe attention of advertisers is drawn to \"The Business Advertisements (Disclosure) Order 1977\", which requires that, from 1st January 1978, all advertisements by persons who seek to sell goods in the course of business must make that fact clear. From the above date consumers therefore should know whether an advertisement relates to a sale by a trader or a private seller.\n\n**SERVICES**\n\nTHE COMPLETE SERVICE. Disc cutting, pressings, duplicated cassettes and blanks. Bin Masters. Location Recording. Free Brochure. Tam Studio, 13a Hamilton Way, London N3 1AN. Tel: 01-346 0033. (X)\n\nLOCKWOOD, TANNOY, etc., new and used equipment always available and wanted. Lockwood Audio Sales 01-866 0671. (X)\n\nTORQUAY, DEVON, ONE INCH eight-track high speed cassette duplication. Radio Jingle's musical director Ed Welch, South Western Studios, Castle Chambers, Union Street. 0803 28288. (J)\n\nQUALITY HIGH-SPEED and real-time audio and video cassette copying and processing. Any quantity. While you wait. 24-hour, 7-days-a-week service. Central London W2. GWBB Audiovision. Tel: 01-723 1583/1590. (X)\n\nWHO SAYS YOU DON'T NOTICE THESE SMALL ADS! For as little as £13.75 + VAT you too could be getting your service message across. For more details contact Adrian Tippin at STUDIO SOUND. Tel: 01-686 2599.\n\n**HEAD TECHNOLOGY**\n\n\"High Expectations Set High Standards\"\n\nPRECISION RELAPPING OF RECORDING HEADS\n\n- Upto-date Technology\n- 30 Years Experience\n- Express Service\n- Very Competitive Prices\n\nHEAD TECHNOLOGY\nMagnetic House\n11 Britannia Way\nStanwell\nStaines\nMiddx\nTW19 7HJ\n\nTel: Ashford (07842) 56046\n\n**CASSETTE DUPLICATORS**\n\nSALES SERVICE MAINTENANCE\nHigh speed cassette duplicators throughout the United Kingdom and export\nGRAFF WOLLENSAK SONY\nSound Cassette Services Ltd.\nP.O. Box 10, Shepton Mallet\n0480 67237\n\nLONDON SERVICING FACILITIES\n\n**TAPE & FILM HEADS**\n\nWE MAKE WE STOCK\nWE RE-PROFILE\nBRANCH & APPLEBY LTD\nSTONEFIELD WAY, RUISLIP\nMIDDLESEX HA4 0YL\n01-864 1577\n\n**CASSETTE DUPLICATING:**\nGAUSS Loop-Bin / TELEX In-Cassette\nHigh Quality Blanks / Label Printing\nOPEN REEL DUPLICATING\n(ANY SPEED - ALSO TO BROADCAST SPEC.)\nSPEECH RECORDING\n(VOICE-OVERS; LANGUAGES; AUDIO-VISUALS)\nSPEECH-PLUS RECORDINGS LTD.\nUNIT 32, NO. 19, PAGES WALK, LONDON SE1 4SB. TEL: 01-231 0961\n\n**Check It Out...**\n\nDIRECT FROM OUR MODERN U.K. PRESSING PLANT\n\n- CUTTING • PRESSING\n- TEST PRESSING\n- LABELS • SLEEVES\n- CASSETTES\n- ARTWORK\n- COMPETITIVE PRICES\nMARKET LEADERS\n\nSRT\n01-446 3218\n\nFOR ALL YOUR RECORDING NEEDS\n\nAMPEX AUDIO AND VIDEO TAPE MAIN DISTRIBUTORS\nSpoils, boxes, blades, splicing and leader tape. Blank precision wound cassettes C1-120, labels, library cases and cards, C-Zeros, pancake, etc. Broadcast Cartridges.\n\n12 Britannia Road\nSale, Cheshire M33 2AA\nTel: 061-905 1127\n\nFOR QUALITY, PRICE AND SERVICE\n\n**REAL RECORDINGS**\n\nTHE CASSETTE DUPLICATING SPECIALISTS\nReal time & high speed duplication\nBlank cassettes wound to length\nTEL: 061-881 2402\n\n100 C-60 cassettes beautifully copied in stereo from £59.50 (plus VAT)\nWe can copy from 100 to 5,000 high quality cassettes on our high speed loop-bin system, load them precisely into top-class shells. Price includes library case and all production work from your ¼ in edited master. Any length C-5 to C-90. Ring for price sheet.\n\nSTUDIO REPUBLIC\n47 High Street, Pinner 01-868 5555 01-866 5555\n\n**SERVICES**\n\n**HIGH QUALITY CASSETTE DUPLICATION AND SPECIALISED LENGTH BLANK CASSETTES**\n\nICM C-O's\n\nLeeholme Audio AGFA/BASF TAPES\n\nLeeholme Audio Services Ltd. 360-4 Leabridge Road, Leyton, London, E10 Telephone 01-568 4748\n\n**ANALOGUE/DIGITAL TAPE**\n\nAt Playback we sell BLANK TAPE (& DISKS)\n\nIn fact we stock everything from Analogue TDK tape through to digital AMPEX 467. In VIDE we stock all formats - down to 8mm.\n\nOur FLOPPYS work in SSSLs and UNN drum machines.\n\nWe are very pleased with the companies we keep.\n\nTDK • SONY • MAXELL\n\nAGFA • AMPLEX • FUJI • BASF\n\nPlayback\n\n15 Percy Street\n\nLondon W1P 1FD\n\nTel: 01-637 8392\n\n**051-430-9001**\n\nHIGH SPEED DUPLICATION\n\nMASTERING, DUBBING, EDITING\n\nINLAY CARD & SIDE LABEL DESIGN & PRINTING\n\nTHE COMPLETE SERVICE\n\nAMPEX & BASF DISTRIBUTORS\n\nSTUDIO ACCESSORIES\n\nRAINHILL TAPE SPECIALISTS\n\n31 Eccleston Street\n\nPrescot, Merseyside L34 5QA\n\n**SPEEDY REVOX SERVICE**\n\nPlus TEAC/TASCAM, FOSTEX, UHER, most Mixers\n\nAmplifiers, Effects, Priority Bookings taken.\n\nCollection/Delivery arranged\n\nA personal service by experienced engineers.\n\n34 Danbury Street, London N1 8JU\n\nTelephone 01-359 9342/3030\n\nRAPER & WAYMAN\n\n**REAL TIME CASSETTE COPYING**\n\nAll work carried out on Nakamichi machines to the highest standard. Normal or chrome tape available.\n\nWe also supply blank cassettes cut to length.\n\n450-7s and BASF chrome tape available.\n\nGATEWAY CASSETTE SERVICES\n\n1 Gauden Road, London SW4 6LR\n\nTEL: 01-627 4758\n\n**ACCURATE SOUND LIMITED**\n\nQuality Cassette Duplication, High Speed ILoop Bini and Real Time,\n\nOverwrapping, Export Length Blank Cassette, Labels and Inlays\n\nTel Leicester 0533 82209\n\nQUENIBOROUGH Ltd. Est MELTON ROAD\n\nQUENIBOROUGH, LEICESTER LE7 8FP\n\n**Let Saki expertise relap your tape heads in London**\n\nFactory-approved laboratory and training guarantees finish to original performance specification\n\nALL MAKES RELAPPED\n\nTapetek, 44A Brighton Road, London N16 8EG\n\nTel: 0254 5203 or 0836 215900 (mobile)\n\nReplacement Saki heads from:\n\nTape Marketing, 13 Elm Road\n\nFaringdon, Oxon SN7 7EJ 0367 20262\n\n**AA Tape Winders**\n\n03744-65010\n\nFor rapid supply of exact length\n\nAudio Cassette + Tape Duplicating\n\n**THE SOUND & VISION WORKSHOP LIMITED**\n\nSERVICE FOR ALL MULTITRACK RECORDERS\n\nSPARES • REBUILDS • PROFESSIONAL AUDIO\n\nELECTRONICS • SALES • EQUIPMENT\n\n153A Victoria Street,\n\nSt Albans, Herts. AL1 3TA\n\nTel: (0727) 58977 24hr.\n\n**REAL TIME CASSETTE DUPLICATION**\n\nOnto exact length Ferric / Chrome tape.\n\nCUSTOM WOUND BLANK CASSETTES\n\nICM C-O's\n\nBASF Tape\n\nTEL: Cardiff (0222) 790040\n\nBackyard Recording Studios Ltd.\n\n60 Orchard Park St. Melkons Cardiff.\n\n**TAPE DUPLICATION**\n\nCASSETTE: * H-speed * Real-time * Quality shells *\n\n* Quality tape * Short runs welcomed *\n\nOPEN REEL: * Real-time * Double-time * Broadcast spec *\n\n* Rapid copy service for ILR network *\n\n* Post production *\n\nAPRS Member\n\nGRIFFITHS HANSEN (RECORDINGS) LTD.\n\nPark Mews, Parkhall Road, London SE21 8EX\n\nContact: Tony O'Leary Tel: 01-761 0055\n\n**DATAGENK**\n\nCUSTOM LENGTH BLANK CASSETTES\n\nMIXING, MASTERING, EDITING\n\nLABEL PRINTING • SHRINKWRAPPING\n\nREADING 0734-302600\n\n**WEST 5 Tapes Ltd.**\n\nRapid supply of high quality blank bulk cassettes C1-C120\n\nExample C60 316\n\n5-screw C-Zero — no minimum or maximum order\n\nPhone Dave West 01-502 2447\n\nWest 5 Tapes Ltd., Unit 34, Oakwood Hill\n\nIndustrial Estate, Loughton. Essex\n\n**FOR SALE—PRIVATE**\n\n**TANNYO ARDENS IN EXCELLENT CONDITION. £475 or exchange for Little Reds or similar size monitors. Telephone Brighton (0273) 676 905.**\n\n**NEVE CONSOLE 80 series, currently 28/8/24, 4 Neve comp/limiters, current format £22,000, to be upgraded shortly. Also 36/8/24 with 24 record/remix submixer, £28,000. Also Neve 24/8/16, £10,000. Could also be upgraded with 24 record/remix submixer for extra £5,000. Telephone 01-521 2040.**\n\n**T.A.C. MATCHLESS 26/24/8/2 in line desk. 192 hole J/Field, 8 AVX busses, 2 mute groups. One year old, perfect condition. £8,700 o.n.o. OTARI 7308 1\" eight track, very reliable, £1,950 o.n.o. Telephone 061-236 7530.**\n\n**PPG 16 BIT COMPUTER MUSIC SYSTEM for sale (private seller): WaveTerm B, WAVE 2.3 V6, EVU (2.3 Midi-Expander). Capable of sound sampling, sequencing, analog and digital sounds and much more! New '86 Software, complete new sound-library. Only 1 year home/studio used, as good as new. £9,800 — Wolfgang Muermann, Schoeneberger Str. 102, 2 Hamburg 73, W. Germany. Telephone Hamburg (040) 672 20 30—CALL W. GERMANY!**\n\n**NAGRA SNN MINIATURE PORTABLE TAPE RECORDER. Privately owned, excellent condition. Recent complete service. Microphone and remote control included £620. Telephone 0621 891883.**\n\n**SOUNDCRAFT SCM SERIES 762 2\" 24-track recorder with full remote; 30 months home use only, well maintained, condition as new. Offers around £9,500 + VAT. Telephone Mark: 027984 2278 (Herts).**\n\nFOR SALE—TRADE\n\nQUAD 405 £165 each, BOSE 802 £300 each, Technics SL1200 MK2 Turntable system (new) £199, HHSS500D £300 each, Gauss 4583A (new) £180 each, Gauss 4581 (new) £150, Gauss H1502 £90 each, Gauss HF4000 £180 each, Martin 215 Bass \"split\" with two Gauss 4583A's £400 each, plus lots of other cabinets, speakers, sleeves, wedges, horns, lenses, pepper-pots, chip-cutters, fruitcases etc. Add VAT please, and call Dave on 0628 72359.\n\nTEAC 244/34/38 discounts and HP and leasing. Erriks VCD, Brighouse 722121 (Bob) (X)\n\nSURPLUS mono & stereo amplifiers, speakers, turntables etc; bought & sold at reasonable prices. Midland Radio Supplies, Maypole Lane, Birmingham B14 4PE. Tel: 021-430 7817. (J)\n\nBELDEN MULTICORE CABLES—19pair 50M £285 each, 19pair 36M £205 each, 19pair 14M £80, 15pair 50M £145 each, Lectrilex pair 30M £130, 15M £65. Martin multicore drum in flightcase £185. All prices exclude VAT. Tel: 0628 72359.\n\nMICROPHONES FOR SALE, AKG D224F £100 each, AKG CK8 (new) £95 each, AKG CK5 £40, AKG CK9 (new) £115, BSS AR116 DI with phantom power £50 each. Please add 15% VAT. 0628 72359.\n\nSOUNDCRAFT 24-TRACK TAPE MACHINE with full autolocate and 16-track headblock £10,500 plus VAT. Wollensack high speed cassette copier £400 plus VAT. Telephone 01-359 0477.\n\nSTUDER C37. Good working order £800. Telephone (0242) 43243.\n\nAMEK ANGELA 28 x 24 WITH PATCHWAY AS NEW PERFECT ORDER £11,500. 01-671 3731. TANNOY SUPER REDS IN CUSTOM CABS (LOCKWOOD) ELECTRONIC CROSSOVER £600. LEXICON 224 £2,900. 01-671 3731.\n\nUSED STUDIO EQUIPMENT FOR SALE? Advertise it now in STUDIO SOUND CLASSIFIEDS for as little as £1.75 + VAT. For more details call Adrian Tippin at STUDIO SOUND. Tel: 01-686 2599.\n\nDISC CUTTING EQUIPMENT and systems bought, sold, installed and manufactured (under licence from ORTOFON). TAM/ENGLAND, 13a Hamilton Way, London N3 1AN. Telephone 01-346 0033. (X)\n\nAHB SR28 (28/6/2) with flightcase £1100, RSD 20/8 Monitor with flightcase £895, Klark Teknik DN701 (new) £1250, DN34 £350, Roland SRF55 £300, RE201 £150, Pro Audio PA27 £150 each, Rebis RA301 £200, AKG BX5 reverb £300, Dynachord DR578 £300, A&DR F760R-XS £795, BSS MCS300 4-way stereo crossover £695, Revox PR991-HS (new) £395, Teac 3X cassette £180, Rebis rack amp/PU with 2 delays, modulator, compressor, + 11 blanks and rack module £415. All prices exclude VAT. Tel: 0628 72359.\n\nMS AUDIO\nTHE BIG NOISE\nin new & second hand recording equipment\n\nMICROPHONES • STANDS • HEADPHONES\nAKG, BEYER, SENNHEISER\n\nMONITORS\nTANNOY, UREI, VISONIK, JBL\n\nEFFECTS\nYAMAHA, IBANEZ, DRAWMER, MXR, BEL ACES\n\nAMPLIFIERS\nACES, QUAD, RAUCH, UREI, STUDIO MASTER\n\nMIXING CONSOLES\nACES, ALLEN & HEATH, STUDIO MASTER & more\n\nTAPE RECORDERS\nACES, TASCAM, REVOX\n\nTAPES AMPLEX\n\nCALL STEVE OR NICK AT\nUTOPIA STUDIOS. 01-586 3434\n\n24-TRACK STUDIO AND\nEQUIPMENT\nFOR SALE\nJACKSON MUSIC GROUP\nThe Studios, Rickmansworth,\nHertfordshire, England WD3 2XD\nAPRS Member\nTEL: 0923 772351\nTELEX: 262284 REF 1728G\n\nTHE HHB SILLY SUMMER SALE\n\nSony CCDV8 Video 8 Camcorder, ex demo, £795\nSony CCDM8 Handycam Video 8 Camera, ex demo, £595\nSony Compact 75 Hi-Fi System, £375\nSony C35P Condenser Mic, £119\nSony EBP 9LC D50 Power Supply, £35\nSony ECM929T Stereo Electret Condenser Mic, £35\nSony EVC8 Portable Video 8 VCR, £395\nSony EVS300 Video 8/PCM VCR, £350\nSony EVS300 Video 8/PCM VCR, £550\nSony ECMV100 Digital Processor for EVA300, £139\nSony SLC9P Printer VCR, £195\nSony PCM1610 (Secondhand) Digital Audio processor, £11,000\nSennheiser MD421 Mics, £99\nGauss 3588 Coaxial Loudspeakers, £275\nElectrospace Spanner Stereo Panner, £425\nClue (Computer, Logging Unit + Editor), ex demo, £1,195\n12\" Green Screen VDU, £59\nBSS FDS320 Crossover, £275\nBSS AR116 ex demo DI Boxes, £39\nLexicon PCM60 Digital Reverb £1,095\nAllen & Heath System 8, 1616 Mk II Mixer, £1,275\nAllen & Heath CMC168 Mixer, £1,325\n\nAll prices exclude VAT\n\nHHB Hire & Sales, Unit F, New Crescent Works\nNicoll Road, London NW10 9AX\nTelephone: 01-961 3295 Telex No: 923393\n\n**FOR SALE—TRADE**\n\n**DYNAMIC DUOS**\n\n- 2\" MT24 HS 24 track with autolocator ML24 24 in line console\n - ACES PACKAGE DEAL £13,700 + VAT\n\n- 2\" MT24 standard 24 track with autolocator ML24 24 in-line console\n - ACES PACKAGE DEAL £12,475 + VAT\n\n- 2\" MT16 A-HS 16 track with autolocator B1816 mixing console\n - ACES PACKAGE DEAL £8,350 + VAT\n\n- SML 1216 16\" 16 track with Aces B1816 console (6 aux. 5 band Eq. 2 sweeps)\n - ACES PACKAGE DEAL £3,950 + VAT\n\nPrices include all cable and installation & 3 month warranty of all gear and studio equipment. Part exchange welcome.\n\n**TEL**\n\n*PHONE NOW FOR QUOTES ON OTHER PACKAGES*\n\n**MS AUDIO**\n\n---\n\n**ANANAS**\n\nNEVE Mixing Console, 16/8/16, many integrated features e.g. Neve compressors/limiters, complete remote and switching unit for 16-track with vari-speed counter and many more specials.\n\nContact: Tel: Germany 0661/21296 - 21271 Mr Herold\n\n---\n\n**USED NEVE CONSOLES FROM DON LARKING AUDIO SALES**\n\n- NEVE 8108 32-input mixing console with NECAM II £57,000\n- NEVE 8068 £50,000\n- NEVE 8048 with NECAM II £50,000\n\nCall us now on (0582) 450066 for more information\n\nDon Larking audio sales\n\nLuton: 29 Guildford Street, Luton, Beds.\nTelephone: Luton (0582) 450066. Telex: 825488 DONLARG\n\n---\n\n**STUDIO FOR SALE**\n\nWEST CORNWALL. Becoming available on owners retirement. Local record company, label, in-house cassettes production, spacious 8tr studios. Quiet in-grounds and separate modern accommodation, suit two families (or let one). Ample room for other biz. All in top condition. Good access and parking. Town 2m, sea ½m.\n\nRing 0736 731246.\n\n---\n\n**SITUATIONS VACANT**\n\n**The Wool Hall**\n\nRecording Studios REQUIRE\n\nCHIEF MAINTENANCE ENGINEER\n\nMust have at least 3 years experience of servicing both digital and analogue equipment. Enthusiasm and an ability to liaise with clients is essential.\n\nSalary negotiable\n\nCONTACT PETE DOLAN AT:\nCASTLE CORNER, BECKINGTON\nNEAR BATH, SOMERSET BA3 6TA\nTELEPHONE: (0373) 830731\n\n---\n\n**SITUATIONS VACANT**\n\nInner London Education Authority\nLEARNING RESOURCES BRANCH\nTelevision & Publishing Centre, Thackeray Road, SW8\n\nSTUDIO SOUND ASSISTANT\n\nSalary scale £8,238-£9,327 plus £1,494 London Weighting Allowance.\n\nA Studio Sound Assistant is required to work at the above Centre which is equipped to colour broadcasting standards.\n\nDuties include general studio work, rigging, boom operation etc., and sound recordist duties on location with both film and video recording crews.\n\nExperience or knowledge of sound techniques is required.\n\nThis post is suitable for job share.\n\nApplication forms and further details from Personnel Services Division (PER/PS 4a), Room 366, The County Hall, London SE1 7PB.\n\nThe closing date for completed application forms is 29 August 1986.\n\nApplicants should be aware of and committed to the Authority's Equal Opportunities Policy.\n\nILEA IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES EMPLOYER\n\n---\n\n**CLASSIFIEDS**\n\nSITUATIONS VACANT\n\nSCHOOL OF TELEVISION AND BROADCASTING\nRAVENSBOURNE COLLEGE\nOF DESIGN AND COMMUNICATION\n\nA challenging opportunity now exists to join the experienced team responsible for teaching a new B.TEC course offered by the College at Higher National Diploma Level in Television Programme Operations.\n\nSENIOR LECTURER: SOUND RECORDING\nup to £15,738 p.a. inc.\n\nYou will take a major role both in the teaching of audio theory to operator students and in the organisation and implementation of training programmes in audio recording for broadcast television, sound radio, and A.V. applications.\n\nAn understanding of the relevant technology, the ability to demonstrate production creativity in the design and manipulation of aural images and an awareness of the contribution of sound to visual programme-making are essentials. Particular importance attaches to evidence of enthusiasm and ability in the field of music recording. Experience of broadcast practice would be valuable but equal consideration will also be given to those candidates with experience in the recording industry or non-broadcast field.\n\nPrevious teaching experience would be an advantage but is not essential but an interest in guiding the work of motivated students must be demonstrated.\n\nApplication forms and further details obtainable from the Assistant Registrar, Ravensbourne College of Design and Communication, Walden Road, Chislehurst, Kent BR7 5SN.\n\nSITUATIONS WANTED\n\nFREELANCE SOUND ENGINEER/PRODUCER, with twenty years studio experience working with many top acts etc., seeks new direction challenge. Reply to box no. 936.\n\nSTUDIO DESIGNERS AND CONSULTANTS\n\nTIME DELAY SPECTROMETRY\n\nDiscover why your studio sounds the way it does...or should\n\nMUNRO ASSOCIATES, 01-480 7121\n\nKENNETH SHEARER AND ASSOCIATES\n\nConsultants in acoustics and noise control\n\nOver 30 years' experience in the custom design of all kinds of recording and TV studios, mixing, dubbing and viewing suites - new and conversions, down to 25 Hz.\n\nTel: 0442 54821\n\nCLASSIFIED ADVERTISEMENTS ORDER FORM\n\nPlease use this coupon for all your sales and wants.\n\nRates: 55p per word. Min £13.75. Box Nos. £3.50 extra\n\nPLEASE PRINT IN BLOCK CAPITALS\n\nTo: STUDIO SOUND, please publish the above advertisement for ....... insertions under the heading ........................................ Cheque/P.O. to be made payable to LINK HOUSE PUBLICATIONS LTD, LINK HOUSE, DINGWALL AVENUE, CROYDON CR9 2TA.\n\nIs a Box No. required Yes/No. If no, please include remittance to cover name and address and/or tel. no.\n\nName ........................................ Address ........................................\n\n## NEW EQUIPMENT\n\n| Equipment | Price |\n|---------------------------------|--------|\n| Tascam MS16 16-track inc Autoboiater, dbx console | £7,750 |\n| Lyrec TRS524 24-track inc Racks | £22,500 |\n| TACorpion 8 track on demo | POA |\n| TAC Master 8 track | POA |\n| Tascam ATR-60 2 Track Professional | from £4,375 |\n| Tascam 48 OB | £3,295 |\n| Soundcraft Series 24.8 | £5,000 |\n| Fostex B-16 | £2,695 |\n| Fostex 450 | £1,475 |\n| Fostex 450 Mixer | £2,695 |\n| Tascam 38 | £1,795 |\n| Tascam 32 | £1,795 |\n| Tascam M-520 20:8:16 | £2,695 |\n| Tascam M-312 12:4:2 + 8TK | £1,395 |\n| AHB System 8 16:8 | £2,200 |\n| AHB System 8 16:8 | £1,495 |\n| AHB MC 24 | £2,495 |\n| AHB CM 32 | £3,250 |\n| Seck 1882 | £3,950 |\n| Tascam M216 (16:4:2) | £725 |\n| Tascam M216 (8:4:2) | £525 |\n| RSD Studiomaster Series II 16:8:2 | £2,080 |\n| RSD Studiomaster Series II 16:16:2 on demo | £2,575 |\n| RSD Studiomaster 16:8:2 | £1,795 |\n| RSD Studiomaster 16:16:2 | £1,425 |\n| Ram M10 | £495 |\n| Ram Model 18 | £1,640 |\n| Tascam ATR60 ½\" Prof. 15/30 ips | £4,400 |\n| Tascam ATR60 ½\" Prof. Centre Time Code | £3,500 |\n| Fostex M-20 16:8 Stereo + Time Code | £795 |\n| Tascam M106:6 | £345 |\n| Tascam 38 NB | £1,595 |\n| Tascam 22:8 | £3,655 |\n| Revox B-77 Mk II | £840 |\n| Revox B-77 Mk II | £1,180 |\n| Tascam 34B | £2,169 |\n| Tascam 388 NB, Remote Control | £2,169 |\n| Alesis 16:8:2 loads in stock | £345 |\n| Yamaha SPX-90 — loads in stock | £520 |\n| Lexicon PCM 70 in stock | £1,650 |\n| Yamaha DX7 Midi Controlling Keyboard (if purchased with PCM-70 or SPX-90) | £1,195 |\n| Tascam 58 OB — New ex-demo | £3,950 |\n| Tascam 44 OB — New | £1,595 |\n| Tascam 44 OB — Ex-exhibition | £2,100 |\n| Tascam 42 NB — Ex-exhibition | £1,595 |\n\n## SECOND-HAND BARGAINS & EX-DEMO EQUIPMENT\n\n| Equipment | Price |\n|---------------------------------|--------|\n| Soundcraft SCM 762 Mk II 16 Track 2\" inc Autoboiater | £4,500 |\n| Allen & Heath Xicon A 32:24 inc Patchbay & Producers Desk | offers around £6,000 |\n| MCI 16:8 MK II 16:8 Autoboiater | offers around £6,000 |\n| Teac 3440 — Two parallel | from £395 |\n| Cassette Duplicator Package, Comprising: Open DPA 16:8, DCP 16:8, T-1000, Approx 3 years old, very little used | £4,500 |\n| JBL 4435 Studio Monitors in showroom pair | £2,950 |\n| AMS Neve 8008 170mm — 370mm | £695 |\n| Klark Teknik DN34 (x2) with stereo links in immaculate cond | £695 |\n| Bel BD-80 (4 Secs) Refrigerator etc. — 'Mint' | £595 |\n| Neumann U47, U67, U87, U97, U100, etc. inc PSU — 'Mint' | £800 |\n| Neumann SM69 Valve Mic. Original Dual Polarity PSU | £1,100 |\n| Cradley Windmills | £1,100 |\n| Lot of Second Hand Neumann Mics U47, U87, SM69 all FET's | POA |\n| Bel 8 Chan Noise Reduction Unit | £295 |\n| Quad Eight CP16 16 Channel Reverb/verb - good condition | £495 |\n| Studer A8000 or A817 — new | £300 |\n| JBL 5234A X-over with Cards | £450 |\n| Tascam 38 — 2 years old, perfect | £1,125 |\n| AHB System 8 16:8 — second hand — 'Mint' | £1,295 |\n| Seck 18 8:2 — good condition | £695 |\n| RSD Studiomaster 16:8:2 — 2nd model | £395 |\n| Teac M24 — MB20 Metrebridge — second hand | £395 |\n| Marsh Room MR-2 | £295 |\n| AKG BX 100 — 2nd reduced | £395 |\n| Promark MX-3 — Mint — 2 available | each £295 |\n| Yamaha MT1X — in stock — new | £430 |\n| Tascam 58 OB — 3 available | each £295 |\n| Tascam 58 with 8 channels — dbx in console. As new | £3,950 |\n| UREI 809 Equaliser — Ex-Demo | pair £595 |\n| Ram Model Custom 42:2 P & 6 out 24TK Monitor | £2,300 |\n| TAC Matchless 20:16 inc patchbay — perfect condition | POA |\n\n## NEW PACKAGE DEALS\n\n| Package | Price |\n|---------------------------------|--------|\n| Tascam MS-16 inc DBX Autoboiater, stand with Tascam M320 console | £10,400 |\n| Tascam ATR60-8 inc. DBX inc. stand with Tascam M312 console | £5,180 |\n| Fostex B-16 with 16:8:2 Console | £5,255 |\n| Fostex B-16 with AHB 16:16 Synchro Console | £5,000 |\n| Fostex B-16 with Ram RM18 Console | £4,840 |\n| Fostex B-16 with Soundcraft 16:8:16 Console | £5,025 |\n| Fostex B-16 with 18:8:2 Console | £4,925 |\n| Tascam 38 with Tascam 312 Console | £3,120 |\n| Tascam 38 with RSD 16:8:2 Console | £3,075 |\n| Tascam 38 with RSD 16:8:2 Console | £2,845 |\n| Fostex Model 80 with Ram RM15 Console | £2,034 |\n| Fostex Model 80 with Ram RM15 Console | £1,995 |\n| Fostex Model 80 with Model 450 Console | £1,956 |\n| Special Introductory Offer Two Fostex B-16 Recorders, One Synchronous Technologies SMPL synchroniser, One Fostex Model 80 Mixer, One 30 Track Recorder, Four Cables | £7,850 |\n\nLoads more equipment in stock — we have gear coming in all the time.\n\n## STUDIO HOUSE\n\nPlease note: the prices above do not include VAT\n\nHigh Wycombe, Bucks. All major credit cards accepted.\n\nStockport SK6 1AA\n\nTel: 06532 4244. London NW8 Tel: 01-586 3167\n\nNormal opening hours are 9.30 am to 6.00 pm Monday to Friday. 10.00 am to 2.00 pm Saturdays\n\nIf you intend to call at either of our premises, we recommend you make an appointment first.\n\n---\n\nStudio Sound is available without charge to qualified readers: these are directors, managers, executives and key personnel actively engaged in sound recording in any part of the world. The Publisher reserves the right to refuse applications considered inappropriate or restrict the number of free copies sent to any one company or organisation. Non-qualifying readers may buy Studio Sound at an annual subscription of £19.00. All enquiries to: Subscription Department, Link House, 4 Wellington Road, High Wycombe, Bucks. HP10 1YD. Tel: 01-760 0054. Published by the proprietors of Link House Magazines Limited, Link House, Dingwall Avenue, Croydon CR9 2TA and printed by Lawrence Allen Ltd., Gloucester Street, Weston-super-Mare, Avon BS23 1TB.\n\nSome people are fighting a rearguard action to save analog recording systems. They talk about cost and convenience. About the sonic characteristics of analog. Its trouble free use. They even say that it’s a good idea to record on analog and mix down on digital. They’ll say anything, in fact, to avoid the inevitable conclusion that digital is the way the industry is going. The ostrich and his reaction to danger is far sighted by comparison.\n\nWe at Hilton Sound lead the field in the new era of digital recording. We were the first with the Mitsubishi X850 that has been such a revelation to the industry. If you’ve ever witnessed the X850’s ability to decode a mangled tape and reconstruct missing passages, you’ll know why the new PD format dashes the hopes of all its rivals.\n\nMitsubishi philosophy is to design a system not just to do this year’s job, but to be capable of handling the demands of the year 2000 and beyond. Can anybody else say that? Watch this space for Mitsubishi’s X86 which will do for 2-track recorders what the X850 did for multitrack.\n\nHilton Sound, the first for Mitsubishi.\n\nDMM\nA New Sparkle for the Gramophone Record\n\nDirect Metal Mastering: Precision cutting in copper. Improved record quality through a new cutting process and the short step from original master to finished record. Developed by TELDEC and engineered by NEUMANN.\n\nNEUMANN technology assisted in the completion of the stereo master tape: Proven NEUMANN microphones finely balanced and equalised on a sophisticated NEUMANN mixing console.\n\nThe NEUMANN tape-to-disc transfer system has 4 components:\nthe tape playback console with preview channel;\nthe control desk for setting level and equalisation;\nthe amplifier rack to drive the cutterhead; and the cutting lathe with cutterhead and copper-coated stainless steel matrix. The diamond stylus cuts a copper span out of the blank leaving the stereo groove; a process refined over decades to today's maturity.\n\nThe pressing stampers are directly formed from the copper master, two of these press the record sides into the black compound.\n\nThe short step to the finished record has its advantages: Quality is improved due to the eliminated copying steps, and disturbing surface noises are dramatically reduced.\n\nA gramophone record for optimal listening enjoyment can be released for marketing. It bears the \"DMM\" quality symbol. NEUMANN technology made a major contribution."}}},{"rowIdx":204796,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"This Was Radio\nA Personal Memoir by Joseph Julian\nIntroduction by Harold Clurman\n\nThis Was Radio\nA Personal Memoir\nby Joseph Julian\nIntroduction by Harold Clurman\n\nThe Thirties and Forties were the Golden Era of Radio, when Burns and Allen, Jack Benny, Fibber McGee and Molly, and Bob Hope softened the hard times of the Depression with their wit and rib-ticklers; when daytime \"soaps\" such as Our Gal Sunday, Stella Dallas, and John's Other Wife dealt bravely and poignantly with the seemingly endless ramifications of domestic crisis; when Evil and Crime succumbed inevitably to the labors of such as the Shadow (\"The weed of crime bears bitter fruit. Crime does not pay! The Shadow knows!\") and Mr. District Attorney; when Frank Sinatra hosted the weekly Hit Parade and Jack Armstrong was the All-American Boy.\n\nJoe Julian broke into radio in the early days of that medium's Golden Era, and his career as radio actor includes virtually every major show from the Thirties onward. Here he records, with charm and wit, his dec-\n\n(Continued on back flap)\n\n(Continued from front flap)\n\nades behind the mike, from his stint in the chorus of *The March of Time* to his job as a sound-effects man, from his broadcasts for Norman Corwin from London under the blitz to his work in postwar Japan broadcasting back impressions of that still mysterious country in 1945 and 1946.\n\nBy the Fifties, Julian was one of the busiest and most sought-after actors around, and his memoir relates how, almost overnight, his career was virtually snuffed out by a witch-hunting Senator named Joe McCarthy; and how, after a painful and exhausting trial, he slowly made his way back to acceptability. Today, his career is blooming as brightly as ever.\n\nThrough Julian's experiences the reader relives an era which seems so near and yet, in many ways, so far from the world today. His book appears at a time when radio—of the kind that marked the Thirties and Forties—is making a rather extraordinary comeback, when old programs are being replayed and radio dramas revived and recast.\n\n\"The radio listener saw nothing: he had to use his imagination,\" the late Fred Allen once noted. \"Television has taken that away from him.\" It is very possible that the resurgence of radio stems in great part from people's desire to reassert their intelligence and use their imaginations. As Julian's book so eloquently proves, radio, for all its trivia, was enormously influential and, quite often, very good indeed.\n\nA RICHARD SEAVER BOOK\n\nTHE VIKING PRESS\n\nPublishers of The Viking Portable Library and Viking Compass paperbacks\n\n625 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022\n\nPrinted in U.S.A.\n\nABOUT THE AUTHOR: Joseph Julian’s radio career spans well over three decades, during which he has performed in a rather staggering ten thousand broadcasts, from soaps to serious drama, from straight reporting to guest appearances. He has also written a number of radio and television plays including his highly acclaimed Hiroshima Diary, as well as several stage plays, the first of which, Double Feature, was produced at the Wharf Theater in Provincetown, Massachusetts. Shortly afterward, a hurricane blew the theater into the ocean. “I have always considered that a form of divine criticism,” says Julian. His other plays include A Man around the House, The Gimmick, and Ups and Downs and Evens.\n\nA RICHARD SEAVER BOOK\nTHE VIKING PRESS, 625 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK 10022\n\nSBN 670-70299-4\n\nJoseph Julian\n\nThis Was Radio\n\nA Personal Memoir\n\nIntroduction by Harold Clurman\n\nA Richard Seaver Book • The Viking Press • New York\n\nCopyright © 1975 by Joseph Julian\nIntroduction Copyright © 1975 by Harold Clurman\n\nAll rights reserved\n\nA Richard Seaver Book · The Viking Press\nFirst published in 1975 by The Viking Press, Inc.\n625 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022\nPublished simultaneously in Canada by\nThe Macmillan Company of Canada Limited\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data\n\nJulian, Joseph.\nThis was radio: a personal memoir.\n\n“A Richard Seaver book.”\n\n1. Julian, Joseph. 2. Radio broadcasting—History.\nPN1991.4.J84A37 791.44'028'0924 [B] 74-4805\nISBN 0-670-70299-4\n\nPrinted in U.S.A.\n\nACKNOWLEDGMENT\n\nThe New York Times: “A Plea For Better Radio Acting” by Joseph Julian.\nCopyright 1944, Copyright © renewed 1972 by The New York Times\nCompany. Reprinted by permission.\n\nThis Was Radio\n\n\"Portrait of the Author as a Daring Young Man Performing from Memory—1944.\"\n(See Chapter 7.) Sketched at rehearsal by Staats Cottsworth on page of radio script.\n\nTo Lisl, who shared these years\n\nIn the Beginning Was the Wink...\n\nContents\n\nIntroduction by Harold Clurman xi\n\n1. The Beginning 1\n2. Siberia 18\n3. Return to New York 28\n4. The \"Variety\" Storm 44\n5. \"Michael West\" and After 65\n6. Corwin 71\n7. If Memory Serves . . . 113\n8. Welcome Honorable Enemy 127\n9. Hiroshima 147\n10. Return to New York 154\n11. The Eclipse 168\n12. The Trial 187\n13. Easy Money 203\n14. Foot-in-Mouth Disease 208\n15. Fan Mail 227\n16. Whither Withered Radio? 231\n\nIntroduction by Harold Clurman\n\nIn *This Was Radio*, Joe Julian accomplishes a triple task. First, there is a great deal of information about one of the most influential of the media, one which we have all used, enjoyed, and learned from and about which most of us know very little. Second, Julian’s book describes the atmosphere and moral landscape of the times during which radio came into being and flourished. *This Was Radio* is not only a personal but a social history. Third, all that the author tells us issues from a source that is not only truthful but pure. Radio and the people who contributed to its functioning come alive here: they are given a human face. And, what is more, the book is often very funny!\n\nBecause Julian writes from his own experience—without theory or doctrine—we find something symbolic and moving in his efforts to find a mode of expression. He is the universal actor struggling against all hazards and discouragement to find a place to practice his would-be profession. In doing this, we become sensible of a basic human need: man’s desire at all times to manifest\n\nhis inner self in a recognizably useful way. Julian strove with never-diminished determination to work at the job his nature clamored that he undertake. What makes this part of his story touching is that it is related not merely to the career of a single individual but to the contest all of us in one fashion or another must inevitably engage in. The cliché “hope springs eternal” is not just a sentimental wish, but a spur to action which is here made flesh.\n\nWhen he “got going” and became successful as a radio actor, Julian took it seriously as a craft, and, even more, tried to extend it to the status of an art. In other words, he tried to enhance radio’s effectiveness and relevance. In doing so, he not only became part of radio’s most respected programs—in his association with Norman Corwin’s famous play and documentary broadcasts—but as a result became involved in splendidly perilous adventures of world-wide reporting, which led him to England during the blitz and to devastated Japan immediately after the armistice. What he describes—without the boredom of statistical notation or routine observation—is not only vivid but memorably gripping. We cannot toss off the impression we receive from this account as so much “daily news.” The simple directness of Julian’s writing makes us feel we were there beside him, seeing what he saw and did and identifying with the sights he witnessed.\n\nJulian was one of Joseph McCarthy’s many victims, and throughout the book the episodes dealing with our local Cold War Inquisition of the 1950s are not only convincing on a personal level but heartbreaking, shamefully real on a national scale. How could we allow so much folly and injustice to occur among us? Reading these episodes, one feels that we failed to fulfill our responsibilities. Yet Julian, though bruised and sometimes appalled by all he has lived through, was not fatally scarred by these events. He never became bitter; his indignation is always softened by a feeling that virtue will in the last count somehow prove stronger than evil. This belief permeates and sets the tone of his whole book. Thus he is able in the midst of horror and viciousness to recognize and relish the comic. What he has seen and endured, however painful at times, has never debased his essential goodness. Another man with so close a view of our own men at war might have turned sour. Julian’s instincts are healthy; his attitudes always remain uncontaminated by egotism or vindictiveness. For this reason we believe in him: all his true stories ring really true; he tells it “straight—like it was.” The purity of his naïveté (to use his own phrase) is the mark of the book’s good faith, verity, and value.\n\n1. The Beginning\n\nNineteen thirty-two was not a thriving time for our cultural institutions. President Hoover was telling us prosperity was just around the corner, but that corner still seemed very far away. Large numbers of our population were drawing sustenance from breadlines; engineers and college professors were selling apples on street corners; and the theater was rapidly dwindling to a luxury for the rich, with thousands of actors out of work and hundreds clamoring for every role.\n\nI was one of those thousands, fresh out of Baltimore, bent on carving out a theater career for myself, depression or no depression. A man named Cliff Self helped determine the route my theatrical career would take.\n\nCliff was an old-time Shakespearian actor, then in his late sixties. He had a thin, waxed mustache which he constantly twirled, and he walked tall. In his young years he had probably been a dashing leading man. Cliff built a nice little business out of a natural talent for gossip. He had developed a considerable reputation among actors for\n\nknowing what was going on in the theater. He used to hang around Broadway and Forty-fifth Street with other unemployed sons and daughters of Thespis, where he passed along casting tips and trafficked in general theater tittle-tattle.\n\nWhen I arrived green in New York, certain only of future greatness, I hadn’t the slightest idea where to begin; whom to see; how to go about making the rounds; or even where the rounds were. I knew, of course, that Times Square was the heart of the theater district, so I decided I would mosey about that area until I came across what looked like some actor types; I’d sidle up to them, eavesdrop on their conversation, and, hopefully, glean some idea about where to present myself to a casting director. That’s how I met Cliff Self. He was hard to miss as an actor type.\n\nWith the Broadway and Forty-fifth Street set growing steadily larger, one day The Cliff Self Information Clearing Center asked himself the classic question: “Why not sell it instead of giving it away?” He rented a narrow, dingy room on the top floor of the Gaiety Theater building at the southwest corner of Broadway and Forty-sixth Street, stocked it with about twenty second-hand wooden chairs, an old desk, and an antique typewriter. Three large loose-leaf notebooks were his inventory. Every morning he would type into each notebook identical items of casting information—which producers were casting, what types they were looking for, where and when the interviews were being held, and other pertinent information. Many entries were culled from the theater section of the morning papers; others were gossip and tips from actors\n\nwho had already investigated casting situations and returned to give Cliff a report.\n\nCliff charged twenty-five cents for a peek at one of the notebooks. That was his sole source of revenue, but word got around, and soon there were enough purchasers of peeks filing in and out to provide him a modest living. The place became a haven where unemployed actors rested from their weary rounds, read the trades—Variety, Zits, Billboard—and socialized and commiserated with one another. Huddling together was desperately needed to ease the pains of loneliness and self-doubt that acutely afflict idle performers. A painter can paint, a writer write, a composer compose when he wishes, and the muse is right. But actors, who, contrary to popular belief, have very fragile egos and are most vulnerable to rejection, are entirely dependent on others for the opportunity to practice their craft.\n\nOne of the prestigious radio programs of the day was The March of Time. It dramatized important news events of the week, and occasionally required extras for ad libs and crowd noises. At such auspicious times the producers would phone Cliff to send over six or seven unemployed actors, who would be paid five dollars each for their services. Cliff took no commission but dispensed this five-dollar bounty to his favorites. When the call came, he’d try to avoid hurting the feelings of the others present by signaling the chosen with an unobtrusive nod or wink, or a flick of his finger.\n\nIt was about two years after I started coming to Cliff’s that I got my first wink. It was a great boost for my morale. The most exciting thing that had happened to me so far\n\nthat year was being stranded at Sunbury, Pennsylvania, with a stock company that went broke after a few weeks and left the actors to get back to New York as best they could. Without enough for train fare, I obviously had a problem.\n\n\"Got any brilliant ideas, Smitty?\" I asked George Livingstone Smith, our stage manager—a handsome, derring-do, Errol Flynn sort of fellow.\n\n\"We could always settle down in Sunbury,\" he said.\n\nSunbury is a town on the Susquehanna River, about fifty miles above Harrisburg. As we strolled along its banks, cursing our producer who had skipped town to avoid creditors, still wondering how we'd get back to New York on the five dollars and forty-five cents we had between us, Smitty had his illumination. Why not go back in a canoe? There was a number of old rowboats, flatboats, and canoes rotting away along the shore. Maybe we could buy one for a couple of bucks and fix it up. The trip would only take a few days and we'd have ourselves an adventure!\n\nIt sounded good to me. The Susquehanna emptied into the Chesapeake Bay at Baltimore, where my family lived. We could stop off there, then go on to New York. \"The only thing is,\" I told Smitty, \"I've never been in a canoe.\" He assured me that there was nothing to it, that he had many times shot the rapids in the rough rivers of northern Maine, and that the Susquehanna was a peaceful, lazy river like the Hudson or Mississippi.\n\nWe browsed among the wrecks until we found a canoe that must have belonged to Hiawatha. But since it didn't collapse under our test kicking, we went to the police station, told the desk sergeant of our plans, and asked him\n\nwhere we could find the owner. \"Go on and steal it, boys,\" he said. \"No one buys them things around here.\"\n\nMy clever friend cut up some canvas sandbags from backstage at the theater, to make patches. We bought some glue, and a can of paint, and lo, we had a vessel!\n\nIt was a miracle that we survived those next four days. My radio career almost never happened. The Susquehanna was not quiet and lazy. It's one of the most treacherous rivers in the country, full of hidden rocks, broken dams, and rapids. And as we hit our first white water, Smitty shouted above its roar, \"Hey, Joe, I have a confession to make. This is the first time I've been in a canoe, too!\"\n\nWe became experts the hard way: tipping over, losing a paddle, getting stuck on a bar of quicksand (I, idiotically, got out and tried to push us off, sinking to my nostrils before I was able to climb back in). Later, we were almost drawn over Holtwood Dam—a huge, electric power dam that spanned the river. My shipmate's ingenuity was responsible for that. Every four or five hours we had to beach the canoe to empty water that had seeped through the patches. At one place, Smitty was inspired by an old mattress lying on a dump. He pulled the cover off, cut some branches from a tree with his knife, lashed them together with a piece of rope, draped the mattress cover over this framework, and we had a sail. When I gathered the ends in my hands, stretched out my arms, holding the main pole between my knees, the wind caught us and zipped us gloriously over the bounding main. It was a thrill such as the person who invented the sailboat must have known—harnessing the elements to your purpose!\n\nBut it took us down river so fast that before we knew it we were only a few hundred yards from Holtwood Dam—a sheer 200-foot drop. We frantically killed the sail and paddled with all our might toward a little side reservoir, separated from the river by a stone wall. It had an iron ladder and railing running to the top. I lunged out and hooked it in the crook of my arm, just in time. If I had missed, we would have gone crashing over the dam.\n\nTwo men at a nearby powerhouse saw us and came running. They spun some wheels that opened a gate and pulled us into the reservoir, panting and exhausted. They took us and our canoe on a little electric train to the lower end of the river—state law requiring them to offer this service.\n\nAt night we slept in river town flophouses—for thirty-five cents a bedbug-ridden bed. We tried, with no luck, to catch our dinner by improvising a fishing line with a piece of rope and an open safety pin. We begged for food at farmhouse doors that were usually slammed—fearfully—in our faces. Where was all this famous country hospitality?\n\nWe really became disenchanted with our odyssey when the weather turned cold and violent. Cloudbursts filled the canoe with rain as fast as we could bail it out. We shivered and sneezed and were thoroughly miserable. That’s when we decided enough was too much, and, in the full fury of an electrical storm, pulled ashore at Havre de Grace, Maryland, where we sold the canoe for three dollars to a local sucker and decided to hop a freight train the rest of the way home.\n\nWe found a “hobo jungle” just outside of town, where a couple of hospitable “bos” invited us to dry out around\n\ntheir fire and share a tin of hot canned soup. I never experienced the brotherhood of man more intensely. The \"bos\" told us that freight trains stopped there for a few minutes to take on water from a nearby tank. We socialized for a couple of hours until one arrived, then hopped into an empty car, with my one surviving, waterlogged suitcase. But as the train started up, we were shocked to see it going the wrong direction—north! Back up river from where we had so painfully come! As the engine picked up steam, Smitty jumped out and landed on his feet. I threw my suitcase out, then hesitated. The longer I hesitated, the more dangerous it became. I finally jumped—pragmatically, not bravely—and landed on my face in the cinders of the roadbed. I was a bloody mess.\n\nHours later we boarded a freight going south. As it got underway, we found we were sharing someone else's accommodation. A lot of people rode the freights in those depression years, sometimes entire families—the only transportation many could afford.\n\nOur boxcar companion was a short, wiry character, who could have written a \"How-To\" book on the subject of freight-train-hopping. When he learned how I had damaged my face, he told me what I \"shoulda done.\"\n\n\"Never take anything with ya ya can't strap on your back,\" he said. \"So's you'll always have both hands free to hold on. And always have goggles to keep the cinders from the engine outa your eyes. An' if ya have to jump off, first start your legs movin' in the air, so's when ya land the momentum will keep ya runnin' on your feet. An' most important, before ya get in a car always look ta see if there's a woman there. If there is, run like hell! Don't go anywheres near her, otherwise the railroad dicks will grab ya under\n\nthe Mann Act for transportin' a woman across state lines for immoral purposes. Even if ya never seen her before in your life.\"\n\nAbout thirty miles from Baltimore, the freight train pulled into a siding and stopped.\n\nWe hitchhiked our last lap. Overall, it was the most frightening stretch of the trip. The man who picked us up was a genial, loquacious fellow. Though not quite sloshed, he was unsteady enough at the wheel to keep us gasping. The strain was unbearable until finally I fell back on pure faith. It got us home.\n\nBack in New York friends smiled indulgently when I recounted my river adventure. I wouldn't have believed me myself.\n\nI went back to making the rounds, and the daily visits to Cliff Self's tip factory.\n\nThat year, the closest I had come to a job on Broadway was selling shoes, part time, at Ansonia's on Forty-second Street. I earned barely enough to exist and frequently was hungry. When I was down to my last few pennies, I would go into a bakery and buy some leftover rolls. Several times a week I ate at Bernarr MacFadden's Health Food Restaurant. The famous physical culturist had opened a place off Times Square where you could buy a five-course meal for twelve cents. Each course was a whole-grain variation, which MacFadden insisted had all the required nutrients. My parents were dead, and although my adoptive family was fairly well off, I hated the idea of going back to Baltimore to live off them, face their \"I told you so\"s, and shoehorn myself into the family hat-store business for which I had neither appetite nor aptitude. But most of all,\n\nI dreaded the prospect of abandoning my acting career before I had a fair chance to prove myself. So, when Cliff Self winked that day and I was convinced he wasn’t winking at the actor next to me, I was more than elated. Radio drama was just beginning to come into its own. I had already knocked on a few doors but they wouldn’t open. A relatively small group of actors seemed to be doing all the work: Everett Sloane, Dwight Weist, Vincent Price, Paul Stewart, Orson Welles, Kenny Delmar, Jeanette Nolan, Raymond Johnson, Ed Jerome, Agnes Moorhead, Clayton Collyer, Bill Adams, Richard Widmark, Carl Frank, Arlene Francis, among them. I learned later the reasons for the exclusivity, and why it was so difficult to break into this hallowed circle.\n\n*The March of Time* used the same actors almost every week. It was like a stock company, whose members were the aristocrats of this relatively new profession of radio acting. They were extremely versatile, the nature of the show requiring of performers a wide variety of accents and characterizations and a talent for impersonation. Names in the news had to be counterfeited, and occasionally an outsider would be brought in. Franklin Roosevelt was president then. Bill Adams did a perfect imitation of him, which meant that he worked almost every show, since Roosevelt’s name figured in the news almost every week. Art Carney, an excellent mimic, and Gilbert Mack also did the voice of FDR, and of many others. In fact, they were all so good many listeners believed they were listening to the real person.\n\nOnce, after playing Hirosi Saito, the Japanese ambassador to the United States, actor Guy Repp was summoned to the studio telephone. It was the Japanese consulate\n\nwanting to know why the Ambassador hadn’t notified them he was in town. Repp explained he was only an actor impersonating Saito, but the caller was not to be put off. He insisted he was very familiar with the ambassador’s voice and invited Repp to a diplomatic dinner the next evening.\n\nAnother time, Gilbert Mack’s wife was at home listening to his voice coming over the radio as Franklin Roosevelt delivering his ringing Inaugural in which he said: “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself,” when a man, who frequently stopped by to sell her fresh eggs, rang the doorbell. She hurriedly let him in, saying, “Shhh, I’m listening to my husband!” The man gave her a peculiar look and left—never to return.\n\nProbably the strongest impression the listening population has retained of *The March of Time* is not that of the performers or of the content of the program but the frame—the stentorian billboarding of the opening and closing lines by announcer Westbrook Van Voorhis. I can still see him standing at the mike, legs apart, finger in ear (to hear himself better), launching those four words, “the march of time!” into space with the force of a howitzer. I’m sure they’re still out there reverberating somewhere. That sound was too strong to have dissipated in a mere forty years.\n\nMy excitement was great as I reported that first day for rehearsals at the old CBS Studio A on the twenty-second floor of 485 Madison Avenue. Not only my first radio experience, but five bucks and working for one of the most important network programs! I knew I was just a crowd noise, but emotionally I was high. I had made it! My voice over a network, the length and breadth of the land! “Heard by millions!” I kept repeating to myself, “Heard by millions!” And when the director assigned specific lines to the extras so they would sound like a real crowd instead of a phony hubba-hubba babble, and gave me “Hey look, the guy’s bleedin’!” my cup ranneth over. After rehearsal I phoned Baltimore and alerted the family to listen for that line. But, alas, no one was able to distinguish it from the rest of the crowd sounds even though, to stand out, I had hunched a few feet closer to the mike than I had been ordered to.\n\nMy performance on *The March of Time* did not catapult me to immediate fame and fortune. But Cliff Self liked me well enough to give me the wink every few weeks. Together with my part-time job at Ansonia’s Shoe Store, I managed to keep my head above water.\n\nIt was frustrating to watch the regulars on *The March of Time* doing colorful, interesting roles while I was confined to a crowd noise. Envy gnawed at my heart, and a green voice kept whispering, “You could do it better, you could do it better!”\n\nThe next bit of good fortune that pushed my career along was the WPA—the Works Progress Administration—a federal program launched by Roosevelt’s New Deal to create work for the unemployed masses, to provide a job for whoever needed one. Under the program, the famous Federal Theater Project was launched. Every actor who qualified as a professional was employed in some theater-connected capacity for twenty-three dollars a week. My Sunbury stock company experience qualified me (at least some good came from it). This was my first hint of what it meant to be independently wealthy. Twenty-three dollars was a lot of money in those days. I was assigned to travel\n\naround Manhattan organizing dramatic groups at churches and YMCAs. A few months later I was sent to WNYC, New York City’s radio station, where I performed in sketches about keeping our streets clean, and occasionally spun records, filling in for veteran announcer, Tommy Cowan, who was probably radio’s first disk jockey—at least for classical music. Tommy conducted the Masterwork Hour, and broke me in one day before he went to lunch. He handed me a pile of records and said, “Just announce them by reading the labels.” I don’t think any audience, before or since, has ever heard the names of the great foreign artists, composers, and conductors mangled so monstrously.\n\nAfter a few months at WNYC I got my first Broadway acting job—a small role in Elmer Rice’s Judgment Day, a highly effective courtroom drama based on the burning of the Reichstag by the Nazis. Rice was a distinguished, socially aware, American playwright. I knew him to be especially active on the side of the underdog. So I wrote him an underdoggy letter, bitterly complaining of the Broadway system. I reminded him how difficult it was for a young actor to get a job on Broadway, because Broadway producers only wanted actors with Broadway experience, and how can you get Broadway experience if no one will give you a job on Broadway without it?\n\nHe responded with a note inviting me to read for him. It was a hushed scene between two nervous guards conspiring against their government. I think my real nervousness played a big part in winning that audition.\n\nWe opened December 13, 1934, at the Belasco Theater, and for six months I earned twenty-five dollars a\n\nweek, the Actors Equity minimum at that time. But the money, though desperately needed, was secondary. More important I had made it to Broadway! Forever after I shall have had Broadway experience! The thrill of being in a hit, of playing to Broadway audiences, the applause, the notable backstage visitors, was all very heady stuff. I remember being introduced to, among others, Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas as they came back to visit one of the cast, Fania Marinoff. Fania, with her husband, Carl Van Vechten, was part of Miss Stein’s Paris “family.” Miss Stein was wearing a drab peasant-cloth coat that touched the floor. Much wider at the bottom than at the top, she left me with the impression of a gliding pyramid.\n\nI had been granted a leave from the Federal Theater Project to do the play, so when it closed I went back to WNYC and skits about keeping the streets clean. But I did learn something of microphone technique there at New York City’s own station, which helped me win an audition that was to be a big boost toward big-time radio.\n\nIn the mid-thirties WLW, Cincinnati, was the most powerful single radio station in the United States. Owned and operated by Powel Crosley, Jr., President of the Crosley Radio Corporation and owner of the Cincinnati Reds, WLW’s 500,000 watts nearly blanketed the country. Apparently the government allowed that much power to one station as an experiment. In case of war or other emergency it could quickly take over and address the entire nation without arranging a complex hookup of smaller stations. Over the years WLW became known as “The Cradle of the Stars.” Many of the biggest names in the entertainment world had their grounding there—Doris Day, Andy Williams, Red Barber, Durward Kirby, Rod Serling, Frank Lovejoy, Rosemary Clooney, among others.\n\nServing WLW’s large audience required extensive programming and a large staff. One day in nineteen hundred and thirty-five Mr. Crosley just decided to clean house. He sent his general manager, Don Becker, to New York to interview and audition talent. Two weeks later he had signed up, for a year’s work in Cincinnati, a full new complement of actors, announcers, writers, and directors. The reason for such a drastic shakeup, I suppose, was the station’s rapid growth and the consequent need for more professional talent.\n\nBecker had rented a large hotel suite and invited all who wished to apply for an audition and interview.\n\nI chose for my audition my scene from Elmer Rice’s Judgment Day, which I had played night after night for six months—material with which I was most secure. I think that’s what gave me the edge.\n\nMy salary was to be fifty dollars a week, plus a few dollars extra for any sponsored program I worked on. I was on a four-week probationary period, after which the station could fire me if it didn’t like my work.\n\nIn all, the new employees at WLW numbered about thirty. As we were being shown the facilities of the station, I struck up a conversation with one of the group, a writer-director called Thomas Ashwell. I was particularly impressed by his good looks, his quiet, assured manner, and easy charm. He told me he had recently worked at a radio station on the West Coast and that he intended to rise very rapidly here at WLW. He said he planned to do it by closely observing the way most employees related to the\n\nboss, Powel Crosley, Jr. If they were bootlickers and told him only what he wanted to hear, he would speak his mind. If they were forthright in their dealings with him, he would be a bootlicker. Either way, he said, by distinguishing himself from the others he would get ahead. It struck me as pretty cynical.\n\nThe numerous studios at WLW were of various sizes, to accommodate all kinds of productions. The larger ones were used mostly for musical shows with big orchestras and casts and heavy sound effect setups. The medium-sized studios were for smaller productions—dramas, recitals, interviews, and the like—and the smallest studios were mostly for news broadcasts and lectures. These last were the only studios without a piano and an organ. In those days, recorded music was rarely used. Orchestras and organists were \"live.\" They set the mood and heightened emotional effects. Since music is the most direct of all the arts, it was of the greatest aid to an actor in quickly summoning a desired emotion.\n\nAnd bars of music were the stagehands of radio, helping shift the scenery with a few suggestive notes. This music was often written and conducted by some of America's leading and most talented composers, such as Aaron Copland, Morton Gould, Bernard Hermann, and George Kleinsinger.\n\nAmong the dramatic shows on the air at WLW at the time of our arrival were: *The Life of Mary Sothern*, a typical daily soap opera; *Tea Leaves and Jade*, a lovely late-evening show that dramatized exquisite little fables and stories of the ancient Orient. Backed by low, exotic organ music, it used only actors with the most cultivated speech. *Famous Jury Trials* was a well-researched show that\n\nreenacted actual court trials. These had large casts, since both the prosecution and the defense usually offered a long string of witnesses.\n\nAlthough on a weekly salary, the staff actors had no fixed hours of work. But we were always on call for any director who might want us for a show, or to audition for one. During my first few weeks I happened to get very few calls, either for auditions or direct casting.\n\nBack to Thomas Ashwell. After his first few weeks, he concluded that most of the staff were bootlickers, so he walked into Crosley’s office one day and told him that the majority of his programs stank. Crosley reacted by making Ashwell program manager.\n\nNaturally a new program manager had to make a few changes. One of them was to fire some staff actors. I was among the chosen. Stunned, I stormed into Ashwell’s office, angry and indignant. He was firm (an important quality for a man determined to get ahead). He said the record showed that I was one of the actors least in demand by the directors; hence I was not earning my salary. I told him I hadn’t been there long enough for him to make such a judgment. He was charmingly pitiless.\n\nI rushed in to see Don Becker, the station’s general manager, for whom I had auditioned in New York. He was sympathetic, but felt that since Ashwell had just been appointed it would be wrong for him to countermand his order. I was furious. Where was justice? I had not even used up my four-week trial period. It wasn’t that the directors didn’t like my work, I told him, they just didn’t know it. I hadn’t been called to audition for the right roles. It was also a big financial slap in my face. I had spent the\n\ndregs of my bank account to attire myself presentably for my career at the station.\n\nBecker began to relent. He said he'd see if something could be arranged. The next day he told me they were short an assistant sound-effects man, and asked if I would be interested in staying on in that capacity? Adding injury to injury, he told me the job paid only thirty-five dollars a week—a fifteen-dollar reduction. There was a short, sharp battle between my dignity and my need. I became a sound-effects man.\n\n2. Siberia\n\nLike music, sound effects played a major role in radio drama. They not only enhanced a play, but could set the scene. A few seconds of chirping crickets before the actors spoke bespoke a bucolic setting. Traffic noises immediately transported the listener to an urban locale. A mournful blast of a ship’s horn, and he was down on the waterfront.\n\nI had never actually worked sound effects before. I had observed a few things during my limited experience on *The March of Time*: the echo effect you can get by speaking across an empty water glass—the way Orson Welles did when, as “The Shadow,” he spoke those immortal words, “Who knows what evil lurks in the hearts of men? The Shadow knows!” I knew that for horses’ hooves you clomped half coconut shells on a tray of dirt or gravel; for gunshots you shot off blanks, or hit a leather cushion with a switch; for footsteps you walked on a board or slab of concrete. But there was, I soon realized, much more to it. Aside from having to learn all the tricks in the bookmanual and recorded—good sound men were also, of necessity, performers. Just as actors emotionally identified with their roles, so a sound man had to empathize and interpret. For a fist fight he was both men, busily smacking a fist into his palm, synchronizing the blows to the actors' grunts as they said, \"Take that! And that! And that!\" He had to feel along in a situation that culminated in a shooting, in order to time the shot perfectly. And he had to \"die\" with the victim in order to fall to the floor with the proper thud at the right moment. Footsteps, too, have their emotional context. Those of a woman walking off in a huff have a different sound and rhythm than they do if she is strolling or nervously pacing a hospital corridor awaiting the outcome of her lover's operation. A good sound-effects \"performer\" did not deliver these sounds mechanically. He often literally put on a woman's shoes and played the role. When it was a horse, he became the horse, slapping his chest for a gallop, changing rhythm for a canter, using the coconut shells for a slow trot, or pawing the ground—and throwing in an occasional whinny or snort for good measure.\n\nI was usually the second man on sound effects, assisting with simple things when more than two hands were needed. But it was amazing the number of effects one good man could handle alone. Say the scene was about survivors on a life raft in the ocean during a storm. The sound-effects man would preset some recorded effects on the turntables, and, on a cue from the director, would twist a dial to bring up the sound of the roaring ocean, while the other hand would pull a lever on a crazy contraption that rubbed small pieces of dry leather together until they squeaked like the ropes binding the raft's logs. The first\n\nhand would now paddle in a water tank, giving a close-up sound picture of smaller waves lapping the raft. A quick twist of the control knob on another turntable and an airplane was flying overhead (would it see them and radio for help?). A vigorous shake of a large balloon full of birdshot produced a remarkably realistic effect of crashing thunder, which might be instantly followed by the sound of a man falling overboard—the splash made by the suction of a toilet plunger in the water tank.\n\nThe gyrations of a sound man coordinating such multiple effects at the peak of his efficiency and style was something to behold. It was, ladies and gentlemen, pure art.\n\nIt took me some time to develop a dexterity with even the easiest effects, like opening and closing doors. They were either too loud or too soft, maybe because, during my first weeks in “Siberia,” I was still burning with resentment. It was intensely embarrassing for me to have to show my face as a sound man in the studio with my ex-fellow actors. Scar tissue hadn’t yet formed over my humiliation. But I decided that if I wanted to hang on to even this job, I had damn well better stop being so churlish. So I drew on my acting talent to play the part of a sound man at peace with himself.\n\nActually, I became quite intrigued with the technology of sound effects, and with the imagination and infinite resourcefulness of the men who made them. At that time, increasing numbers of effects were being recorded for sound libraries, but the limitless variety of scripts constantly brought new challenges. And if there be a Valhalla where the souls of departed sound men gather to regale each\n\nother with their heroic earthly accomplishments, surely they will tell and retell of the time when a script of *Lights Out* (a late-night horror show originating in Chicago) called for the sound of a man being turned inside out. Due to insufficient demand, no such sound had ever been recorded. Thus it had to be created. After much experimentation, the masterpiece was achieved. It was a two-man job. One, very slowly, quarter-inch by quarter-inch, peeled a tight-fitting rubber glove from his hand, close to the microphone, while the other man slowly crunched a strawberry box for the sound of breaking bones.\n\nThe sound-effects department at WLW was headed by a true master of the art, Don Wingate. His virtuosity was clearly apparent in the way he handled emergencies. I remember the time, for instance, when, on his way to rehearsal carrying a stack of recordings of rifle shots, marching men, and the rat-a-tat-tat of machine-gun fire, the wheel of his motorcycle hit a rock and Don crashed. He wasn’t injured, but the recordings were smashed beyond redemption. What to do? A lesser man would have committed suicide. These effects were vital to the show, which was slated to go on the air within a few hours. That was just about the time Wingate needed to round up an entire regiment of his buddies in the National Guard. They mobilized at the studio, replete with heavy boots and rifles, and after a brief rehearsal went on the air, marching about on cue, and since they had no blanks, shooting real bullets into the studio walls. They did little or no real damage because the padded, sound-absorbing walls were already porous. Now they were slightly more porous. Wingate hadn’t been able to scrounge a machine gun from the National Guard, but that didn’t daunt him. He got his rat-atat-tat effect by grabbing a short length of pipe and running it sharply across the studio radiator. For that evening alone, in my opinion, Don Wingate deserves an honored place in the Sound Men’s Hall of Fame.\n\nMy first solo sound assignment was helping Red Barber, the sports announcer, perpetrate an innocuous fraud on the fans. One afternoon I was ordered to report to a small studio with a turntable and two effects—a recording of a crowd cheering and a bat smacking a baseball. When I arrived, Barber was sitting in front of a ticker-tape machine. It was ticking away, but no printouts were happening. It seemed to be marking time. Barber explained that the Cincinnati Reds’ baseball game was about to start and he would be broadcasting a play-by-play description. Until I got the hang of it I should just watch him, and he would signal me when to bring in the effects.\n\nI tested the crowd cheers and batted-ball effect, so that the control-room engineer could set his levels, then waited for the game to begin. The bat-clouting-a-ball effect was achieved without a ball. Only a bat and a leather-covered judge’s gavel were used. No, I didn’t strike the gavel with the bat. Holding the bat lightly by the neck, I smote it smartly with the gavel. The sound required was a violent contact of leather and wood, so it didn’t matter which did what to which. This was the more practical way.\n\nWaiting for the game to start, I tried to fathom why these effects would be needed in reporting a game over a news ticker in a tiny radio studio. Only when we went on the air did I understand that I was a co-conspirator in a plot to make listeners believe they were hearing a game brought to them directly from the stadium by an eyewitness reporter. As the ticker started spewing tape, Barber began\n\ntransposing cryptic facts of plays that had already happened into colorful descriptions of these plays as they were happening. He did it with such conviction he almost had me believing I was at the ball park. He would embellish the factual information from the tape with vivid accounts of a player’s behavior—gestures and actions that were sheer invention. For instance, the tape might read: THE COUNT WAS THREE AND TWO. THOMAS HIT A SINGLE TO CENTER. Barber would turn that into: “Three and two on Thomas now. He seems a little nervous, walks away from the plate, rubs his hands in the dirt . . . hefts his bat . . . coming back now . . . hunches over the plate . . . the pitcher wipes the sweat from his face with his sleeve . . . spits . . . winds up and here’s the pitch!” Then he’d cue me to thwack my baseball bat with the gavel and turn up the crowd cheers. His enthusiasm and excitement would rise above the noise. “It’s a good one! It’s a good one!” he would shout. “A straight line drive to center field! There’s the throw over to first . . . and the man is safe!” If it were a double or a triple, he’d yell even louder, signaling me for more decibels from the crowd. After a few innings I caught on, and naturally put the thwacks and cheers in the right places without being told. On a home run, I’d goose up the crowd as loud as I could and Red would give it full throttle, screaming his description of the ball soaring over the left-field fence many moments after it had already been there. A great sleight-of-mouth artist, Red Barber. But I trust Saint Peter won’t hold him (and me) accountable at the gate of the Great Ball Park in the Sky.\n\nAfter a few months in sound effects, I was surprised one day to be told to report for a dramatic audition. It seems\n\nthey needed an Italian accent and none of the staff actors, at least none free at that time, could do it. I won the audition and played the role.\n\nSeveral weeks later something similar happened. A director needed an eccentric voice, which he couldn’t get from the available actors. Someone told him I did trick voices. He auditioned me and I did the show.\n\nShortly after that came a bigger surprise. I got a call from Thomas Ashwell, asking if I would have a drink with him that evening. I couldn’t imagine what was up. Since he had fired me, our relationship had been quite formal, and, although I felt no real enmity toward him, we were never drawn to after-work socializing. My initial surprise became even greater when we met at a nearby bar; Ashwell told me he had a date later that evening, adding that his date had a girl friend. Would I care to come along? He assured me he would pay the tab.\n\nI had a mixed reaction. Why me? Didn’t he have any closer friends? I had an intuitive feeling I shouldn’t go. I sensed something sinister. But, he was my boss; my livelihood depended on his good will; I also had a special curiosity about this man who had confided to me his curious plan for getting ahead. In a way I welcomed the opportunity to know him better. And, there was always the chance a blind date might turn out better than I dreaded. I agreed.\n\nThe girls were pretty but young—fifteen or sixteen—dangerously young. Ashwell had met them that afternoon on a streetcar, he said. They were working-class girls—spirited little sparrow types. We met them at the appointed place, a fairly sleazy no-cover night club on the wrong side of town, where they served good beer and bad strip-tease dancers. For several hours we watched and\n\ndrank and made small talk. The girls giggled a lot, perhaps because their conversation was so limited, and I was sufficiently inhibited by their age to behave myself. Ashwell, too, was a model of rectitude. Apparently my intuition of evil had been all wrong. Not once did I see him even hold his girl’s hand. He seemed perfectly content to enjoy the show and the girls’ company. Along about midnight they said they had to get up early for work and thanked us for a good time. Ashwell hailed a cab, took their phone numbers, pressed a few dollars in their hands for fare, and we said good night. It was probably the most uneventful date I have ever had.\n\nAshwell suggested that we walk home. As we sauntered through a wooded park area back to “our” side of town, he opened up a bit. He thanked me for coming along. His wife and family were still out on the West Coast, and he said he was very lonely in Cincinnati. He even confided that his real name wasn’t Ashwell. He used it, he said, to avoid being tracked down by some creditors he had left behind in San Francisco. Nothing serious, he added. He intended to repay them, but it would be an embarrassment if they located him here. I assured him I would tell no one.\n\nAs we were about to part company he suddenly said: “I want you back on the acting staff.” Zing! The scab came off the wound. “Why?” I asked, in the tone of why-the-hell-did-you-fire-me-in-the-first-place?\n\nHe fumbled for an answer, said he was aware that I had been requested by directors, that my work had changed, and I would be more valuable as an actor. “How could my work have changed?” I demanded, “when I had previously done almost no work at all?” He didn’t reply. I\n\nasked if my original fifty-dollar-a-week salary would be restored. He said no. \"Okay, I quit!\" came out without my thinking. \"Okay, you get your salary back,\" he said just as quickly. He smiled. We shook hands and said good night.\n\nThe laws of compensation work in strange ways. The wrong of my demotion was redressed on the scales of justice. There had to be some connection between the way I was fired and the mysterious force that nudged the brain of the bookkeeper to correct, erroneously, my salary, not back to its original fifty dollars a week, but up to sixty-five dollars. I did not call the mistake to their attention. I figured that extra fifteen dollars compensated not only for my days of reduced salary, but for the mental anguish and humiliation I had suffered.\n\nWithout doubt, WLW was the best training ground in the country for radio actors. Its heavy programming made demands that were often challenges. Frequently miscast, I was nevertheless kept busy in a large variety of roles I never would have had the chance to play anywhere else. Occasionally they even had me read the news, which I invested with great feeling, emotionally involving myself with all the day's tragic events, until one day I was instructed to save my passion for my acting, and reminded that news reports are supposed to be dispassionate and objective.\n\nAfter a year at the station I felt I had learned as much as I could there, and built up a big enough bag of experience to sling it over my shoulder and return to New York. Ashwell offered to renew my contract, but I felt my time was up. A number of directors I had worked for at WLW had\n\nalready quit and were now directing shows in New York. I figured they would make good initial contacts.\n\n(Organ music in)\n\nAnd thus, at the age of twenty-six, young Joe Julian left WLW, grateful for all he had learned, and with his heart full of compassion for the listening population of Cincinnati, which had to suffer what must have been the most exploitive of all station breaks anywhere in the world. Every fifteen minutes all day long, an announcer would say, \"This is WLW, the Nation's Station, Crosley Radios and Shelvador Refrigerators, Cincinnati.\"\n\nIt was a tribute to the tolerance of listeners that the station was never firebombed.\n\n3. Return to New York\n\nNew York did not exactly welcome me with open arms. My contacts from Cincinnati were delighted to see me and would keep me in mind. The competition from other actors trying to break into the big time was terrific, but I assiduously made the rounds every day, which meant hounding the casting departments of the networks, advertising agencies, and production houses that produced radio programs.\n\nAuditions were frequently held for new roles, but the casting departments mainly called the \"charmed-circle\" actors to compete with one another. There were leftover parts, however, and as more and more dramatic shows went on the air, unknowns and near-unknowns did get their chance. We somehow had to wangle an audition or an interview with the casting people. This was done mostly by sheer, obnoxious persistence—bombarding them with letters, visits, and phone calls. Others used the ambush technique, grabbing directors (sometimes literally) as they came out of the studios when their shows\n\nwent off the air. The third-floor lounge at NBC in Rockefeller Center was a favorite ambush point. One actor might suddenly step from behind a pillar. \"Oh, hello, Mr. Vincent,\" he'd say, feigning surprise at seeing the director, but thus hoping to register in his consciousness. Others were more blunt. \"Anything for me in your next show, Mr. Brown?\" \"It's been a long time since I worked for you, Mr. Andrews.\" \"You told me to keep in touch with you, Mr. Ricca.\" Smart directors sneaked out the back way.\n\nI, too, lost no opportunity, exploited every contact that might lead to a job or an audition. And, as the money I had saved ran low, I became as obnoxiously persistent as the best (or worst) of them.\n\nFinally, after about six months, one director who had known me at WLW, and whom I had badgered unmercifully, called me for a running part on *The Life of Mary Sothern*, a serial that had just moved from Cincinnati to New York, and simultaneously I was called for a one-time part on the popular *Myrt and Marge* serial for the very day I was to begin. The air times of these shows were fifteen minutes apart—but rehearsal calls overlapped. It never occurred to me to turn down the second job. I had struggled too hard for a breakthrough. The gods were rewarding me for my perseverance; they would be displeased if I refused any part of their sudden bounty. I decided to do what busy actors frequently did when they had a time conflict. They'd hire an actor to stand in for them at a rehearsal, while they ran to another studio for a performance of a show that had been previously rehearsed, then back again to do the first show. If the directors were amenable, it worked out fine for everyone, including the stand-ins, who not only got five or ten dollars but an opportunity to demonstrate their talent to directors who might not know their work.\n\nMy stand-in arrangement was approved. But then I suddenly realized how far apart the studios were. *Myrt and Marge* was on the twenty-first floor of the CBS building, at Madison Avenue and Fifty-second Street, and went on the air at 2 P.M. *The Life of Mary Sothern* was on the seventh floor at Broadway and Forty-sixth Street and went on the air at 2:15. I was only in the first part of the first show and the middle section of the second—about nine and a half minutes to get from one place to the other. Could I make it? I tried it out. Even by running part of the way, I arrived exhausted, over three minutes late, and in no condition to do a broadcast.\n\nWhat to do? I had already accepted both jobs. An ambulance! I plucked a number from the Yellow Pages and asked how much. The man said twelve dollars. When he learned I was not an invalid he said it would be fifteen. Why the difference? \"For the risk,\" he said. \"It's against the law to carry a non-invalid.\"\n\nI arranged to have him waiting at CBS. I tipped the elevator operators in both buildings to have cars waiting for me. I finished my part on *Myrt and Marge*, slipped out of the studio and rushed to the waiting elevator—which wasn't waiting. The operator had forgotten. I almost broke my thumb pressing the \"down\" button. When the elevator finally came, over two precious minutes had been lost.\n\nThe ambulance was out front. To casual onlookers, it must have seemed strange to see a man racing to an ambulance rather than being carried to it. I told the driver to get going.\n\n\"Lay down,\" he said. \"Ya gotta lay down.\" I stretched\n\nout on the white slab. \"Listen,\" he said, \"crosstown traffic is pretty bad. I could get stuck even with my siren. I think we're better off going up Madison, across Fifty-seventh and down Seventh Avenue. It's longer, but the streets are wider and we'll make better time. How about it?\"\n\n\"Okay, okay, just get moving!\" I said.\n\nHe started off, the siren winding up to a howl, then a scream. I couldn't resist half-sitting up to watch the cars in front of us jam on their brakes or pull to one side. For a brief moment I forgot my urgency as I absorbed some of the siren's power. It was all for me! It activated some residue of childhood megalomania.\n\n\"Lay down!\" the driver yelled. \"Ya wanna get me arrested?\"\n\nMy panic returned. Every few seconds I'd pick up my head to check our progress. \"Faster, faster!\" I kept urging. \"Stay down!\" he kept answering. We swung around into Fifty-seventh Street at 2:13. The traffic was lighter there and at 2:14 we turned down Seventh Avenue. At which point the siren broke.\n\n\"Look,\" the driver said, \"I can stop and fix it, but it will take a few minutes. Or I can take a chance on going through without it. What should I do?\"\n\n\"Take a chance!\" I shouted. We still had four minutes to make it. The traffic was heavier now, but he pushed ahead, going through red lights. There was a near miss at every crossing.\n\nWe finally pulled up in front of Loew's State Theater building, at Broadway and Forty-sixth Street—where the WHN Studios were located—with only two minutes to spare. Again, it must have perplexed the crowd to see a\n\nman leap from an ambulance bed and run like a bat out of hell into the lobby, where this time the elevator was waiting. It took me express to the seventh floor. I ran down the hall and dashed through the studio door. In unison, the director and the entire cast let out a huge, silent groan of relief. They were on the air. Someone shoved a script into my hand. I took one gulp of breath—and spoke.\n\nI received twenty-three dollars for the *Myrt and Marge* job. The ambulance was fifteen. Five for the stand-in. Add a buck a piece for the elevator operators. One dollar profit. Add the wear and tear, and it came out a loss. But it really was a net gain; it taught me never to try anything like that again.\n\nGradually I began getting more auditions—and winning a few now and then. I picked up isolated jobs on shows like *Flash Gordon; Inner Sanctum; Joyce Jordan, Girl Interne;* and *Renfrew of the Mounted.*\n\nWaiting in the studio for a *Renfrew* rehearsal to start, I got into a conversation with a tall, distinguished-looking gentleman named Brad Barker. In the middle of an animated discussion of the philosophical implications of Kant and Hegel, he suddenly excused himself, walked over to a large cardboard cylinder mounted on a metal frame, put his mouth to one end, and emitted the blood-curdling howl of a timber wolf, which was the opening signature of *Renfrew of the Mounted,* a weekly series of half-hour stories of Canada’s legendary Royal Canadian Mounted Police—sagas of manhunts and battles between the good guys and bad guys in the Canadian wilderness.\n\nBarker (what’s in a name?) was one of a small group of specialists who made a good living doing animal sounds,\n\nbaby noises, and screams—which were always in demand.\n\nThe animal imitators could come up with just about anything asked of them, from the chirp of a pregnant canary (any age) to the roar of a distempered rhinoceros.\n\nDonald Bain, one of the best, would be meowing and barking and spitting, as both characters of a cat and dog fight. You risked getting drenched if you stood too close. Some actors once played a dirty trick on him. They accompanied him to the Automat, where he regularly had lunch, then one telephoned from the outside and had him paged. Pretending to be the director of a radio show, he told Bain that he needed someone in a hurry who could do a good cat and dog fight, and that he had been recommended. Would he be willing to do a short audition over the phone? Whereupon Bain furiously snarled and meowed and spat and barked into the receiver, while everyone in the restaurant roared at the antics of this seemingly demented little man.\n\nThe baby criers were usually women, who carried a small pillow around with them, into which they gurgled, whined and bawled. Sometimes they would also lisp the words of a young child.\n\nThe screamers? You might think anyone can scream? Not so. 'Tis an art. There are all kinds of screams: some that are short and eerie, others that are long and shrill. And screams you might hear in a Gothic tale, of the victim before the kill. Some screamers were better than others, but they all saved the throats of the actors for whom they doubled, enabling them to continue the performance without hoarseness.\n\nThe most powerful casting director at that time was Frances von Bernhardi, who worked for Frank and Anne\n\nHummert, an incredibly successful husband-and-wife team that dominated the field of radio drama. Former journalists, they pioneered the format of the daily series and suffused them with the same low common denominator—sentimentality—that characterized the publications of their former employer, William Randolph Hearst. And, like Hearst, they grimly dominated their empire. When they’d suddenly appear to watch a dress rehearsal of a show, the atmosphere in the studio immediately chilled. All chattering ceased. Actors would twist their faces into rubbery grimaces while silently moving their lips, to demonstrate how diligently they were studying their roles. There was something darkly foreboding about the Hummerts. Their stiff presence always evoked a sense of insecurity. And with good reason. They had a reputation for firing actors who incurred their slightest displeasure. And authors. When Mrs. Hummert once told a writer that she wanted “God” on every page of a script, and his answer was “Who will we get to play Him?” he was fired on the spot. And when you were fired from one of their shows it was a catastrophe. It meant being banned from all their nine or ten others that might be on the air at any given time.\n\nI once barely skirted such a fate. It was a wintry morning, I had overslept and arrived for a nine o’clock dress rehearsal not a few—but twenty—minutes late. This was a day of double jeopardy, because, in addition to the Hummerts being present, Martha Atwell was the show’s director. Miss Atwell was a tight-lipped spinster who was an absolute fanatic on punctuality.\n\nAs I entered the studio the entire cast and orchestra were in position, waiting. They glanced at me, then averted their eyes, not wanting to witness the bloodletting.\n\nThe atmosphere was thick with tension. I looked up at the control room, where the engineer and three stony faces scowled down at me as they awaited my explanation. I gulped, took a folded piece of paper from my pocket, and without a word went into the control room and handed it to Miss Atwell. Then I returned to the studio, where I looked up to watch her face. When she had finished reading the note, she shot me a look, then handed it to the Hummerts, who glanced at it—and burst out laughing. Miss Atwell joined in and the danger was over. The note I had scribbled on my way to the studio read:\n\nDear Miss Atwell,\n\nPlease excuse Mister Julian for being late. On accounta the snow storm I had a hard time gettin’ him a cab.\n\nYours very truly,\nThe Doorman at his Building.\n\nI was not only glad to have escaped their wrath, but to learn that a sense of humor was still alive behind their dour exteriors.\n\nThese are a few of the five-days-a-week serial dramas Frank and Anne Hummert produced:\n\nAmanda of Honeymoon Hill\nBackstage Wife\nDavid Harum\nEvelyn Winters\nFront Page Farrell\nJohn’s Other Wife\nJust Plain Bill\nLora Lawton\nLorenzo Jones\nMrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch\n\nNona from Nowhere\nOrphans of Divorce\nOur Gal Sunday\nReal Stories from Real Life\nThe Romance of Helen Trent\nSecond Husband\nSkippy\nStella Dallas\nThe Stolen Husband\nYoung Widder Brown\n\nIn addition to these daytime \"soaps,\" they had a number of prime-time evening shows such as Manhattan Merry-Go-Round; Mr. Chameleon; Mr. Keen, Tracer of Lost Persons; Hearthstone of the Death Squad.\n\nThe Hummerts themselves usually dreamed up a show's original concept, building it around a folksy or easily identifiable character. They employed a large stable of writers. One group worked exclusively at developing story lines and plots. When approved by the Hummerts, the scripts were passed along to the dialogue writers. There were many do's and don't's. For instance, all characters had to be constantly identified by name:\n\nJOHN: Why, hello, Henry!\nHENRY: Hello, John.\nJOHN: Haven't seen you in a long time, Henry.\nHENRY: Yes, that's true, John.\nJOHN: How about joining me for a drink, Henry?\nHENRY: Why, I'd like to, John.\n\nUnnatural? Yes, but they felt it was essential to know who was talking to whom at all times. They must have thought their listeners were pretty stupid not to be able to tell from the dialogue itself.\n\nPlot lines were often altered by a performer's real-life situation. Some contracts provided they be written out of the show for a few weeks in order to rehearse a Broadway play. The writers would then invent a reason for the character's disappearance. Perhaps he would be sent on a journey abroad, or to a rest home, or, perhaps, to jail. The same when an actor took sick. And, if he suddenly quit or was fired, there were always easy ways of killing him off—a heart attack, an auto accident, a murder. But this was generally done only with supporting characters who were expendable. If one of the leads left the show, he was usually replaced by another performer. Over the years, in long-running serials like *The Goldbergs; Jack Armstrong, the All-American Boy*; etc., many actors played the same part.\n\nLong pauses could never be indicated in a script. \"Dead air\" was anathema, the theory being that during even a five-second silence, a hundred thousand listeners might be just tuning in. Hearing nothing, they'd turn to another station, losing all those customers for the sponsor's product.\n\nTo snag new listeners, and for those who may have missed a chapter, each episode of a serial had to be preceded by a short recapitulation of the plot:\n\n**ANNOUNCER:** Yesterday, we left Alice in her living room, alone with John Hennesy, her sister Gwendolyn's husband. John had just confided that he had always been in love with Alice, and had made a terrible mistake in marrying Gwendolyn. Gwendolyn, who had left the house moments before, suddenly remembered she had forgotten some books she wanted to return to the library. As she reentered the living room, John had just put his arm around Alice's waist. Gwendolyn froze as she heard John say:\n\n**JOHN:** Darling, I love you more than anything in this world!\n\nThis would be followed by a music sting (Sharp chord), the organ music would fade, and the announcer would come in with the first commercial. Generally there was an opening, middle, and closing commercial—a terrible price that listeners didn’t seem to mind paying for their addiction to “soaps.”\n\nFrank and Anne Hummert closely supervised every show, at all stages. Their entire operation was highly systematized, and scripts were turned out with the efficiency of an assembly line.\n\nThe Hummerts’ casting director, Frances von Bernhardi, a rather severe career lady, seemed cut from the same cloth as her employers. Perhaps that’s a little unfair. I did sense an underlying warmth. She may have acquired some of the characteristics of this Victorian couple after years of close association. In any case, with all those parts to fill in all those shows, she wielded a lot of power. Actors were careful not to offend her. She was totally devoted to her work and differed from most casting directors in that she not only arranged auditions but kept close tab on the general deportment of performers. Too much clowning or lateness to rehearsal could lead to reprimands. An item in the paper linking an actor to some scandal might well result in the actor being replaced. All talent and other employees, as well as the material on their shows, had to adhere to the Hummerts’ rigid moral code, and woe unto the transgressors. But despite all the above, the Hummerts were loyal to their actors. Whenever possible they kept the same ones working on all their shows.\n\nI managed to get a toe in the door of the Hummert empire by winning small roles in a couple of their programs: Chaplain Jim, which dealt with the spiritual problems of\n\nGIs in Army camps, and *Front Page Farrell*, the dashing exploits of a super reporter (played by Richard Widmark).\n\nBy the late thirties network programming had pretty well standardized its form. Its main categories—drama, comedy, and music—were served up in quarter-, half-, and one-hour slices of time.\n\nMost of the dramas were, of course, the daytime “soaps”—so called because they were listened to mostly by women while doing their washing and cleaning, who were thus presumably vulnerable to sales pitches by the soap company sponsors. The essential ingredients of these shows were nicely contained in James Thurber’s definition of a soap opera:\n\nA kind of sandwich, whose recipe is simple enough, although it took years to compound. Between thick slices of advertising spread twelve minutes of dialogue, add predicament, villainy, and female suffering in equal measure, throw in a dash of nobility, sprinkle with tears, season with organ music, cover with a rich announcer sauce, and serve five times a week.\n\nIn the evenings dramas were always on the menu, but the emphasis was on comedy and music.\n\nMost of the important comedians sprang full-blown from vaudeville—especially those whose speciality was essentially non-visual, such as the joke tellers: Lou Holtz, with his ethnic stories of “Sam Lapidus”; George Jessel and his “Hello, Mamma?” phone routine; Jack Pearl’s Baron Munchhausen. They and other vaudevillians such as Eddie Cantor, Jack Benny, Bob Hope, Bob Burns, Burns and Allen, Jimmy Durante, Abbott and Costello, and Ed Wynn, often carried their visual gimmicks with them into the radio studio via publicity photographs. The jokes were\n\nfunnier if listeners retained the image of, say, Joe Penner’s baggy pants, or of Eddie Cantor rolling his “banjo eyes”, or of Ed Wynn’s mugging and goofy hats.\n\nThe weekly audiences for these comedians jumped abruptly from a few thousand in vaudeville to multi-millions in radio. Their catch phrases, such as Jack Pearl’s “Vas you dere, Sharlie?” Penner’s “Wanna buy a duck?” and Jimmy Durante’s “Goodnight, Mrs. Calabash, wherever you are” were heard so often they became part of the culture.\n\nBut these comics paid a price for their new popularity. In vaudeville, a comedy routine lasted for years; in radio, it was consumed in a night. The strain of building a new show every week took its toll, and there were many breakdowns and retirements and comebacks among the nation’s top funny men.\n\nLaughter is lifeblood to a comedian, and many found it difficult telling jokes to a microphone that wouldn’t laugh. The first stage show ever broadcast featured Ed Wynn in *The Perfect Fool*, over station WJZ, February 19, 1922. He was appalled at the silence after he told his first, time-tested jokes. He asked the announcer to quickly round up anyone he could find around the studio. A short while later he regained his confidence as an audience of maintenance men, telephone operators, electricians, and cleaning women giggled and howled at his silly sallies and facial expressions. Studio audiences became a must for comedy shows.\n\nThere was also a kind of humor indigenous to radio. Mock insults and feuds between two leading comedians would boost each other’s ratings, and sometimes could be kept running for months, such as the one between Jack\n\nBenny and Fred Allen, in which Allen kept finding new ways to describe Benny’s stinginess. One evening a sketch had Benny being held up by a thief who snarled, “Money or your life!” The long, long period of dead air that followed became hilarious, and was topped by Benny finally saying petulantly, “I’m thinking it over.” This just couldn’t be as funny in any other medium. And there was Allen’s classic retort to an insult by Benny: “If I had my writers here you wouldn’t talk to me like that and get away with it!”\n\nSpeaking of comedy, probably the most unique comedy performance in radio history occurred in 1937 when, during a newspaper strike, the mayor of New York City, Fiorello H. La Guardia, took to the air to read funny papers to the children. The kids “didn’t wanna know from nothin’” about wages and working conditions—they missed their funnies! La Guardia, mayor of all the people, understood what that deprivation meant, and every evening, for as long as the strike lasted, he would act out all the parts in his high squeaky voice and slight lisp, gesticulating dramatically as he described the pictures and read the ballooned dialogue of the comic strips that regularly appeared in the New York papers. It was something to hear—and behold. Fiorello La Guardia, or “The Little Flower” as he was affectionately known, was a mayor who cared.\n\nBut music was also very much in—or on—the air during the thirties, catering to all appetites.\n\n*The National Barn Dance* was a Saturday night fling for millions of farm folk and lovers of country music. Some of the popular big band leaders were Paul Whiteman, Fred\n\nWaring and his Pennsylvanians, and Ben Bernie (The Old Maestro—\"Yowsah, yowsah, yowsah . . .\"), and some of the top variety shows were Your Hit Parade, Show Boat, and Kraft Music Hall.\n\nOutstanding female vocalists of the period were Dinah Shore, Jessica Dragonette, Ruth Etting and outsized Kate Smith (whose singing signature, \"When the Moon Comes Over the Mountain,\" brought one of radio's sunniest personalities into our living rooms.\n\nAmong the popular male singers there was a handful of strong, lyric voices like those of James Melton, Morton Downey, and Arthur Tracy (\"The Street Singer\"). And then there were the crooners—Bing Crosby and Whispering Jack Smith, who probably started it all. Or was Rudy Vallee to blame?\n\nCrooning can probably be best described as the opposite of Ethel Merman. It was a style of singing romantic ballads that tried for maximum effect with least expenditure of energy; the microphone became a prosthetic device giving artificial power to those without enough of their own. The invention of the microphone bred a large race of mike-dependent singers whose natural voices would never have reached the balcony of a vaudeville house in those days when a singer needed not only a pleasing tone but a healthy pair of lungs.\n\nEven today in television, while the voices of singers are electronically boosted, the microphone itself is a barrier between the artist and his audience. We have the technology to send a man to the moon, but apparently science has not yet found a way to engineer a song without the silly spectacle of the singer half hiding his face as he holds a metal cone to his mouth and throws a slack wire\n\naround, stepping over it like a cowboy doing a rope act, while he deludes himself and his listeners that the big sound he is making is all his own.\n\nThose with deeper hungers were rewarded occasionally with arias from the thrilling voices of Lawrence Tibbett, Lily Pons, Rosa Ponselle, and other opera stars. On Saturday afternoons entire operas were broadcast live from the Metropolitan Opera House. And there were regular live concerts by the NBC Symphony—one of the finest in the land—from Studio 8-H in the RCA building.\n\nWhenever I was rehearsing a show on the same floor, I would run out at every opportunity and sneak into 8-H to watch Arturo Toscanini rehearsing his concert. It was a show in itself. His men worshipped him, but the Maestro was very temperamental. He demanded perfection of his musicians, and when he didn’t get it he exploded. One day he had such a violent reaction to a note wrongly played that he threw a valuable gold watch onto the floor and smashed it. The next day, during a break, a messenger delivered a package to him from David Sarnoff, the president of RCA. He opened it and found two one-dollar Ingersoll watches—with a card reading: “For rehearsals only.”\n\n4. The \"Variety\" Storm\n\nAlthough I began winning more radio auditions, my heart was still in the theater. I continued to make the rounds of Broadway producers, took classes in improvisation and body movement, and wormed myself close enough to the famous Group Theater to land a small role in one of its last and most beautiful productions, William Saroyan's *My Heart's in the Highlands*. It ran for six months and rekindled my yearning to make the theater my way of life. Continuity of stage work was rare for any actor, but I redoubled my efforts and did come up with a part in another Broadway play, *Walk Into My Parlor*. It ran three weeks.\n\nMost theater people sneered at radio actors. The very term became one of opprobrium. It was too easy just walking up to a mike and reading from a piece of paper. I myself was prone to the same prejudice, thinking of it as fractional acting, a nice way to make a living while waiting for the big break in the theater.\n\nFor the very busy actor it was more than a living. Money was to be made. Without sweat. Real money. The last\n\nKlondike of the profession, B.C. (Before Commercials). Actors who had running parts in several daily \"soaps\" might make up to $1500 a week—more than many well-known stage and screen personalities made. These could work in only one production at a time, but a versatile radio performer could and often did play a half dozen parts in a single day. A lead on a daytime serial could be contracted for from $1200 to $2500 a week. In addition, many worked the nighttime dramas. So some radio actors were making $50,000, $75,000, even six-figure salaries in an era when the average yearly wage was around $3,000, and taxes were much lower than they are today.\n\nAs I became more and more one of the \"in\" group, I began to understand why it was an \"in\" group: radio acting was not as easy as it looked. Many excellent actors were incapable of developing the necessary technique. It was largely a technique of indicating emotions, or playing \"results\"—anathema to serious actors who cannot perform until they have assimilated the truths and depths of a role. There is no time for that in radio. A typical half-hour program had to be put on with only three or four hours of rehearsal. Performers had to produce quickly. The good ones developed a facility—a bag of tricks which enabled them to give effective performances. But it was all partial: partial emotion, partial characterization, partial truth. They leaned heavily on the listeners to complete their acting for them. And the bag of tricks was acquired at a cost. In my opinion, the busier actors became in radio, the more they degenerated as creative artists. It was typical that so many radio actors, after winning auditions for roles in stage plays by impressing with facile first readings, had to be fired during rehearsals because they were incapable of going\n\nany further, adding new dimensions to their roles. In fact, they usually got worse under the pressure of having to deliver with their entire being.\n\nI observed this creative decay not only in others but in myself, and it disturbed me. I pondered the question for some time, then shaped my thoughts into an article and mailed it to *Variety*, the weekly bible of show business. To my surprise it appeared in full the following week, January 15, 1941.\n\n**AN ACTOR ANALYZES RADIO ACTING**\n\n*Sees Broadcast Drama As A Director’s Medium*\n\n*By Joseph Julian*\n\nRadio dramas, which are poured out into the ether in unending profusion, have soaked up a large part of the unemployment slack among the Actors Equity Association members. They’ve created work which has enabled many actors to carry on in the face of a more or less permanent Broadway job famine, and provided many of them (especially bit and supporting players) with steady incomes and a security the theater has never offered. But aside from the financial and psychological values of a more constant employment, what has been the effect of radio on the actor as a creative artist?\n\nMuch has been written and said of the growth of radio, of its development as an art form, of the ever-increasing number of adult programs. It has made great strides. It is persistently enticing the best talents from the other entertainment fields—actors, directors, and authors. But while to directors and authors it is a fascinating new medium to explore, experiment with, and study, to actors it presents a direct challenge to their artistic integrity.\n\n**NOT ACTOR’S MEDIUM**\n\nIf a survey could be made of all actors working in radio who came from the theater or film lots, and if some kind of test were\n\npossible to gauge their \"then and now\" abilities, it would undoubtedly show most of them to have been better actors then than now.\n\nThere are many reasons for this, but they all boil down to the fact that radio is essentially a director's, not an actor's, medium. An actor grows and develops best working where he is afforded the best opportunity for a full performance—in other words, on the stage, with motion pictures second and radio dragging up the rear.\n\nThe stage, with its physical production limitations, necessarily relies most on performers. Films call for little hunks of acting at a time, with the cutting room polishing off the performance. And the motion picture camera with its broader scope largely usurps the function of the actor by subjective treatment of a story. For instance, it can give a value and significance to m'lady's dropped handkerchief by isolating it (the hanky) with a closeup. Or, when the furious waters of the river drag our hero's canoe closer and closer to the onrushing falls, it adds suspense by cutting in with a shot of the jagged rocks below. All of which amounts to the director talking to the audience instead of the actor.\n\n**THE BRUTAL MIKE**\n\nThe radio microphone, from the creative actor's point of view, is even more brutal. It must achieve its effect entirely with sound. Sound is only one dimension of a performance, and an actor in a radio drama cannot possibly translate into sound all the active, silent nuances, bits of business, gesture, pauses, without becoming aware of what he is doing, thereby working consciously for an \"effect\" or a \"result,\" which always spells bad acting.\n\nMost of the better actors are conscious, I think, of a lack of inner satisfaction after doing a radio job. They miss that sense of fulfillment so vital and nourishing to any artist, and it usually shakes their confidence in themselves, undermining the talent they have. Others hold the general low level of writing, production and insufficient rehearsal time responsible. While\n\nthese are contributing factors, there are causes more basic. It's true that an actor can do more with a well-written script than a badly-written one. And it's true that in spite of the remarkable progress radio writing has made; in spite of the \"Corwins\" and the \"Arch Obolers,\" corn still runs rampant on the airwaves. But we can look forward to better and better scripts. We can look forward to adequately rehearsed programs. Actors may even memorize their lines instead of reading them. Freed from the necessity of keeping eyes glued to a script, they'll better adjust to their fellow actors. Perhaps they will work their own sound effects to give them a better feel of situation and circumstance (opening and closing their own doors when supposedly entering a room, etc.). We can even look forward to technical improvements—mobile microphones that will follow the actor (as in film making), allowing him freedom to move and behave more naturally than the present stationary mikes, which confine his movements to a narrow \"live\" beam, and inhibit all his naturally felt gestures. In a love scene, for example, if he could cross to his fair one, take her hand gently in his own, look longingly and deeply into her eyes before saying \"Darling I'd go to hell and back for you,\" it would certainly come over the air with a greater ring of truth than if he would say, as he now must, to a cold, unresponsive microphone, with script in hand, one eye running down the page to find the next line, the other glancing at the director for cues and to see if he should speak faster or slower (so the program shouldn't run a second under or over time), and generating all of his inspiration from his own mental images of the girl and the situation. Even these images are at best blurred ones. Because the high degree of concentration necessary for an actor to keep a clear, strong image in his mind is not possible under such conditions.\n\nARTISTIC STAGNATION\n\nHowever, even though all these improvements come about, radio acting would still induce artistic stagnation and disintegration in the creative performer because of limitations inherent in the medium itself. Take the \"fade-out\" and the \"fade-in,\" for example. These are the stagehands of radio. They're the devices that shift the scenes. In the theater, during scene changes, the actor has several minutes at least to inwardly prepare himself for the next scene. In making a motion picture, he has hours—sometimes days. But in a radio drama he may be expected to \"fade-out\" from one set of circumstances and \"fade-in\" to another with different emotional adjustments to different people in an entirely different environment, all within two or three seconds. Even the most brilliant actor can't recondition his emotions in such a short space of time.\n\nSo what happens? He does the next best thing. Even though he doesn't feel the reality of the lines, he continues. He \"indicates\" the truth of a scene instead of experiencing and playing it. He can't wait until it comes to him. Dead air is anathema—there must always be sound or new listeners will tune in another station. Constant repetition of this \"indicating\" or \"tricking it\" is habit-forming, and it becomes increasingly difficult for the actor to approach his roles any other way. Also, if he works on many different programs, or does a lot of doubling of parts where he has to use different voice registers to get the proper balance with other performers, he develops a bag of voice tricks, which he dishes out to suit script requirements like Western Union with its ready-made telegrams for Mothers' Day.\n\nThis requires an efficiency, it's true. Successful radio actors have highly developed techniques. But their performances are, as a rule, only fractionally honest interpretations, by which is meant they have little reality for the performer himself. It's not his fault. Radio constantly demands of him a sacrifice of truth for effect. The listening audience's imagination meets him more than half way. It fills in all the details of a sketchy surface characterization. It requires from him only a partial truth. And any medium that doesn't stimulate him to greater truth, that doesn't encourage a greater creativeness in his work, must necessarily turn a creative actor from growth to retrogression.\n\nMy pleasure at seeing my full-page article in *Variety* was mitigated to some degree by a feeling that I was not really entitled to this forum, that I had not yet earned, through accomplishment or experience, the right to address the entire entertainment world.\n\nDuring the next few days there was much buzzing about the piece among actors with whom I worked in the studios. Many liked it, or said they did; others had points of disagreement. I noted subtle changes in the way most of them related to me. There was an ambivalence—on one hand, a respect for the authority suddenly conferred upon me by *Variety*, and on the other hand an underlying hostility toward the maverick, the befouler of his own nest who had demeaned their profession.\n\nBut nothing prepared me for what happened the following Wednesday. I bought a copy of *Variety* at a newsstand, thinking, perhaps, to see a short letter to the editor commenting on my views. (*Organ music in low.*). I leafed casually through the general news, flipped to the motion-picture pages, glancing at different items, until I came to the radio section (*Organ music sting.*). Three full pages of responses, with a bold, boxed, banner headline: RADIO ACTING VERSUS ALL ACTING—SOME REACTIONS TO JOSEPH JULIAN’S PREVIOUS ARTICLE. Agape, I saw column after column of answers from my peers and some of the biggest names in the business. I don’t believe *Variety* had ever before or has since devoted so much space to one man’s opinion. My name in almost every caption: “THINKS JULIAN SHOULD BE PSYCHOANALYZED”—“AGREES WITH JULIAN, BUT—” “THINKS JULIAN HAS STIMULATED HEALTHY DISCUSSION”—“JULIAN’S ATTITUDE SEEN AS DEFEATISM”—“ACTRESS EXPRESSES SURPRISE AT JULIAN\n\nHOLDING SUCH VIEWS”—“JOE JULIAN’S DARING A SURPRISE”—and many more.\n\nI later learned that this spontaneous outpouring from professionals across the land was aided and abetted by Variety’s shrewd editor, Robert Landry. He had smelled a hot controversy and shot off telegrams to notables, not only of radio but of the theater and film world as well, inviting their comments. Many responded:\n\nI THRIVE ON RADIO’S BAD CONDITIONS\nby Bing Crosby\n\nHollywood, Jan 21\n\nWe have been running the Kraft Music Hall for five years under the radio principles outlined by Mr. Julian, to wit, quick readings, short rehearsals and sketchy suggestions of characters, and I’m awfully sorry to say, Julian, old man, that we haven’t lost an actor yet through stagnation. . . .\n\nWHAT PRICE THEAT-AHH\nby John Daly\n\nChicago, Jan 21\n\nWell, wax my mustache and crack my whip, if I haven’t just read an article from the very old school. I had, until this very moment, been under the obviously wrong impression that those among our profession who “LIVE THE THEAT-AHH” were becoming extinct like the fur-collared coats for actors. As one former spear-carrier to another, I apologize, Mr. Julian, for my opinions. Surely I have been a traitor to the THEAT-AHH, to assume that such a vulgar thing as making money could be as important as one’s art. And to think that I have actually tried at times, mind you, to get additional work, when had I but read your article, Mr. Julian, I would surely have realized that I could not really “live” more than one character at a time.\n\nFunny, the ideas I did have. I had imagined radio acting as a pretty important and more than that, a damned lucrative field\n\nof work. I have tried in various assignments to interpret the characters honestly and without too much overacting. I had a vague idea that, inasmuch as the audience couldn't see the actors, that possibly the voice might be realized. I confess that I hadn't given a thought to how my artistic ability was being cramped. I guess I just thought myself lucky to have the assignment.\n\nAnd that horrid thing, the microphone. What a perfectly ducky idea to have a microphone to follow you around. Just imagine being able to snort and bellow from a squatting position, or better still to make love with benefit of davenport. Certainly it would be much more realistic. I shudder to think of how I once played an old prospector, without first finding myself a cave to live in, and then having the mike installed there.\n\nWhen I think how I've let them \"Stagnate my Art\" for the sake of a few bucks, I get mad. Who do they think they are? Who knows but what the soul of a Booth or Barrymore lies beneath this rugged chest of mine. And to think I have been sacrificing this great talent to satisfy a lot of vultures who thought they could buy me with filthy money.\n\nI apologize, Mr. Julian, I apologize.\n\nGET THE SCRIPT AHEAD OF TIME AND STUDY\nby Irene Rich\n\nHollywood, Jan 31, 1941\n\nWhen Mr. Julian said radio drama may lead the actor to artistic stagnation he obviously spoke without knowledge of his subject or the experience to back up what he said. The actor who faces the danger of stagnation in radio is only that actor who lacks the imagination to create his own characters. Radio should not stifle the good actor. It should give him an even greater stimulus to development of his creative faculties. Because in radio we actors must not only create the characters but we must stick to that characterization and maintain it throughout the entire play with no other instrument than the voice.\n\nAnd that, believe me, is a real test of an actor's imagination and creative powers.\n\nI also take issue with Mr. Julian on what he terms quick reading and short rehearsals. The actor who hasn't the foresight to obtain his script in advance, study it as he would a play script or a scenario, and see himself in relation to the other characters, is not in danger of stagnation. He is already stagnated.\n\nJOE JULIAN'S DARING A SURPRISE\n\n(One established Broadway actress expressed almost complete agreement with Joseph Julian's views. Explaining that she is anxious to get firmly into radio, she asked that her name be withheld.—Ed.)\n\nOf course he's right that all an actor can do in radio is to give a surface impression of a part, rather than the full-dimensional characterization possible on the stage. However, I didn't realize the successful radio actors felt that way about it. I just thought I wasn't very good at radio, that my inability to give an immediate performance was limiting my viewpoint. It's comforting to know that one of the best radio actors is dissatisfied with the medium.\n\nDISAGREES WITH JULIAN BUT THINKS HE HAS STIMULATED HEALTHY DISCUSSION\n\nA leading radio actor and director was inclined to pooh-pooh Julian's views in Variety, but preferred not to have his name used. In general his attitude was \"A radio actor is just selling soap. All that stuff about artistic integrity is the bunk.\n\n\"Julian sounds as if he's trying to apply the Stanislavsky method to radio, which would be absurd. If he really believes seriously what he says in that article he must be guilty of outrageous overacting on the air. And I don't believe that's so. I know Joe Julian. He's a good actor.\"\n\nJULIAN TELLS STORY THAT IS OLD STUFF\n\nBy H. Lester Tremayne\n\nMr. Julian’s article is not new, unusual nor different. It sums up rather disconnectedly the constant griping which I have heard every day of my life in radio for the last ten years. For every fault relative to radio acting there is a comparable fault in stage or picture work. There is also an opposite or constructive angle to each of Mr. Julian’s list of radio faults.\n\nRadio is a new medium which has its own peculiarities and technique. Any actor who goes into radio seriously should expect to make the adjustments necessary to a business which in its very mechanics is completely different from any acting form heretofore. If he is not able to make these adjustments, if he feels his artistic integrity will be jeopardized, he should certainly take his integrity, which no doubt is of the hothouse variety, where conditions will promote its growth.\n\nJULIAN’S ATTITUDE SEEN AS DEFEATISM\n\nBy Katharine Seymour\n\nAs a writer who listens to radio drama professionally and critically, I can say in all honesty that I am constantly amazed at the excellent performances of radio actors—performances which rarely betray the brief rehearsal periods of which Mr. Julian complains. Perhaps he is overly self critical and modest. After all, capable artists of integrity in any field are rarely satisfied with their own performances.\n\nAs a general criticism, it seems to me that the tone of Mr. Julian’s article is strictly defeatist, and it is this very attitude which has helped retard the growth of radio as an entertainment form. Writers, like actors, are irked at times by the limitations of the medium. We, too, would like to indicate significant bits of business instead of depending entirely upon dialogue or sound effects. But most of us feel that it’s futile to brood over radio’s limitations. Instead, we face the challenge of the medium and find satisfaction when we succeed in creating a mood through the only props at our disposal, sound effects and music.\n\nRADIO IS BRUTAL BUT A CHALLENGE\nby Janet Logan\n\nChicago, Jan 21, 1941\n\nSo radio ruins actors—well, perhaps it does—some of them. But radio gives opportunities and offers challenges which no sincere actor can question. The very limitations of radio provide a test. Without makeup—without scenery—without the inspiration of a visible audience, the player must develop a living, breathing human being.\n\nDials can be twisted so easily that the drama wherein the acting consists of a few \"mike tricks\" would soon be in Limbo. The public's not stupid nor too easily fooled.\n\nSYMPATHIZES, BUT PICTURE TOO BLACK\nBy Hugh Studebaker\n\nChicago, Jan 21, 1941\n\nWhile I'm inclined to sympathize with Julian's viewpoint, I can not agree that the picture is quite so black. This is due, perhaps to the mellowness—or resignation, induced by fourteen years spent in our puzzling and catch-as-catch-can art form. We've come a long way, developing our little bag of tricks, which is so necessary to bring to life several characters daily. And now we have come to the days of the Corwins and the Obolers. And we find, strangely, that out of the ruck something good has been emerging which I sincerely believe will ultimately bring satisfaction to the groping heart of the actor. Considering the extent to which experimentation in the baby field of radio acting has been limited by the necessary priority of the commercial, I can't help thinking that a great deal has been achieved. Whether we shall ever capture the high moments of elation for which we love the theater, so long as it\n\nremains necessary to watch the director, listen for sound, and hope to God our pages aren’t mixed, I don’t profess to know. At least it’s a challenge!\n\nA RADIO PERFORMANCE REQUIRES INTELLECTUAL TOTALITARIANISM\n\nBy Albert N. Williams\nCasting Director, NBC, New York\n\nYes, Joe Julian is right when he states that radio is the director’s medium rather than the actor’s. He is as right as a musician might be in proposing that symphonic is a conductor’s medium rather than an instrumentalist’s. To most radio actors, and the following remark holds true for radio writers, directors, in fact, most people connected with the industry, radio still appears to be merely a broadcast version of theater.\n\nRadio is no more theater than theater is Greek Festive dance—they are successive derivatives of each other. While it can never be denied that the ideal training ground for an actor is the legitimate stage, the actor, once trained, must, like the novice pilot, resort to different maneuvers when on the air. . . .\n\nRadio, in itself, is not an art. The sound of voice is not an art. The sound of music is not an art. The sound of a streetcar is not an art. Radio is only an electrical means of transmission of sound from a studio into the homes of the listeners. The art lies in the nearness to reality of the total sound, as mixed inside a control room. Most artistic effort is based on the assumption that all mental instruments can act simultaneously toward a perception of truth. Only one of these instruments is employed in listening to radio—the ear. Therefore, all adventures before the microphone must be submissive to the entire. Radio, more than any other of the arts, requires of its citizens an intellectual totalitarianism. Any coloration requires that that factor serve as a north star for the others. In the theater it is the simulation of living people. In films it is the God-sense of being able to oversee all. In radio, since sound can only be real in so far as it has meaning, the words themselves rather than the vibrancy of their delivery will be valid.\n\nIt is that nature of radio which must be understood, and which understanding will do away with much artistic unhappiness. When actors understand the microphone, they will no longer resent it, and it will not appear brutal to them. True, sound is one-dimensional, but good performances can also be one-dimensional.\n\nRadio is the art form of intimacy. Into people's homes, not a theater, is the ultimate direction of a show. Would one increase credibility in a living room with gestures, stage waits, smiles, handkerchief gymnastics?\n\nAs for the emotional jerkiness resulting from radio's rapid scene changes, we sometime expect our musicians to dive from a ponderous adagio into a delicate scherzo in the course of one beat. . . . Radio will always demand a sacrifice of truth for effect. Effect is the basis of all emotional and intellectual impact, and only by proving that it exerts those impacts does radio justify itself as a cultural factor of modern life.\n\nIt all boils down to the fact that while radio is a challenge for actors, it actually demands very little acting in the Broadway sense of the word. It demands careful and studied interpretation of the words of the script in order that the meaning of the words may be etched on the listener's mind. . . . The shut-in, the invalid, the isolated person wants human communication rather than the thrilling dissonance of pent-up artistic ecstasies. For actors to resent radio is unnecessary, and creates a temperamental disaffection which has unfortunate results. They will not resent it when they understand more clearly the nature of their medium.\n\nDIRECTOR COMMENTS\n\nBy George Zachary\n(Director of the Andre Kostelanetz program and the Campbell Playhouse)\n\nIt's perfectly true the radio actor lacks the opportunity for development he would have in the theater, but his whole performance has a different purpose and perspective. . . . I know of no radio actors whose performances improve perceptibly with rehearsal. If a regular radio actor doesn't get a characterization right with the first reading, there's no use trying to change him, I know I'm in a hole, but I generally expect a bad first reading from a stage actor, and it doesn't worry me. I know he has to grow in the part and it will be much better in performance. But radio actors are vastly superior to stage actors in radio-acting technique. Radio has developed the most versatile group of actors ever known to the entertainment field! . . . Julian speaks of the impossibility of an actor making mood transitions in a few seconds. Joe himself makes those transitions, but both Joe and the listener need help. That's where music can be important. A few notes of the proper atmospheric music will bring both the actor and listener into a totally different mood in two or three seconds. In some ways that can give added emphasis to a scene. In general, I think Julian's opinions are thoughtful and sound.\n\nNO NEED FOR ACTOR \"FRUSTRATION\"\n\nBy Erick Barnouw\n\nDear Joe Julian:\n\nThe artistic frustration of most radio actors I wouldn't want to deny, but I feel you're wrong to blame it on your medium.\n\nYou bewail the \"cold unresponsive microphone.\" Does a novelist get peeved at his typewriter for not chuckling at his jokes? It just happens that novelists and radio actors don't have the privilege of witnessing the artistic experiences they provide their audiences. This is part of the nature of these and\n\nmany other arts, and simply offers an extra challenge to the imagination. In these fields the artist has to be more, not less, of an artist.\n\nYou feel frustrated because you can't do gestures and \"bits of business.\" You feel this makes radio acting \"incomplete.\" But one of the most gratifying of arts, cartooning, is exciting precisely because of its incompleteness. The less it tells and shows, the more it merely suggests, the better we like it. A window-dummy is more \"complete,\" but hardly provides artist or audience with more gratification. Radio acting also works in suggestion, not demonstration, some actors prefer it for this.\n\nYou bemoan having to act by the clock. Every art has mechanical strictures, and the real artist not only accepts but often welcomes them. For centuries poets have kept busy at sonnets, with just fourteen lines and a torturing rhyme-scheme, when they could just as well write loose odes. Working within imposed limits is part of the gratification of any art. What's wrong with fourteen minutes?\n\nYou feel it's hard to keep your imagination clear in the presence of mikes, scripts, clocks and directors behind aquarium windows. Is a painter distracted by his easels and his bottles? You seem to miss real tables, chairs, doors and other literal paraphernalia. Does a poet have to sit in the woods to write about birds? It isn't just high-hat to compare radio acting with painting, poetry, novel-writing. These all bank heavily on the imagination of both artist and audience, and are challenging and gratifying for that reason.\n\nThen why do radio actors feel frustrated? Because, as you say, writers give you chiefly drivel to act—which they do because producers buy chiefly drivel—which they do because audiences seem to cling to drivel—which they do because they've been conditioned, by film, magazines and radio, to drivel. That vicious circle, in spite of occasional exciting flurries of better writing, makes for progressive deterioration. In a time of precarious profits that's also true of shoes, and shirts and mayonnaise. That's what frustrates you, not your medium. Incidentally, I often hear your excellent acting.\n\nRADIO TOUGH ON NEWCOMERS\n\nSan Francisco, Jan 21\n\nJoseph Julian’s dictum, as expressed in last week’s Variety, that the nature of radio leads actors down the road to artistic stagnation, draws a divvy here. Some agree with the New Yorker’s contention while others concede the point that ether drama is largely a director’s medium. Representative comments follow:\n\nPhil Stearns (seventeen years experience as actor, director, producer on radio, stage, screen): “Julian is about half right, although the medium hasn’t even been scratched as yet. I don’t agree with him on characterization—a good actor can take a good script and build a character that will be remembered. Orson Welles has proven that. Julian is right when he says radio actors tend to drift into artistic stagnation, but it is not the fault of radio acting. A microphone performer who takes his work seriously can make himself stand out on the air just as in the theater.”\n\nHelen Morgan (stage, radio writing background): “Julian is partly right; not only in acting, but in writing and producing, radio is always under the gun, which accounts for a lot of the sloppy drama on the air. When it becomes financially possible to give players sufficient rehearsal time, radio acting will improve. But someday there must be more of a closed-door in radio acting. Today, anybody who can read writing is considered capable of acting on the air—it’s still too much like a great big amateur show. When they start limiting radio drama to people with real microphone ability, things will improve. Radio has been made too easy.”\n\nZella Layne (Dr. Kate serial): “It’s a matter of becoming a topflight reader more than anything else. The script writer has the best chance. A radio actor hasn’t much chance to do anything but do a good job of reading at sight.”\n\nJeanne Bate (NBC actress): “In most radio shows today\n\nyou're not acting—you're helping to sell a product. Furthermore, in daytime shows you're playing to people who are doing something else while they're listening and wouldn't know a characterization if they heard one because they aren't paying enough attention. That is reserved for the big programs at night.\"\n\nJack Kirkwood (with a lifetime in the theater behind him): \"Yeah—hard work and experience—in the theatre. This bird Joseph Julian knows what he is talking about. Radio hasn't developed ten real actors in its history—all the good ones came from the stage. Radio is worse than the picture business for new actors; all a guy can do is just what the director tells him. That's been my squawk for years. There isn't a chance for a newcomer to start in radio and get anywhere. Joseph knows his oats.\"\n\nI was overwhelmed by this extraordinary burst of publicity, and fearful it would spell the end of my burgeoning livelihood. After all, if radio did such horrible things to actors, why would I want to work in such a corroding medium? Why should directors even bother to call me?\n\nI went to the Variety office and confided my fears to editor Landry, who assured me I couldn't buy publicity like that for $50,000, and predicted I would soon be busier than ever. The following week he published more letters in reaction to my piece—some pro, some con—from Gene Autry, Conrad Nagel, Chester Lauck of Lum and Abner, and many more. But since practically none addressed itself to my main point, I decided an answer to the answers was in order. I wrote a \"clarifying\" piece for the next issue.\n\nJOE JULIAN IN GENTLE REPLY TO HIS CRITICS\n\nNew York, Jan 29, '41\n\nEditor, Variety\n\nI seemed to have opened Pandora's box—or something. While most of the reactions to my *Variety* article entirely disregarded my basic premise, I found them interesting because they illuminate the general confusion that exists on the entire subject of radio acting—in fact, all acting.\n\nHowever, the general tone of the replies tend to give an impression that I wrote the article in a white heat of anger or disgust with radio, as such. One of the comments even referred to my \"daring\" in risking the resentment of agency executives and directors by openly stating my views. I would like to clear up any such misconception. In the first place, the radio industry provides me with quite a decent living, and anyone who doesn't have a healthy respect for his means of livelihood is either an idiot or a professional iconoclast. About risking the resentment of directors, I didn't think in those terms. I assumed, I suppose, they would accept it as intended, not as destructive criticism, but an attempt at a purely objective analysis and comparison of the creative possibilities of actors in radio in relation to the other entertainment fields.\n\nI recognize the validity of radio itself as a wonderful new art form, but not radio acting. Acting is the art form, not radio acting or stage acting or film acting. The actor's approach to his part is the same in all three mediums. His tools are basically the same. He uses his emotions, personal experience, his powers of concentration, imagination, observation, his voice and his body. Even in radio he uses his body. He unconsciously twists, turns, and gestures within the confines of the mike \"beam,\" because his main function is to create out of his material the greatest possible reality for himself, not his audience. If he believes what he is acting, the audience believes. And this is true of acting in any medium. But in radio there are more mechanical strictures and distractions to prevent his building\n\nthis reality for himself, than in other acting fields. Therefore in radio he has less opportunity to use his creative energies. One of my knuckle rappers considers this a healthy challenge. True, the lack of real contact with his fellow performers stimulates the radio actor's imagination to a certain extent. He must dig deeper down into himself for the emotions that would flow more naturally from proper adjustment to his co-actors. But this virtue, I believe, is more than offset by developing in the actor a tendency toward an introverted kind of acting that can become artistically as unhealthy as can an introverted way of living.\n\nAnd the distractions of holding scripts, finding the next line, watching directors for cues, etc. Are these healthy challenges? Do they make an actor sharpen his powers of concentration? Then why not sharpen them sharper by bringing even more distractions into the studio? Maybe a little man could be hired to run around the studio distracting the actors—making funny faces at them while they're on the air.\n\nErik Barnouw makes the point that \"for centuries poets have kept busy at sonnets with just fourteen lines and a torturing rhyme-scheme, when they could just as well write loose odes. Working within imposed limits is part of the gratification of any art.\"\n\nThe poets who turned to sonnets didn't impose these restrictions on themselves for the gratification they got out of overcoming handicaps. In all progressive art, form is derived from content. One doesn't arbitrarily select a form then fill it in with stuff. The stuff determines the form it needs. The poets wrote sonnets because to them it was the best way of expressing a particular poetic concept.\n\nBut the radio actor doesn't select radio acting because it's a better method of expression for him than the stage. Usually it's because it gives him a much better living.\n\nI'm strongly tempted to argue other points made by your correspondents. I feel much good can come of a pro and con discussion of the subject, even if it only makes for a greater awareness in actors of the tools of their trade (a long step towards\n\nusing them better), but I am a little afraid that prolonging the argument might lay my motives open to question. You know—actor—publicity, etc.??? So—I better gather up all my split infinitives and dangling participles and run along. I’m late for rehearsal.\n\nJoseph Julian.\n\nFor months the articles were the subject of discussion and argument around the studios, ad agencies, and cocktail parties, with enough support for my thesis for my name to acquire some prestige as a serious, thoughtful actor.\n\nI was especially pleased to get a call from Montgomery Clift, a rising young actor whose work I greatly admired, and with whom I had, in some way, felt a kinship. We met at Colbee’s Restaurant, a hangout for radio people in the old CBS Building at 485 Madison Avenue, where he told me he had wanted to meet me because I had exactly expressed his own feelings about the whole radio acting phenomenon.\n\nI began getting calls for jobs from directors I had never met. Landry’s prophecy was fulfilled. Ironically, after writing on the deleterious effect of radio on creative actors, I became busier than ever.\n\n5. \"Michael West\" and After\n\nSometime in mid-1941 I ran into Larry Menkin, who had been my roommate at WLW, and later became one of radio's most prolific writers—Famous Jury Trials, Mollé Mystery Theater, Harlem Detective, and hundreds more. He was now freelancing in New York. He informed me that my friend Thomas Ashwell was no longer at WLW. On the strength of his job there as program manager, he had talked himself into becoming general manager of WXYZ in Detroit. Another step up the ladder. I wondered if he was using the same system.\n\nMy own progress was greatly aided in 1941 by a Greenwich Village neighbor, Julian Funt, who was writing a soap opera that had been on the air for five years called Big Sister. For some reason I brought out the big brother in him. He always showed a warm interest in my activities and welfare, and we became friends.\n\nHe had a habit of closely questioning people about themselves and mutual acquaintances. But as I got to know him better, I realized that it was out of a healthy\n\nhuman concern, and that an appetite for the intimate details of peoples' lives was part of a good writer's basic equipment. In fact, I began to envy his energetic curiosity and tried to cultivate more of it in myself as I realized its application to my own profession.\n\nI was also not unaware of his writer's interest in me as a character—which, perhaps, I was (am?). In any case, when I met Funt, I had not yet found my center of gravity; my feet were planted firmly in the sky, and I collected folk songs—attributes of a role he wrote into the story line of *Big Sister*. It came out as Michael West, rootless, embittered young wanderer who sang folk songs and accompanied himself on the guitar. In the program, Michael falls under the influence of Big Sister, who eases his pain and restores his faith in people. Since I had inspired the character, a little neighborly nepotism seemed in order. Funt got me an audition and, I suspect, used his influence to help me get the part.\n\nThe role had such a successful listener response that after several months the sponsor, Lever Brothers, decided to do a spinoff and give Michael West his own show. Now that Michael was to be the lead, it was decided—and this was typical of sponsor madness—that general auditions should be held for the role. I was invited to compete. Perhaps, now that it was a starring role, with a contract and more money involved, they wanted to be sure they couldn't do better. Whatever their reasons, I again won the part. They called the show *Bright Horizon, the Story of Michael West*. In a way, it was a complete reversal of the normal daytime formula. It had a hero instead of the usual heroine, and a woman announcer instead of a man. And, for good measure, a Miss Ora Nichols worked the sound\n\neffects—the only woman on CBS who handled sound.\n\nThe new show got off to a good start. In those days, considerable newspaper and magazine space was devoted to radio, and radio reviews were as widespread as are those of plays and films today. This was Hobe Morrison’s Variety coverage:\n\n**Bright Horizon**\n**Serial**\nWith Joseph Julian, Alice Frost, Santos Ortega, Sid Slon, Chester Stratton, Marjorie Anderson, John Gart.\n15 Mins.\nLever Bros.\nMon–Fri., 11:30 A.M.\n(Young & Rubicam)\n\nLever Bros. appears to have a lively bet in this show, based on the Michael West character formerly part of the Big Sister series. Format of the show is a change from standard serials, while the West character is unusual and meaty. Because the story is obviously going to get a completely new slant so as to steer it away from the Big Sister plot, it’s difficult to predict how good the yarn may be, but on the basis of Monday’s (25) debut, Bright Horizon has definite prospects.\n\nFull title of the program is Bright Horizon, the Story of Michael West. Takes the form of a first-person narrative by the hero, a soft-hearted idealistic guy beneath the surface of hard-bitten disillusionment. Narrative fades quickly into dramatization, but cuts back for brief first-person narration to afford scene changes. Most of the initial episode was flashback to familiarize the listeners with the story’s characters, situation and background. It was neatly telescoped, however, thereby quickly preparing to cut loose from its Big Sister source and embark on a story line of its own. Characters, all but Michael, apparently slated to fade from future scripts, are sharp, particularly the hero. Dialogue is good.\n\nProduction, direction and performance on the opener were\n\nexcellent. Pacing and mood were nicely handled. Joseph Julian had the proper blend of bitterness and romantic softness as the hero, while Alice Frost was expressive and authoritative as Ruth Wayne, the title part of Big Sister, and set to fade from Horizon pronto. Santos Ortega, Sidney Slon and Chester Stratton were also convincing in supporting roles. John Gart’s organ bridges and cues were notably helpful.\n\nBalancing the presence of a man as the central character, Marjorie Anderson, instead of a male announcer, reads the intros and commercials. It’s a welcome variation, besides which she handles the blurbs rather persuasively. Product on the regular 11:30 A.M. show is Swan Soap, while on the 2 P.M. repeat to the coast it’s Lipton’s tea.\n\nHobe.\n\nHaving my first lead in a radio series upped me considerably in my own esteem. But Bobby Gibson and his busy little manager tried to swipe some of my glory. Since I couldn’t sing, the producers hired this . . . this baritone, to be my singing voice when the occasion demanded. Naturally, to him the singing was more important than the acting; therefore, Michael West was played by Bobby Gibson the singer, not Joe Julian the actor. Every day the busy little manager would grab all the fan mail and answer requests for a photograph of Michael West by sending an autographed picture of his client.\n\nThe papers had some fun with it, too. Ben Kaplan, in his nationally syndicated column, “For the Love of Mike,” wrote:\n\nWhen Michael sings, a teardrop springs\nFrom optics feminine.\nWhen he emotes, each maiden notes\nThe melody within;\nBut in their bliss the hearers miss\nA most important fact:\n\nTwo not alike play role of \"Mike,\"\nOne sings and one does act.\n\nThe problem of who was really Michael West was resolved six months later: we were both fired, and replaced by Richard Kollmar, who could both sing and act.\n\nIt hurt. I tried to console myself that I was let go to save a salary, but I didn't believe myself. Actors don't accept reasons like that. They convince themselves they gave a terrible performance, that they lost whatever talent they had, that there is no hope and they will never work again. As I said, actors do not generally have strong egos. Mine shrank to nothing. I sulked, unable to bring myself to face other actors, or look for work. Having been to Olympus, how could I go back to making the rounds?\n\nMy misery was mitigated when one day I got a call for a running part on *The O'Neills*, a daily serial about a poor Irish family. But that didn't last long. After a few months I wound up in \"jail,\" an innocent victim of the melodramatic plot line—typical of *The O'Neills*—and a major reason it failed in its attempt to become the Irish counterpart of *The Goldbergs*, an enormously successful family story, which had been running since 1929, that is, for twelve years. But the Goldbergs couldn't be duplicated because there was no duplicate for Gertrude Berg, who wrote it and played the leading role of Molly. Gertrude was one of radio's jewels. A middle-aged housewife who had never written in her life, she decided she didn't have enough to do, with only a husband and growing children to take care of. She therefore conceived the idea for a serial about a poor Jewish family in New York, wrote a few episodes, and sent them to NBC. They bought it. And bought her as writer and star. It was not melodramatic, nor was it a typical soap opera of suffering virtue and *Sturm und Drang*, but rather a cozy comedy of small human foibles that nearly everyone could identify with. Gertrude Berg created one of the most famous characters in the history of radio—a Jewish mama who was not smothering or abrasive, but warm, sensitive, and amusing. With no professional background, she wrote and played with a perfect ear for the nuances of Jewish speech and character. Her \"Yoo hoo! Is anybody?\" as she called to her upstairs neighbor was but one of hundreds. And you didn't have to be Jewish to love Gertrude. With an audience of millions, she probably did more, five times a week for over two decades, to combat anti-Semitism than any individual in history.\n\nAt one time, after about eight or nine years, NBC decided *The Goldbergs* had been on the air long enough, and announced its cancellation. Outraged listeners howled their protest in a storm of letters. NBC bowed to *vox populi*.\n\nMuch of the nostalgia for old-time radio relates to the fun of being horrified by *Inner Sanctum*, *Lights Out*, and *The Shadow*. Or laughing, without guilt, at the ethnic humor of *Moran and Mack* (*The Two Black Crows*) and *Amos ’n’ Andy*; or crying along with the soap-opera queens; or giving your mind over to the wild science-fiction tales of *Dimension X* and *Two Thousand Plus*.\n\nThere were also interesting realistic dramas. Shows such as the *Lux Radio Theater*, directed and hosted by Cecil B. DeMille, featured movie stars in radio adaptations of famous motion pictures. *Cavalcade of America* presented weekly dramatizations of American history. Sponsored by Du Pont, the series paid $150 per script, for which they could get good authors such as the poet Norman Rosten and the playwright-to-be, Arthur Miller.\n\nBut some of us fondly remember radio for its richer cultural nourishment—for its achievements on the level of art. And there were quite a few. Many, if not most, were created by Norman Corwin.\n\nThere were early experimental programs like *The Columbia Workshop* and *Studio One*, where a few imaginative writers and directors like Irving Reis, William Robson, Marc Blitzstein, Earle McGill, and Charles Martin tried out new techniques with sometimes interesting results. But no one stretched radio’s horizons as did Norman Corwin.\n\nA newspaperman for the first ten years of his professional career, Corwin went to work for CBS in 1938 and quickly grasped the fundamentals of this new medium. Without any real apprenticeship or theater background, he began to write, produce, and direct radio shows. The technology of radio excited him, and he immediately began to explore its possibilities. He had an intuitive understanding of how to deal with performers (fragile creatures that we are), a love of words, a poetic thrust, an orderly mind, a scientific curiosity, a social conscience, a delightful sense of humor, and a soaring imagination—all reflected in his plays.\n\nHe pioneered new techniques in mixing sound effects and developed original production devices, while writing an astonishing number and variety of comedies and dramas that ranged from his charming fantasy *My Client Curley*—the story of a little boy who owned a caterpillar that could dance only to the tune of “Yes Sir, That’s My Baby”—to *On a Note of Triumph*, his eloquent and powerful punctuation to the climax of World War II; from *Mary and the Fairy*, a whimsical satire about a lonely lady stuffing her empty life with the dreams society thrusts upon her, to “We Hold These Truths,” a moving, poetic documentation of the evolution of the Bill of Rights.\n\nMany of Corwin's works had considerable social impact. \"We Hold These Truths,\" for instance, planted its statement in the ears of more people than any other single dramatic performance in history.\n\nIt was a special hour program, written at the request of the Office of Facts and Figures in Washington, to celebrate the 150th Anniversary of the Bill of Rights. Produced in Hollywood, on December 15, 1941, portions of it originated in New York and Washington. Bernard Hermann composed a special score for the dramatic sequences, conducting a symphony orchestra in the Hollywood studio, while Leopold Stokowski led the New York Philharmonic Orchestra from New York in the national anthem. The program was carried over all four major networks in prime time, and concluded with an address to the nation by Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Crossley reports (the main rating poll of the time) estimated the number of listeners at over sixty million! And what a cast: Lionel Barrymore, Edward Arnold, Walter Brennan, Bob Burns, Walter Huston, Marjorie Main, Edward G. Robinson, James Stewart, Rudy Vallee, Orson Welles and . . . the President of the United States.\n\nCorwin stimulated a number of other fine American writers to write for the medium. Archibald MacLeish developed *The Fall of the City*, a long, dramatic allegory about Hitler and man's lust to be enslaved. With Corwin's encouragement, Maxwell Anderson and Stephen Vincent Benét came up with several poetic dramas. Millard Lampell wrote a touching elegy for Abraham Lincoln, called *The Lonesome Train*. All of these were directed and given a special radio life by Corwin. But, with the exception of\n\nthe Lincoln funeral story, where music and the mournful train whistle played an important part, they would have been as effective read in a book or presented on a stage—as would have countless other presentations adapted from poems, dramas, short stories and novels.\n\nBut Corwin was pure radio. A word and sound man; a music and effects man, who conceived in those terms—abundantly. As Clifton Fadiman wrote:\n\nCorwin is so much the technician that he conducts public experiments with his medium, coaxes it to perform tricks, plays with it, treats it with the eager curiosity of a boy with his first chemical set. What is important about him, beyond his mastery of his medium, is that he has something to say, and a heart and a mind with which to say it. His masterpiece, “We Hold These Truths,” provides irrefutable evidence of his ability to manipulate actors, words, machines, and ether waves, so that the combination expresses clear, lofty, and inspiring thought.*\n\nCarl Van Doren wrote that, “Corwin was to radio what Marlowe was to the Elizabethan stage.” But in terms of sheer prolificacy, I know of no peer on his level of achievement. In 1941 he committed himself to the colossal task of writing, producing, and directing for twenty-six consecutive weeks a special CBS series, *Twenty-six by Corwin*, which won him an American Writer’s Congress Award. In a foreword to the published version, he wrote:\n\nEach of these plays was written against a deadline, and most of them within a week’s time. A schedule of this sort is dangerous and should be tried only once in the lifetime of a conscientious radiowright. I gave up all but a few distractions and placed a\n\n* From the Introduction to *More by Corwin: 16 Radio Dramas by Norman Corwin*. New York. Henry Holt & Co., 1944.\n\nstrict limit on working hours: never more than twenty-four in a day.\n\nHe also wrote production notes for these plays which provide an insight into his creative process: the hard work, the careful casting, the long experimentation to achieve precise effects.\n\nThe first of the twenty-six was \"The Odyssey of Runyon Jones,\" a fantasy about a little boy's search for his dog, Pootzy, who had died and been sent to Curgatory. On the way, he encountered Father Time, Mother Nature, her assistant Blossom, a Giant, and many other fantasy characters. Here are some of Corwin's notes on that production:\n\nCASTING:\nWithout a sensitive and versatile Runyon, you might as well all go home. He should be between nine and twelve, and sound earnest, purposeful, persistent. Don't, under any circumstances, employ a Runyon who sounds fresh or oversmart or whining. So many radio kids sound that way, although as a class they are better than the horrible Hollywood junior brigade.\n\nFather Time must, of course, be old to be credible. The character should justify the \"crackpot\" comment which is made later by the Chairman of the Board of Curgatory.\n\nMother Nature is a busy but not overbearing executive type: the efficient controller of all things natural; the kindly helper; the disciplinarian. M.N.'s assistant, Blossom, is a silly child.\n\nThe Giant is a stock giant. Arthur Vinton played him with humor and vitality, deepening an already deep voice, and rolling his speech in a wondrous way.\n\nACTING:\nEverybody whom Runyon meets in his travels treats him as an adult, never as a child. Nobody wastes sympathy, except perhaps the Superintendent, who is aware of the boy's unusual attachment to his dog. Father Time is too daft to care much; Mother Nature is accustomed to all kinds of strange petitions; the Giant has worries of his own; the personnel of Curgatory is polite but firm, always addressing the boy as \"Jones.\" None of the characters should be travestied.\n\n**SOUND:**\n\nThe only problem is that of the background for the Father Time sequence. I found that the best effect was achieved by slowing down a recording of a cuckoo clock. At normal speed this effect was a pleasant \"ding,\" followed by a cheerful \"cuckoo,\" but I reduced it to a speed so low that the ding became a tremendous and deep-chested \"BONG,\" and the optimistic chirrup of the cuckoo became a lugubrious two-note wail of a melancholy whistling buoy. This succeeded somehow in creating an effect of great space, of mysterious gyrations, of the weird inner workings of the solar system.\n\n**REHEARSAL ROUTINE:**\n\nThe chief production worries are the blending of sound, music, and speech in the Time Sequence and the interview between the Giant and Runyon. The former can best be accomplished by using a separate microphone for each element, being careful not to allow the background of sound to override speech. This scene will be soupy unless one works hard to maintain clear perspectives.\n\nIn the Giant scene, complete isolation is necessary if Runyon is to sound small and the Giant big. I placed Runyon in a dead booth * and reduced the level of his microphone on the control board, while the Giant had the whole studio to himself, and an echo chamber to boot.\n\n* A dead booth is a booth made of portable walls, which is set up within a studio to isolate an actor from sound or music. In effect, it serves as a studio-within-a-studio. A microphone placed within a booth is easily controlled by the engineer, so that the voice of the actor is not drowned out by heavy sound effects or music coming from the studio proper. The principle of the booth is an important one in production, and is almost indispensable in the handling of complicated setups.\n\nCorwin published these production notes for the guidance of directors of future productions, of which I am sure there have been very few—for the simple reason that, outside of the networks, not many stations have the staff, talent, or facilities for such productions. And if Corwin was thinking of the glorious future, well, the glorious future has arrived, and good radio drama is in the middle of a long death. The small but rich body of radio literature, which he brought so lovingly to life, lies languishing in a few libraries and second-hand book shops, under the titles *Thirteen By Corwin* and *More By Corwin*—a great shame and deprivation for the present generation!\n\nThe publicity surrounding the *Variety* articles had brought me to Corwin’s attention. It was the beginning of the most rewarding relationship of my career. He began casting me in bit parts in some of his “Twenty-six” series—including “The Odyssey of Runyon Jones.” The final scene of that play was, for me, one of radio’s wonderful moments. The bureaucrats of Curgatory had finally granted Jones permission to see his dog. We hear the ponderous footsteps of a guard (me) echoing down a long marble corridor, contrasting with the tiny, rapid steps of the boy. The suspense is heightened by continuing the footsteps an inordinate length of time. Finally they stop. The guard says, “Here we are. He’s right inside that door.” Runyon, barely able to control his voice, says, “He’s right inside there?” “Yes,” says the guard, “just open the door and walk right in.” There is a pause. “What’s the matter?” asks the guard. There is another silence, and the little boy asks, plaintively, “Do I look all right?” “Oh, yes, Mr. Jones,” the guard replies. We hear the sound of a doorknob turning and the beginning of a door opening—then a dissolve into music.\n\nI landed my first lead in a Corwin play in the summer of 1942, a segment of his monumental *This Is War* series, entitled, “To the Young.” A large percentage of his work now dealt with World War II and its issues, and *This Is War* was an umbrella title for a number of special hour programs carried simultaneously over all the networks. Some segments were written by various authors, but all were produced and directed by Corwin. This is how *Variety* reviewed “To the Young.”\n\n*This Is War* No. 11\n*With Joseph Julian*\nSaturday, 7 P.M.\nAll Networks\n\nOther chapters have been more cohesively knit as to framework, but “To the Young” proved as dynamic a document as anything that has preceded it on this series. It presented the case against the Nazi foe not through virulent name-calling, but through citations from factual data showing the depths of degradation into which Nazi child education and cultural life has sunk. It preached unity and faith in our allies by relating the heroic exploits of the British, Russians, and the Chinese. It piled into our own sixth column with a singeing scorn, quoting their undermining cant and at one point categorizing them with the crack, “There’s a crackpot market for anything that’s anti-sensible and anti-decent.”\n\nJoseph Julian . . . was posed as a young member of our armed forces who meets a Cockney flier, a Russian guerilla, a German soldier who, once a member of his country’s underground movement had, when the opportunity offered, deserted to the Soviet side, and a young, college-bred woman\n\nfrom the Chinese auxiliary forces. He learns in his travels that the \"cranks and some editors\" at home have been lying to him about the Reds, that there is a method to their stirring up of anti-British sentiment and that the accent is not only on youth but on victory.\n\nJohnny Green's was a competent bit of scoring.\n\nOdec.\n\nIn those days, such strongly political programs did not bring down the wrath of the FCC on the networks, or a clamor for equal time by \"responsible opposing views,\" as it would today, because on the war issue there was no real gap either between the major political parties or between government and the people.\n\nBy this time most Americans had committed their hearts and muscle to the war against Hitler, and sentiment was growing for the United States to open a second front in Europe to relieve the pressure on England, whose cities were being blasted day and night.\n\nThere was scarcely a factory in Detroit that was not turning out something for England. And in California the air was so heavy with war planes being tested near aircraft factories, and causing such unrelenting noise, that Hollywood studios had to rewrite scripts to eliminate outdoor shooting locations. With the exception of fringe groups, Americans supported decisions to send these massive supplies, because intuitively they understood that the war was pro-humanity and that Britain was fighting our battle, too.\n\nLanding the lead in \"To The Young\" was a fateful bit of casting for me. My performance of a soldier going off to war would be directly responsible for plunking me down in the midst of a real war only two weeks later.\n\nIn the middle of July, 1942, I received a call from Paul\n\nWhite, head of CBS News. Would I be interested in flying to London within the next few days to play the lead in a special six-week series called *An American in England* that Norman Corwin was doing from the BBC, a series that was to be shortwaved back to America? Apparently Corwin, who was already in London, had intended to use Burgess Meredith as the star, but there had been some last-minute trouble getting the army to release him. Remembering my *To the Young* performance, Corwin cabled CBS to fly me over.\n\nWould I be interested? I practically flew over to CBS to sign the contract. It didn’t even occur to me to bargain over my fee; the paper they pushed at me stated: “We will pay you the sum of Two Hundred and Fifty Dollars per program on which you render your services.” Out of that I had to pay my own living expenses. For starring in an important, international Corwin series to be heard throughout the British Isles and America, the salary had to be an all-time low. I’ve always been a soft-nosed businessman; the hot, tumbling visions of a trip to England at war must have softened my brain, too. I signed.\n\nCBS expeditiously arranged my passport and papers, and three days later I was on a train speeding toward the Canadian border. In my pocket was a sealed envelope of instructions, not to be opened until I arrived in Montreal. All I was told was that I would be flying the Atlantic in one of the bombers being ferried from American factories to the Royal Air Force in England; and the time and place of the departures were highly secret.\n\nAs the train ploughed through the night, my thoughts and feelings came fast and furious: I had never flown the\n\nAtlantic before—in fact, very few other people had. I had never been to England, and here I was on my way to an England that was being blasted into rubble. War—till then an abstraction—was about to become a reality. And, professionally, new horizons were opening for me: soon I would be performing in most living rooms of the United States and the British Isles. Before I had left New York, there had already been considerable publicity about Corwin having selected me for this choice assignment.\n\nI played games to calm myself. An actor’s self-hypnosis. “I’m going on a weekend pleasure trip; I’ll be back Sunday night.” The pitch blackness outside the train window was suddenly shattered by a concentration of thousands of lights: a defense plant night shift, working full blast. Reality. This was no weekend pleasure trip. I was on my way to a close-up of history and horror.\n\nJottings from my journal:\n\nJuly 23, 1942: Montreal! A busy, bustling city. Oldness and war in the air. A mélange of accents and uniforms. I’ve become a foreigner. Streets dense with RAF fliers snapping salutes at passing superiors. Opened my sealed orders. There was a phone number to call and identify myself as 537. Male voice told me to wait there. Within fifteen minutes a limousine picked me up and drove me to the airport, where I was fitted with an oxygen mask, parachute, and shown a film about what to do if the pilot has to “ditch” in the ocean. It brought out the coward in me! Can such things happen? We’re to leave at 9:30 in the morning.\n\nJuly 24, 1942: Flight cancelled. Bad weather. Prospect of another day of nail-gnawing too much. Saw movie tonight: *This Above All*, about the bombing of London. Shocked into realization I’m on my way to all that. Hope we’re not cancelled tomorrow. Corwin must be terribly worried. This is Friday, the\n\nseries starts Monday! And I haven’t rehearsed, or even seen the script!\n\nJuly 25: We’ve been in the air ten minutes. Can’t take my nose from the window. Five other passengers dozing or reading. Amazed at their relaxation. Only at takeoff was there a surge of feeling. Spontaneously, everyone looked at everyone, grinned, and gave “thumbs up.” Maybe they’re at ease because this is only the overland part of the flight. Must be climbing, I’m getting cold. Just had a shock. Three corks shot up at me from thermos bottles. [There was no pressurization in those days.] We’ve hit a rain and hail storm. Everyone is nervously fingering the straps of his parachute. They all yell, “Sit down!” as a young Frenchman stands up to stretch and touches the defroster pipe that runs along the ceiling. Seems “icing up” is feared most by pilots on this run.\n\nJust landed at Gander, Newfoundland airport, biggest in the world. Carved smack out of the wilderness. A wilderness of lakes kept apart by crazy strips of land for hundreds of miles. Three administrations here. Royal Canadian Air Force, American Air Force, and the British Ferry Command. Anti-aircraft guns bristling everywhere. Terrific traffic. In the two hours we waited, fifteen planes took off for the British Isles. Could mean a staggering number of deliveries over a period of time. We’re all given warm, fleece, flying suits and boots. They tell us it’s extremely cold over the North Atlantic. We take off at 6:15 P.M. and at 6:30 we’re leaving the coast. At last over the ocean. Everybody takes off his parachute. I’m astounded. I ask why? A Royal Air Force officer tells me, “If we go down over the drink, old boy, it’s not going to do you a bloody bit of good.” They all laughed when I told them I felt better with it on, and that I hoped there would be no occasion for me to have the last laugh.\n\nThere’s courage in everyone’s eye. Mine, too, much to my surprise. Maybe in a tight little group like this, exposed to danger,\n\neverybody's courage gets all mixed up and you draw what you need from the common lot. The second pilot just assigned us our rubber life boats and \"Mae Wests\"—\"just in case.\" We all laughed and jerked \"thumbs up.\"\n\nInto the night. I play games again. I'm Lindbergh crossing the Atlantic in *The Spirit of St. Louis*. Looking out of my small window at the shining heavenly bodies in the moonlit vastness, I feel a point-in-space loneliness that he and all the first ocean flyers must have known—a sense of danger, diluted by an exalting awareness of the infinite. It's hard to sustain a mystical experience with the plane rattling as if it's coming apart and the roar of four propeller engines in your ears. And these bucket seats aren't designed for comfort. Maybe if I stretch out on the floor I can catch some sleep. My thick flying suit and parachute should soften it a little. . . . I tried and failed. Even heavier vibration there.\n\nWe're flying against the night, and like two trains passing we're suddenly in the clear of another day.\n\nA few more hours and the rocky isles of southern Ireland miraculously appear. Flight engineer calls out, \"Another hour and a half till we put down in Scotland.\" I'm Lindbergh again, joyously sighting land!\n\nEven flying at 10,000 feet over Ireland you understand why an Irishman can't speak of his county without rhapsodizing. Never have I seen such a lush green panorama.\n\nHad a sudden sick feeling that we were fast descending to an emergency landing on a farm. Not until we touched down did I realize it was Presswick Airport in Scotland. Amazingly camouflaged! Terraced to look like the surrounding farm acres. Buildings and hangers all nestled under the foliage of clusters of trees or in haystacks. Planes landing and taking off every few minutes. The smell of war is getting stronger. As we climbed out of the belly of our Liberator, a small electric baggage truck,\n\nmanned—rather womanned—by three overall-clad, grimy-faced young girls, drove up. They started slinging the heavy suitcases around like longshoremen. My first contact with the British people at war.\n\nThe flight took only twenty-three hours!\n\nWent into the airport restaurant and blithely ordered ham and eggs. The waitress laughed. She thought my casualness part of my little joke. It suddenly hit me. Food is severely rationed here. I laughed with the waitress, pretending I had intended the joke. But when she asked if I’d take tea or coffee and I said tea, and from force of habit added, “with lemon, please,” she really got sore. “Look ’ere mister,” she said, “we ain’t seen a lemon for three years. So don’t go gettin’ funny about it!”\n\nThe half crowns, shillings, pennies and ha’pennies I had been given confused me, and while trying to figure which coins would cover my check, I apologized to the cashier for holding up the line. I told her, “I’m sorry, I’m not used to English money.” She sizzled and sharply replied, “In Scotland, sir-r-r, we dunnae call it English money, we say Br-r-r-ritish money!”\n\nA special little two-seater had been sent up to fly me down to London. I was more frightened on that short trip than during the ocean crossing. The pilot seemed to be playing his own game of how close can he come to the tree tops. I think he missed one by a sixteenth of an inch.\n\nJuly 26: Arrived London. Exhausted. Called Corwin to reassure him I’d be at rehearsal tomorrow. He was enormously relieved. Driven to Savoy Hotel. Strange—creeping along without headlights through totally blacked-out city. Flopped in bed. Slept for fifteen hours solid.\n\nMonday, July 27: Learned I had slept through two alerts. Took cab to BBC Studios. Saw many ruins on the way. Everything still has an air of unreality. Maybe because I came so quickly from untouched America. I feel as if I’m the only real character moving through some monumental fiction.\n\nBroadcast House—my destination. A little, round building at the end of Regent Street. This couldn’t be the headquarters of the renowned BBC? Looked more like a pill box on the Maginot line. Ah, but wait. Enter and you go down, down, down till you come to the studios, large and small, snugly secure as an air-raid shelter, safe from all but a direct hit.\n\nHappily greeted by Corwin and Ed Murrow, chief of CBS European Bureau, who is acting as producer of the series.\n\nThis is the first such expedition in radio history—a live dramatic series originating abroad, to promote good will between two countries by sending back the story of how the common people of Britain are bearing up under three years of war. The program is costly and risky, and CBS is showing great courage in undertaking it.\n\nA lot of controlled excitement in the air. Corwin spent a lot of time on the phone with New York, testing sound effects. Since this is a pioneering project, there is no other way of knowing how certain effects will survive the shortwave crackle.\n\nI was given my script to study. I am to play Norman Corwin, who is the real “American in England”—the program being about his first impressions of England at war.\n\nThe sixty-two piece Royal Air Force Orchestra was rehearsing an original score, composed by a sensitive, curly-haired smiling young man stalking about the studio, named Benjamin Britten. A CBS secretary told me she had trouble mailing him his fee. It was returned because he’d been forced out of his furnished room for not being able to pay his rent. [Just recalled I borrowed a book from him—thirty-two years ago! Must remember to return it sometime.]\n\nWhile we were putting the show together, there was an air raid. A long alert. Around midnight, still no all-clear. The show was to go on at 4 A.M., so it could be heard at 10 P.M. in New York. We were given orders to move the entire production to a\n\nBBC emergency studio. More than a hundred of us were involved—musicians, actors, technicians. [Some contrast with the one- or two-man talk shows typical of today's radio programming.] We all piled into cars and cabs, and somehow made our way through the blackout to the barnlike BBC studios at Maida Vale on the outskirts of London. These were the latest emergency studios, improvised after a couple of others had been bombed out.\n\nRehearsals honed the show to a sharp edge of readiness as 4 A.M. approached.\n\nThe opening words of the show were: \"Hello? . . . Hello? What's the matter with this line?\" I, the American of the title, presumably in New York making a reservation for my flight to London, was having difficulty with the phone connection. Corwin deliberately used this as an ear-catching device, on the theory that nothing rivets an audience's attention like something gone wrong. Great tension. Most of America listening—everyone in the radio world. Friends tuned in—to find out if I had landed safely.\n\nFinally went on the air. Everything clicked. Everybody happy. Mutual congratulations. A studio full of exhausted satisfaction.\n\nA good night's sleep. Phoned Corwin to find out if there were reports from America. There were, indeed! He and Ed Murrow had taken a little walk after the broadcast. Murrow had not wanted to tell him in front of the British, but he had learned that when the CBS engineers in New York heard me say the opening words, \"Hello? . . . Hello? . . . What's the matter with this line?\" they thought the simulated disconnection was real—that something had actually gone wrong. So, they pulled their plugs, and put on a stand-by orchestra. America never heard that broadcast. The ear-catching device was too real. We were dismayed. But it gave Corwin an extra week to write the second script, and me some time to explore this bustling em-battled city.\n\nJuly 29: Beautiful moonlit night. Long walk in the deserted streets. Moonglow on roofs of blacked-out buildings give them an eerie quality. London is like a gigantic ghost town—an abandoned city. Five minutes after return to hotel, gunfire! My first. Going downstairs!\n\nSirens sounded. An alert. Firing was the “ack-ack.” There were many people in the lobby, in their pajamas and robes, waiting for the all-clear. As I returned to my room some of the flaming flack from the anti-aircraft shells was floating past my window. For the first time, I have a personal sense of danger here.\n\nMy phone just rang. A polite, male voice: “Would you mind drawing your curtains properly, please?” About a three-inch sliver of light was showing.\n\nHeard explosions I was sure were bombs. The hotel shook. My heart was pounding. Learned they were ordinary anti-aircraft guns, but located close by. There had been a long lull in the saturation bombing that had devastated so much of the city, and people were fearful something new was about to happen.\n\nJuly 30: 2 A.M.: Sat on the stone steps of Trafalgar Square, arms around my knees, looking up. Another moonlit night that cancels the blackout. Barrage balloons hanging in the sky. Can’t understand their function. Do they carry nets to snare enemy planes? Seems to me bombers needn’t come that low, and if they do they’re spaced far enough apart to go through easily. I asked a young Canadian soldier what he thought they were good for. “Why, don’t you know?” he said. “They hold the island up.” Siren screamed an alert. Huge flashes in the sky synchronize with the boom of anti-aircraft guns. A young Tommy explains that a few Nazi planes come over every night about this time. They’ve dropped their bombs on the Midland factories, and on their way home, fly over London, just to start the alerts, wake the people up—keep them from getting their proper sleep. Which, I suppose, can be translated into a military value.\n\nCorwin asked me to do a little research for him by accompanying a typical English working-class woman on her daily marketing. Mrs. Bave, a cleaning woman, took some pride in the fact that her neighborhood was mostly made up of cleaning women. \"A lot of them even clean at the Ministry,\" she boasted. Her boy had left to be inducted that morning. When I asked her how she felt about it, she said, \"I believe in patriotism and all that, but when 'e's your own boy . . . I believe in patriotism, but—\" I noticed a plot of about twenty small vegetable gardens in the courtyard of her apartment house. I asked Mrs. Bave if she raised some of her own vegetables there. \"We started to,\" she said, \"but my 'usband, 'e wants to plant seeds one day and see them up the next. Besides, 'e's so busy at the factory 'e doesn't 'ave the time. So we gave our allotment to someone who would make better use of it.\"\n\nWe walked a few \"turnings\" to the grocers—like an average neighborhood grocery in America—except you feel they don't sell things, they apportion them. Much time is taken up discussing how many ration coupons should be cut from which book, etc. Each customer usually shops for several people, and so carries several ration books. A wrinkled old woman, with a shawl over her head, held up her own dirty paper bag for her allowance of two eggs. She had brought it to save the grocer's paper. The grocer addressed them all, \"We only got fifty-three eggs this week—some bad ones.\" Everyone reacted to this. Much worried chatter. \"I hope that includes my five\"; \"I didn't get my three last week\"; etc.\n\nGROCER: Boy gone, Mrs. Bave?\n\nMRS. BAVE: Yes.\n\nGROCER: Expect 'e'll be 'appier, 'e will.\n\nMRS. BAVE: Yes.\n\nAugust 12: Been here over two weeks now. Beginning to penetrate the shell of strangeness and see the English character, traditionally at its best in adversity. Their stiff upper lipism is frequently mocked, but there is something so real and rocklike at its core that nine months of daily blitz couldn't shatter it, and\n\nyou can’t imagine anything that would. The first attacks sent them reeling, but they recovered their national manners and counterattacked with a barrage of courage, wit, and contempt that wrecked Hitler’s plan for systematically softening them up. He could have softened them more by leaving them alone. I have heard many stories of their behavior during air raids that could only be told of Englishmen. For example: A man in charge of a Civil Defense Depot told me how, in the middle of a bad one, he was at his desk answering requests for ambulances on the phone, when a thousand-pound bomb exploded nearby. It blew in the walls of his office and his desk collapsed on his lap. He and his young secretary were stunned—then looked at each other. She broke the silence. “Would you like a cup of tea, sir?” she asked. And she wasn’t trying to be funny. She climbed over the rubble and in a few minutes returned with a pot of hot tea. He hadn’t the slightest idea where she got it.\n\nA popular expression when a bomb explodes close by is: “Quiet, beast!” out of the corner of the mouth. Women make dresses from the silk of parachutes the Nazis use to float down land mines (so they don’t dig deep holes in the ground before exploding)—a good symbol of how Hitler’s plans keep backfiring. The English even make the ruins fight back. They turn some of them into water reservoirs for fire fighters, using the rubble to construct them. They’re marked by signs: “Sumps for Pumps.”\n\nAn Englishman in the Savoy lobby told me: “I wish I had some way of telling America this, because one day they’re going to get it, sure as hell. They don’t know a damn thing about blast. They think it’s just the explosion that does the damage. Blast! I’ve seen things you couldn’t believe caused by blast. I was out in one of the raids and I heard a terrific screaming in what was left of one apartment building. Right in the middle of a room half-blown away was a girl in her late twenties—stark naked except for one stocking and one shoe—screaming her lungs out. ‘What’s the matter with you?’ I said. ‘Isn’t it terrible?’ she\n\nsaid, and screamed again. 'Stop it now, stop it,' I said. It was getting on my nerves, that screaming, more than the bombing, and I slapped her twice across the face. 'You ought to be ashamed of yourself sitting around naked in a raid,' I said. She started crying. 'I wasn't naked,' she said, and took me into her bedroom. 'Look!' She pointed to what was left of the walls. The force of the blast had pulled off all her clothes, including a heavy coat, and projected every piece of them into the plaster of the walls and ceiling. I can tell you plenty of stories about blast. You're going to lose a lot of people in New York before you learn about blast. Little things about not only lying down, but keeping off your stomach by folding your hands underneath you. And keeping your mouth open—and putting a handkerchief or a piece of rubber between your teeth or you'll have them smashed. Many things. Blast is mysterious and dangerous.\"\n\nAn American flying instructor, as we went out to watch the sky during an alert: \"One thing the Germans have on the British. They use their searchlights effectively. You fly over the Ruhr industrial area and it's like daylight. They have a hell of a concentration of lights, and you just can't get out of it. We've lost a lot over there. But here over London, or anywhere here—they shoot a couple of beams at 'em, but it don't do a damn bit of good.\"\n\nA blimpish Englishman overheard in the Savoy Bar: \". . . so I said to this American, 'Tell me, frankly, what is your impression of English women?' And he said, 'In America we bury our dead.'\" His friend: \"That reminds me of the story about the American soldier who was arrested here after a raid for raping a dead woman in a bombed-out building. The judge asked him why he committed such a disgusting crime. 'Plenty of girls around Piccadilly Circus, if that's the sort of thing you want, why must you rape a dead woman in a bombed-out building?' 'Dead?' the soldier exclaimed, 'I thought she was just English!'\" They both laughed as only upper-class Englishmen\n\ncan, and the first one said, \"And they say we English cawn't tell jokes on ourselves!\"\n\nI auditioned English actors for Corwin. Quite a number were used in the series. My debut as a casting director. No job for me. I empathize too much. Felt terrible when I had to reject an actor. Especially well-known ones whom I had seen do fine work in films, but who couldn't adjust to microphone technique.\n\nAfter the first week's mishap, the shows all went well. Reports from America were enthusiastic. *Variety* and other media reviews were raves. Here is Landry's comment in *Variety*, dated August 5, 1942:\n\n**An American in England**\n*With Joseph Julian*\n30 Minutes.\nMonday, 10 P.M.\nWABC-CBS, New York\n\nNorman Corwin's series after a complete failure the week before had a practically complete success Monday night (3) when the reception was remarkably satisfactory. Moreover, he actually succeeded at one point in deliberately burlesquing short-wave on shortwave transmission, mingling sound effects and assorted blended tidbits of English music and getting the whole thing through to American radio listeners. . . .\n\nWhile some might consider fewer \"yeas\" and \"huhhs\" necessary to round out the typical American, on the whole Corwin took his imaginary Yank across the Atlantic on a clipper and through to London in a style that was poignant, believable, and rich in clear mental pictures. It should add up to a net contribution to British-American understanding.\n\nHimself a first visitor to England it is likely that Corwin has come remarkably close to epitomizing the mixed sentiments\n\nand impressions of the average American who finds the tight little island a bit strange but likeable. The script was dotted with interesting sidelights, just the sort of detail tourists always are interested in and struck by. The kind of food you can’t get, the kind of delays you face, the patience needed to contract for a taxicab, compared to which Washington cab service is a model of alacrity. By adding up the details, wholly without melodrama, a panorama of war came through. The waste and heartache and the bravery and horror became clearer.\n\nMusically the program had a 50 piece RAF symphony orchestra. That was unnecessary as a small unit would have sufficed and shortwave transmission is not the ideal medium for big orchestras. Joseph Julian, who followed Corwin to England to enact the narrator role, proved an excellent choice, his versatile reading being from both the brain and heart. Contrived wholly in the first person present tense, the script was masterful in achieving an even, unjerky unfoldment. Various English voices were brought in and out, some just for action and color, one or two to talk about the war. The soliloquizing was especially adroit in allowing the tourist to first mention and then have enacted the typical American misconceptions of English character, the silly ass lord, the variety hall cockney singer. Amusing, too, was Corwin’s use of the quaint conceit which appeals to Americans, namely that the BBC would remain impeccably itself if announcing one evening on the 11 P.M. newscast that the world had come to an end but the Government was, for the moment, withholding comment.\n\nCorwin continues to discharge difficult tasks of rare tact, feeling and imagination with great artistry.\n\nJohn K. Hutchens, writing in the New York Sunday Times on August 16, 1942:\n\n... An American in England finds Mr. Corwin once more writing with a poet’s vision, a good reporter’s clarity and a technician’s precise knowledge of his craft—three attributes that have made him preeminent in radio literature. Now he is part story-teller, part travel writer, looking at a friendly, foreign\n\nland with inquiring gaze and understanding heart, speaking through a narrator who is presumably any young American visiting England for the first time and bringing with him certain preconceived notions but a willingness to learn. The narrator, Joseph Julian, tells the tale in prose, but frequently the effect is of poetry; for even when he is in a more or less realistic vein, Mr. Corwin writes in phrases that lift the heart . . . Everything is done in little touches, but the cumulative effect is profoundly stirring. . . . Mr. Corwin honors the good, average, unspectacular people by writing of them quietly, warmly, personally, with the intimacy and detail of a good travel letter that catches not only the moment but the vast implications behind it. This is a distinguished program by an artist, major work in a minor key.\n\nEach weekly show had a different title and theme. \"London by Clipper\" described Corwin's flight over and his first impressions of embattled London. \"London to Dover\" was the second of the series, and dealt with his various small encounters with the people of those communities. \"Women at War\" was about just that. It conveyed how much of Britain's resistance was due to her effective use of woman power in factories and wherever a job was left open by a man who had joined the Armed Forces. Other titles were \"The Anglo-American Angle,\" which stressed our common interests, and \"Cromer\"—which is the name of a town. The first page of the Cromer script looked like this:\n\nSTUDIO ANNOUNCER: Cromer is a town on the east coast of England, and this is a program about it. The program has to do with bombs and a postmaster and a rescue squad and an old church and a Spitfire and several other matters, and it takes a half hour.\n\nMUSIC: Quiet introductory theme, sustaining behind:\n\nNARRATOR: A town is like a person. It has a character, a complexion, and a name. It has a set of habits. It's hardworking or lazy, rich or poor, handsome or ugly. Some towns never amount to much; some get sick and die; some grow big and powerful and lead their race.\n\nBut all towns, be they so great they call themselves metropolises or so small you'd miss them if you winked while driving through—all towns have this in common; they are mortal. They know seasons and the way of winds, each taking its share of sun and moon and standing up to storm. And they are mortal also in the respect of violence and death. For war may come to any and to all of them.\n\nTroy was a town.\nSo was Jericho.\nLidice was a town.\nLikewise Our Lady the Queen of the Angels of Porciuncula, later to be known as Los Angeles.\n\nAnd Cromer was a town and is a town, and you'll find it on a map of the east coast of England, in the ancient division of the country called East Anglia, facing the North Sea—facing Germany.\n\nAnd then listeners were introduced to the residents of Cromer, Corwin's thoughts about them, and their thoughts about themselves.\n\nThe *American in England* series, although highly praised, did not break any rating records in the United States. It was aired opposite Bob Hope. What was more, he didn't have to buck transatlantic static.\n\nThe British radio people were enormously impressed with Corwin, not only for his warm appreciation of their country's war effort, but because his sharp, clean writing and production techniques were a revelation to \"Old Aunty,\" as the government-run, somewhat stodgy BBC was sometimes referred to by Britons.\n\nBut there was nothing stodgy about its wartime function of alleviating the despair of millions, secretly huddled around clandestine receiving sets in the Axis-subjugated countries of Europe. Around the clock, and in dozens of languages, it poured out messages of hope and news that could be relied upon. The BBC became a shining monument of truth, to allies and enemies alike.\n\nVal Gielgud, the brother of Sir John, and the then head of the BBC Dramatic division, invited me to star in a radio version of the American play, *They Knew What They Wanted*, by Sidney Howard. I had plenty of time for it since Corwin’s shows were a week apart, and I was only needed for two days of rehearsal. My co-star was the lovely Constance Cummings, a fine American actress who had married the British playwright Ben Levy. It was a gratifying engagement—for a reason I shall explain later.\n\nIt has been said that an actor is a sculptor in snow. Throughout the six weeks of the *An American in England* series, I tried to think of myself as a sculptor in better relations between Britain and America. Each Monday at 4 A.M., as I approached the microphone in the bombproof, subterranean studio of the BBC, I had no thought of playing a part, of getting inside a character, of doing an acting job. Just before the “on the air” sign lit up, I’d have a quick little talk with myself that went something like this:\n\nWell, Julian, about 10,000,000 Americans are listening, go ahead now, talk to them. Tell them what you’ve seen with your own eyes. Tell your country what it’s like under the Nazi guns. Help them understand the British people and the urgency of the war. Tell them what it’s like—but borrow Corwin’s words to do it.\n\nCame the downbeat for the sixty-two musicians—a cue to me—and I “borrowed” Corwin’s words.\n\nIdentifying with his words came easily. Although he dramatized his experiences and observations, we were both “Americans in England.” For the most part, we went to the same places, and saw similar things to which we reacted in pretty much the same way. His scripts were largely documentation of my own impressions. I have never had an acting job where the author’s frame of reference so closely coincided with my own. In fact, one of my own experiences almost wound up as a scene in one of the shows.\n\nStrolling around blacked-out Piccadilly Circus one evening, I struck up a conversation with a young black American GI, and what he told me so touched and pained me that when I left him I hurried back to the hotel and wrote down our dialogue, almost verbatim:\n\nJ.J.: You American?\nGI: Yeah.\nJ.J.: So am I. Where you from?\nGI: Pittsburgh. Where you from?\nJ.J.: New York.\nGI: I worked there at the Savoy in Harlem for a while.\nJ.J.: I was up there just before I left.\nGI: (brightening) Yeah? Whose band was playin’?\nJ.J.: I forget.\nGI: They sent me first to Oklahoma an’ then back to Fort Dix. I gotta gal out in Brooklyn I went to see one night. I was a sergeant an’ they busted me for it.\nJ.J.: Why?\nGI: AWOL. See, she had a kid from me an’ I wanted to see both of ’em before I came over here. Didn’t know if I’d ever come\n\nback again so, I wanted to see 'em. I made out an allotment to her.\n\nJ.J.: That's tough, being busted for that.\nGI: I don't blame 'em. Gotta have rules in an army. I'm a corporal now.\n\nJ.J.: How do you like it here?\nGI: All right—'cept not many colored boys over here. Ya get lonesome sometimes.\n\nJ.J.: How do the English treat you?\nGI: Oh, hell, they treat ya fine. It's in the camp and around we get all the trouble and riots.\n\nJ.J.: You mean with American soldiers?\nGI: Yeah. We had three officers resign last week. They didn't want nuthin' ta do with us.\n\nJ.J.: White officers?\nGI: Yeah. Lotta them white boys still look at us like we ain't nuthin'—just ta shine their shoes. They walk away from me when I walk down the street. They go out when I come into a pub for a drink. They change their seats when I sit down in a movie. . . . [At that precise moment, two drunken American sailors staggered up to us. One of them plopped his arm on the corporal's shoulder and said, \"Hey, Darkie, we're broke. Could you let us have some change?\" Without a second's hesitation the corporal reached in his pocket, took out a half crown, and dropped it in the white sailor's hand. There was a pause, then he continued]: I have a friend came over here in 1936 with a band an' married an English girl. I was talkin' to them one day. He went across the street to get a paper, I stayed talkin' to his wife. Three white American soldiers came by, seen me talkin' to a white girl, an' they ripped her furpiece off an' tore it to pieces.\n\nJ.J.: Do you go into any of the American Service clubs here? Red Cross, and so forth?\n\nGI: I just keep by myself. I don't go lookin' for trouble no more. But sometimes when I drive a truck down from Birmingham where I'm stationed, I have to stay in London overnight, so I\n\ngot to a British soldier club an' they put me up. At the American clubs when they do give you a bed they make ya feel they don' wanna.\n\nJ.J.: How do most Negro soldiers feel about the war?\nGI: I think we feel it don' matter much what happens. We just know we have ta fight so we fight.\n\nJ.J.: But you feel much more comfortable in the company of English soldiers?\nGI: Sure, man. They drink with ya, they talk with ya. There ain't no difference with them. I'd like to stay here after the war. 'Cept the United States is still your home, an' ya have a feelin' ya wanna get back to your home no matter how bad things are there.\n\nJ.J.: Well, I hope it will work out. That's one thing this war is supposed to be about. So long, soldier, I have to run along.\n\nGI: Take it easy. An' if ya ever get up around Sheldon, Birmingham—that's where I'm stationed—stop in an' have some chow with us.\n\nJ.J.: Thanks, I will.\n\nI phoned Corwin in his room, told him of the dialogue I had just recorded. I said that I believed it important enough to incorporate in his next script. He immediately came down to the Savoy lobby, read it, and agreed with me that it simply and eloquently expressed the feelings of the average Negro with the American Expeditionary Forces in England, and should be reported to the people back home; he said however that Ed Murrow would have to approve it.\n\nI had, of course, known of Edward R. Murrow as a famous and courageous radio correspondent who had flown dangerous missions with the Air Force over Germany and was constantly putting his life on the line to bring CBS listeners accurate and vivid pictures of the\n\nlandscape of war. Every evening, along with millions of other Americans, I had ritually tuned in and thrilled to his cryptic opening line, \"This is London,\" followed by the news in measured words and aggressively mellow tones that plowed, undaunted, through the hostile shortwave atmospherics. It was not only his voice that hooked listeners. There was something special about this man, and people sensed it. I believe they basically responded to his great honesty and integrity. And his deceptively subdued manner concealed an enormous capacity for moral indignation—as I personally discovered on this, and a future occasion.\n\nThe next morning Corwin and I met in Murrow's office. I showed him my dialogue with the corporal. His eyes gleamed, he banged a fist in his palm, and said, \"Let's do it! Let's raise a little hell back home!\" I was greatly pleased at the prospect of contributing something extra to the series. As he poured us each a whiskey I had my first long look at this interesting man, with the inevitable cigarette dangling from his lips. I think my strongest impression was that of superbly controlled tension. In repose, his face had a brooding, Lincolnesque sadness that would quickly dissolve in the sudden flash of his warm smile.\n\nAlthough Murrow was a man of action and a fighter for what he believed in, I sensed an undertow of pessimism dragging at his spirit. As chief of CBS's European Bureau, he lived war day and night. When I asked him what he did to unwind, he gave me a rather surprising answer. \"I go back to the Greeks,\" he said. \"Right now I'm rereading Socrates and Plato. I always find something there to hang on to.\"\n\nIt struck me as strange that in the midst of the carnage and despite his commitment to the defeat of the Nazis, Murrow felt the need to search out support for his own personal faith. He showed me a snapshot of his small son. \"To take him fishing is more important than anything else,\" he said.\n\nThe next day he told us that he had had second thoughts about using my scene. He decided that this would be the wrong moment to \"raise a little hell back home,\" that a unified home front was more urgent at this time than stressing a divisive issue. Deferentially, I disagreed, and advanced a rather abstract argument about the military value of truth. But it was his honest conviction, and he was firm. He suggested I work the material up into an article for publication. \"But don't wait until you get home,\" he said, \"or you probably won't. Write it now while you have your full load of anger.\" I followed his advice. (A few months after I returned it was published in *The Nation*, under the title, \"Jim Crow Goes Abroad.\")*\n\nThe incident stimulated an urge to write something of my own for radio, and I began to make more notes on my experiences, intending to make something of them—I didn't know quite what—when I got back.\n\nWhile jotting in my notebook on the beach at Dover, I felt a sudden, heavy hand on my shoulder. I wheeled around and looked up into the face of a policeman, who politely demanded to know what the hell I was doing there, sketching the beach defenses. I showed him my papers and assured him I was with CBS radio and was\n\n* December 5, 1942.\n\nonly writing my impression of Dover’s famous white cliffs. “You better not do it around ’ere,” he said. “You’re libel to hear a loud suckin’ noise and find yourself in the clink.”\n\nDover was strictly off-limits to all but the armed forces and the native population, most of whom stubbornly refused to leave, and those with special permission. I had told Murrow of my desire to visit England’s most famous front-line town, and he had arranged it with the Ministry.\n\nThis incredible little community on the English Channel was only twenty-one miles from the enemy. On a clear day, with field glasses, you could see farmers working the land in France. This proximity, and the fact that it was one of Britain’s most important naval bases, meant that Dover saw more continuous military action than any other theater of World War II. Hardly a day passed without air raids, shelling, dog fights, ack-ack, convoy battles, motor torpedo boat attacks, or exploding mines. The waterfront bristled with barbed wire and anti-aircraft guns. The unhealthiest-looking seashore I ever saw.\n\nThe strongest impression of my day in Dover was of the quiet heroism of the residents.\n\nThe white chalk hills held, probably, the safest air-raid shelters in the world. A honeycomb of spacious, well-stocked tunnels, some more than three miles long, could accommodate the entire Dover population of 20,000. Those who were bombed out used them for homes, but most residents wouldn’t go into them during alerts. After living for three years in a constant state of alert, they developed a kind of therapeutic fatalism. I asked a Dover butcher if it wasn’t foolish having such splendid shelters and not using them. He answered: “Good Lord, man, do you know we have sometimes ten or twelve alerts in one day. Do you\n\nknow what that would mean if we went to the shelters each time? We wouldn’t get a bloody thing done. We must carry on our work under fire just as our soldiers do. They don’t leave their gun positions when they’re attacked.”\n\nI also talked to the postmaster of a demolished sub-station along the beach. An old man of eighty-one, he had gathered a few boards and built a little shed in the middle of the ruins where he continued his postal services. I asked why he didn’t continue his work from the safer main post office up toward the center of town. He shook his head vigorously:\n\nPOSTMASTER: No sir! See those five or six houses up the beach?\nJ.J.: Yes.\nPOSTMASTER: That was a solid row once—of about fifteen.\nJ.J.: Bombs?\nPOSTMASTER: Those empty spaces were shell hits. Well sir, several old women live in those houses. They’re between seventy-five and one hundred years old. One old gentleman is one hundred and two. They live on pensions. We’ve tried a hundred times to get them to move, but they just won’t budge. Now, they’re too old to walk up the hill to the main office. Somebody’s got to stay down here with a place they can come to every week to get their pension checks, and to give them their cup of hot chocolate.\n\nWhen I asked some Doverites why they hadn’t evacuated when the government asked them to, some answers were:\n\nMAN: I’ve been dive-bombed, high-bombed, machine-gunned, and our house was brought down around us by a shell, but we’re sticking it until we win, and then my wife and I are going on a jolly good holiday.\n\nWOMAN: This shelling isn’t nice but we can stick it.\n\nOLD WOMAN: I like this town. I won’t move away for no one. And I want to tell Mr. Hitler that if he steps on the bulldog’s tail—it’ll bite him.\n\nMany Americans mistake British imperturbability for coldness. They say they’re without real emotions. I confess to having been a bit shocked at first by what seemed their almost morbid custom of understatement. For instance, this snatch of conversation I had with a young Tommy:\n\nTOMMY: My aunt had a very nasty experience the other night.\n\nJ.J.: What happened?\n\nTOMMY: Jerry was over and dropped one on her house.\n\nJ.J.: A direct hit?\n\nTOMMY: Yes.\n\nJ.J.: Was she badly hurt?\n\nTOMMY: Blown to bits.\n\nAlmost like a grotesque vaudeville sketch. As was the seeming indifference of the Dover Air Raid Warden as he told me: “Yes, I was standin’ ’ere talkin’ to Joe, an’ came a crump and a smack an’ old Joe’s head was blown clean off an’ landed right at my feet.”\n\nSpeaking of vaudeville, my doubts about the British were resolved when I went in to see a show at the Hippodrome, Dover’s gallant little front-line theater that had carried on since the war began, come hell, Hitler, or high water.\n\nAs I entered, a strip-tease artist was doing her stuff. She had removed all her clothes and was coyly holding a loose black cloth in front of her, as she sang in a squeaky voice and with exaggerated naïveté:\n\nOnly a rose in my hair—\nNo pretty gown to see.\nBut you don’t seem to care.\nWhat do you see in me?\n\nBut I was fascinated more by the audience. Not a hoot, not a whistle, not a “Take it off!”—not a sound out of that packed house of English Tommies and Tars. It was like a church. At that point I was almost convinced English blood is diluted with ice water. Then, teasingly, the lady stepped down three steps into the audience. Slowly, deliberately, she took the rose from her hair and held it out to a soldier in the front row. Closer and closer she came—silence. Then a wee small voice in the back said, “Grab it!” The entire front row of men jumped from their seats and lunged at her, but, being an artist, she stepped nimbly aside and ran back to the safety of the stage. The legendary English “reserve” had finally succumbed to the impetus of that one tiny voice. My faith in the English was renewed.\n\nI stayed overnight in a tavern on the edge of a cliff overlooking the English Channel, run by a Mrs. Moore and her twelve-year-old daughter, June. The Battle of Britain had mainly been fought in the air directly above them. Mrs. Moore described some of what they lived through.\n\n“British pilots over the Continent, trying so desperately to get back home, would so strain their engines that they’d overheat and explode and fall all around our place. Many who just pancaked in crashed and died.”\n\nShe told me that the Nazis never bombed the tavern because it was a good landmark for their raiders. Little June became such an expert on the different types of aircraft that the Ministry of Defense would frequently telephone her and ask her to identify Nazi planes that crossed the Channel. She knew every plane the enemy had and could even tell them apart from the sound of their motors.\n\nThat evening I stood outside with June, on the highest point of the highest cliff, and for the first time saw Nazi guns in action as the quick, sharp flashes of their anti-aircraft fire stabbed the black night on the French side of the Channel. June was talking plane talk, trying to make me understand the meaning of wing measurement in relation to bomb load and how the displacement of the fuselage in certain kinds of craft was important in relation to... Suddenly she interrupted herself, looked at her watch, and let out a little cry.\n\n\"Oh, you must excuse me,\" she said. \"I do have to run. I'm late for the cinema. Errol Flynn is playing tonight in Captain Blood!\" And she ran off to the real excitement in her life.\n\nI left England on September 14, 1942, steeped in impressions, and with the deep conviction that under that British reserve were other great reserves, of physical and psychic strength, which would see these people through to victory.\n\nFlying home in a Pan American Clipper ship (the first transatlantic passenger service) was much more comfortable than the way I had come, cramped in the crude belly of a Liberator bomber. Most people don't know how luxurious those early flying boats were. Taking off and landing on water, they had many of the accommodations of today's flying hotels—double-decked, a cocktail lounge, and full-length beds that folded out if one wished to sleep. The flight took twenty-seven hours and was most pleasant—except for one constant irritant—the man in the seat next to me. Gray-haired, around fifty, he loved to talk. Especially did he love to tell jokes, and his supply was inexhaustible. He was a compulsive entertainer, totally insensitive to my hollow responses. My head was swirling with images of what I had seen and done in London, but he went on and on, even when I closed my eyes and pretended to fall asleep. There were moments when I wanted to scream, \"Goddammit, please, sir! Let me alone with my private thoughts!\" But I just couldn't bring myself to say that to the man. After all, it was Al Jolson.\n\nA soft bump and a long swish: we had landed in Flushing Bay, at LaGuardia Airport. Back to beautiful, unbombed New York. Reporters and photographers clustered around, and flashbulbs popped as we disembarked. Not only for Al Jolson, who had been entertaining American troops all over the British Isles; everyone on that plane was newsworthy, for flying the ocean in those days gave one automatic celebrity status. In fact, so few had done it that those who had were considered members of an elite, unorganized organization called The Short Snorters. The membership card was a dollar bill signed by one's fellow passengers. Why the title? When two members met anywhere in the world, at either's request, they were supposed to have a short snort (a quick drink) together. For a long time afterward I kept hoping I would run into the peripatetic Eleanor Roosevelt, so I could flash my dollar bill at her.\n\nThe day after my return, William Paley, president of CBS, invited me to his office to give him my personal impression of things in war-torn London. The latent reporter\n\nin me urged him to send me to Africa and other fronts with the newly invented portable \"wire\" recorder to record interviews with American soldiers. He promised to think about it.\n\nThe success of the *American in England* series, and the attendant publicity, greatly increased my prestige. It brought an invitation to read a poem at Carnegie Hall about artists who had died fighting Fascism (which was to get me in great trouble years later) and it also brought me a lot of work, which I sorely needed. For thanks to my great head for business, my London adventure had actually ended up costing me money.\n\nIn those days—1942 and 1943—the airwaves were saturated with dramas, and I began getting calls for most of them. Soon I was averaging twenty to twenty-five shows a month. To give you an idea of their variety, here's a list from my records of a typical month in 1943:\n\n*Joyce Jordon, Girl Interne*\n*Inner Sanctum*\n*Grantland Rice Sport Stories*\n*Mr. District Attorney*\n*Out of the Shadows*\n*Broadway Matinee*\n*Bulldog Drummond*\n*Community Chest drama*\n*Labor for Victory*\n*The Thin Man*\n*Famous Jury Trials*\n*Superman*\n*Reader's Digest*\n*Front Page Farrell*\n*True Story*\n*Chaplain Jim*\n*Gangbusters*\n\nCounterspy\nBelieve It or Not\nNew World a Comin’\nWords at War\nMen of the Sea\nStella Dallas\nThis Changing World\nCharlie Chan\nThe Goldbergs\nThe Deerslayer\nThe March of Time\n\nThere were also a number of programs on the air that purported to be non-fiction: *My True Story, True Life Stories, Aunt Jenny’s Real Life Stories*, etc. They weren’t. But they dealt with basic emotions and happy endings, and so were among the most popular shows on the air.\n\nThe *Radio Reader’s Digest*, a prime-time evening hour, was an exception. Each week it did relatively authentic dramatizations of real-life stories from the *Reader’s Digest*. One evening, however, there was a side plot no one bargained for. The scene was a hospital operating room. To feature the effect of the patient’s heart beating, the director had the sound effects man press a stethoscope against the actor’s heart, while holding the listening end very close to the microphone. The “thump, thump, thump” was most effective when integrated into the dialogue and story.\n\nAs the show signed off the air, the telephones at NBC began to ring. There were twenty-one calls, from twenty-one doctors, all over the United States, all urging the actor whose heartbeat was broadcast to rush immediately to a hospital. All twenty-one doctors had detected a malfunctioning heart. The actor heeded their advice. An electrocardiogram confirmed his condition; quite possibly his life had been saved by the twenty-one alert professionals. He was lucky they were tuned in. But then, with an audience of millions, there's always bound to be a doctor in the house.\n\nOne day in 1943, as I was leaving a CBS studio at 485 Madison Avenue after doing a show, who should be waiting for me in the lobby but Tom Ashwell.\n\nWhat had happened to the big job at WXYZ in Detroit? He explained that his creditors from the West Coast had finally caught up with him, and their continual harassment had made it impossible for him to continue. But he had big plans and a number of offers in New York, including one to develop and produce a soap opera. For the moment, however, he was slightly strapped, and could I let him have ten dollars?\n\nHe asked for it without seeming to beg or demean himself, oblivious to the wrenching he had given my life eight years before. Within five minutes he had practically convinced me that losing his job as program manager of WXYZ had been another fast step up the ladder of success. Well, he had once said he would make it by being different. I gave him the ten bucks and wished him well.\n\nAfter his return from England late in 1942, Norman Corwin had continued to concern himself almost exclusively with the war, and he continued to cast me in most of his shows. One, *El Capitan and the Corporal*, I fondly remember because of a special effect achieved during rehearsal. I played a soldier who falls in love with a girl on the train carrying him to war. The romance became urgent\n\nbecause he didn’t know when, if ever, he would return. Katherine Locke (who later became Mrs. Corwin) played the girl. There was one scene that depended largely on sound effects—when the train had a short stop at a station and the soldier and the girl got out and somehow drifted away from the right track. There was much frantic running up and down stairs to different platform levels, calling out each other’s name, as the train was about to leave. Two sound men—one with high heels—running in place on a concrete slab—didn’t paint the precise sound picture Corwin wanted. We were in the basement studio of the CBS annex on 53rd Street, and just outside the door were stairs leading to the upper floors. Corwin decided to make them work for us. He placed low microphones on the steps, and others on several floor landings. This is how the scene played: I was narrating the story at a standing microphone in the studio. When I came to this scene I was given a hand mike by a little man, who (as I continued to read) guided me by the elbow out the studio door to the foot of the stairs. There, I gave him back the hand mike, which left me free to run up the stairs, calling out to Katherine who was on an upper level. She called out to me as she ran down the stairs. We both ran up and down several times, adlibbing, “Where are you?” “Here I am!” “Where’s the train?” etc. The strategically placed mikes picked up our voices and authentic footsteps in proper perspective and made the action vividly clear to listeners. As the story returned to narration, I was again given the small hand mike, and as I spoke, reading from the script, was carefully led back into the studio, where I switched over again to the standing microphone. A lot of trouble for an effect that\n\nonly lasted a few minutes? No question; but that's one of the reasons Corwin had no peer in radio.\n\nHe also had few in the fine low art of punning. A man of words, he loved to play with them, and occasionally got off a really good one. Once, during a rehearsal, I asked to be excused to go to the men's room. \"Of course,\" Corwin said. \"I always insist that my actors mind their pees and cues.\"\n\nA double-barreled masterpiece.\n\nAlthough I was kept busy on a great variety of dramas, a restlessness set in. The strong meat of my adventures in England made Nick Carter, Master Detective seem mightily irrelevant. The problems of Our Gal Sunday (Can a coal miner's daughter find happiness married to England's richest lord?) reminded me of the real problems of the London population facing instant extinction from the devastating buzz-bomb attacks Hitler had just launched. My memories of the heroic people of Dover wouldn't quiet down, and the notes I made of my day there kept bothering me to organize them into some kind of statement. Finally I did. I wrote and narrated a half hour documentary called Dover Diary. The American Broadcasting Company produced it over their Blue Radio Network on July 10, 1943.\n\nRadio was an especially congenial medium for documentaries. Its flexibility allowed for rapid transitions and quick statements. Time could be telescoped by a montage of sounds; cold statistics conveyed by an actor projecting his voice dispassionately with equal emphasis on all syllables. Figures could be \"billboarded\" or underlined by putting an exclamation mark in the voice—the vocal equivalent of printing.\n\nA great many documentaries were produced during radio's vigorous years, mostly by the networks, in non-commercial hours, set aside under federal law for public-service programming. During the war years, the Office of War Information (OWI) also produced a great many which were beamed abroad as propaganda.\n\n7. If Memory Serves...\n\nSince I was now earning my living entirely from radio, I decided I owed it my best efforts. Instead of complaining about how it spoiled good actors I tried to bring to it an additional dimension.\n\nFrom time to time I had experimented with learning my lines, wherever possible within radio's short rehearsal periods. During my stay in London I had been invited by the BBC to co-star with Constance Cummings in a two-hour radio version of Sidney Howard's play, *They Knew What They Wanted*. I was delighted to discover in Miss Cummings a kindred spirit who also had an aversion to acting from a script. With the understanding and encouragement of Val Gielgud, our director, we both memorized our roles. We related to each other as on a movie set or a stage. We moved about the studio with complete freedom to accommodate our impulses. When an exit was called for, we walked away. When we were supposed to touch, we touched. And the sound of a lover's kiss was not produced by a sound effects man sucking on the back of his hand. The engineers set up an overhead boom microphone\n\nthat followed us around, instead of a stationary one like those in general use.\n\nIt was a most interesting experiment, and seemed to confirm my theory that if an actor were freed from his script and could better contact fellow actors on a visual as well as an oral level, it would stimulate truer emotion, enrich his performance, and give him more release as an artist. It did for me.\n\nI found it fairly easy to do if the roles were not too long; and, except for the leads, most weren’t. They generally amounted to a paragraph or two. I discovered three or four hours of rehearsal were enough for almost any actor to stuff that many lines in his head—if he applied himself. And so I began to memorize regularly as a working method. For short rehearsal periods, I developed a compromise technique of learning as much as I could, and marking places in the script where I was unsure, so my eye could quickly find it.\n\nI was considered a bit of a nut by my peers. Why go to all that trouble when it really wasn’t required; when it was so simple to read from the script? And the time between cues could be spent knitting or reading the paper—if you turned the pages quietly enough not to be picked up by the mike. But these were my fervent years, and I was determined to make my contribution to art and progress. I wrote another article setting forth my views. It was published in the Sunday New York Times on August 20, 1944:\n\nA PLEA FOR BETTER RADIO ACTING\n\nBy Joseph Julian\n\nWhy is a radio actor? You almost never hear “He is a theater actor.” True, they say “He is a movie actor,” but they mean\n\n\"He works in the movies.\" But when they say \"He is a radio actor\" they don't always mean he works in radio. There is frequently an insinuated note of opprobrium in the term. Radio actors are not taken seriously as artists. This, I believe, is largely due to the fact that radio actors don't take themselves seriously as artists. Nor does the industry.\n\nRadio writers have made tremendous strides. They're constantly experimenting with new techniques and have evolved many original, interesting ways of presenting their ideas. Directors, too, have pushed back their horizon and made room for a greater play of imagination. But radio acting seems to just keep meretriciously and phlegmatically rolling along.\n\nAlthough radio offers more creative scope to the writer and director than to the actor, who is more inhibited by its mechanics, there is plenty of room for improvement between the present general level of radio acting and the limitations inherent in the medium itself. But this improvement will be effected only when actors, directors, and engineers cooperatively toss out some of their fixed notions of studio production.\n\nDirectors and engineers must develop a larger understanding of an actor's approach to his work. They should try harder to understand the creative acting process—not only the objective results. And they should do everything technically possible to facilitate this process by helping the actor create, in the studio, the greatest possible reality for himself of the scene he is playing.\n\n**THE SETTING**\n\nFor example, I have discovered most actors deeply hunger for \"contact\" with their fellow performers at a microphone. Very often an engineer or director, in order to get a better voice balance, will have them play, let's say, an intimate love scene on separate mikes six feet apart. Even though it might achieve a better physical voice balance, the inner emotional balance of the performers suffers, and the inner honesty of a scene is more important.\n\nAlthough not practical in every dramatic show, especially\n\nthose with many quick changes of scene, they could in most cases prepare for the actor at least an indication of a *mise en scène*. If the setting is the family dinner table, a mike should be put on a table with the actors sitting around it. If it’s a hospital bed, let the actor lie down and bring a mike to him. Let him use actual hand properties whenever possible, etc. A few directors work this way, but unfortunately to most it’s superfluous nonsense and a waste of time. Actors, however, and listeners, know the difference.\n\nNow, what can the actors themselves do to help their profession grow up?\n\nThere are two fundamental ways any artist can look at his profession. He can either try to raise its standards by constantly striving to improve his own work, or he can merely aim at supplying a market. Radio has mostly market suppliers. Of course there are actors on the stage, and screen, too, to whom acting is primarily a business, but there is also a vanguard of serious-minded artists who work at their art. There are professionals in the theater who, even while working in Broadway shows, band together in their free time to discuss and study how better to use the tools of their craft.\n\n**WORDS VS. EMOTION**\n\nBut as far as I know there is not and never has been a comparable group among radio actors. There are a few exceptions, but most radio actors, year after year, gallop from studio to studio, “leaning” on their scripts and shooting at nothing higher than a “good-enough-for-radio” performance. And while they develop a highly specialized facility for quick work, their performances are usually “indications” of something, rather than “something” itself.\n\nMost roles in radio dramas are small ones. Generally they wouldn’t add up to more than a few solid paragraphs. Surely these parts could be memorized in a few hours. Even actors with larger roles could work out a compromise technique of memorizing as much as possible. Memory is not as noncooperative as most of us believe. It only needs exercise to function well and with a little training can do amazing things.\n\nUP FROM THE WISECRACK\n\nRadio actors are people, too, and if they really identify themselves emotionally with the character they're playing they'll find their memories can do a pretty reliable job with the dialogue. I know a few actors who have experimented along these lines, and found themselves giving performances more satisfactory, both to themselves and to listeners, than they ever dreamed possible. There should be more experiments of this sort. Radio actors should free themselves from their bondage to scripts, and with the cooperation of directors and engineers learn to make their basic adjustment to the dramatic objectives of the story instead of to a microphone.\n\nThis, I believe, is the direction we must move in if our profession is to be rescued from its present status at the short end of a wisecrack.\n\nThere were letters to the editor on this one, too—mostly from actors—but nothing as explosive as from the Variety article of three years before. One actor vented his regard for my theories and talent in a long poem about his career in the theater and where do I get off to teach him anything.\n\n... I read in the paper on Sunday\nHow most radio acting stinks,\nWritten by a person\nWhose actin' is wors'n\nEven he or anyone thinks.\nOh I've taken parts as I've found 'em.\nJust like Joe Julian;\nBut the more that I see of the others\nThe less I'll settle for him.\nIt would help him to do some thinkin'\n\nBefore memorizing a radio show,\nAnd be warned that a lot\nThink he’s not very hot\nAnd won’t learn about actin’ from Joe.\n\nAs a proselytizer I think I was a total failure. I doubt if I made one real convert. Looking back, I can see that my crusading zeal blinded me somewhat to the disturbing effect my memorizing had on many actors with whom I worked. They resented it for several reasons. It implied a criticism of their work. It had a smart alec “Look ma no hands” aspect. And there was the matter of cues. I always made a point of trying to give exact cues. But memorizing per se has risks, and actors were frequently fearful of getting wrong or sloppy cues from me that would spoil their performance. I was aware of this and conscientiously tried always to give the cue that was in the script.\n\nOne evening, I failed. I was working *The Quentin Reynolds Show* on NBC, a program that dramatized the exploits of that renowned war correspondent. After rehearsing all afternoon, we had an hour’s break before airtime, during which Reynolds invited me for a drink. (I had known him from the Savoy Bar in London, where we used to sit with RAF fighter pilots as they exchanged accounts of the day’s dog fights, illustrating them with a graceful ballet of hands.) I had already learned the lines for my scene that evening, but because of the few drinks, I decided I had better not risk doing it from memory. So, when we later went on the air, I conscientiously read every single word from the script—and fluffed all over the place.\n\nOn another occasion my memorizing scared the hell out of Frederic March. It was a big Norman Corwin production over CBS entitled *Untitled* (yes, that’s right), and I\n\nhad a long, block speech as a soldier returned from war describing the horrors that had happened to his buddy. We rehearsed for a couple of days, which gave me time to fully learn the speech. I felt secure enough at airtime to go to the mike without the script in my hands. I usually held it at my side, or behind me to resort to in an emergency. This was the first time I dared \"go it alone.\" March's mouth dropped open as I placed my script on my chair, and walked empty-handed to the microphone. I looked up to the glass control booth, where Corwin stood masterminding the elements of the show. A slow wave of his hand signaled the orchestra to segue to soft introductory music; a finger jabbed at the sound man started the footsteps; a nod of his head to me and I began.\n\nIt went well. Not only didn't I fluff, it was one of the really full moments I experienced in radio acting.\n\nAfter the show, March told me how nervous I had made him. He had seized my script and with his finger traced each word as I spoke, ready to thrust it to me if I \"went up.\" He remarked, as others frequently had, about my phenomenal memory. There was nothing phenomenal about it. I had had two full days to learn a one-page speech. In the early days of stock companies, actors learned full-length plays in less than a week.\n\nHowever, I do have a theory about memory in relation to actors. I believe that if you serve it properly it will serve you. This applies to learning roles in all media. Actors can best learn lines by not trying too hard. The intention of the lines is more important. After reading through the script one or more times, the actor should first learn why the character he is playing says what he says. What is he trying to achieve? What is his intention, his action? Actions speak louder than words, and they're easier to memorize. And once he is clear about his action, the words, which have been quivering on the periphery of memory since the first reading of the script, are much more likely to jump into full consciousness voluntarily. Actors who have the most trouble memorizing are primarily those who learn the words first. These actors are lost if their memory suddenly fails. But the actor who is clear about his intention is always able to substitute another appropriate word or phrase to keep the scene alive and moving. If this smacks of Stanislavsky—so be it!\n\nAlmost a year and a half after its production, my Dover Diary brought me an offer to go to the other side of the world.\n\nIn December, 1944, Robert Saudek, Public Service director for the American Broadcasting Company, informed me that he had had an inquiry from an official of the Red Cross, who had heard and remembered my documentary and thought perhaps I might be the person they were seeking.\n\nThe war in Europe had ended, and the world's full attention was now on the Far East, where the army was fighting its way up through the Philippines toward Japan. The Red Cross public relations department had a man with them reporting Red Cross activities. His recordings were played over a group of U.S. radio stations known as the Associated Network, but apparently they were on the dull side. My job would be to take over and somehow liven up the program. I suggested making it a straight reporting job, not hard news—but of the human side of the GI experience, with unobtrusive plugs slipped in for the Red Cross.\n\nThey agreed. I would have carte blanche to travel with and live off the army and report on whatever interested me. A special arrangement was made for the American Broadcasting Company's Blue Radio Network to carry whichever of my stories appealed to them, on their Sunday News Roundup.\n\nThe only running role I had at that time was in the serial *Lorenzo Jones and His Wife Belle*. Organizing my affairs for my departure, I asked the Hummerts if they would, instead of replacing me, write the character out until I returned. Patriotically they agreed to do so.\n\nSince I would officially be a Red Cross employee, I had to go the Washington headquarters for a physical examination and to fill out an application form.\n\nThe capital was full of amateur bureaucrats in those hectic days, and things often took a long time to go through \"the works.\" I went back to New York and accepted radio acting jobs for the next five months, until word finally came that my application had been approved. I was to report immediately to Washington, where I would be given my embarkation orders.\n\nArriving in Washington, I was told that, although all my other papers were in order, my correspondent's accreditation had not yet come through and I would have to wait until it did. The wait lasted a few more months and stretched my patience to the breaking point.\n\nI went back to New York several times to do a radio show, but since I was now in uniform and on the Red Cross payroll, I felt I owed them this time, even though I had been engaged only as an overseas radio correspondent. I offered my services to their publicity department.\n\nThey had me visit Red Cross installations and write up for their press releases stories about their activities in Washington hospitals, which at that time were crowded with war casualties. I vividly recall two of these occasions, to which I reacted strongly: one, with horror, as I went through a ward of hopeless basket cases, looking into the despairing eyes of these mute and totally helpless fragments of human beings; and later, in the recreation room, with hope—as I watched an audience of about fifty lesser paraplegics, mobile in wheelchairs, listening raptly to a concert by the Russian-born cellist, Piatagorsky. Most were ordinary GIs who had never attended a classical concert in their lives. You could feel the music strengthening them.\n\nAlthough I managed to keep busy, the delay was terribly abrasive. I had already had my anti-malaria shots and was raring to go.\n\nThen a funny thing happened on my way to the Philippines. The war ended. After all that waiting, General MacArthur pulled this fast one on me. On August 13, 1945, I had gone up to Baltimore on a visit. The next morning I was waiting on a busy corner for the return bus to Washington when news of the Japanese surrender hit the streets.\n\nV-J Day! The end of World War II! I never saw such happiness! Pure, spontaneous, uninhibited joy. Delirious, screaming, shrieking, laughing, crying: people dancing in the streets. Strangers hugging each other; people piling over automobiles, moving and stationary. A cacophony of yelling, horn blowing, beating on dishpans, and the sirens of fire engines. Soldiers and sailors grabbed girls and\n\nkissed them; soldiers and sailors kissed one another—girls kissed soldiers and sailors: it was love, not war. After giving myself to it to the point of exhaustion, I jotted down these snatches of remarks overheard:\n\nAN ENGLISH SOLDIER: Never have I seen people exuding such good will, not even on Christmas.\n\nA YOUNG GIRL: I don’t mind being kissed by someone my own nationality. But this Frenchman grabbed me and kissed me till I was ready to sock him before he let go.\n\nAMERICAN SOLDIER: This is a happy day for me, all right. Just came back from four years in the South Pacific.\n\nANOTHER SOLDIER: Look at these people, they’re insane. I lost two brothers in this war. I don’t feel much like celebrating. Do you know where there’s a church that’s open. I want to pray.\n\nInstead of going to the Philippines, I was asked to go directly to Japan with the occupying troops, as soon as my accreditation papers cleared MacArthur’s press office—which took another month, and even then only after the Red Cross pulled some strings. MacArthur didn’t want any more correspondents with him. He didn’t like them. They made fun of his profile.\n\nIf I had been afraid flying to England in a bomber, it was as nothing compared to my cowardice in crossing the Pacific. This time too it was a bomber, but one that hadn’t been converted, thus much more uncomfortable. I was the only passenger. The flight was divided into three large chunks of fear. The first, somewhere in the black night between Seattle and Guam, occurred when one of the three-man crew burst out of the cockpit with huge beads of sweat on his forehead. Pushing me aside, he began to pull up the floor boards of the fuselage. I asked what was the\n\nmatter. He didn’t answer, but crawled down into the little compartment he had uncovered, and sniffed. “What’s the matter?” I repeated, already terrified by his behavior. “Fire!” he said. “A red light on the dashboard has flashed fire!” I trembled so hard for the next half hour, as he sniffed out every inch of that plane, it’s a wonder I didn’t shatter my bones. I was worried; my life didn’t flash before me the way it was supposed to. I had a few painful thoughts of my family, but it was mostly sheer tension and terror. I remember saying over and over to myself, “This is it, this is it,” and speculating on the precise moment I would die when I became part of a flaming crash into the ocean. Finally, after several conferences, the crew decided the plane was not on fire, that a short circuit in the fire-reporting rheostat had caused the light to flash on. The pilot cut the wires so he wouldn’t be faced with that blinking red light for the rest of the trip. Deliverance!\n\nThe next horror occurred hours later. The navigator told me to hang on to something and not be afraid. He wanted to experiment in determining his position by radar. He went back to the cockpit and the plane began a series of twists and turns, dips and steep pullouts that had me banging around from one end of the fuselage to the other. I grabbed some pipes running along the interior, but I wasn’t prepared for these sudden, crazy maneuvers and lost my grip. “Don’t be afraid,” he said. Hah! Tell it to your subconscious. I ended up with new knots in my stomach, and a body of black and blue.\n\nMy third attack of fear came several hours out of Guam toward Tokyo, when I was honored by a visit from the pilot, a tall, slow-talking Texan.\n\n“Listen,” he said, “we’re going to stop off in Iwo Jima.\n\nIf you're asked any questions, you don't know anything, okay?\"\n\n\"Okay,\" I said, \"but why: Aren't we supposed to fly direct to Tokyo?\"\n\n\"Well,\" he drawled, \"we just wanna pick up some cigarettes.\" He said he had radioed the airport that he had an emergency, and they had granted him permission to land. \"We'll be going in on three engines,\" he said. \"But don't be afraid.\"\n\n\"C-c-can you do that?\" I asked, trying hard not to be afraid.\n\n\"Don't worry,\" he said. \"I know my ship, I could even bring this baby in on two. We'll just be riding at a little different angle and have a heavier yaw.\"\n\nWith my nose to the window and my heart in my mouth, I watched him feather one propeller. The plane tilted heavily to one side. I fervently hoped his life was as precious to him as mine was to me. A crowd of soldiers, a crash car, and a fire engine were waiting as we touched down. The pilot modestly accepted congratulations for bringing the crippled plane down safely. He thoughtfully stroked his chin and made suggestions as to what could have happened. And as a team of mechanics pored over the conked-out engine he suggested we all have some chow. My God, I thought, what some people won't do for a cigarette.\n\nAfter eating, I tagged along as the crew sauntered over to the PX, where they bought, not a pack or two of cigarettes, or even a carton or two. No. They bought as many cartons as they could hold in their arms and balance with their chins. Each carried away at least fifty cartons! What heavy smokers, I thought.\n\nAs we returned to the plane the mechanics were revving the motors. They simply hadn’t been able to find what was wrong. They said everything was now working fine.\n\nBack in the air, winging again toward Tokyo, I learned a lesson in Armed Forces’ economics. I learned that not all the huge profits of war are made by armaments manufacturers and other giant corporations of the military-industrial complex. There’s also room for the little fellow who does not have a lobbyist in Washington, or is not even particularly astute. He just has to be able to recognize an opportunity when it bangs on his door.\n\nTake cigarettes, for instance. Cigarettes could buy anything in Japan. They were like legal tender, and the going price was thirty dollars a carton. At PXs, GIs were allowed to buy only two cartons a week for two dollars each. But on Iwo Jima they could buy as many as they wished for two dollars each. Iwo Jima was mostly a barren rock with no local populace willing to trade their goods and treasures for cigarettes, hence no need for the army to ration them. A made-to-order situation for these airmen. They had a very nice little thing going. Little? As I calculated, I realized it ran into big money: three of the airmen bought about fifty cartons each—150 cartons at two dollars apiece—at a cost of $300. In Japan, they would sell them for thirty dollars a carton, netting $4200. On one trip!\n\nAnd they made three scheduled flights to Iwo Jima weekly. That was more than $50,000 a month. In six months they could clear over $300,000! God bless the law of supply and demand!\n\n8. Welcome Honorable Enemy\n\nMy six months in Japan were a very different experience from my stay in England. In England I had been in the midst of war, of bombing; here, although the war was now over, the devastation of the cities was far greater than London. Another surprise was our reception: our deadly enemies, the great \"yellow hordes\" we had been taught for years to fear and hate, had suddenly become our gracious hosts. The moment American troops set foot on their home soil, the Japanese attacked with a barrage of politeness, deference, and eager cooperation for which we were totally unprepared. It was strange and confusing; surely some resistance was to be expected of a nation that produced 100,000 kamikaze suicide pilots and had fought to the death for every inch of territory they held in the South Pacific. But during my entire stay there was not one reported act of violence to an American soldier. I never even encountered smoldering resentment.\n\nThe answer lay in the relationship of the Japanese to their emperor—and in General MacArthur's understanding\n\nof that relationship. There were great pressures to indict Hirohito as a war criminal, but MacArthur wisely decided—to the chagrin of liberals in the United States—to retain him as head of the nation, thereby unquestionably saving many thousands of lives. The people’s profound reverence for their emperor became MacArthur’s most effective tool in administering the occupation. Hirohito told his people to treat the Americans as guests, and they did. Japan was, undoubtedly, the most docile conquered country in history.\n\nThe Tokyo I arrived in in 1945 was not the bustling metropolis it is today. It was a city that gave you a feeling it almost wasn’t there: miles of rubble, improvised shacks, and a small number of concrete buildings that had resisted the fire bombs rained down by our B-29s. The only vehicular traffic was army trucks and jeeps such as the one in which I was driven from Atsugi Airfield to the Dai Iti Hotel in the center of Tokyo where I was to stay, and a few rickshaws, pulled along by trotting humans. A dimly lighted street car, crammed with Japanese, rumbled by. Here and there policemen appeared, swinging lighted paper lanterns. Women in brightly colored kimonos, some with babies on their backs, were foraging in the rubble. Clusters of men, women, and children were sleeping on sidewalks, huddled around little fires. The weather was damp and penetrating, but many were barefooted and coatless.\n\nThe Dai Iti was a Western-style hotel, built expressly to house athletes at the Olympic Games which were to have taken place in Japan in 1940, but were canceled because of the war. As I registered, the desk sergeant asked my simulated rank. (I was wearing an officer’s uniform without insignia.) He must have liked me because when I told him I didn’t know, he said, “Only majors and colonels are supposed to be billeted here, so I’ll put you down as a colonel.” From then on, whenever asked that question, I always replied, “Colonel.” In my travels throughout Japan, it got me the best accommodations the army could offer—food, transportation, chauffeurs, etc. I was forever grateful to the Dai Iti desk sergeant for granting me my on-the-spot commission.\n\nMy first meal in Japan was in the Dai Iti dining room. In vivid contrast to the shambles just outside, it had a lovely, luxurious ambience—flowers on every table, and overhead, flying free between the ledges of the high ceiling, were finches, canaries, parakeets, and other small, exotic songbirds. I was seated at a large round table with four “real” American colonels. It was a good, stateside meal, but unforgettable for the introductory remarks of our waitress. This lovely, virginal, kimonoed, Japanese lass, pencil poised to take our order, bowed, smiled, and said, “American officers full of shit.” There was a moment’s stunned silence at the table, which she quickly filled: “Bullshit kiss my ass! What you have, prease?” Five very perplexed Americans looked at one another until we recognized the heavy humor of some GI kitchen-worker who had doubtless put her up to it, telling the girl, who obviously spoke little or no English, that it meant “good evening, it’s a pleasure to serve you,” or words to that effect.\n\nTalk I overheard in the dining room and lobby indicated the business of the occupation. The hotel was teeming with military and civilian architects of Japan’s future: a couple of majors discussing a survey of Japan’s lumber resources; a woman member of a labor advisory commission telling a public relations officer how difficult it was to appraise the Japanese labor situation because of inflation; the recording secretary of the Allied Commission for governing Japan, explaining his job of keeping minutes of meetings and providing member nations with translated copies; a couple of legal minds tossing fine points of international law at each other in connection with the war criminal trials; a colonel from counterintelligence relating how his men had discovered a huge cache of diamonds in a Japanese attic; an elderly gentleman president of some waterworks in America, who had been sent to rectify flaws in the Japanese water system; an officer of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force discussing Japanese art with a French naval commander; a group of Russian Army officers talking in Russian about whatever Russian Army officers talk about in Russian.\n\nBefore retiring that night, I stepped outside for a stroll. I walked toward the only other building left standing in the immediate environment, Shinbashi Railroad Station. It was scorched, dirty, dimly lit, and unheated. As I entered, several hundred of Tokyo’s dispossessed were settling down for the night on the cold floor. Their homes wiped out, they had no other place to go. Young and old, women in ragged, filthy kimonos, with sleeping babies on their backs, drooped their heads as they tried to doze in a kneeling position.\n\nThere was a sudden loud shriek. A woman appeared to be beating her small son with a stick as he lay, motionless, on the cold stone floor. Then I saw she was whacking the floor. I found a Japanese policeman and asked if he couldn’t get the child to a hospital. He said all hospitals were so crowded only the police chief had the authority to\n\ndo that. But he spoke a few words to the woman who told him her baby was not sick, just cold, that she was beating the floor so he wouldn’t go to sleep and freeze. An old man crawled from his corner, peeled off one of his dirt-caked rags and placed it over the shivering boy.\n\nI found a candy bar in my pocket and put it in the mother’s hand. She rubbed my foot in gratitude. A number of people rose, and bowed deeply from the waist. This was to happen to me several times in Japan. Apparently when a foreigner shows a kindness to a native, even uninvolved witnesses thank him on behalf of the entire Japanese race.\n\nThe sun has a profound significance for the Japanese. Their Emperor is supposed to be a direct descendent of Amaterasu Omikami, the Sun Goddess, and the symbol of their flag is a round, blazing sun. As I left the station I found myself hoping the sun would return some of this devotion by shining the next day and shed a little warmth on some of these innocent victims of the war.\n\nThe following morning I checked in at Red Cross headquarters, then made my way through acres of ruins, toward Radio Tokyo, from which I was to broadcast my stories back to the United States. On my way down one of the meaningless streets, two small boys were playing baseball. A short distance away, hundreds of ragged human beings were milling about. Approaching, I saw it was an army garbage dump—practically a mess hall for these hungry people.\n\nAs I walked along parts of the ruins seemed to come alive—people were scrounging for bits of wood, metal, whatever building materials they could find. I was in the middle of a strange housing project. A scrawny little man,\n\nwearing army trousers and stripped to the waist, was shoveling debris away from a piece of wall. His wife, carrying an infant on her back, was dragging up several sheets of rusty tin that would be the roof of their new home. There were many homesteaders in this rubble wilderness, carving out patchwork hovels of their own. Several had planted gardens, and fresh vegetables were pushing their way up through the rubbish and broken masonry, as though Mother Nature were thumbing her nose at the efforts of Old Man Mars to wipe her out.\n\nRadio Tokyo was the Radio City (village) of Japan: a medium-sized, six-story, modern building. Every inch of it smelled of fish. Every employee was either eating fish or had one stashed in his lunch box.\n\nThere were signs at all entrances: OFF LIMITS FOR ALL ALLIED MILITARY PERSONNEL NOT ON OFFICIAL BUSINESS. But there was plenty of official business, army khaki swarming all over the place.\n\nI explored their facilities with great curiosity. Most of the radio equipment was as modern as ours, although rundown. There were sixteen studios, all modern with a single exception: one was designed like a Japanese living room, with Tatami mats on the floor and a small, low round table. The performer would take his shoes off before entering, and broadcast while kneeling on a cushion. This was the studio from which the famous American renegade known as Tokyo Rose had used her sexy voice to try and demoralize and seduce GIs into deserting. Now it was being used by an American actor, Hans Conried, for a humorous chatter program he called Tokyo Mose, broadcast over the Armed Forces Network, which shared these facilities. Armed Forces Radio also rebroadcast many popular\n\nprograms from home, such as *Information, Please!* *Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy*, *Suspense*, The Detroit Symphony, and an occasional Norman Corwin show.\n\nAmerican radio stations had some strange-looking gadgets in their sound-effects closets, but some of Radio Tokyo's effects were among the most inventive I've ever seen. Cricket noises were made by rubbing the backs of two small seashells together. Rain was achieved by gently shaking from side to side two large, round fans to which about thirty small dried beans were attached, each by a two-inch length of string. For the putt-putt of a motor boat, the sound-effects man clamped his hand on and off the end of a hollow piece of bamboo. There were several resonant gongs, which play an important part in all Oriental drama, and an enormous seashell with a mouthpiece attached, which, when blown into, produced an unearthly sound used for God knows what.\n\nThe head engineer, Kazuichi Fuigi, informed me that throughout the Japanese Isles, aside from 150,000-watt Radio Tokyo, there were eight 10,000-watt stations, twenty-five 500-watt, and fifty smaller ones. The bombings had knocked out line communications between many of them, but they carried network programs via shortwave. There were an estimated 7,000,000 home radio sets in use at that time.\n\nA set owner paid a government tax of one yen per month—a little over six cents, at the then current rates.\n\nAll programs began at six in the morning, and all stations signed off at ten-thirty at night.\n\nThe Allied authorities had revised Radio Tokyo's program schedules to include round-table discussions, audience participation shows, and especially encouraged listeners to break through their traditional submission to authority by writing letters to the station expressing their own opinions and desires. The reticent Japanese had responded en masse: thousands of letters had poured in. I glanced through some of them, which had been translated—often literally—for the occupying authorities.\n\nPlease play light music and story ending in a joke. We live in cold dwelling, so if we can hear interesting drolleries on cold winter night—we hoping to distract our minds by radio.\n\nWe like to hear about reconstruction—especially Hiroshima. I think radio is organ of education as well as amusement.\n\nThank you. My father likes to hear \"The Story of Dutiful Child of Snow with Moon.\"\n\nYour program used to impregnate Japanese minds with American ideas. I don't know how much salary you radio people are receiving, but these hypocritical broadcasts only irritate the people. Let Americans take care of their own propaganda. Are you endeavoring to trample the utterly exhausted people until they become a fourth-rate nation? Do you attempt to make second Philippines out of Japan?\n\nI desire to have radio plays suitable for farmers. I think jokes are most suitable to distract one's mind. Also old story.\n\nDay by day it is getting cold. I like to hear music of friendly Japan and United States please.\n\nI like answer for following questions: What is composition of humans and animals? Water colors? Why snow has certain formation? Why leaves fall from trees? Why can see your breath only in the morning? Why United States people taller than us?\n\nI desire solos on Japanese instrument. Its beautiful sounds in quiet cold long evening makes us forget we are struggling for living.\n\nI would like to hear reading of works by famous poets. Also love songs for girls.\n\nFor those of us who farm in countryside, western music makes us dizzy and dull. We sincerely hope you will broadcast more Japanese music.\n\nI would like to hear dramatized biographies of famous chemists.\n\nPlease teach to us something make us cheerful. National song.\n\nWe like to be like GI but don’t have enough politeness. Rather, what we have is false. Please have radio program to develop our real social politeness.\n\nIn these days with shortages of food, why are so many factories on arable land that should be allotted for rice fields? The factories and smaller cities should be removed to the mountains.\n\nWe have begun aiming at highly civilized level necessary for the moral nation. New leaders of Japan should not be same persons as those who acclaim the militarism.\n\nI appeal to the authorities for immediate removal of licensed prostitution. It should be immediately abolished for the elevation of women’s position.\n\nHow about evening with samisen? I think that would be suitable on cold nights.\n\nWhen I was middle-school boy, I hated most the course in morals—because the Emperor was unreasonably revered as living God. Feeling it was not right, I was always in great mental agony and seized with great fear. But today I am in a rebellious mood, thanks to Supreme Command of Allied Powers who arranged that we can freely criticize the Emperor System.\n\nThe movies of our country should be made by more civilized hands with much poetic spirit, instead of pursuing American nation.\n\nThe letters seemed to focus on two major points: the compulsion to escape into old stories, sweet songs, and bright jokes that would distract them from their misery, and a tentative acceptance of their new freedom to criticize their leaders without fear of the notorious Thought Police.\n\nBut even though the letters showed that, behind all the agreeable smiles and bows, the Japanese had all the hungers, fears, hopes, and confused emotions of a scrutable westerner, their preoccupation with \"face\" made it difficult for the occupation forces to establish a working relationship with the population. For one thing, the Japanese would generally answer questions affirmatively, say yes when they really meant no. But it wasn't lying as we know it. It was a ritual politeness—even with each other—to say what they thought you wanted to hear, communicating the truth behind the words in subtle, nonverbal ways endemic to their culture, and difficult if not impossible for foreigners to understand.\n\nRoaming around the country, I found so much that was strange and difficult to understand that, in the three minutes allotted me for each of my five weekly broadcasts, I decided simply to describe what I saw and experienced; rather than attempt any heavy interpretations or analyses, I made up my mind to create a picture of the life of this unique occupation through a mosaic of vignettes.\n\nNorman Corwin had given me the address of a Japanese friend to look up. After driving my jeep through miles of devastation, I arrived at a small, unpretentious Japanese home in the suburbs of Tokyo. I was greeted at the door by Yoichi Hiroaka, the world-famous xylophonist. He had\n\nlived in the United States for twelve years and had been a featured soloist with the New York Philharmonic, the NBC Symphony under Toscanini, and other prominent orchestras.\n\nA small, ebullient man of about forty, with bright gleaming eyes behind heavy double-lensed glasses, he invited me to take off my shoes and come in. He introduced me to his pretty American-born wife, and, as my hands warmed around the cup of hot tea she set in front of me, Hiroaka told me his story.\n\nBefore the war he had been doing very well in the United States. His musicianship was lauded and appreciated by the country’s foremost critics. Then came Pearl Harbor. Immediately, all his concert dates were cancelled and he was barred from all network radio programs. The problem of making a living for his wife and baby became acute. His fellow musicians took up a collection for him, but it didn’t last long.\n\n“There was absolutely no way for me to support my family in America,” he said. “The government had begun to round up all Japanese—even the American-born—and put them in an internment camp. I reluctantly chose to return to Japan on an exchange ship.”\n\nI asked him about life under the B-29s, and he said, “How we lived through that hell I’ll never know. This is our third house. We were bombed out of the other two. And the noise those incendiaries made—like a steady torrent of rain. And they were loaded with some devilish stuff that prevented you from being able to extinguish the fires. Since I arrived from the United States, I’ve lost thirty-five pounds, from 140 to 105.”\n\nI asked what effect the war had on music in Japan. “I’ll\n\ntell you this,” he said. “The sound those whistling fire bombs made was in the key of G. Whenever my wife strikes a G-note on our piano, we still jump out of our skins.”\n\nBouncing along in my jeep back toward the hotel, suddenly I saw in the glare of my headlights a young, kimonoed girl. She was standing in the middle of the road, frantically waving her arms. I jammed on the brakes, and she ran over to me, screaming and pointing to a U.S. Army weapons carrier parked in the shadows on the side of the road. I caught a glimpse of several GIs quickly ducking behind it.\n\n“Get in!” I shouted to her, pointing over my shoulder to the back seat. “Quick!”\n\nShe climbed in, pounded me on the back and yelled “Friendo! Friendo!”\n\nI gathered the GIs were still holding the girl’s friend, whom she wanted me to rescue too. But I wasn’t about to tangle with a nest of horny rapists on a lonely highway in the middle of the night. That’s for the movies. I stepped on the gas and cut away at full speed.\n\nBut my passenger continued hysterical, crying and jabbering in a Japanese interspersed with an occasional “Friendo, friendo!” as she continued pounding me on the back. Unfortunately I couldn’t make her understand I was not John Wayne, or convince her how lucky she was I had been able to rescue her. My heroism was based on an instant calculation that my jeep could travel faster than a weapons carrier.\n\nI was wrong. Just as I began to relax, I became aware of two large, hostile headlights reflected in my rear view mirror. I stepped on the gas. The distance between us didn’t change. I pushed down on the accelerator as hard as I dared on that rubble-strewn road—we were already leaping along semi-airborne—but the headlights grew larger. It became painfully clear that I couldn’t outrace them, so I slammed on the brakes and came to a screeching stop. Beside the road was a sparsely-wooded area with a thick underbrush. The girl was still sobbing as I pulled her out of the jeep and pushed her toward the woods. She misunderstood my motives and again began to panic. I pointed to the rapidly approaching truck, then to the woods, and pantomimed for her to run like hell. She finally caught on and scurried into the brush.\n\nI climbed back in the jeep just as the big weapons carrier swung around in front of me to cut off my escape and stopped. For a long moment no one made a move. I heard muffled sobs—evidently emanating from the “friend.” I sat stiffly, waiting for them to come at me. My heart was pounding. “At last,” I thought, “you’re going to experience the horror of war . . . at the hands of your own countrymen!” But the soldiers were cautious. After all, I might be a high officer. You never know who’s driving a jeep. One of the men finally got out and ambled over, squinting to get a better look at me. I was wearing an officer’s cap and uniform, but when he came close enough to see I was without insignia—a lousy civilian—he made a disgusted face and signaled the others. Five or six glowering, Texas-tall GIs moved in on me.\n\n“What the fuck’s the idea highjackin’ our girl?” the first one said.\n\n“Where is she?” another demanded.\n\n“Look,” I said, “the girl was scared to death . . .”\n\n\"What the fuck's it to you?\"\n\"Where the fuck is she?\"\n\"She was hysterical,\" I said. \"She could have died of heart failure. There are plenty of girls around the Ginza, why do you want to pick on a . . .\"\n\"What the fuck's it your business?\"\n\"Where is she?\"\n\"She musta beat it inta the woods.\"\n\"C'mon, let's fan out.\"\n\"All right you—get the fuck outa here!\"\nI did. As this splendid unit of brave American soldiers fanned out in the tall underbrush to flush out their quarry—one desperately frightened little Japanese girl.\n\nWhile every army has its share of monsters, there were relatively few such incidents during the occupation. Japanese women, trained to believe their highest mission in life was to serve, flatter and entertain men, charmed most GIs into their best behavior.\n\nAnd, while the majority of American males may be chauvinist pigs at heart, their patronizing politeness to women actually gave a big nudge to the meager women's liberation movement in Japan. This may sound like Women's Lib in reverse, but the smiles of Japanese women had a little extra charge when for the first time in their lives they experienced the seductive pleasure of a man holding a door open for them, or giving them a seat on a crowded trolley. It was new and ego-strengthening—and a severe shock to the Japanese male, accustomed to his God-given right of preceding his woman through a door, and, if there's only one empty seat on the trolley, occupying it himself, leaving her to stand—frequently with an infant on her back.\n\nDuring the war, the women's movement in Japan took a big step forward, as hundreds of thousands of women went to work in factories, taking over men's occupations. But the male power structure was very deeply rooted in the culture, and the vast majority of women had no revolutionary passion to overthrow it. Even when they sympathized with the notion of equality and democracy, their reactions were often bizarre, as I was soon to see.\n\nOne day I ran into an actor I had known in New York, Al Lipton, who was now a private in the occupying army producing radio shows for the Armed Forces Network. Al was also a passionate believer in democracy for everyone, including women, and did a little missionary work on behalf of the cause whenever he could. In the course of his proselytizing, he voiced his views one day to a Japanese gentleman named Mr. Cho. He told Mr. Cho how strongly he felt that the remaining remnants of feudalism should be abolished in Japan.\n\nMr. Cho, who happened to be president of a Japanese press association, thought it would be a fine idea if Private Lipton would speak at the next meeting of his organization, whose members would be most eager to hear a GI's impressions of Japan. Al accepted the invitation on the spot.\n\nA few days later Al spoke for an hour and a half at the press-association meeting, explaining why he felt the defeat of Japanese militarism was actually a victory for the Japanese people. He spoke of the need to reorganize the country along democratic lines, and especially stressed the importance of having women assert their rights and play a meaningful role in civic and social life. \"Women have too long been considered inferior,\" he said, \"mere chattel.\"\n\nHe pointed to the struggles and ultimate victories of American suffragettes, and finished his speech by urging the women of Japan to take full advantage of their new opportunity to vote, as their first major battle in a campaign to shed the chains of their ancient feudal bondage and recover their rights and dignity as human beings.\n\nThe speech made an extraordinary impression. Afterward the audience gathered around, shook Al’s hands, applauded, and bowed in double time.\n\nAs a result of that talk, Private Lipton was later the guest of honor at a special dinner. The food served was the best that could be bought on the black market: rice wrapped in smoked and raw fish, clam broth, broiled sparrows, sukiyaki, and pear preserves. Wine, beer, and hot sake were served with every course.\n\nAfter dinner, Lipton was approached by a middle-aged Japanese lady wearing a beautiful, crested silk kimono. She explained, in her slight English, how much she liked what he had said, especially about freedom for women. As a token of her appreciation she would like to make him a little present. She left the room and returned shortly with a beautiful young Japanese girl. Pressing her gently toward Lipton, she said, bowing, “Presento—for you—to keep.” She had just bought the girl from her father for a couple of thousand yen, to show her appreciation of his speech on freedom for Japanese women.\n\nLipton blinked five or six times, then realized his plight. It would be terrible manners to refuse the gift—a downright insult, in fact. He tried to change the subject, but his admirers just smiled. He took his wallet from his pocket and pointed to a photograph. “Wifeoo-babee—Columbus, Ohio,” he said. But they kept on smiling, noting that, indeed, his wife was very pretty. Only when he told them he lived in a barracks and had no place to keep such a \"presento\" did they reluctantly withdraw the gift. The barracks' problem was a practical consideration, and therefore no \"face\" was lost.\n\n\"I can see it's going to take a long time to educate Japanese women about freedom,\" said Private Lipton. \"Either that, or I made a lousy speech.\"\n\nThe Japanese are probably the world's greatest present-givers. But it's not always an expression of total generosity. One day not long after Al Lipton's speech, a young Japanese acquaintance rushed up to me, gave me that one, one-two bow, elaborately apologized for disturbing me, and thrust a small wooden box into my hand. I opened it and found, wrapped in heavy cotton, a delicately carved ivory figure: a netsuke, with inlaid metal and semi-precious stones.\n\n\"What's this?\" I asked.\n\n\"Presento,\" he said, with a big grin. \"Presento from my father. He want you have this for Christmas.\"\n\n\"But I've never met your father,\" I protested.\n\n\"All same, he want you have nice Christmas,\" he replied.\n\nI handed it back to him and said that he should tell his father I was very moved, but that I had done nothing to deserve such a valuable gift.\n\n\"Oh, it is all right,\" said the young man. \"You keep. My father would like American cigarette.\"\n\nHow profoundly the American occupation changed the bases of relationships between men and women in Japan\n\nis a question for sociologists to sort out; but it did a great deal to break up the totalitarian structure of Japan’s social, economic, and political life.\n\nOne of the first things Hirohito did was to democratize himself. He launched a campaign to divest himself of his divinity. He put on a beat-up old felt hat and made a lot of public appearances. American correspondents helped the new image along by calling him “Charlie.”\n\nIn the past people had had to draw their curtains when the Emperor’s procession passed through the streets. It was a crime to look “down” upon him. One day I traveled with Hirohito as he visited a project for bombed-out victims. He spoke a few words to a couple of women, who were so overcome they burst into tears.\n\nUnder MacArthur’s prodding, the formation of free labor unions was energetically encouraged. Even Hirohito’s palace guards began presenting demands. Organizations all over the country undertook to “democratize” themselves, including the Sumo Wrestlers Federation.\n\nThe rickshaw men of Tokyo reacted collectively when the American authorities posted traffic signs: SPEED—30 MILES PER HOUR. They descended on MacArthur’s headquarters to protest they couldn’t run that fast.\n\nThe unions also came up with some original strike techniques. The streetcar workers, in order to hit at their bosses without inconveniencing the public, let the public ride free. When this didn’t work, they collected the fares, took out their wage increase, and turned in what was left to the company.\n\nThe telephone workers reinforced their demands by cutting off all calls to and from the executives of the company. On all public calls the operator would say, “This\n\ncompany is unfair to us they do not pay us living wage number please?\"\n\nBut perhaps the most innovative and cathartic of all was the \"shriek\" strike. When the railroad workers were demanding more money, at a certain, exact time every day, all over the country every employee—blue and white collar alike—would stop whatever he was doing and shriek for about three minutes at the top of his lungs, the idea being to call public attention to their situation, and make the employer lose face.\n\nSometimes \"democracy\" got a little out of hand. I met a professor named Hatano, who told me that, during one of his lectures at Tokyo University, a student rose and started to leave. When asked where he was going, he said, \"Home.\" Hatano told him to wait until the lecture was over. \"No, sir,\" he replied. \"I exercise my democratic privilege to do what I please.\"\n\nHatano introduced me to a number of interesting people, who provided good material for my broadcasts. One was a Frenchman named Jean-Pierre Hochcorne, who had lived in Japan for fifteen years. Prior to the war he had been an employee of the French Consulate; when the war broke out he was interned. He had a particularly brutal guard whose pastime was jamming bamboo splinters under his fingernails and trying to beat him into confessing he was a spy. His cell was on the ground floor and its window faced the street. His wife brought him food, handing it through the bars, but he was not permitted to speak to her. So they developed a way of communicating by barking like dogs. Three rapid barks meant one thing, one short and one long meant something else, and so forth. When the guard threatened punishment, Monsieur\n\nHochcorne convinced him the prison rules only forbade speaking, not barking.\n\nProfessor Hatano came to visit me one day in my hotel room as I was about to leave for dinner. He brought along a friend, whom he introduced as Japan’s most famous mystery writer, Edagowa Rampo. Stare at the name for a moment. It’s the Japanese way of pronouncing Edgar Allan Poe.\n\nI asked him if readers didn’t confuse him with the real Edgar Allan Poe, who was also published there. “Oh, no,” Hatano replied. “Ours is much more famous.”\n\nAfter some broad hinting, the reason for their visit became clear. They were hungry. Food was scarce in Tokyo.\n\nI told them to wait in my room while I went down to dinner. I stuffed most of it, and a large second helping of chicken, under my Eisenhower jacket and brought it back up to them.\n\nEdagowa Rampo was so grateful he came to visit me again, to present me with several rare, old, gruesome Japanese prints, which he said he collected against his will. Then he asked if I would do him another little favor when I got back to the States. Would I mail him all the Agatha Christie mysteries published in America during the war?\n\nIt set me to wondering just how he became such a famous mystery writer. But no . . . I shall give him the benefit of the doubt.\n\nStill I kept wondering how Agatha Christie would be pronounced in Japanese.\n\n9. Hiroshima\n\nI felt I had to do a broadcast on Hiroshima. The atomic bomb had fallen only eight weeks before and the city was still off-limits to most army personnel. Through the Red Cross, however, I wangled a permit. It was the most awesome experience of my life. Hiroshima was still one big, quivering, raw wound.\n\nAs I drove my jeep uncertainly through the rubble, I was approached by a small man on a bicycle, who introduced himself as the Reverend Kioshi Tanimoto, pastor of Hiroshima’s Central Methodist Church. He offered to show me around. But first he had heard that a sick parishioner of his was living somewhere in the ruins and he was bringing him a piece of dried fish, would I care to come along? We searched for half an hour until we found a weak old man and his son—all that was left of a family of nine—living in a small lean-to improvised from the wreckage. They gratefully accepted the fish and bowed their heads to the ground. I gave each a cigarette, which he smoked ecstatically. Then a dismayed expression came over their faces as they looked about the miserable hovel for a gift for\n\nme. It's a Japanese custom for the host to give his visitor a present. But here there was nothing. Suddenly the son's face brightened. From behind a pile of charred wood, he pulled out a rusty old American saxophone, stepped outside where he could straighten up, and there in the midst of all that atomic devastation, played, for my pleasure, \"My Blue Heaven\" and \"I'll Buy That Dream.\" Whenever I remember those soulful notes floating among the ruins of Hiroshima, I'm still shaken.\n\nTanimoto took me to Hiroshima's Red Cross hospital—one of the few buildings left standing—where Dr. Fumio Shigeto, the assistant director, showed us around.\n\nIt was badly seared, and the windows were almost glassless. The white plaster walls of the rooms were pock-marked with holes from flying glass. In one room blood was spattered all over the walls and ceiling; the blast had blown the window into the face of a patient and severed an artery.\n\nDr. Shigeto told me that twenty-one of the hospital's nurses were killed, and of the thousands who managed to reach the hospital that first day, over 700 had died. Many who couldn't quite make it were found dead on the grounds outside.\n\nOn the hospital's outer wall, a horizontal series of red splotches abruptly turned into a downward smear just short of the entrance—mutely telling the story of a bloody hand groping toward help until it could no more.\n\nMost of the in-patients had suffered fractures and internal injuries when their houses fell on them. Thousands died from blood disease. Dr. Shigeto told me that many of them might have been saved by transfusions, but the\n\nblood of practically everyone in Hiroshima had been affected to some degree, so there was no healthy blood available for transfusions.\n\nWe went to a room where a long line of out-patients was being treated. One woman’s arms were gnarled strips of purple flesh. Her nine-year-old daughter was almost bald. Many people had lost all their hair after the explosion, but eyebrows, strangely, had not been affected.\n\nOne man had severe burns on the back of his neck. Although there was a concrete wall between him and the explosion, the intense rays had bounced off a building in back of him and struck him from behind. A nurse was treating these patients with zinc ointment. She turned, and I saw that half of her face was burned away.\n\nDr. Shigeto told me that he was the first person in Japan to realize what had happened. “The papers simply called it a new type of bomb,” he said, “but when I unpacked some negative film for an X-ray machine and found it had completely degenerated, I knew immediately it had been destroyed by the gamma rays of an atomic bomb.”\n\nA number of American doctors had visited the hospital to study chemical reactions of victims and the possibilities of treatment.\n\n“I hope they’ll never have to make use of their knowledge,” Dr. Shigeto said grimly.\n\nWhen I told Dick Day, Tokyo head of Red Cross Public Relations, that I planned to do a series of broadcasts on Hiroshima, he advised against it. “No one wants to hear about Hiroshima any more,” he said. “It’s old stuff.”\n\nBut I felt that so far most, if not all the reporting had been of numbers: how many tens of thousands killed; the\n\ndamage at various distances from the center of the explosion, etc. Statistics for the military manuals and history books. After what I had witnessed and what Tanimoto had told me of his and others' experiences, it seemed much more important that the story of Hiroshima be told and remembered in terms of human agony.\n\nI spread my material over three of my three-minute broadcasts, but I couldn't begin to encapsulate my feelings, or the suffering of the people of Hiroshima, in this meager air time. Nevertheless, I described as best I could the old man, the son and the saxophone; Dr. Shigeto and the Red Cross Hospital. And more.\n\nOn February 16, 1946, I broadcast my story of the Reverend Kioshi Tanimoto's nightmare day:\n\nJOSEPH JULIAN\n\nASSOCIATED NETWORK BROADCAST\n\nWAR CORRESPONDENT\n\nGHQ PRO\n\nJANUARY 16, 1946\n\nThis is Joseph Julian, your Red Cross correspondent speaking from Tokyo.\n\nThe Reverend Kioshi Tanimoto, American-educated pastor of Hiroshima's Central Methodist church, invited me to his home for a cup of tea. His church had been leveled by the atom bomb and he now rents a house on the outskirts of the ruins. In one of the rooms he has improvised an altar and conducts services every morning for about twenty surviving members of his congregation.\n\nHe poured the tea and said grace beginning with \"Oh Lord we thank thee for being alive.\" Never was a prayer said less ritually or with more honest fervor.\n\nAnd as we squatted there on the straw matted floor sipping our \"ocha\" he told me his story of that day. He was visiting\n\nfriends just outside the city, he said. \"About twelve noon, I heard a terrific roar, and the house I was in began to shake. I thought it was an ordinary air raid, until I went outside. It was dark as night—fires were everywhere and thousands of people were pouring across bridges from Hiroshima. It was like the end of the world. I didn't know what happened, but I knew it was something catastrophic. My first thought was for my wife and baby girl who were in our house on the other side of town. I tried to get across several bridges, but the fires were too hot. I ran four miles along the river that circles the city proper. Then I swam across. There were at least a thousand people lying on the beach. It was difficult to walk without stepping on them. I met a friend who told me my wife and child had been buried in the collapse of our house, but had dug their way to safety. Most of those wounded lying on the beach kept asking for water. I found a broken dish and scooped water from the river and gave hundreds of them a little swallow each. River water is bad but I hoped it would help them psychologically. Almost all of them thanked me and bowed before they drank the water—even though they were dying. I worked with them for several hours, doing what I could. Then the tide came in and washed many of them into the river. I pulled five dead bodies out of an old row boat and rescued about twenty people. Some would hold up their arms to be pulled into the boat, but their burns were so raw when I grabbed them, they couldn't stand the pain and jerked away—to drown.\"\n\nThe heroic little pastor went on to describe the equally terrifying experiences of his friends, then interrupted himself, saying he was sorry but he had to keep an appointment with a Buddhist priest and a Hiroshima businessman. They were to meet at a designated spot in the ruins to discuss raising money to build a monument.\n\n\"What kind of a monument?\" I asked.\n\n\"It will serve several purposes,\" he replied. \"There are bones of entire families in the ruins, with no one to bury them. We are going to collect them into a common grave at the foot of the monument. It will comfort the spirit of the dead. And, according to the Emperor, the bomb on Hiroshima helped end the war. Therefore, most of the people here feel their suffering was not in vain. This will be a monument to their sacrifice.\"\n\nI asked him what the inscription would be.\n\n\"We have not yet decided on the exact wording,\" he answered, \"but it will certainly contain our prayer for eternal peace.\"\n\nThis is Joseph Julian in Tokyo. I return you now to the Associated Network.\n\nMy broadcasts from a small studio in Radio Tokyo were beamed to San Francisco, where I was recorded for later airing over the Associated Network and the American Broadcasting Company's Sunday News Roundup. But as I signed off these Hiroshima spots, I received calls on the two-way radio from operators at island outposts all over the South Pacific. They had tuned in and felt bound to tell me immediately how deeply the Hiroshima stories had moved them.\n\nFor the next few months I continued to send back little pieces of the mosaic:\n\nThe hissing sound some Americans find so offensive in Japanese speech is really a form of politeness. By sucking in air through their teeth they demonstrate they are not forcing their own breath on you.\n\nJapanese farmers are extremely skillful. Americans are constantly amazed at the weird agricultural goings-on, such as fresh vegetables pushing up through snow fields, and oranges growing in the dead of winter.\n\nWhen a Japanese woman goes shopping she knows what to do with baby—bundle it on her back, leaving her hands free to examine merchandise and do her share of shoving at a bargain counter. The GIs call them the \"two-headed women.\"\n\nProbably the world's most unique firefighting equipment is housed in Minami Temple, in Osaka. It consists of about 200 huge bamboo fans. Whenever a fire breaks out anywhere in the vicinity, parishioners flock to the temple, where, together with priests, they each grab a fan, climb to the roof, disperse themselves along the perimeter, and fan like mad to keep flying sparks away.\n\nBut the Hiroshima experience had dampened my enthusiasm for these low-keyed vignettes. Besides, I had been in Japan about five months now and was about ready to head home.\n\nI returned to the United States on an LST troopship. If I'm ever asked to play the role of a sardine I'll have an in-depth understanding of the part. I've never been in such tight proximity to so many human beings over such a long period of time. I was told there were five thousand GIs and officers jammed on that ship. I was billeted with the officers, who had slightly more Lebensraum than the GIs; still, about twenty of us were stacked in four-tier bunks in a very small area. And even though it was a homecoming and spirits and forebearance were unusually high, my first few days on the cramped eleven-day journey were pretty oppressive. Then I made a wonderful discovery. I found a tiny, unused room on the top forward deck. It contained some cleaning materials and a desk and chair and it was unlocked. It became a sanctuary where I could be alone whenever I wished. But more important, that desk inspired me to write a play. I called it Presento and it was based on the situation of my friend, Al Lipton, and his unexpected \"gift.\" By the end of the voyage I had finished the first act. It took me three years to write the rest. Confinement seems to be good for writer's block.\n\n10. Return to New York\n\nBack in New York I merged my three Hiroshima radio spots into an article and offered it to an agent for marketing. *Déjà vu.*\n\n\"Hiroshima's old stuff,\" she said. \"No one wants to hear about that any more.\"\n\nNo one except millions of people. A few months later John Hersey's book *Hiroshima* was published. He explored the city after I was there, and had put together a book of six first-person narratives—six individuals describing their personal experience of the bomb. It created a sensation.\n\nThe *New York Herald Tribune* published this \"old stuff\" in its entirety; the *New Yorker* gave over a whole issue to the book, and the American Broadcasting Company decided to do a straight reading of Hersey's *Hiroshima* as a special one-hour program over its network.\n\nSix radio actors were called to do the reading, one for each of the six stories. Coincidentally I was one of the six\n\nchosen. Even more incredible, the story I was assigned to read was that of the Reverend Kioshi Tanimoto.\n\nI didn’t resent having to read Hersey’s report of Tanimoto’s experience. His book, of course, presented it in much greater detail than I had been able to. I welcomed any opportunity available to render Hiroshima human, to counteract its being compressed into a paragraph of cold statistics. Today’s bombs are a thousand times more powerful: the horror of Hiroshima multiplied a thousand times. After having seen with my own eyes what that one “tiny” bomb had done, I knew the full meaning of the expression, “the end of the world.” It used to be an empty cliché; it isn’t any more.\n\nI put together a half-hour radio documentary of my experiences that I couldn’t deal with fully in my short broadcasts from Tokyo. I peddled it to an organization called The United World Federalists, and it was presented over WJZ and its affiliates on March 13, 1947. The introductory pages went like this:\n\nVOICE: These are the words of Socrates: “When you are asked your country, never reply, ‘I am an Athenian,’ or ‘I am a Corinthian,’ but—‘I am a citizen of the universe!’ ”\n\nANNOUNCER: This is the World Security Workshop, presented by the American Broadcasting Company and United World Federalists, to help Americans understand the way ahead to lasting peace, and to offer evidence that all peoples can, in truth, become citizens of the universe.\n\nSOUND: (Establish busy street: traffic, passers-by, etc. Hold under:)\n\nJULIAN: Pardon me, could you tell me how to get to Shinbashi Railroad Station?\n\nJAPANESE: Wakareemasen...?\n\nJULIAN: Oh...uh...Shinbashi...uh...tayeeshabawa...uh...doko deska?\n\nJAPANESE: Ah so deska! Ima wakaramashta. Mingeedessheedayreedes-matsoongoo sakedess.\n\nJULIAN: Okay, thank you...uh...aringato!\n\nSOUND: (Hold street pattern, then fade under)\n\nANNOUNCER: This is Roger Krupp. Tonight, as the eighteenth in its series of original scripts, the World Security Workshop departs from its usual form to present a special program, \"Welcome, Honorable Enemy!\" The voice you just heard asking the direction of Tokyo's Shinbashi Railroad Station, is that of Joseph Julian, who is well known to radio as an actor. Mr. Julian recently returned from a tour of Japan, where he was sent as a special correspondent. The impressions he gathered, the appraisal he made of the postwar Japanese, and the opinions he formed about our responsibilities to this conquered people, were so interesting to us of the World Security Workshop that we felt our audience should hear them. The atomic age has conferred a larger citizenship upon all of us. Whether we like it or not, we are now world citizens. World security can be achieved only if we become good world citizens, and that means enlarging our understanding of the problems of every country in the world. One of the vital problems that today faces us in the United States is how to insure the transformation of a once potent aggressor into a peace-loving member of the family of nations. As a report on conditions there, with which our occupation forces must cope in achieving this objective, Joseph Julian has written, \"Welcome, Honorable Enemy!\"\n\nI developed an original format that allowed me to hang the show on an interview. The announcer asked me questions, I gave a short reply, then we'd fade into a dramatization that would illustrate my point. There was no music, just a large cast and many sound-effects.\n\nJohn Crosby, then radio critic of the New York Herald\n\nTribune, wrote a column reviewing the radio reading of Hersey's Hiroshima and, again a coincidence, in the same column, my own documentary, \"Welcome, Honorable Enemy!\" I quote it at length because it shows the high level of criticism that obtained in those heydays and nights of radio, and because it also has a number of pregnant things to say about the techniques of radio.\n\nRadio in Review\nBy John Crosby\n\nThere was a story in the early days of broadcasting, probably apocryphal, about a sound-effects man who was seriously frustrated in his attempts to reproduce the sound of clashing swords. He tried rolling a barrel full of tin cans, he experimented vainly with the sound of splashing water, but neither these nor a dozen other devices sounded at all right. Finally, in desperation, he tried clashing two swords together. It worked fine.\n\nWriters in trying to convey information in plain news or in documentary broadcasts have pursued somewhat the same course: that is, they will go to preposterous lengths to avoid simply telling the information. With great and frequently mis-spent ingenuity, they have employed drama, massed choirs, street noises, crowd noises, symphony orchestras, and sometimes, when absolutely necessary, the sound of the human voice.\n\nOf course it would be foolish to carry the analogy too far. Much of this experiment in the art of sound, if such a phrase is permissible, has been strikingly effective in putting across an idea, or, in some cases, just a plain news story. Still, in looking back upon a great many documentary broadcasts of one sort or another, the most effective one I ever heard was the broadcast of John Hersey's Hiroshima over the American Broadcasting Company. At the insistence of Hersey, who resisted all attempts to have the story dramatized, Hiroshima was simply read. The only concession to broadcasting technique was the\n\nemployment of different voices for the various parts of the story devoted to the six different characters.\n\nThis method transmitted to the listener not only the highly dramatic story but also the keen intelligence that went into its writing. The listener was left with the impression of a gifted mind assembling the fragments of one of the most significant stories of our time. If the screams of the dying or the crackle of flames had been allowed to intrude, the broadcast would have descended to the level of all the broadcasts which have ever used these sounds, including a great many whodunits.\n\nRecently, the American Broadcasting Company presented another highly effective, but somewhat different documentary called, \"Welcome, Honorable Enemy!\" on its series of public service broadcasts called *World Security Workshop*. \"Welcome, Honorable Enemy!\" presented impressions of occupied Japan of Joseph Julian, a radio actor who formerly broadcast for the Red Cross in Japan.\n\nThe technique, I should say, was about halfway between the *Hiroshima* reading and the traditional method. Julian used a good deal of straight drama, but he also used far more than the normal amount of plain exposition. The exposition took the form of a conversation between Julian and his announcer, Roger Krupp. Somehow, the two men sounded as relaxed as if they were discussing Japan over an after-dinner cup of coffee and at the same time the talk had the coherence of a well-written script.\n\nJulian explained why the Japanese did all that hissing, how illogical the Japanese are about their emperor, and what a shriek strike is. Along with each small anecdote he interpolated his own serious interpretation. By avoiding both clichés and pretension, the two men succeeded in sounding intelligent, one of the most difficult things in the world to do over the air.\n\nThe trick, I guess, is to match the technique to the message. To employ an ear-catching device when you are attempting to engage the intelligence is a serious mistake in anatomy. It is\n\nnot sounds that stir men's minds, but ideas, and the sounds employed to put the ideas across ought to be on the same intellectual level as the ideas.\n\nRadio dramas were still in full flower when I returned from Japan in March, 1946, although the upstart, television, was beginning to nibble at radio's space on the entertainment pages.\n\nBefore I left for Japan, television was still very crude. On June 30, 1944, actress Leslie Woods and I had played the leads in a short, two-character play, *The Favor*. It was the first drama ever televised by CBS. Their single camera was stationary. Thus only one set could be used, and no close-ups were possible. Mobile television cameras had not yet been developed. Worthington Minor, a Broadway stage director, was in charge of the production. After the telecast he had invited us to his apartment to view the first, televised professional boxing match. There were only about three hundred video sets in New York at the time, and the reception was so fuzzy, the only way we could distinguish the two fighters was by the light and dark colors of their trunks.\n\nNow, almost two years later, television had improved, but it still couldn't begin to compete with radio and its cornucopia of programming and high-salaried entertainers. Americans were still laughing at the jokes of The Great Gildersleeve, Edgar Bergen, Jack Benny, Jack Haley, Eddie Cantor, Amos 'n' Andy, Abbott and Costello, Bob Burns, Henny Youngman, Bob Hope, and Burns and Allen. They were dancing to the big band jazz of Harry James, Duke Ellington, Tommy Dorsey, and Sammy Kaye; they were being beguiled by the close harmony of the\n\nAndrews Sisters and the sweet sounds of Sinatra, Crosby, Lena Horne, Rudy Vallee, and Kate Smith. They were being spoon-fed their dinnertime news by such big-name commentators as Gabriel Heatter, Elmer Davis, Lowell Thomas, and Fulton Lewis, Junior. And on Sunday evenings millions would drop everything to listen to the urgent trivia of Walter Winchell, famous columnist for the Hearst newspapers, who achieved one of the highest-rated programs in radio history. Winchell made everything he said urgent by his energy and rapid-fire delivery. Throughout his broadcast he wore a hat pushed back on his head—the trademark of a working reporter—and he maintained an excitement that began with his opening: \"Good evening, Mr. and Mrs. North and South America and all the ships at sea—let's go to press!\" An item about a Hollywood starlet being seen with \"so and so\" would be given the same feverish tone as if he were reporting a declaration of war. Occasionally he had legitimate news scoops, but his hot flashes were largely gossip about political and show business personalities, with periodic plugs for his friend J. Edgar Hoover, and digs at \"Commies\" and \"pin-kos\" as the Cold War grew hotter.\n\nHe was an open advocate of \"tooting your own horn\"—which he did loud and often—and frequently bragged about his power to make or break entertainers and to destroy his enemies.\n\nAnyone who commands so many millions of listeners is powerful enough to influence the news as well as report it—which Winchell often did by the sheer force of his biases. Occasionally he seemed to do it deliberately, by using his vast audience to manipulate the stock market. He'd hint that a certain stock was due for a rise. Enough\n\nlisteners would rush to buy it the next day to create the rise that he had predicted. Once he mentioned the prospects of a seventy-five cent oil stock—the next morning it was quickly run up several dollars. He was never charged with using this power for his own aggrandizement. Rather it seemed more an ego thing—a childish attempt to prove to himself (or to someone from his nursery days) how really powerful he had become. \"Hey, look at me! I can make the stock market go up or down!\" The Securities and Exchange Commission finally cracked down and spoiled his fun.\n\nAt times Winchell wielded his power on the side of the angels. This Lower East Side boy and former vaudeville hoofer founded, and raised millions of dollars for The Damon Runyon Cancer Fund.\n\nNineteen forty-six was also the year Norman Corwin won the Wendell Willkie-Freedom House One World Award for promoting the concept of Global Unity. On June 15 he left to collect his prize—a trip around the world, to report on what people of other countries were thinking, hoping, and planning, now that the war had ended. I had the utterly irrational feeling that I should have been taken along. After all we had been a successful combination in England, hadn't we? But my labored logic did not prevail and this time Corwin took with him only a CBS engineer—a practical companion who knew how to operate one of those new-fangled wire recorders.\n\nThings were rather slow for me during the summer and autumn of 1946. It took a little while to let people know I was back in town and available, although I did pick up\n\nodd jobs on *The Thin Man*, *Philo Vance*, *Mr. District Attorney*, *Inner Sanctum*, *Ellery Queen*, *Casey*, *Crime Photographer*, *Bulldog Drummond*, *The Second Mrs. Burton*, and *Mr. Keen, Tracer of Lost Persons*. I informed the Hummerts I had returned, and they kept their promise to have my role written back into *Lorenzo Jones and His Wife Belle*. However, story lines were written well in advance, and I had to wait several months before being called.\n\nMeanwhile, I worked on the play I had begun on the ship and volunteered some spare time to the Stage Door Canteen, a recreational facility for servicemen that had been set up in Times Square by the American Theater Wing (an organization that had mobilized the entertainment world behind the war effort). It had established Canteens throughout the country, but New York City’s was the most glamorous. It was staffed by actors and actresses—bit players and stars—who volunteered as hosts and hostesses, waiters and waitresses. They even did the dirty work in the kitchen. Although I never put it on my resumé, I’m fond of bragging that I once worked with the great stage actor, Alfred Lunt. I washed. He dried.\n\nFulfilling myself in the theater was still my ultimate goal. But prospects were bleak, and radio work was an extremely painless way of surviving while awaiting that big break on Broadway.\n\nI began calling myself Joe instead of Joseph Julian in the credits, on the theory that scripts frequently had characters named Joe (especially stories about servicemen) and casting directors would just naturally think of me. I can’t prove it, but from then on it seemed as though I played a lot of guys named Joe.\n\nI was happy to be back with *Lorenzo Jones and His*\n\nWife Belle: This was one of the most delightful radio shows on the air—a jewel among the soaps, and my role ran for six years, on an average of three times a week. It was written by Theodore and Mathilde Ferro, a husband and wife team. Highly literate, it had great charm and humor. Lorenzo, brilliantly played by Karl Swenson, was a would-be inventor; I played Sandy, his admiring neighbor. Lorenzo would invent things that were almost ridiculous, but not quite. Such as the three-spout teapot, for strong, weak and medium tea. And an anti-speeding device hooked up to the radio in his car. When going over the speed limit, a tough voice would come through the loudspeaker, snarling, “Take it easy, bud!”\n\nThe show was eventually destroyed by its producers. It was the one soap opera the Hummerts didn’t fabricate in their factory, nor had they insisted the writers conform to their formula. Perhaps it was their way of “atoning” for the others. Or, maybe they were just very fond of it themselves. In any case, after about ten years, when the rating slipped, they decided to broaden the base of its appeal. All the charm and distinction went out of it as they introduced their favorite ingredients—melodramatic plot lines, a murder mystery, and an Englishman for snob appeal. Alas.\n\nI also picked up another running part in Big Sister, playing a role completely different from the Michael West I had originated six years before. Generally, a couple of years was considered time enough for an actor to be “forgotten” and reintroduced into the same show as a fresh character.\n\nIn 1947 I won the starring role in a new weekly show on NBC—Call the Police—that replaced Amos ’n’ Andy for the summer. In it I played a police commissioner of a different stripe—a college graduate grounded in modern anti-crime methods.\n\nThe police had long been maligned in air dramas as being stupid, uneducated, and cruel, and this was an attempt to put them in a better light.\n\nA feature of the series was an award of $100 to a \"Police-man of the Week\" who had performed an outstanding service beyond the call of duty.\n\nThe show had a little side dividend. The National Police Magazine published on its cover a picture of me presenting a check to a police officer. I always kept that issue in the glove compartment of my car. It got me out of two speeding tickets.\n\nApropos the police—one evening I picked up a copy of the New York Mirror and got a chill. The entire front page of the tabloid was a close-up photograph of a man's swollen and bloodied face. The caption said that he had resisted arrest on a murder charge. He had been beaten so badly identification was nearly impossible, but there was something about the crinkly corners of his swollen eyes that made me turn to the story on the inside page. It was Tom Ashwell.\n\nHe had been arrested by Florida police for murdering two young girls. From their photographs they looked like the working class girls, the \"spirited little sparrow types,\" with whom we had double-dated. He had represented himself as a movie talent scout and was presumably driving the girls to a nearby town to have pictures made. He turned off on a side road to the woods, where he stopped, tied each girl to a tree, and, after raping them, bashed their heads in with a hammer.\n\nAshwell was tried and convicted, and several months later he was executed in the electric chair by the State of Florida. I thought back fifteen years, remembering his cold-blooded plan for success. Cold-blooded, yes. Success, no.\n\nThe reverberations of that horror stayed with me a long time. I usually try to distill something positive out of the shocks of my life. I don’t know what I got out of that, except, perhaps, a little more respect for my intuition.\n\nIn early 1948 I won an audition for one of the two leads in another crime show, *Hearthstone of the Death Squad*, a weekly, prime-time evening series on CBS. The job lasted five years. It was, undoubtedly, one of the worst shows on the air, yet had one of the highest ratings. I’m too patriotic to draw conclusions. Hearthstone, played by English actor Alfred Shirley, was a New York cop; I was Sam, his assistant. No one ever raised the question of why a New York cop would have a broad English accent. But if they had, the answer would have been that the producers, Frank and Anne Hummert, had a theory about snob appeal. Most of their other programs also contained at least one character who was upper class, such as *Our Gal Sunday (Organ music)*: Can a miner’s daughter find happiness with England’s richest Lord?\n\nBetween the Hummerts’ “snobs” and radio’s occasional productions of Shakespeare and other classics, there was a fairly active demand for good English speech, and there were enough English actors living in New York to supply it.\n\nOne, Harry Cliff-Cooper, who had played the voice of God in a biblical drama, was out of town when the show\n\nwas repeated. He was replaced by Jay Jostyn (star of *Mr. District Attorney*), an actor with a distinctly American flavor to his speech. When a fellow actor sympathized with Cliff-Cooper for having lost the role, he replied with typical British fortitude, \"Well, in this business we must take the bad with the good.\" And then added, quite sincerely, \"But, dear boy, one does rather think of God as an Englishman, doesn’t one?\"\n\nI acquired another regular weekly show, the radio version of Rex Stout’s Nero Wolfe stories, first heard over ABC in 1943. For four years I played Archie, the famous fat orchid fancier’s tough assistant. Santos Ortega, one of radio’s busiest actors, played Nero Wolfe in a very fine, fat voice. The producer was the fabulous Himan Brown. Why fabulous? Ask anyone who knows him.\n\nHi was one of radio’s pioneer producers, and had made a million dollars by the time he was twenty-four. When still little more than a kid, he zeroed in on what the average listener liked, and originated such radio shows as, *Marie, the Little French Princess* (one of the first soap operas); *Green Valley, U.S.A.*; *The Thin Man*; *The Gumps* (written by Irwin Shaw); *Joyce Jordan, Girl Interne*; *Hilda Hope, M.D.*; *Little Italy*; *Inner Sanctum*; *Grand Central Station*; *City Desk*; *The Affairs of Peter Salem*; *Flash Gordon*; *Bulldog Drummond*; *Dick Tracy*; and *Terry and the Pirates*, to mention only a few.\n\nThese were all ongoing shows, and Hi was always up to his ears in authors and actors, each daytime serial requiring five scripts, and evening shows a complete new story, every week.\n\nThe Frank and Anne Hummert factory may have turned\n\nout a larger number of shows, but Hi Brown was a one-man operation. He produced, cast, and directed all of his shows himself. He never even had an office. He’d make his phone calls from home, or use a phone at one of the studios. He had shrewd understanding of script values and an outsize charm that seduced performers to work for him for less than they would for anyone else. But he also gave them a continuity of work on his other shows, made less demands on their time, and created a more pleasant working atmosphere. It was fun working for him.\n\nHe usually hired only the best actors, who could deliver quickly, thus saving on rehearsal pay and studio costs. On most half-hour shows he’d have only an hour and a half of rehearsal. Other directors used up to four hours.\n\nDuring the first read-through for timing, Hi would sit with stopwatch in one hand, pencil in the other, slashing out lines if the script were long. And it was long more often than short (it being easier to cut than to pad). When the actors finished he’d give them the cuts to write into their scripts. There would be some rehearsal of sound effects, and usually barely enough time left over for one run-through of the complete show on mike, just before going on the air.\n\nMost of his directions were of a technical nature. He rarely gave “performance” notes. He expected his actors to know their craft. That’s why he hired them. And, in the vast majority of the cases, his system worked well.\n\nHi Brown was radio’s champion corner cutter. I think it was programmed into his genes. And that was one major reason for his success. All those corners added up, and he was usually able to sell a program at a lower price than his competitors.\n\n11. The Eclipse\n\nNineteen forty-eight and nineteen forty-nine were probably the busiest years of my radio acting career. To the end of the decade I was happily hopping from one show to another, hiring a stand-in to rehearse for me here while I did a show there, frequently turning jobs down for lack of time. Between my regular, running roles, I worked on the myriad shows, a few of which I take from the yellowed pages of my old account book:\n\nCasey, Crime Photographer\nThe Falcon\nThe Shadow\nBelieve It or Not\nFront Page Dramas\nSchool of the Air\nCounterspy\nBoston Blackie\nInner Sanctum\nMysterious Traveler\nNora Drake\nGreatest Story Ever Told\n\nGeneral Electric Theatre\nMr. Chameleon\nMr. Keen\nWendy Warren and the News\nUp for Parole\nRoad of Life\nTwo Thousand Plus\nBackstage Wife\nDavid Amity\nVoice of America drama\nFront Page Farrell\nJoyce Jordan, Girl Interne\nCafé Istanbul\nAgainst the Storm\nAunt Jenny’s True Life Stories\nHilltop House\nGasoline Alley\nFrank Merriwell\nHobby Lobby\nSuperman\nYoung Doctor Malone\nBroadway is My Beat\nSecond Mrs. Burton\nPortia Faces Life\nWhen a Girl Marries\nPerry Mason\nWe, the Living\nThe Goldbergs\nGene Autry Show\nHollywood Love Story\nThe Ramparts We Watch\nTime Bomb\n\nMy curve of activity and income rose steadily through 1947, ’48 and ’49. Then, in 1950, it turned down and rapidly declined until, in 1953, I earned a mere $1630.\n\nHow was it possible for such a busy actor to lose his\n\nmarketability so quickly? The answer was: a U.S. Senator, Joe McCarthy. Exploiting the Cold War between the United States and Russia, McCarthy smeared, with a wide red brush, everyone who stood in his way, including President Eisenhower and the United States Army. Any political liberal, or anyone vaguely to the left of right, might suddenly be labeled a Communist or a fellow traveler by the Senator. Left became a dirty word. A joke of the time: \"I have no left foot. Only a right foot number two.\" But it was not very funny.\n\nThe Watergate hearings were a tea party compared to the uproar on the televised hearings of the Senate Sub-Committee on Un-American Activities, presided over by Joe McCarthy. His brutal brow-beating of witnesses and dramatic denunciations of individuals created a climate of fear throughout the country. The mighty trembled, and did nothing, as McCarthy laid waste reputations, careers, and lives. Playing on the fear of war with Russia, McCarthy assumed a heroic posture as he \"exposed\" more and more \"subversives\" at home. The forces of ignorance and Fascism rallied to him and became his main support.\n\nThe Senate subcommittee generated outside pressure groups, and blacklisting organizations developed all over the country.\n\nAfter intimidating Hollywood into firing and not hiring some of its most creative talents, the witch hunters turned their blacklisting passion to radio and television. These media were even more vulnerable. Products and profits were more directly associated with individual performers, and a threat of boycott quickly scared sponsors into dropping those who had a finger pointed at them, whether the\n\naccusations were true or not. They reasoned, \"Why risk the loss of customers when there are plenty of 'safe' actors around?\"\n\nActors are notoriously generous in donating their time and talent to causes. When asked, they find it difficult to say no. Frequently they agree to perform at functions without probing deeply into the sponsorship. Many lost their livelihood for that reason alone. Also, Russia had been our ally during the war, and there were still many Russian-American friendship organizations. Prior to the Cold War, it had been possible to talk to professional colleagues who were Communists, or Communist sympathizers, although you might have disagreed with their politics. But the number of actual revolutionaries was small, and the threat of their subverting the broadcast industry nil.\n\nThe atmosphere around the studios became heavy with fear, suspicion, and hate. Some board members of our own union, The American Federation of Television and Radio Artists, helped form a pressure group, Aware, Inc., to force the banning of all Communists and sympathizers (by their definition) from the airwaves. At union meetings they openly advocated blacklisting and split the union wide open. Those who voted against it were carefully noted, and things happened to them. Like being fired. Or not being hired.\n\nThere was a close liaison between Aware, Inc. and the House Committee on Un-American Activities in Washington, and Lawrence Johnson, the owner of several supermarkets in Syracuse, New York. The first two supplied the names; Johnson was the enforcer. Johnson's clout stemmed from the fact that he owned six supermarkets on\n\nwhose shelves stood the majority of products advertised on radio and TV. When he was fed a name to do a job on, he’d shoot off a telegram to the sponsor asking: DO YOU WANT STALIN’S LITTLE CREATURES CRAWLING ALL OVER YOUR PRODUCTS?, coupled with a threat to remove said product from the shelves of all six of his stores if the sponsor didn’t fire the tainted actor. That was a powerful persuader, pardner. The “Grocer from Syracuse,” as he became known, would follow up with personal visits to Madison Avenue, to persuade the advertising agencies to do his bidding. He usually got results. The actor never knew what had hit him.\n\nI was appalled as more and more of my friends faded from the scene. I wasn’t worried for myself. Whatever sympathy I had for the poor and downtrodden in Russia, I had very early been opposed to the brutal dictatorship of Stalin and I had always been forthright in my opinion that the light that went into the bottom of the Russian revolution was no longer shed from the top. Why would anyone blacklist me?\n\nI was naïve. On June 22, 1950, I was shocked out of my complacency by the publication of Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television, a paperbound volume listing 151 actors, directors, producers, writers, announcers, musicians, and commentators, and their associations with organizations accused of furthering the Communist cause. My name was among them.\n\nThe cover of the book had a huge, bloody, red hand clutching a microphone, and despite an attempt at a legal disclaimer by burying in the fine print of the introduction—\"In screening personnel, every safeguard must be\n\nused to protect innocents and genuine liberals from being unjustly labeled\"—the implication was clear that everyone in that book was subversive and should be kept off the air.\n\nVincent Hartnett, a former production assistant on the radio show, *Gangbusters*, claimed credit for conceiving, compiling, and writing the introduction to the book, but it was given instant status by Ed Sullivan, the influential columnist of the New York *Daily News*, who wrote:\n\nWith television going into its third big year, come this Fall, the entire industry is becoming increasingly aware of the necessity to plug all Commie propaganda loopholes.\n\nNetwork and station heads, with a tremendous financial stake, want no part of Commies or pinkos.\n\nSponsors, sensitive in the extreme to blacklisting, want no part of Commies or their sympathizers.\n\nAdvertising agencies, held responsible by sponsors for correct exercise of discretion in programming, want no controversy of any kind.\n\nFor that reason, *Red Channels*’ listing of performers, who, innocently or maliciously, are affiliated with Commie-front organizations, will be a reference book in preparing any program.\n\nSo it came to pass. Copies of *Red Channels* were sent to all radio and television stations, advertising agencies, and casting directors. Now, at last, there was an “authoritative” blacklist that could be kept handy in a desk drawer. And it wreaked havoc on the lives of those listed.\n\nMy listing was minuscule compared to most of the others in the book, some of which amounted to forty-one entries. This is the way my name appeared, connecting me with two allegedly subversive organizations, and the sources of this information:\n\nJOE JULIAN\n\nActor—Radio.\n\nArtists’ Front to Win the War\n\nNational Council of the Arts, Sciences and Professions.\n\nReported as:\n\nSpeaker. Meeting 10/16/42. House Un-Am. Act. Com., Appendix 9, p. 575.\n\nAttended meeting to abolish House Un-American Activities Committee, Hotel Commodore, NYC, 1/9/49 NY Journal-American 12/30/48.50\n\nThe facts: When I returned from London in 1942 I was invited to read in Carnegie Hall a poem about artists who died fighting Fascism. The meeting, organized by a committee called Artists’ Front to Win the War, was to further sentiment for the opening of a second front in Europe, which was being called for by President Roosevelt and most U.S. military leaders. A second front was also advocated by a number of prominent anti-Communists, such as author Louis Bromfield, Lord Beaverbrook, and Dorothy Thompson. Some of the speakers were Orson Welles, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Margaret McBride—a wide spectrum of political coloration. The list of sponsors read like a Who’s Who of the American Theater.\n\nThis was my one and only connection with that committee, which eight years later was termed subversive by some small California committee of state legislators.\n\nMy other “crime” was having attended a public rally on January 9, 1949 at the Hotel Commodore in New York, called by the National Committee of Arts, Sciences and Professions, to abolish the House Un-American Activities Committee. This widely-advertised rally featured Burt\n\nLancaster as the main speaker. I indeed attended, since I was personally sympathetic to the purpose of the meeting, namely, to protest censorship and the disgraceful conduct of the Chairman of the House Un-American Activities Committee, Parnell Thomas, who was later sent to prison.\n\nNevertheless, those two citations in *Red Channels* cost me my livelihood for over three years.\n\nThis was an ugly period in American life and in mine, and I find it difficult to write about. My urge is to skip over it. Others, better qualified, have documented the history and scope of blacklisting in the broadcast industry. But I do feel a responsibility as a victim to record some of what I went through. A whole new generation hardly knows that such a thing ever happened. But the fact is it could easily happen again if we relax our vigilance in defending our freedoms. Control of broadcasting is one of the first major objectives of those who would take them away.\n\nMy initial reaction to the publication of *Red Channels* was anger and indignation—not panic or fear of economic loss. At that time I had no concept of what was to follow. I was furious at being misrepresented, at being labeled a subversive. And so, when I heard that a number of \"listees\" were meeting in the office of Attorney Arthur Garfield Hays to plan legal action, I made it my business to be there.\n\nHays, a wrinkled, leathery man in his eighties, was a famous civil libertarian, who, along with Clarence Darrow, had been one of the defense lawyers in the renowned Scopes \"Monkey Trial.\"\n\nThere were eight or nine performers at the meeting, and the majority urged Hays to represent them in a mass libel suit. He told them he was outraged by the book and offerred to represent everyone individually on a contingency basis, but not as a group—and only if they could convince him that they had in fact been libeled.\n\nOnly four actors agreed to that: Ralph Bell, Pert Kelton, Selena Royal, and me, confirming Hays' feeling (as he later told me) that the others wanted the group action in order to use us to mask their membership or former membership in the Communist Party.\n\nI had a couple of private meetings with Hays, during which he questioned me closely, especially about my political beliefs. Convinced that I had been libeled, in December 1950 he filed suit on my behalf against the American Business Consultants, publishers of *Red Channels*, for $150,000 in damages. It was four years before the case reached the courtroom—four wretched years of declining work, income, and morale.\n\nThings didn't happen abruptly: everyone in the book wasn't fired the day after publication. Except in a few prominent cases, those who were contracted were kept on until their contracts expired. As for the work-a-day actor, he gradually began getting fewer calls. Not many producers and directors were sympathetic to blacklisting, but as the heat was increasingly poured on by the \"Grocer from Syracuse,\" his confederates within the union, and others, *Red Channels* became more and more, as Ed Sullivan predicted, \"a reference book in preparing any programs.\"\n\nThere were a few courageous employers—even sponsors, who bucked the tide, but the vast majority eventually succumbed to the pressures. A number of directors told me in confidence, \"I want to use you, Joe, but it would cost me my job.\"\n\nMost weren’t that frank. They made excuses, or avoided speaking to me altogether. And that was the insidious part—the victims rarely knew for sure why they were no longer called. And that sparked the old syndrome: “It was my fault. I’ve been giving lousy performances. I’ve lost my talent, etc.” If the odds were ninety-nine to one that it was because of *Red Channels*, actors would dwell on the one percent possibility that it was their own fault. The blacklist played hell with our fragile egos. Actors need to act. The loss of function was worse than loss of income. It led to a terrible erosion of faith in ourselves, both as artists and as productive members of society.\n\nI spent a great deal of my time just hanging around the studio lobbies racking my brains for a way to earn money. My bank account was dwindling fast. I still had one regular evening show each week, *Hearthstone of the Death Squad*, for which I was paid $125, but it wasn’t nearly enough to meet my obligations. The show had been on several years, and I had been promised a twenty-five dollar raise, which seemed to have been forgotten. I decided to call on the producer’s business manager. He greeted me politely, asked me to sit down, and before I could explain my mission, opened his middle desk drawer, and took out a copy of *Red Channels*.\n\n“Mr. Julian, I see your name listed in this book,” he said, his raised eyebrows inviting an explanation. His strategy was clear. He knew why I was there. Actors usually came to discuss money matters, and he was cutting the ground from under me.\n\nHe listened attentively while I explained at length why I should not have been listed. Then I reminded him of the promised raise. He slipped the book back in the drawer. I\n\ndon’t recall his exact words, but the raise was refused. And loud and clear between the lines I heard, “Now get the hell out of here and be glad you still have a job!”\n\nI didn’t much longer. Some months later that show went off the air. Now I was really in the straits of dire. I seriously thought of going back to selling shoes on Forty-second Street. Every day I pored over want ads, stupidly hoping to find a good job for which no experience was necessary. I wanted to fight out of the situation with all my strength, but I no longer knew how, or in what direction to move. I felt helpless.\n\nI asked myself who was the most influential person I knew in broadcasting? I remembered that the president of CBS, William Paley, had sent for me when I returned from London. I figured I couldn’t do better than going to the top. I wrote him a letter:\n\nDear Mr. Paley,\n\nSince I’ve been in radio I have worked on literally thousands of CBS broadcasts. You may remember me as the “American” in your American in England series during the war.\n\nAt the present time I am barred from working on CBS radio or television shows by virtue of my listing in Red Channels. This I have learned from several sources. I am sure you are unaware of the injustice being done me.\n\nThe subversion implied by the listing of my name in Red Channels is grossly libelous and I have entered a libel suit against the publishers for $150,000 damages. I have never been a member of any organization listed as subversive by the Attorney General, and have signed the CBS oath to that effect. Politically, I am and always have been equally opposed to totalitarianism of the left or the right, and any form of government that devalues the basic rights of the individual.\n\nI am writing to you, Mr. Paley, because I am being deprived\n\nof my livelihood. I realize you are too busy to deal with all the cases of individual actors who are caught in the squeeze of this monstrous problem of our times, but I would be grateful if you would advise me what further steps I can take in order to resume working for CBS.\n\nSincerely,\nJoseph Julian\n\nI received a brief reply. Paley stated he had turned my letter over to Dan O'Shea, a CBS Vice President, and suggested I contact him.\n\nO'Shea, a former Hollywood executive, was Chief Security Officer at CBS and had developed a rigorous screening system. I had heard that a number of blacklist victims had gone to him, confessed their sins, and received absolution—and help in restoring their careers.\n\nI went to see Mr. O'Shea. Having nothing to confess, I explained my listing in Red Channels and how desperate my work situation was.\n\nA large, avuncular man, he seemed to listen sympathetically as he moved about his well-appointed office smoking a large cigar. When I finished he told me that he believed everything I had said, but asked why I had only stressed what I had not done. What active steps had I ever taken to fight Communism? he wanted to know. I told him I was not a political activist, that most of my contribution was in argumentation. He said that that wasn’t enough. In order to help me, he would have to have more to go on. He suggested I could do myself a lot of good by attending some American Legion rallies or joining General Lucius Clay’s Crusade for Freedom. And he strongly implied that things would be much better for me if I dropped my lawsuit.\n\nShortly after that, the Crusade for Freedom had a rally in Times Square. I volunteered to make a pitch over a loudspeaker for cash contributions to further the work of the Crusade in broadcasting to people behind the Iron Curtain.\n\nI felt queasy doing it, and after three or four minutes stopped. My conscience would not allow me to go on, in view of my aversion to the hard-core sponsorship of the Crusade. The extreme right was just as unpalatable to me as the extreme left.\n\nTechnically, I had taken a step toward clearance. But I couldn’t bring myself to follow through on O’Shea’s suggestions. And at this point it was unthinkable that I drop my lawsuit. So I continued to be unemployed.\n\nMy only real hope now was vindication in court. But it had been two years since I filed suit! I wrote a letter to Arthur Garfield Hays, asking whether my case couldn’t be speeded up because of economic hardship:\n\n... things have reached the desperate stage with me. I am heavily in debt. I have cashed in my insurance policy to pay my rent and grocery bills. I can no longer earn a living in my profession. By the way, a former CBS director told me yesterday that he would be glad to testify when my case comes to trial, that he wanted me for a part and was ordered not to call me because my name is in the book. I have accumulated quite a list of people who have given me such information. . . .\n\nBut Hays could do nothing. The court calendars were hopelessly clogged.\n\nDuring this period I often fought off frightening fantasies of pushing certain pro-blacklisting union officials under a subway train. I was shocked to find myself speculating on how many broken lives it might redeem, and\n\nwhether I could ever really bring myself to do such a thing. It was one of those questions pacifists tortured one another with: \"Could you personally kill Hitler if you knew it would save millions of lives?\"\n\nDuring those desperate years of unemployment and frustration for so many talented people—a number of whom committed suicide—I fortunately managed to survive by discovering a market for my talent that the \"Grocer from Syracuse\" didn't seem to know or care about: narrating industrial, institutional, and training films. Most of it was sixteen-millimeter material that had no general public exposure, and therefore was not subject to the same blacklisting pressures. It was painful, but I swallowed whatever pride I had accumulated and went from company to company soliciting auditions. Occasionally I landed a job. I soon discovered that most of these filmmakers had been using pontificating radio announcers as narrators, and were delighted to find their films enhanced by the feeling of simple truth that a narrator with an acting background could bring to his reading. These jobs just barely kept my nostrils above water.\n\nIronically, during this period when radio stations and advertising agencies wouldn't hire me because of my \"subversive\" associations, one of these film companies (MPO Films) engaged me to act the on-camera role of a five-star general in a secret film being made only for the eyes of a special U.S. congressional committee, about how our Strategic Air Command would function in case of an enemy attack. We shot the film in the super-secret headquarters control room of the Strategic Air Command, deep in the bowels of the earth at Omaha, Nebraska, where\n\nguards were posted every fifty yards and permission to enter was given only to those who had been thoroughly investigated and approved by the FBI. That, I suppose, is as eloquent a comment as can be made on the blacklisting insanity that prevailed in the name of national defense.\n\nDuring the shooting of this film, I went to the men's room one day, wearing my general's uniform. Standing next to me was an Air Force colonel (a real one). He did a double-take as he noticed my five stars, and became utterly uncoordinated. Torn between lifting his occupied right hand in a salute or withdrawing and zipping up first, he made several false starts in both directions before saluting. It was a disaster. I returned his salute. I didn't dare risk his wrath by telling him who I really was.\n\nEarly in 1954 Hays informed me that my case was on the calendar. He said we had a few more weeks to prepare, and instructed me to line up witnesses who would testify they didn't employ me only because my name was in Red Channels.\n\nAlthough I had faced juries in hundreds of radio dramas, this was my first real-life courtroom adventure, and my eagerness was tinged with apprehension. I had been told New York State libel laws were notoriously complex; that both damages and malice had to be proven; that findings for the plaintiff were rare; that libel is one lawsuit where the plaintiff is on the defensive all the time, and that the defendants will raise whatever extraneous issues they can to further blacken the character and credibility of the plaintiff: me.\n\nToo, the mere prospect of appearing in court can make one feel a smidgen of culpability. Since there are no absolutes in this world, how can we be sure we are ever completely innocent? The very prospect of being judged evokes a Kafkaesque echo of infantile or prenatal or prehistoric guilt. But I banished most of these negative feelings with a determination to fight as hard as I could; energetically I began my search for witnesses.\n\nBut they weren’t to be had for the asking. Nor for the pleading, arguing, or cajoling. By now blacklists had proliferated, and merely being seen in the company of a *Red Channels* listee was enough to land you on somebody’s list. The intimidation of the industry was so thorough that even those who had promised to testify changed their minds. The starch went out of even the brave ones. I couldn’t really blame them. They, too, had families to support. But without evidence or testimony that I had been deprived of work by my listing in *Red Channels*, I had no case. It was terribly disheartening. For the previous four years the promise of legal salvation had kept me going. It had been my only hope. And now that was dimming.\n\nStill, I daily haunted the hangouts of radio actors, writers, and directors—the third floor lobby at NBC and Colbee’s Restaurant in the old CBS building—searching out every crumb of support.\n\nThere was plenty of moral support, but nothing to support my morale; much sympathy but not a single commitment. No one dared stick his neck out.\n\nBut persistence finally paid off. Someone did dare. He was having a quick noontime bolster at Colbee’s bar as I approached and said, “Ed, I’m suing *Red Channels* for libel. Will you be a witness for me?” Without the slightest hesitation, without asking a single question, without speculating for a fraction of a second about how an appearance on my behalf might compromise his position at CBS, he replied, \"Tell me when and where, Joe.\" That's the kind of a man Edward R. Murrow was.\n\nIt gave my spirit an enormous lift. I knew that just his presence in court on my behalf would count heavily. He also promised to bring along another character witness, Charles Collingwood, the well-known CBS foreign correspondent, whom I had met in London. Things were looking up. I was beginning to regain confidence.\n\nI had a two-hour \"trailer\" of the trial, at a pre-trial examination called by the defendants, mainly as a fishing expedition. The biggest fish they caught was an acknowledgment by me that I had at home a few ancient Theatre Arts Monthly magazines, which were alleged to have been published by some Communist front organization.\n\nThey also used the occasion (off the record) to try to convince me to drop my suit. I refused. They strongly implied that they would see I got work, and cited a well-known Broadway and Hollywood actor, listed in Red Channels, who had threatened to sue but was persuaded to talk it over. He dropped the suit and found himself again in demand.\n\nI couldn't do it. The momentum was too great. Ed Murrow and the angels were on my side, and I was going to win. Besides I had a growing awareness of the larger importance of my suit. Other victims had a stake in my fight. A solid verdict would be a smashing blow to the entire structure of blacklisting. I vigorously went after more witnesses.\n\nI remembered that Marjorie Morrow, an agent and a dear lady, told me she had submitted me a number of times to the Philip Morris Playhouse, always with the\n\nsame \"Can't-use-him-he's-in-Red Channels\" response. Asked if she would so testify in court, she said no, she was already in trouble just for having submitted my name. I told her I could subpoena and force her to testify under oath. Almost in tears, she asked me not to. Hers was a small agency, and it would ruin her. \"Promise me you won't,\" she begged. I promised.\n\nBut it gave me another idea. The director of the Philip Morris Playhouse, Charles Martin, was a bright, erratic, liberal, temperamental young writer-director, who had made it to the top in radio by using a little properly channeled imagination. I wondered if he might be just courageous or neurotic enough to agree to testify where others wouldn't. It was worth a try.\n\nI phoned Hays. First I told him how I had threatened Marge Morrow with a subpoena and why we couldn't go through with it. He said he rarely forced a witness to court anyway, because he liked to be sure of what they were going to say.\n\nI told him about Martin and suggested we call on him. I figured it would be easier for Hays to get an appointment than for me, and that a man famous for swaying juries would be much more apt to persuade Martin to testify.\n\nWe met in Martin's apartment a few days later, where for an hour he warded off our pleas, even though he had strong feelings against the blacklist. He also had a high-salaried job and didn't want to lose it.\n\nI argued that his employer wouldn't hold him responsible if he were \"forced\" to appear and tell the truth under oath. And I impressed him with the fact that Ed Murrow was going to be a witness for me.\n\nHays too stressed the Murrow name, playing on Martin's\n\nego and idealism. You could see Martin growing larger and sitting straighter as Hays eloquently wove a hero's mantle around him. He told him this was a great opportunity to bust the blacklisting business wide open; that he, Charles Martin, could help turn the tide the way Murrow's famous broadcast documenting Joe McCarthy's villainy helped to generally turn the country away from McCarthyism. Martin succumbed. Not weakly, but embracing the cause wholeheartedly. Now I had my first and only witness to support a claim of damages.\n\nCharacter witnesses were easier to acquire. In addition to Murrow and Collingwood, Robert Saudek, producer of the Ford Foundation's *Omnibus* program—the man who a decade earlier had produced my \"Dover Diary\"—and writer Morton Wishengrad agreed to testify.*\n\nFinally, I was notified by Mr. Hays that my case would be called for trial on February 26, 1954.\n\n*Wishengrad, who died a number of years ago, was in my opinion the only writer other than Corwin who created a body of radio literature that deserves a perennial life. And many of the little stories he wrote have been and are still being repeated on NBC's Sunday *Eternal Light* program. Written with biblical simplicity, and sponsored by the Jewish Theological Seminary, they were not religious in the narrow sense. And although he drew on his vast knowledge of ancient Jewish lore, his stories, informed by his own sweet humor and fineness of spirit, had an ecumenical appeal.*\n\n12. The Trial\n\nAs we entered the courtroom that first day Hays was optimistic. Truth was on our side, we now had some good witnesses and good evidence—and we were to plead before Justice Abraham Geller, who had a reputation as a fair-minded liberal.\n\nBut there was an immediate setback: as the jury selection began, the attorneys for the defendants produced a list of some 200 organizations, and asked the judge for permission to disqualify any juror who ever had the remotest connection with any of them. Judge Geller asked to see the list. After studying it a few moments he said, \"I see you have here the American Civil Liberties Union. Why, I myself used to be a dues-paying member of that organization.\"\n\nWhereupon Ed Wallace, the chief defense lawyer, said, \"Therefore, your Honor, we ask you to disqualify yourself from sitting on this case.\"\n\nAnd Judge Geller complied.\n\nI was shocked, even though Hays explained to me that it\n\nwas customary in a civil suit for a judge to disqualify himself if either party requests it.\n\nIt was three months before the case was called again, this time before Judge Irving Saypol. I have no knowledge of how the assignment was made. I have no evidence that it was more than a coincidence. But it was mighty strange that, among other things, Saypol just happened to have been the U.S. Attorney who prosecuted Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and helped send them to the electric chair.\n\nAt our first appearance in his court, on May 17, 1954, Judge Saypol said, \"Mr. Hays, before we proceed, I would like to remind you that you and I have had many disagreements in the past. I would also like to inform you that Mr. Wallace, counsel for the defendants, used to be my executive assistant. In view of that I would like to know if your client would feel uneasy if I tried this case?\"\n\nAh! Now our side had a break. We conferred a fast two seconds, then Hays said, \"Yes, your Honor, we would like you to disqualify yourself.\"\n\nSaypol said he would give his answer after lunch, and declared a recess.\n\nWhen the court reconvened he said he had thought it over and had decided that he would be remiss in his duty if he stepped down. He ordered the case to proceed.\n\nIt was incredible. Not only his flouting custom, but the way he had set it up, asking us, and then...\n\nI asked Hays if we had no legal recourse. He said the best strategy was not to make an issue of it. That would put the burden on Saypol to bend over backward to be fair. But it didn't work that way. I'm no expert in the fine points of legal contention, but I know hostility when I feel it. And it was there throughout the five days we presented\n\nour case. Perhaps some of it was the ingrained aggressiveness of the prosecutor Saypol had once been and to which he frequently reverted as he leaned over and hammered questions at my witnesses from the bench. The transcript of the trial shows the judge asking my witnesses almost as many questions as the defense counsel did. Most of the time he gave the impression he was developing the defendants' case for them.\n\nHis attitude toward Hays, who behaved with meticulous decorum, was reflected in this little colloquy when he denied one of his objections:\n\nHAYS: Then your Honor denies me the right to state the reasons for my objections?\n\nSAYPOL: No. It is immaterial.\n\nHAYS: I want to state my reasons.\n\nSAYPOL: I don't need them. If I want I will ask for them.\n\nHAYS: I understand that, but I want to make it perfectly clear on the record that your Honor denies me the right to state the reasons for my objection.\n\nSAYPOL: I believe you have adequately stated them.\n\nSpoken, it sounded even more arrogant. And that was the general tone of the proceedings.\n\nI was sworn as the first witness in my own behalf. Hays had put me at ease by assuring me that the best witness was a truthful one, and that I had no reason to be anything but.\n\nHe led me through my early background, with questions calculated to elicit answers that would touch the jurors' emotions, such as the fact that my mother had died when I was an infant and my father when I was twelve; that I lived with an aunt and uncle for a time, then in an orphanage; that I later boarded in a home for working boys, sold\n\nnewspapers, worked in a candy store and a shoe factory; became interested in amateur theatricals; started professionally as an extra for a dollar a night with a stock company that came to town.\n\nHays was so sympathetic when he dwelt on my orphanhood that it embarrassed me. And, in stressing how I had overcome my deprived childhood and gone on to professional achievements, he must have harvested more sympathy from the jury. \"Get 'em emotionally from the start,\" seemed the strategy of this famous trial lawyer.\n\nHe traced my career up to and a few years beyond the publication of *Red Channels* when my income fell to almost nothing. I produced verifying tax records showing that during the first four months of the then current year, 1954, my income was $309.\n\nThe defense tried to establish on cross-examination that my lack of employment was the result of television's impact on radio, and that I was essentially a radio actor. Over a period of several years I had compiled a list of directors who had told me of specific occasions when they had wanted me for both radio and television shows, but had not been permitted to hire me because I was in *Red Channels*. His Honor would not permit me to testify to what these directors had told me.\n\nBut the real rub came when my other important witnesses were blocked from contributing crucial testimony by defense objections that were upheld by the judge.\n\nFor instance, Davidson Taylor, director of public affairs for NBC, was only allowed to testify to my reputation as an actor. He was not allowed to give his opinion about my reputation for loyalty or veracity—which to my non-legalistic mind seemed highly relevant in a case of libel.\n\nCharles Collingwood was not allowed to answer Hays’ question about my reputation as a man of loyalty, integrity, and as a good citizen. Nor was Ed Murrow. And when Hays asked Murrow, “Are you familiar with the customs of the television and radio business in connection with the employment of actors, so that you can tell me whether or not there is a custom in the business that men whose names are listed in Red Channels should not be employed?” Murrow was not permitted to respond because he himself did not specifically have to do with the hiring of actors, even though he was at that time a CBS vice-president and fully aware of the company’s policy.\n\nCharles Martin was probably my most valuable witness. He rose to the occasion splendidly. He acted it up a bit, shrugging and making shocked grimaces to the jury as the judge or defense lawyer restricted his testimony. But he persisted in his central statement that he was not permitted to hire any actor listed in Red Channels.\n\nAn excerpt of his direct examination by Hays:\n\nHAYS: Mr. Martin, what is your business or profession?\nMARTIN: I am a producer and director and writer occasionally of radio, television and motion pictures.\nHAYS: And how long have you been in that business or profession?\nMARTIN: Well, I have functioned in this capacity for more than sixteen years.\nHAYS: Do you, in connection with your work, pick out persons as artists or actors?\nMARTIN: I have sole jurisdiction, I would say, as to who works for our shows other than whatever blocks are put on me by the people above me. But the client has placed me in charge of casting. I think every director and producer does his own casting, largely, in this industry.\n\nHAYS: Can you tell us some of the shows you are producing today?\n\nMARTIN: Well, the Philip Morris Playhouse, radio-television. I have written for The March of Time, Criminal Court, I have done several films for MGM, Universal, I have done innumerable radio shows, the Tallulah Bankhead Show, which I wrote and directed, the Gertrude Lawrence Show.\n\nSAYPOL: They can be counted, can’t they? You say innumerable. I’m sure somebody can count them.\n\nMARTIN: Forgive me, your Honor.\n\nSAYPOL: You don’t want to say how many?\n\nMARTIN: I don’t know how many, actually. But I have done a great many shows.\n\nHAYS: Do you remember when the book Red Channels was published?\n\nMARTIN: I don’t remember when it was published. I remember when it was given to me.\n\nHAYS: And about when was that?\n\nMARTIN: A copy of Red Channels was given to me in the year 1950, I would say, when I returned from Hollywood, after having done some films, and had returned to radio.\n\nHAYS: Did you ever refuse to give Joe Julian a job as an actor on any of your shows for the sole reason that his name appeared in Red Channels?\n\nWALLACE: Objection.\n\nSAYPOL: I will allow it.\n\nMARTIN: I did refuse to give Mr. Julian employment on our shows because his name was in Red Channels.\n\nHAYS: Did you regard Joe Julian as a competent, able actor?\n\nMARTIN: Well, it’s my opinion that he is a very brilliant actor.\n\nHAYS: And what were the circumstances under which you refused to give him a job at the time you mentioned? Do you know which show it was?\n\nMARTIN: It was the Playhouse, the Philip Morris Playhouse on TV.\n\nHAYS: And at what salary? What salary did that part carry?\n\nMcGrody (defense): Objection, if your Honor pleases. This, again would be specifically on special damages.\n\nSaypol: I will hear it. You may answer.\n\nMartin: Well, there was a $500 part open.\n\nHays: $500 for what, for one performance?\n\nMartin: For one performance, of course.\n\nHays: And was this a continuous job that he would get if you employed him? I mean would it be week after week?\n\nMartin: I have a nucleus, more or less, like a stock company, and the good, non-name players, as we refer to them in the trade, we put into the stock company, who work more or less every week or every other week. So that this saves us, the director, a lot of trouble in going all over town and continually auditioning new actors; whereas if we get good, sturdy, reliable actors we continually use them in different roles because of their variety of talents.\n\nHays: And this would have been a job that would have given Joe Julian $500 a week for about how many weeks?\n\nWallace: Objection.\n\nSaypol: Sustained.\n\nHays: Was there more than one occasion on which you refused to give Joe Julian a job because his name was in Red Channels.\n\nMcGrody: Same objection, if your Honor please.\n\nSaypol: Sustained.\n\nHays: Now, did you have work for Joe Julian for a long period of time?\n\nWallace: Objection.\n\nSaypol: He may answer specifically, not in a general way.\n\nMartin: I had several jobs for him.\n\nSaypol: You have or you have had?\n\nMartin: I have had.\n\nHays: And you refused to hire him on all these jobs because his name was in Red Channels?\n\nWallace: Objection.\n\nSaypol: He may answer subject to a motion to strike out.\n\nMartin: I was instructedMcGrody: Objection.\n\nSaypol: Well now, do I understand that this non-hiring was on the basis of your own conclusion, your own judgment, or because somebody else told you to?\n\nMartin: Somebody else told me to.\n\nSaypol: I see. We will strike out all the testimony, then. You don’t know anything about it.\n\nWallace: I move to strike out all the testimony that has been given.\n\nSaypol: Strike it out. I thought this man was the man who made the decision.\n\nHays: He just didn’t hire him. And he was the man charged with...\n\nSaypol: It’s hearsay. The man decided that this plaintiff was either a Communist or a dupe or an innocent on the basis either of what somebody else told him or on the basis of his construction of Red Channels.\n\nHays: I didn’t ask him about that, your Honor. I asked him whether that was the reason he wouldn’t hire him.\n\nSaypol: No, he says somebody else told him not to. That’s hearsay. I can’t allow that. Somebody may not have liked the color of Julian’s tie and told him it was because his name was in Red Channels.\n\nThat kind of ruling against Martin’s testimony was typical. Here Martin, in a hiring position and intimately acquainted with blacklisting procedure, swore under oath that he didn’t employ me only because my name was in that book, yet this was rejected as hearsay. Even if someone else told him to do it, Martin himself blacklisted me, and it seemed to me his testimony to that effect should have been permitted.\n\nSaypol also helped the defense by using my own witnesses against me when he asked Murrow, Collingwood, and the others: “Can you say, as a matter of knowledge,\n\nthat as a direct and well-connected result of the publication of his name in this book, *Red Channels*, he has been avoided and shunned by former friends and acquaintances?\" They could hardly have answered affirmatively, not knowing who my friends and acquaintances were.\n\nTheir negative answers implied, or were intended to imply, that therefore my reputation had suffered no damage. Indeed, the judge cited the presence of these distinguished men themselves in court on my behalf to buttress that inference.\n\nMartin, in answering that question, said that he had not shunned me, but thought I had a red label. \"I maintain that everybody in that book has a label attached to him,\" he said, \"and that we—our clients—we are not interested in using the people who are in the book.\"\n\nThere were many moments of dramatic conflict—especially on re-cross-examination of Martin, when, like the prosecutor he had been, the Judge bore down heavily on Martin's testimony that everyone in *Red Channels* had a red label on him. In fact, during the entire presentation of my case most of the testimony favorable to me, including that of other witnesses on my behalf, was ruled inadmissible.\n\nEach day I came to court more worried and depressed. Yet I had a gut feeling we were getting through to the jury, in spite of all the legalistic walls that were thrown up. They looked like an alert and sympathetic bunch of men and women, and I cast my hopes entirely with them on the fifth day of the trial, when our last witness stepped down and Hays said: \"Plaintiff rests your Honor.\"\n\nThe Court recessed until the next day.\n\nIn the morning, lawyers for both sides made motions;\n\nargued relevancy of rulings in previous cases, etc. The session ended with the defendants renewing an earlier motion to dismiss my suit at this point without going into their defense. Again Saypol promised a fateful answer after lunch.\n\nWhen we reconvened he gave his decision. It took about half an hour. He read aloud parts of the Introduction to *Red Channels*, bits of testimony, and quoted lawbook cases which guided his conclusion. I listened hard, hard, trying to follow all the convolutions of his reasoning. I strained to perceive a glimpse of my fate behind his words. But the longer he spoke the less I understood. It all fudged in my mind. . . .\n\n. . . question arises which belongs to a class in which perplexing laws are not infrequently in reverse ratio to *Werner versus Nelson*, but the pertinent qualifying and controlling language pages six and seven where there’s red smoke there’s Communist fire nevertheless the favorable presumption the law permits to be inferred by eliciting from witnesses *Mencher versus Chesley* objections bound by the weight of mitigating evidence as in the case of. . . .\n\nThat’s how it sounded—until he came to the final sentence, which was stunningly clear:\n\nTherefore Defendants’ motion to dismiss at the close of plaintiff’s case is granted.\n\nIt was all over. I was numb with disbelief. He wouldn’t even let it go to the jury!\n\nHe gave as his reason that we had not presented a *prima-facie* case—no central question of fact for the jury to decide. This in spite of Martin’s testimony that he had\n\nrefused to employ me solely because my name was in that book with a bloody red hand clutching a microphone on its cover, and evidence that my income plunged drastically upon publication of *Red Channels*.\n\nA sinking feeling of hopelessness set in, then a rising outrage. Hays put his arm around my shoulder and said, \"Joe, always remember. Sometimes you win, but you never lose if your cause is just.\" I've tried to hang on to that thought.\n\nIf it seems arrogant for an actor to judge a judge, to question decisions of a man presumably learned in law, who carefully wrapped his rulings in precedent, let me say that, as the Devil can cite Scripture to his purpose, so a judge can, either consciously or otherwise, select only those previous rulings that support his inclination. And even they usually have some variation of circumstance.\n\nAfter reading through a transcript of the trial twenty years later, Saypol's inclination was obvious. Even with the perspective of time, here in the court of my own head I still overrule his decision and find him guilty of having blatantly denied me justice.\n\n*The New York Times* published a long Sunday article entitled \"Case Dismissed,\" about Saypol's neglect of the moral issues in relation to the libel laws. *Variety* and *I. F. Stone's Weekly* ran similar pieces. My case became a minor *cause célèbre*.\n\nAttorney Louis Nizer, who later, in a better political climate, won a similar libel suit for radio commentator John Henry Falk, told me that he felt that Hays had mishandled my case; that he was really too old and no longer sharp enough on legal points.\n\nEd Murrow and Charles Collingwood, and Robert Saudek of the Ford Foundation, also told me they felt frustrated at not being able to contribute more to my cause because Hays didn’t ask them the right questions when they were on the witness stand. Be that as it may, the sincerity and humanity of Arthur Garfield Hays were his greatest assets, and if Saypol had permitted my case to go to the jury, there isn’t the slightest doubt in my mind that I would have won their verdict.\n\nThe judge dismissed the twelve men and women with instructions that they not talk about the case. They filed past me, some with tears in their eyes, signaling their sympathy by their expressions or with a simple shake of the head.\n\nBut more specific evidence of how I would have fared had the jury been allowed to decide came to my attention several months later. An actor friend was in Macy’s at Christmas time, watching a man demonstrate a new toy. They got into a conversation and my friend mentioned he was in the theater. The demonstrator asked if he happened to know an actor named Joe Julian. When told he did, the man confided that he was one of the jurors on my case. “Julian sure got a raw deal,” he said. “Everyone on the jury was for him.”\n\nAfter the trial, Hays invited my wife and me to his magnificent Sands Point estate for a weekend of rest, swimming, and games of chess far into the night. It seemed to refresh him, and dilute the despair I brought with me from the courtroom. A prime slice of nature can go a long way toward putting problems into proper perspective. I wondered if his invitation was a consolation prize awarded all his clients who lost in court.\n\nYet in a very practical sense I didn’t lose by my legal action. It actually cleared me for work in many areas where I had been blacklisted, because not only did the defendants make no real effort to further smear my name, but their main defense had been that I was one of those referred to in the small-print disclaimer in *Red Channels*’ foreword, which stated that there might also be some “innocents” listed.\n\nThe ad agencies that began to call me again seemed glad to have even this negative sanction of my employability. With so many skilled radio actors on blacklists, it had become difficult to cast shows.\n\nOn the whole, I believe the broadcasting industry had wanted me to win my case. The agencies were opposed to blacklisting, although they rigidly practiced it. It was simple economics: they preferred losing good actors to good accounts. It was a rare sponsor that didn’t succumb to the threat of boycott by the pressure groups. The agencies were caught in the middle. But if the networks had shown some backbone, blacklisting would not have succeeded as it did.\n\nBlacklisting also became a profession—a money-making proposition. The publishers of *Red Channels* worked both sides of the street. They urged the firing of actors in the book, and at the same time offered “investigative services.” For a fee, they reported to employers on the background of present or prospective employees. Five dollars was their minimum for a single, positive report. If it were negative, and the individual had a long history of associations with various organizations, the charge could be as high as a thousand dollars. The CBS network commissioned one study of program talent. Other clients were\n\nGeneral Motors, Du Pont, F. W. Woolworth, Metropolitan Life Insurance, R. J. Reynolds Tobacco, and Bendix Aviation.\n\nVincent Hartnett, who compiled and wrote the introduction to *Red Channels*, opened a commercial shop of his own. He acknowledged having received three hundred dollars for a report on playwright Arthur Miller, and two hundred dollars each in eight other instances. In 1955, just one client, Borden, the dairy-products company, is reported to have paid him ten thousand dollars.\n\nHartnett attended every day of my court proceedings as a spectator. Whenever I glanced at him he was busy scribbling notes. As soon as Saypol dismissed the jury, he came over and handed me his card, saying, \"Joe, I want you to know you're all right with me. If you want to be helped, give me a call.\"\n\nMy thoughts were murderous.\n\nHe said he was getting out another book, an enlarged book, and that my name was also in that—but for other things.\n\nIt took a great effort to keep from punching him in the face. \"What other things?\" I seethed.\n\n\"Marching in the May Day Parade,\" he said.\n\nThat was all I needed. At a moment like that, with Saypol's judgment still ringing in my ears. I made a clenched fist. \"I've never been in a May Day Parade in my life!\" I shouted.\n\nHe patted his briefcase. \"I have proof,\" he said. \"In here.\"\n\nHe backed away as reporters crowded around. \"I'll show Joe,\" he said. \"Not you fellows.\"\n\nI followed him to a side room, where he opened his case\n\nand dumped a large pile of assorted snapshots on a conference table.\n\nHe sorted through them, then plucked out a small one showing a section of a parade. He tapped his finger triumphantly on a marching man in the middle of a crowd, a man about my size, about my weight, holding high a placard. You couldn’t tell if his face resembled mine. The placard hid it. That should tell you something about Vincent Hartnett.\n\nHis apartment was said to be filled from top to bottom with cross-indexed files on actors, and huge piles of back-issue magazines and newspapers of all political colors, from which he industriously culled items that connected actors, in even the remotest way, to any organization with the slightest liberal tinge. In effect, this burrowing little fanatic, and a few others like him, decided which performers America could hear on their radio sets and which it couldn’t. They were the powers to whom agencies would submit cast lists for a check on their political cleanliness. Apparently this was more discreet and convenient than to develop their own research apparatus, and worth the fees paid.\n\nHas a note of bitterness crept into the account of my blacklisted years and the trial? After twenty years I should have been able to submerge it, and sift from the experience one of my golden philosophical nuggets, such as, “The innocent also get clobbered in this life.” But philosophy isn’t always adequate. And so to a generation that has not experienced the nightmare of that “blacklisting” period, when fear and hysteria enveloped the country, I simply want to say: Beware; it could happen again.\n\nThe biggest impetus for my \"clearance\" came from William Fitelson, a theatrical lawyer and executive producer of the *Theater Guild—U.S. Steel Hour* television series.\n\nFor a couple of years Fitelson had been intrigued with my play about the gift of the Japanese girl, and had tried to persuade U.S. Steel and its advertising agency, Batten, Barton, Durstine and Osborn, to produce it. But Steel would have none of anyone in *Red Channels*. After the trial, Fitelson tried again. This time I was invited to lunch at the Yale Club and grilled (no pun intended) by some agency officials, including their chief security officer, Jack Wren, a mysterious figure who seemed to be involved in many clearance situations.\n\nThey questioned me closely about my political thinking. Would I ransack my memory for any early activities or associations that might embarrass them if they put my play on the air? They had to be triply sure it would in no way contribute to the violent overthrow of our government. A few days later I was notified that Clifford F. Hood, the president of the United States Steel Corporation, had personally decided that the company would gamble on me.\n\n*Presento* went on the air on December 16, 1954. There was no fallout. It was a critical and popular success. And the government was still intact.\n\nThat show broke the ice for me. Even though I didn’t appear in it, the large credit as author that flashed on the screen gave notice to the industry. It said, in effect, that if I were safe enough to work for U.S. Steel, I should be safe enough for anyone.\n\nThe very next day I began getting calls for radio acting jobs.\n\n13. Easy Money\n\nBut I had a lot of catching up to do. The jobs didn’t come as thick and fast as before the “eclipse.” Also, by the early fifties, television had finally come of age and was giving network radio a real run for the sponsors’ money. Nonetheless, radio continued to command the lion’s share of audiences. In 1954, 53,000,000 American homes had radios—and most had two or three; more than 130,000,000 sets were in use in the mid-fifties. And in spite of television’s rapid growth, NBC launched a lavish ninety-minute weekly variety radio program. It was built around Tallulah Bankhead as hostess and Meredith Wilson as musical director. Each week it featured the biggest stars in show business.\n\nMany movie stars were picking up quick, easy money guest starring on radio programs. It took little of their time; there was no costume or makeup problem; and it kept their names alive between films. On the whole, they weren’t good—especially those who were stars more through personality and topography than talent. They\n\nknew nothing of microphone technique and did little more than read the words, with varying degrees of intelligence. The supporting casts of radio actors acted rings around them.\n\nI once played opposite Veronica Lake in a Broadway theater that had been converted to radio use. As legitimate theater declined, a number of these houses were taken over, and radio shows were put on before live audiences. *The Theater Guild on the Air* was one. These productions generated extra excitement for the actors. They gave us a feeling of being back in the theater. We usually dressed—tux and evening gowns—and the live audience reaction gave listeners at home a sense of participating in an important theatrical event.\n\nOn this show with Miss Lake the engineer had a problem. Hers was such a weak, wispy voice that he couldn’t get us in proper balance. So he gave her a separate microphone across the stage from me, where he could mechanically raise her voice level to mine. Which was fine for the listeners at home. In the studio, her voice was still small, and now so far from me I had to strain to hear my cues. Especially since they had her facing front so the audience could see her famous peek-a-boo hairdo. Hardly the way to play an intimate love scene with a lady!\n\nAnd there was Myrna Loy. An actress of great dignity and charm, who had won a special place in the Hollywood firmament and in my young, tender, movie-going heart. For years I had been intrigued by the mysterious emanations of this lovely lady—always with that slight enigmatic smile that suggested she knew more than she was telling. She was so thin, though. I really used to worry about her health.\n\nAnd then one day, there she was, in studio 3G at NBC, life-size, and playing a scene with me! It was a deep, corny thrill.\n\nBut if she had had to win that role in a competitive audition with radio actresses, she wouldn’t have been there. Her voice, isolated from her other attributes, was dull and flat. She was selling her name, not her art. Still, big film names did attract listeners no matter how they sounded. When shows were live, it was a little like their making a personal appearance—except you were only hearing them. And you drew on your memory of how they looked.\n\nMarlene Dietrich, on the other hand, had something more to sell than her name. She had a famous, throaty, sexy voice, and was a true professional in whatever medium she sold her commodities.\n\nHer career included several radio series. One was an Advice to the Lovelorn program, where she personally wrote the answers to letters she read on the air. Another was a series of romantic dramas called Time for Love. And there was Café Istanbul—a weekly spy format that took audiences into the casbah and other mysterious places. It was a program well calculated to exploit her exotic accent and strong voice-presence.\n\nWorking with her occasionally on Café Istanbul, I got a glimpse behind the public image of Marlene Dietrich—a woman of strength, warmth, and intelligence, yet so spontaneous that when, during a rehearsal, she overheard one of the actors express doubt that the rest of her body was as youthful as her famous legs, she ripped open her blouse to prove him wrong.\n\nShe concerned herself with every aspect of a production. Especially casting. After the show had been on the air a\n\nwhile and she became familiar with the pool of available radio actors, she had definite ideas about who should be cast in which part.\n\nOne week she told Murray Burnett, the writer-director, that she wanted a certain actor for the male lead. When told he was out of town, she insisted he be tracked down. When informed he had had a nervous breakdown and was in an institution upstate, she insisted he be gotten out. Burnett phoned the authorities and urged them to release him for the one day. He argued that it would be therapeutic for the actor to know he was still wanted professionally. It was a convincing argument and they agreed. Burnett drove up in his car, picked him up, and took full responsibility for returning him the next day.\n\nThere was a slight problem—solved by the miracle of newly-developed magnetic tape. The actor was one of radio's best, but he was under such heavy sedation that his reflexes were slowed and it seemed forever before he picked up his cues. But since this show was taped it was possible, with a little sensitive surgery, to snip out the long pauses and restore the pace of a good performance.\n\nMost of the high-powered Hollywood stars of the period acted in radio, and at one time or another, I worked with James Stewart, Henry Fonda, Edward G. Robinson, Claude Raines, Rudy Vallee, Barbara Stanwyck, Walter Huston, Tyrone Power, Boris Karloff, Tallulah Bankhead, and Frank Sinatra.\n\nFrom October 6, 1953, to March 30, 1954, Sinatra did a weekly half-hour private-eye show on NBC called Rocky Fortune.\n\nFrom time to time I had been told that, from a certain angle, I resembled Sinatra. I told him that once. I said,\n\n\"Frank, a lot of people tell me I look like you. Do a lot of people tell you you look like me?\" He said no.\n\nWe rehearsed one morning, then broke for lunch, to report back in an hour for further rehearsal and recording. Sinatra didn't return; even his manager was baffled. We waited several hours. Finally he phoned—wouldn't say from where—and told his manager to pay the actors and let them go. This was during a period he seemed to be having problems with himself.\n\n14. Foot-in-Mouth Disease\n\nAs technologies developed, many radio shows were recorded for later broadcast—first on wax, then on glass disks, then on acetate, then on wire, and then tape. But radio was at its best \"live.\" The \"aliveness\"—the knowledge that something could always go wrong—greatly heightened the appeal. Awareness that \"this is it\"—millions listening, no retakes, no redress of error, no second chance—created a tension, an extra edge of excitement in performers that communicated to listeners.\n\nIt also gave some performers and announcers such a bad case of nerves that they lost control of their speech. The often hilarious consequences were known as bloopers. Bloopers collections from both radio and TV are gathered as assiduously today as vases from the Ming Dynasty, and are traded between collectors throughout the country.\n\nOf course, they are much funnier to hear than read, but here are a few that I've collected through the years. Probably the most famous was the time radio announcer Harry Von Zell, covering the inauguration of President Herbert Hoover over a nationwide network, announced:\n\nLadies and gentlemen, I now give you the President of the United States, Hoobert Heever. Er . . . Heevert Hoober—I mean Hovert Haber!\n\nSince then, all announcers who introduce the Chief Executive are required to merely announce: \"Ladies and gentlemen, the President of the United States.\"\n\nThen there was the sportscaster who said:\n\n\"Sports fans! Stay stewed for the Stupor Bowl.\"\n\nAnd the announcer who introduced Bennet Cerf as \"a well-known author and lecherer.\"\n\nAnd the actor playing a doctor, who said in a low, tense voice:\n\n\"Nurse, a hypodeemic nurdle, please.\"\n\nAnd the nervous juvenile who, when his girl friend's mother answered the doorbell, blurted out:\n\n\"I've c-called to come on your daughter.\"\n\nAnd announcers who said:\n\nGirls, when you have to get up early to prepare his breakfast, do you wake up feeling lustless—I mean, listless?\n\nThis portion of the Name of the Gum starring Robert Stick—er Stack—is brought to you by Wrigley's Chewing Game.\n\nMarshall Dillon preserves law and odor tonight on Gunsmoke.\n\nThis portion of I Dream of Jeannie is brought to you by Vick's Navel Spray.\n\nWe now switch you to the sixteenth tee, where we show you in slow motion Arnold Palmer, U.S. Opium Champion.\n\nAnd the forecast for tomorrow is mostly Sunday.\n\nDon’t be a litterbird. Join Ladybug Johnson and help clean up America.\n\nJackie Kennedy returned today from her African visit bringing with her a whale’s tool * for a souvenir.\n\nCopywriters make their own bloopers, without the excuse of “microphone nerves.” But they must have had alibis for writing copy like:\n\nAnd so ends another garden tip program. Tune in next week, when Mrs. Van Buren’s topic will be “My Potted Friends.”\n\nTry this remarkably effective cough syrup. We guarantee you’ll never get any better.\n\nAt Johnson’s Laundry, we don’t tear your clothes by machine, we do it carefully by hand.\n\nSee Lassie in three parts after this message from the Anti-Vivisection League.\n\nAnd some that looked all right on the page, but conveyed a different thought when spoken fluently by the announcer. A classic example of this genre:\n\nWhy not give your wife a gorgeous Gruen for Christmas?\n\nThe remarkable thing about written bloopers is that they got by so many people. Every syllable of commercial copy had to be approved by the sponsor, the legal department of the radio station, the advertising agency, the production department, the artistic department, etc. By the time it reached the studio, it was too sacrosanct to tamper with, and the announcer had to read it with a straight face. Very often he couldn’t and “broke up.” Audiences, too, get a kick out of hearing an announcer giggle his way through a\n\n* Presumably, the announcer meant “tooth.”\n\ncommercial, even though they don’t always understand the reason for it. They know something is wrong behind the scenes and enjoy being even partly privy to it.\n\nMany excellent performers, completely at ease on a stage, were terrified of a microphone. Luther Adler, one of the theater’s finest, shook so badly on his first radio assignment that he read aloud from his script the words: “Low—nervous—” the directions preceding his dialogue.\n\nFrequently an actor’s trembling hand rattled the pages so close to the microphone that it came over sounding like a hurricane or a building collapsing, to the detriment of the scene and the chagrin of the control room engineer. (Another bête noir of the engineer was the belly growl—a sure laugh, especially if it happened on the air during a pause.)\n\nOccasionally a hand was unsteady for a different reason. Although most announcers tried their best to sound inhuman (sonorous unction and flawless diction were the criteria), if you stuck them they bled and if they drank too much they got smashed, even as you and I—even a famous announcer whom I shall not identify, because why should I slur the good man’s name? Anyway, he arrived in the studio so drunk his knees gave way as he began to introduce a program on the air and he collapsed to the floor. The cast rushed to lift him, but his two hundred pounds were too much. The situation was saved by an actor who had the presence of mind to grab the standing microphone and bring it down to the famous announcer, who bestirred himself from his prone position to lean on an elbow, and, squinting closely at his script, managed at least to finish the introduction—if not with perfect diction, at least flufflessly.\n\nAt the opposite end of the jitters spectrum was the most unflappable performer I have ever known: Jean Paul King, one of radio's top announcers in the late thirties and early forties. (I sometimes equate announcers with performers because they were often more than abstract voices that read the commercials and introduced and signed off the show. As regular guests in listeners' homes, they became familiar personalities. On many comedy shows they played foil for the star, and a number of them went on to become celebrities in their own right, such as Milton Cross, Durward Kirby, Jimmy Wallington, Ben Grauer, Bert Parks, etc.—each with his own distinctive trade mark of speech and personality.)\n\nIf one word were to describe Jean Paul King, it would be \"smooth.\" Everything about him—his skin, his face, his hair, his speech, his manner—was smooth. Nothing fazed him while he was working. He was a marvelously efficient, nerveless announcing machine. With little or no study, he could pick up his script and read off a long commercial, written in impossibly stilted language and full of references to tongue-twisting, newly discovered \"secret ingredients,\" wave hello to a friend who had just entered the studio, and finish without missing a beat.\n\nAlthough awed by such perfect coordination of mind, body, and commercial, I used to find myself wishing he would make a mistake. Fluff, slur a word, or drop his pages. I like my heroes flawed. I felt a little like Toscanini the time he went to Jascha Heifetz's dressing room after a concert and begged him to play for him just one false note before he died.\n\nOne evening, during the famous reporter Floyd Gibbons' show *Headline Hunters* on NBC, something evil\n\nmade me saunter up to the mike where King had just begun a long commercial about how a certain shampoo kills \"Pitarosporimovali,\" a bacteria that causes a form of dandruff. I took a half dollar from my pocket and flipped it in front of his face. He glanced up, reached in his own pocket, pulled out another half dollar, pointed to himself then to me (signaling \"I'll match you\"), flipped the coin, caught it, slapped it on his forearm as I did with mine, won my half dollar, reached across the mike to collect, and finished the commercial without once violating the script, his style, rhythm, or aplomb. As I said—smooth.\n\nAnother example of professional savoir-faire was when the well-known announcer Norman Brokenshire was doing a show that, due to a timing error, finished five minutes too soon. Dead air being the cardinal sin of radio, Brokenshire saved the situation by announcing, \"Ladies and gentlemen, we bring you the sounds of New York City!\" He pulled open the studio window, thrust out the microphone, and held it there for the full five minutes.\n\nWhich reminds me of another lovely example of resourcefulness—this time an author's. For a time, the daily serial *The Road of Life* was heard over two major networks until the sponsor decided to eliminate NBC and play it only on CBS. The final day on both, the announcer's tag line read: Starting tomorrow, *The Road of Life* will be heard only over CBS.\n\nThis didn't sit well with NBC. It was bad enough losing the show, but a free plug for the rival network was rubbing it in. So they ordered it eliminated.\n\nBut the writer, Charles Gussman, a shrewd and determined fellow, rewrote the last scene as a phone conversation between Dr. Brent, the leading character, and a patient who was asking for an appointment. Brent responded by saying that he was moving the next day and could be reached only in care of Doctor C. B. Hess. On paper this was nothing NBC could object to. But spoken by actor Don MacLaughlin, who de-emphasized the word \"doctor\" and stressed the rest, it was exactly what Gussman wanted it to say. Sneaky, sneaky.\n\nIn the same department is the one about W. C. Fields, who, on a prime-time evening show, vexed his sponsor by continually adlibbing a reference to his nephew, Chester (Fields). The sponsor was a rival cigarette company.\n\nThings often went wrong in radio. Remember lovable old Uncle Don, host of a children's show? He is alleged to have concluded a broadcast and sighed, \"Well, that'll hold the little bastards,\" unaware that the engineer was a moment late in flicking a switch, thus permitting those immortal words to be heard from sea to shining sea.\n\nThere are those who deny this actually happened, and those who swear they heard it. But true or not, it could have happened. Goofs were to be expected in a medium that poured out shows in such abundance. They could be anything from suddenly discovering your pages were mixed up, having to run quickly to the other side of the mike, and read over another actor's shoulder, to what happened to a director named Jim Jewell, putting on an episode of *Jack Armstrong, the All American Boy*. He threw a cue so hard he smashed his fist through the glass panel separating him from the actors.\n\nOr, in a scene where you're supposed to pull a gun and say, \"I'm going to put a bullet through your heart,\" and the sound-effects man's gun jams, and he keeps trying and\n\nclicks and clicks it until you brilliantly adlib, \"No! On second thought it will give me greater pleasure to choke you with my bare hands!\"—and then the gun goes off.\n\nThe revolver jammed once during a performance of *The Shadow*. The director, Chick Vincent, was so upset he ran from the control room and shouted into the mike, \"Bang! Bang!\" It just seemed the right thing to do. The show fell apart as the cast dissolved in laughter.\n\nOnce during a broadcast before an audience from the New Amsterdam Roof (a converted Broadway theater) an actor with failing eyesight, in order not to lose his place, marked his script with colored pencils—one color for his dialogue, another for his cues. As the show went on the air, the amber stage lights were turned on the performers, washing out all the colored markings. The poor actor fluffed and panicked, and the scene went out the window.\n\nThen there was the time when Broadway star Helen Menken, who was used to freedom of movement on the stage, flung her arm out in such an emphatic gesture that the back of her hand caught the actress next to her full in the face, causing her to yelp with pain and drop her pages.\n\nApropos adlibbing, Norman Rose, an actor-narrator noted for the deep, cello-toned resonance of his voice, once played Joseph in a dramatization of the biblical story of Joseph and his brothers. It was on a program called *The Eternal Light* (still on the air over NBC). Joseph was thrown into a deep pit by his brothers. The director instructed Norman to adlib for them to take him out. On the air, when the cue came, he spontaneously yelled, \"Jesus Christ, get me out of here!\" The story took place, of course, several centuries before Christ's birth and, to make\n\nmatters worse, the show was sponsored by the Jewish Theological Seminary.\n\nConstantly expecting the unexpected created tensions that often found release in horseplay and practical jokes. Engineers were frequently given a hard time by a performer who looked up at the glass-enclosed control room and silently mouthed words as though he were talking to him. The puzzled engineer, not hearing any sound, checked all his wires, plugs, and controls, thinking something was wrong with his equipment. If such tomfoolery occurred just before going on the air, he would be really frantic. That was mean.\n\nAnother mean one (confined usually to rehearsals) was to saunter up to the mike with a cigarette lighter and casually set a top corner of an announcer's page on fire. This had the effect of speeding his tempo.\n\nOne morning I was doing a recording of *Boston Blackie* (\"Enemy to those who make him an enemy; friend to those who have no friends!\"). The title role was played by Richard Kollmar, who, with his wife, Dorothy Kilgallen, were the Dorothy and Dick of WOR's early morning \"breakfast\" talk show of the same name.\n\nHalfway through the first reading, I found my dialogue difficult to understand. I asked the director, Jeanne Harrison, who was in the control room, if she could clarify it for me. She brusquely told me to go on with the reading. I tried, but it was impossible. I'd acted in some awful scripts in my time, but this was absolute nonsense. The words bogged down in hopeless *non sequiturs*. I began to laugh. Larry Haines, the actor playing the scene with me, tried hard to suppress his titters. Miss Harrison turned nasty. I had never seen her that way before.\n\n\"You're not here to criticize the script!\" she snapped. \"You're here to play it!\"\n\nI tried again, but there was just no way of phrasing those words. She kept at me. I felt a rage rising.\n\n\"You're supposed to be an actor, aren't you? Well, then act!\" she blustered, her voice coming over the talkback, blaring and raucous.\n\n\"This stuff is unplayable!\" I exploded.\n\n\"Do as you're told!\" she shouted.\n\n\"Nobody can play this crap!\" I yelled.\n\n\"That's what you're being paid for!\" she screamed. \"If you can't do it, I'll get someone who can!\"\n\n\"Go ahead, goddammit!\" I said, in full fury. \"I don't have to take this kind of abuse from you!\" I slammed my script down on the floor, grabbed my hat and coat, and started out.\n\nAt this point the entire cast burst out laughing. Jeanne came out of the control room, embraced me and confessed it was all a setup. Those \"impossible\" pages of the script had been deliberately inserted to provoke my reaction. They had recorded my frustration and the entire explosive scene between us—to play next morning on Dorothy and Dick.\n\nMy frayed feelings were calmed by an extra fee.\n\nProbably the best-known practical joke was the one Orson Welles pulled on Charles Martin—the same Charles Martin who testified at my trial. Martin directed an episode of the Philip Morris Playhouse; Welles narrated.\n\nTensely waiting for Martin's cue to speak, as the hand of the studio clock approached air time, Welles suddenly dropped his script and the pages scattered over the floor. None of the other actors moved to help him recover them.\n\nMartin himself frantically ran from the control room, got down on his hands and knees, desperately scooped up all the pages, hurriedly collated and thrust them up to Welles, just as the red ON THE AIR sign flashed. Welles calmly shoved them aside, pulled the real script from his pocket, and began his narration on time.\n\nIncidentally, if an actor on the Philip Morris Playhouse was seen smoking a rival brand of cigarette, it could cost him his job. The same on other shows sponsored by tobacco companies, such as The Camel Caravan, The Old Gold Show, and The Lucky Strike Hit Parade. In the studio, you dared flash only a pack of the sponsor’s cigarettes. This situation was frequently met by throwing away the original contents and refilling the pack with your own favorite brand.\n\nA similar prank was pulled on orchestra leader Richard Himber by his musicians and production staff, who conspired to set the studio clock five minutes ahead. When ON THE AIR flashed and the director gave the cue to bring in the music, Himber was the only one who didn’t know they weren’t really on the air. When his musicians deliberately played sour notes, he writhed in agony. He glared and grimaced and made threatening gestures with his baton, but the musicians kept missing cues and making musical clinkers until Himber’s torture became unbearable. Then they all stopped playing and laughed.\n\nThere was a lot of fun and lighthearted camaraderie among the “in” radio people of those days—much of it, I believe, because most busy actors didn’t take themselves too seriously. Once they developed a technique they could\n\nrely on, they often felt free during a performance to read a book, or newspaper, or play gin rummy until their cue came up.\n\nAnd certain programs were fun to do. Like a Corwin show, or *The Goldbergs*. Gertrude Berg liked to set up a little *mise en scène*, and have her actors work their own sound effects, whenever possible, such as knocking on and opening and closing doors. If it were a dinner scene, she’d have us sitting around a table, rattling our own cups and saucers. It improved our timing and gave us a feeling of full-dimensional acting.\n\nI also enjoyed working the big nighttime variety shows with the famous comedians: Fred Allen, Milton Berle, Ed Gardner of *Duffy’s Tavern*, Robert Q. Lewis, etc. They usually did sketches manufactured each week by a stable of high-powered (and high-priced) writers, whose talent was measured mostly by the size of their cross-indexed files. Their brains were full of jokes. Mention any subject and they’d instantly produce a stream of relevant gags. They were masters of the old switcheroo; take an old one and give it a new twist. Craftsmen of the topper and the topper of the topper. Many have gone on to glory elsewhere—Neil Simon, Abe Burrows, and yes, Herman Wouk. These shows were nearly always done before large studio audiences, whose laughter improved the actors and made the job fun, and you even got paid for it.\n\nFunniest fun for me was *The Fred Allen Show*. Allen was more than a comedian, he was a rare wit, and wrote much of his material himself. He had a variety of guests, but the most famous feature of his show was *Allen’s Alley*—sketches performed by a little stock company of\n\ncharacters with wonderful names like \"Senator Claghorn,\" \"Pansy Nussbaum,\" \"Titus Moody,\" \"Socrates Mulligan,\" \"Falstaff Openshaw,\" and a Chinese detective, \"One Long Pan.\"\n\nOne of the favorite targets of Allen's sharp satire was the network officials themselves, with whom he was constantly at war over their efforts to tone down his material. They couldn't bleep out what they didn't like because shows were live in those days. Their only recourse was to cut him off the air at the first hint of objectionable material—which they did a number of times.\n\nAnother network practice that infuriated Allen was cutting the show off the air at precisely the last second of allotted time. Comedy shows were hard to time accurately because of the unpredictability of the studio audience's laughter and would occasionally run over a number of seconds. Finally, on one show Allen channeled his anger into the following dialogue between himself and his wife, Portland, who was a regular on the program:\n\nPORTLAND: Why were you cut off last Sunday?\nALLEN: Who knows? The main thing in radio is to come out on time. If people laugh, the program is longer. The thing to do is to get a nice dull half hour. Nobody will laugh or applaud. Then you'll always be right on time, and all of the little emaciated radio executives can dance around their desks in inter-office abandon.\nPORTLAND: Radio sure is funny.\nALLEN: All except the comedy programs. Our program has been cut off so many times the last page of the script is a Band-Aid.\nPORTLAND: What does the network do with all the time it saves cutting off the ends of programs?\n\nALLEN: Well, there is a big executive here at the network. He is the vice-president in charge of \"Ah! Ah! You're running too long!\" He sits in a little glass closet with his mother-of-pearl gong. When your program runs overtime he thumps his gong with a marshmallow he has tied to the end of a xylophone stick. Bong! You're off the air. Then he marks down how much time he's saved.\n\nPORTLAND: What does he do with all this time?\n\nALLEN: He adds it all up—ten seconds here, twenty seconds there—and when he has saved up enough seconds, minutes, and hours to make two weeks, the network lets the vice-president use the two weeks of your time for his vacation.\n\nHalfway through this sketch was cut off the air.\n\nI was on Allen’s show once as a guest star. You see, I have an odd little talent that intrigues people (not all), and every once in a while I was invited to demonstrate it on a show. Actually, it is quite an accomplishment. Unbelievable. Absolutely incredible. Fabulous. I am able to produce a musical tone by clasping my two palms together and slowly pulling them apart. By controlling the sound with other hand muscles, I can squeeze out musical compositions. Many find this hilarious, others revolting. True, I have never quite been able to refine it to the point of touching people aesthetically, but the tunes are recognizable—even some classical pieces—and the effect quite startling. You really have to hear it to know what I’m talking about.\n\nAnyhow, I was invited to “play my hands” on Fred Allen’s program. That evening was one of my fondest radio memories. I thought I had heard every possible joke about my hands, but Allen sprang a few new ones. “What kind of\n\nmusic are you going to palm off on us tonight?” he asked. “Handel?” and after I played “Swanee River”: “If you put mittens on, would that be like muting a trombone?”\n\nAlthough the sound itself was just this side of vulgar, amplification and (blush) artistry made it funny. The studio audience howled.\n\nHowever, like every great artist, I wasn’t completely satisfied with my work. I felt I could have squeezed out a purer tone if my hands hadn’t perspired. Now, in those days, because of the time difference, we had to come back at midnight to do a repeat show for the West Coast. During the interval I went out and bought myself some talcum powder in order to keep my “instrument” dry. As I was being introduced on the air, I took the can from my pocket and dusted my hands. Allen, right across the mike from me, hadn’t seen this on the first show, and I had neglected to warn him. He broke up. He guffawed so loudly into the mike—which was wide open for my tiny little squeak—that he knocked us off the air. I can’t explain that technically, but I swear it happened.\n\nAfter my guest appearance, I received an interesting fan letter:\n\n10 Mountnoel Ave.,\nToronto, Ont.\nCanada.\n\nMr. Hand Musicmaker\n\nDear Sir,\n\nI heard you on Fred Allen’s show tonight and thought I would like to tell you that I have a habit of doing the same thing for which you were on Fred’s program for.\n\nI acquired it as a nervous habit also and up to this time it has\n\nbeen looked upon with disapproving eyes by my parents. At the time of your act though a change has come into their stare and it is now of a sort of reverence.\n\nIt struck me so funny that I couldn’t help writing you this note.\n\nHoping that I can make music like you I will close.\n\nYours respectfully,\nD.E.\n\nIt pleased me to have contributed to the serenity of his home life, but it was saddening to learn I was no longer unique.\n\nLeonard Lyons, the syndicated columnist for the New York Post, once had me demonstrate my extraordinary talent for the famous impresario, Sol Hurok. Hurok was greatly amused, but for some reason never asked how to get in touch with me.\n\nAnother time Lyons introduced me to the great pianist Artur Rubinstein and told him of my musical gift. Rubinstein asked me to play something for him. I squeaked out a bit of “The Hall of the Mountain King” from Grieg’s Peer Gynt. He was delighted. “Ach,” he said, with elaborate gestures, “that is wonderful! You are so full of music it comes out your fingers!” and then added, “I still need a piano.”\n\nMy thirty years of radio activity pretty well spanned the spectrum—from the foolishness with my hands to playing Hamlet. Somewhere along the line, I touched nearly all bases—including sound-effects man, announcer, newscaster, disk jockey, writer, and foreign correspondent.\n\nThroughout it all, I stubbornly clung to the notion that\n\nthis was not really my career, only a temporary way of making a living until I connected with the right role and made it big in the theater, or Hollywood.\n\nHow long is temporary? Lord, how fooled we mortals be. I don’t know at what point I stopped thinking of radio as marking time; perhaps I never did—even after 20,000 broadcasts. But the fact is that during those thirty years a full-fledged career budded and blossomed, for which I’m enormously grateful. It was a privilege to have been there during the salad days of radio—to have participated in the dynamic growth of this potent medium and art form that rewarded me with adventures, that deepened and enriched my life.\n\nWould the theater have sent me to opposite ends of the earth to report the condition of man under the ultimate stress of war? Hardly.\n\nWould the theater have allowed me to play Hamlet? Methinks nay.\n\nOr leading man to such glamorous stars of my childhood as Marlene Dietrich, Fay Wray, Myrna Loy, Joan Crawford, Nancy Carrol, Veronica Lake, Helen Hayes—to name-drop only a little? Unlikely. Although not strictly a character type I’m just off center enough not to be thought of as a romantic lead. But in radio I was assigned them constantly.\n\nIn this regard, radio was a boon to many frustrated actors whose physical qualities didn’t quite match their leading-man souls. Six foot tall and symmetrical didn’t matter. Of course, they couldn’t be too misshapen, either, because then it had to do with the actor’s image of himself. If he couldn’t believe, the audience wouldn’t. And so, actually, most of radio’s leading men and women looked the part.\n\nAlthough in many cases the audience imagined them more handsome than they were.\n\nWhat a wondrous thing was that imagination. How real it made a radio drama—especially a soap opera, where five days a week, year in and year out, millions of women listened as they did their housework, deeply identifying with the characters in all their joys and suffering—mostly suffering.\n\nIn the theater, or at the movies, or when we read a novel, we know it’s not real, but we suspend our disbelief. In radio it was astonishing how many listeners had no disbelief to suspend.\n\nOnce, on *The Life of Mary Sothern*, the character I was playing got married. I received numerous wedding presents in the mail, including baby clothes and a bassinet.\n\nWhen on *The O’Neills* I played the role of a man being tried for a murder he did not commit, and it was very sad because he had no money to hire a good lawyer, several listeners were so moved that they mailed in money to start a defense fund.\n\nI’ve often wondered if people had to be a little cracked to believe so profoundly in the reality of those soap operas. I’m still not sure of the answer.\n\nWe all have an innate will to believe. Our capacity to do so has been eroded by the exploiters of our innocence, but I suspect there are those who have hung on to the purity of their naïveté and believe everything they see, read, or hear. Orson Welles’ famous *War of the Worlds* broadcast is a good example of the credulity out there in radio land, not only because the nation panicked when told the Martians had invaded. In this age of enlightened science, the most\n\nsophisticated can keep a corner of his mind open to that possibility. What interested me was that even after the country was told that it was only a radio show, for weeks people drove by to get a tourist's thrill out of staring at the spot in New Jersey where the Martians were supposed to have landed.\n\nCracked? I prefer to think of them as pure in heart.\n\n15. Fan Mail\n\nFan mail played a large part in the lives of radio performers.\n\nMost fan mail was received by those who played running parts. We didn’t hear our applause, but we read it. And it strengthened us. Often radio actors had the funny feeling they were just sending words out into a cosmic vacuum. Letters received from “out there” confirmed our function.\n\nFan letters to radio stars differed from most movie fan mail. The intimacy of the medium seemed to invite more intimate letters. And though most were complimentary, there was no typical fan. They came in all fabrics. Some were flirtatious:\n\n... I have an idea you are about twenty-two, someone who likes tweeds and smokes a pipe. Maybe you have blond, wavy hair with blue eyes or maybe you don’t but that’s what I want to find out. Would you please send me a picture?\n\nYour’s truly till next Monday at 8:30.\n\n... I listen to *Big Sister* religiously. However, I don't know whether I have a crush on \"Ken Morgan\" or Joe Julian—or both. Probably it is the composite man, at that. I'm sure it was your voice I heard on one of *Aunt Jenny's Real Life Stories*, in which you played the husband, \"John,\" and I was taken with you then, too, so maybe it is Joe Julian after all. A photograph will soon set me straight, because if it doesn't compare favorably with the picture I have in my mind of \"Ken Morgan,\" I shall go back to being faithful to the latter, and no more questions asked about the real man—he can go hang.\n\n**Some needed to tell their problems:**\n\nI first became interested in these daytime serials some months ago when I found myself living alone with my baby, and practically housebound taking care of him. He is now ten months old and naturally I am still more or less confined to my home looking after him so that dialing in the daytime shows has become at least a habit, if not actually part of my existence...\n\n**They were all ages:**\n\n... I am listening to you now and drawing all over the paper at the same time. You were wonderful on the *Inner Sanctum*, but why do you have to be a murderer?\n\n... My girlfriend Margaret Smith and me have listened to you on *Nero Wolfe* and we want your photograph. I hope the program will still be on when we go back to school and that mother will let me stay up to hear it.\n\nAnyway here is five cents for the picture. We are buying defense stamps but will send more if you want it.\n\n**Some were critical:**\n\nDear Archie:\n\nThis letter is an appeal to you to save my respect for *Nero Wolfe*. Have you ever heard him express pleasure in any way\n\nexcept by a heavy throated laugh? He’s so nonchalant in working with his orchids and discussing good food and solving all those mysteries that I cannot imagine him spending so much energy in bringing forth that awful laugh. As his assistant, can’t you do something about it? Best wishes for success in this matter.\n\nSome were angry:\n\n... We Catholics of Salt Lake City take strong exception to the remarks of Joseph Julian in *An American Back Home* over KSL, in which he says the Nazi cause won out in the revolt of the religious people of Spain against the liberal government which was repudiated by the people. The people are happy now they have a liberal dictatorship. Everybody in Spain knows what started the revolt—the murder of 17,000 priests, the burning of 16,000 churches, hundreds of convents destroyed and nuns raped and holy men killed who had never done anybody any wrong and who had never turned a hungry person from their gates. I defy smart aleck correspondents like Joseph Julian who know nothing about God and who largely get their information sitting around hotel lobbies to disprove these figures! ...\n\nSome were consoling:\n\n... Am I correct in recognizing in the *David Harum* story, the creator of the original Michael West?\n\nWe were disappointed when someone else took your place, because we felt that no one else would ever be quite suitable in a role that you had created and incidentally, we no longer listen to this story ...\n\nAnd some were deeply grateful:\n\n... I listened to your delightful *American in England* program every week. They are so very human and lifelike. You see, I am an Englishwoman, born, raised, and married in England. I came to this country as a bride in 1918. My good husband is an American and he was a soldier in the last World War.\n\nNow my fine and dear son is somewhere in this war. He is a lieutenant and twenty-three and a law graduate of the University of Minnesota. We haven't heard from him in over two months, so we are sad and longing to hear that he is safe and still well. . . .\n\nMy family back home lost all by bombs, but they did not kick any. They showed such a fine spirit.\n\nPlease carry on with your programs.\n\nMany of us answered our own fan mail, which often led to long-term pen relationships, usually with shut-ins, for whom these contacts were golden treasures.\n\n16. Whither Withered Radio?\n\nWhat was radio? It was, actually, a rather silly-looking spectacle: a group of unglamorous people sitting or strolling around a large room, holding sheets of paper in their hands, mumbling to themselves; going up to a microphone, delivering their lines, sitting down, lighting a cigarette. A grown man jumps up and down in a sandbox creating the sound of running footsteps, or slaps his chest for horses' hoofbeats, or slowly crushes the cellophane wrapper from a pack of cigarettes to indicate a forest fire, while behind a glass panel, a man with a worried look on his face and a stop watch in his hand makes \"stretch\" or \"faster\" signs for the performers, who then change pace according to the purchased piece of time rather than the dictates of artistic imperative.\n\nBut, miraculously, all this nonsense came out the other end fused in a concord of sounds that gripped, entertained, and enthralled millions of Americans every day. Radio drama was the tranquilizer, the emotional pain-killing drug of the time. The profound depths of its influence on\n\nthe national psyche will never be known, but the ubiquitous murder mysteries, the simplistic action dramas, and the moist soap operas at least made life more bearable for the isolated, the lonely, and the frustrated, who, by identifying with the characters, daily achieved some degree of catharsis—which, I submit, is a proper function of art.\n\nThe audience experience was unique in another important way. Television and film audiences are essentially passive. They watch and wait for something to be “done” to them. Theater audiences, too, mainly relate passively to happenings on stage—in spite of the “liveness” and the three-cornered current that flows among ourselves, the actors, and other members of the audience. But radio is “Theater in the Mind,” and the audience must earn its reward. It must always expend energy, reaching out to embellish, to supply what is not there. It is a private, personal medium, best listened to at home with no distractions to the exercise of imagination.\n\nNo other art form ever engaged the imagination more intensely. Even bad radio shows were better than their equivalent in other media, the listener’s imagination providing more reality than could be shown on a screen or stage. This creative expenditure of energy made the listeners collaborators in the truest sense. They designed the costumes and created the scenery. They visualized nuances of locale and performance that the writer didn’t write and the actor couldn’t convey. This, I believe, accounts for the great nostalgia—for the glowing affection with which those of you who are old enough remember your favorite radio programs. Because they were, largely, your own creations.\n\nSo why did it die? If radio was so wonderful, why did it\n\ndwindle down to music and news, disk jockies and phoned-in questions to experts who know everything about everything?\n\nAs television developed, the big advertising budgets were shifted into this new, exciting, visual medium, with its fantastic selling potential. You could make viewers drool for products by showing them! Radio became a step-child. Especially radio drama.\n\nBut something funny happened on the way to the poor-house. The radio networks, in changing their format, discovered they could make as much money without hiring actors, producers, writers, directors and musicians to put on dramas. The one-man shows saved them a bundle. And they sold even more commercials. The talk shows squeeze them in almost between syllables—which can’t be done on a structured dramatic program.\n\nAnd so, like it or not, for over a decade the public has been deprived of an art form that flourishes in every other major country in the world.\n\nBut hark! I hear a crackle of static! And isn’t that Orson Welles’ voice, laughing maniacally as The Shadow? And that burst of machine-gun fire and the screaming siren? Why that’s the old Gangbusters signature! And there’s the Inner Sanctum door squeaking open? And wasn’t that Molly telling Fibber, “Tain’t funny, McGee”?\n\nDo I really hear this or am I hallucinating?\n\nNo, it’s for real. The corpse is stirring. Someone bought up recordings of these oldies and gave them a ride over 500 FM stations around the country.\n\nDiscovery! Wow, this stuff’s great! The kids love it! They’ve never known anything like it! And for the old\n\nfolks—nostalgia! The whole country's on a nostalgia kick!\n\nWell, that's only a fad, it will soon pass. Ah but no! Commercial nostrils are quivering. And here is Hi Brown with an idea whose time has come—again.\n\nFor years Brown had been working to bring back radio drama, pitching low-budget packages at the networks and getting regular turn downs. Now was the time, if ever. By finding more corners to cut, such as winning concessions from the actors' union, lining up writers for $300 a script with instructions to keep the casts small, he was able to offer the networks a low cost, modern version of Inner Sanctum, squeaking door and all, with E. G. Marshall as host.\n\nCBS, sniffing out this wind from the past, decided to gamble. They made a deal for an hour network show every day for a year.\n\nThe response to this show—the CBS Mystery Theatre—was enormous. It gave major impetus to the upswing now in the making.* Love stories, soap operas, and westerns are being planned. Rod Serling began hosting the Hollywood Radio Mystery Theater, produced on the West Coast and syndicated across the country. The FM Stations (the Off-Broadway of radio) are already carrying a number of new programs such as the National Lampoon Radio Hour, with sketches more daringly satirical than anything in the past, and heard on over 100 stations. An all-black soap opera is in production.\n\nHow far this revival will go I don't know. Certainly our\n\n*The first ratings showed that this program, in the New York area alone, is garnering the largest total audience—approximately a quarter million listeners per one quarter hour—virtually twice the audience of the second place station, and equal to the combined totals of its two closest competitors.\n\npassion for radio will never again be such that movie houses interrupt their films, as they used to do, to bring their audiences the latest chapter of *Amos and Andy* over the public-address system. Radio will never regain its pre-television eminence. But to realize even its potential, it must go beyond the \"oldies\" and old concepts. It can't get stuck in nostalgia. It must deal with conflicts that reflect the life and problems of today.\n\nBut who will write the scripts? There are still a few radio writers around, but they're mostly too old and set in their thinking. Fresh young minds and talents are needed to speak for now. But where are they? With practically no radio drama around for more than a decade, where could they have developed a writing technique?\n\nThey must start from scratch. Trial and error. As in the beginning. And the industry must nurture them. Experimental programs are needed where they can get a start, and perhaps, incubate some quality shows above the \"pulp\" level. Minority tastes must also be catered to. If radio drama is to have a continuing place in broadcasting, the whole body must be revived. So let's also hear it for shows with some cultural protein. Let's hear it for the art houses of the \"Theater in the Mind.\" Maybe there's another Norman Corwin out there somewhere. Let's shout him a word of encouragement. Or how about the original? Maybe, if we shout loud enough we can entice him back, convince the network moguls to commission him some new work—or ask them to revive some old Corwin.\n\nWhat about the performing talent? Where are today's microphone-trained actors? We needn't worry. Supply will catch up with the demand. They'll come out of the woodwork if the need is there, including the specialists, the\n\nscreamers, animal imitators, and baby criers. Those with the knack will just need a little time to develop.\n\nIf you're wondering what happened to that great pool of marvelously skilled performers of the past, some have died, some retired, some managed to cross the bridge to films, television and the stage, and the rest are out a'whorin' in commercials. Many became rich using their microphone training to do radio and voice-over (off-camera) commercials. And since their income now depends on how well they sell products, they rightfully take more pride in their accomplishments as salesmen than as actors. Well, there have always been periods in history when art put itself in the service of commerce. And if there are still any foolish idealists among us who feel that actors should nourish the human spirit more directly than by selling Mrs. Jones a product that waxes her floors better, or Mr. Jones a bottle of something that improves his breath—if there are those who suffer guilt for seeking a livelihood in Daemon's territory, let them find comfort in numbers. Let them take consolation from the knowledge that many of our major artists are doing commercials these days—including Orson Welles, Henry Fonda, Robert Morley, Marcel Marceau, and even Sir Laurence Oliver. And if all these great stars do it, it really can't be wrong, can it?\n\nBut what about the lack of opportunity to express myself creatively? Isn't it frustrating? Yes, it is. But it's also frustrating not to be able to pay the rent. (A classic conflict that I hereby escalate to a mystery.)\n\nAnyhow, there are occasional opportunities for actors to fulfill themselves in commercials. Why just the other day I\n\ncreated one of the most original characters of my career: I played the voice of a streptococcus infection. I was lurking in Mrs. Simpson’s wash, until G-Man Concentrated Super Suds in the Blue Box came in and arrested me.\n\nThe revival of radio will once again give many performers an opportunity to function, at least partially, as artists, and at the same time, earn a good living.\n\nFor the public the rewards will be greater. Listeners will reclaim an art form that was important and dear to them. Small, portable sets have desocialized the medium and made it even more intimate. You can now hear your favorite radio program on your pillow, or under the covers, or in the bathroom—and innumerable other places where there’s just the “two of you.” May you live happily ever after.\n\n(Sneak in organ music)\n\nAnd now, as we leave the air, this is Joe Julian saying I’ve enjoyed spinning off these memories of my “thirty years before the mike.” I hope they have given you some pleasure and an inkling of what it was like behind the scenes in radio’s golden age. (Pause) I also hope they have whetted your appetite for radio’s rejuvenation. But it’s true that revival will be sparked only when the moguls are convinced it will pay off; when they hear the sound of money ringing in their ears.\n\n(Sound-effect: coins jingling)\n\nThere are signs this is beginning to happen. The moguls are becoming increasingly aware of the vast portion of our\n\npopulation with ears at the ready. There are signs that soon we will no longer be deprived of an art form that flourishes in every other major country in the world.\n\n(Music up briefly—fade and hold under)\n\nTrying to analyze the reasons for the broad, universal appeal of radio drama I found it expressed best by a little seven-year-old boy who, during a recent survey on preferences of children, was asked which he liked better, plays on the radio or plays on television.\n\n\"On the radio,\" he said.\n\n\"Why?\" he was asked.\n\nHe thought for a moment, then replied, \"Because I can see the pictures better.\""}}},{"rowIdx":204797,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Bible Lessons\n\n\"Holding as in a glass the glory of the Lord, we are CHANGED . . .\" II Cor. 3:18\n\nADULTS -- YOUNG PEOPLE\n\nVolume 21, No. 4\nOct., Nov., Dec.\n1989\n\nFaith Pub. House\nGuthrie, Okla.\n73044\n\n| Date | Title | Page |\n|--------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------|\n| Oct. 1 | Consolation in Suffering and Tribulation | 1 |\n| 8 | Comfort and Mercy to All | 8 |\n| 15 | Ministration of the New Testament in the Spirit | 9 |\n| 22 | The Manifestation of the Truth | 13 |\n| 29 | Aspects of the Hope of the Righteous | 17 |\n| Nov. 5 | The Ministry of Reconciliation | 21 |\n| 12 | Approaching Ourselves as the Ministers of God | 25 |\n| 19 | Perfecting Holiness in the Fear of God | 34 |\n| 26 | Being Poor in this World, but Rich in Christ | 38 |\n| Dec. 3 | The Blessing of Giving | 42 |\n| 10 | The Right Kind of Warfare and Strife | 45 |\n| 17 | Warnings Against False Teachers | 49 |\n| 24 | \"When I am Weak, then am I Strong\" | 53 |\n| 31 | Examining and Proving Ourselves to be in the Faith | 57 |\n\nPublishing the Bible truths in the interest of Jesus Christ and His Church\nEdited by Leslie C. Busbee and Wayne Murphey\n\nSubscription Price-50¢ a copy for quarter of year, or $2.00 per year, issued quarterly.\n\nSecond class postage paid at Guthrie, Oklahoma\n\nPublished Quarterly By:\n\nFAITH PUBLISHING HOUSE\n920 W. Mansur Ave.\nGuthrie, Oklahoma 73044\n\nPostmaster: Please send address corrections to above address.\n\nTheme for Fourth Quarter, 1989\n\nOur Bible lesson studies for this quarter will be the second epistle of Paul the apostle to the Corinthians. In the 14 lessons in this series of studies we will be able to cover a number of precious subjects. This was Paul’s second letter to these brethren, a sequence to the first letter and the effect for good that it had upon them. The comfort and mercy of God, the true ministry of the New Testament and Christ’s ministers, the hope we have in Him, the purity and standard of holiness that is ours to follow, the blessing of giving and being poor for Christ, the spiritual warfare that we are in, warnings against false preachers, being strong in our weakness, and examining ourselves in the true faith are all wonderfully expounded by the anointed heart and pen of the beloved Apostle Paul. We sincerely trust that this series of lessons will prove to be a wonderful blessing to everyone as much as we have enjoyed preparing them.\n\n—Bro. Leslie Busbee\n\nOctober 1, 1989\n\nCONSOLATION IN SUFFERING AND TRIBULATION\n\nII Corinthians 1:3 Blessed be God, even the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of mercies, and the God of all comfort;\n\n4 Who comforteth us in all our tribulation, that we may be able to comfort them which are in any trouble, by the comfort wherewith we ourselves are comforted of God.\n\n5 For as the sufferings of Christ abound in us, so our consolation also aboundeth by Christ.\n\n6 And whether we be afflicted, it is for your consolation and salvation, which is effectual in the enduring of the same sufferings which we also suffer: or whether we be comforted, it is for your consolation and salvation.\n\n7 And our hope of you is stedfast, knowing, that as ye are partakers of the sufferings, so shall ye be also of the consolation.\n\n8 For we would not, brethren, have you ignorant of our trouble which came to us in Asia, that we were pressed out of measure, above strength, insomuch that we despaired even of life:\n\n9 But we had the sentence of death in ourselves, that we\n\nshould not trust in ourselves, but in God which raiseth the dead:\n\n10 Who delivered us from so great a death, and doth deliver: in whom we trust that he will yet deliver us;\n\n11 Ye also helping together by prayer for us, that for the gift bestowed upon us by the means of many persons thanks may be given by many on our behalf.\n\n12 For our rejoicing is this, the testimony of our conscience, that in simplicity and godly sincerity, not with fleshly wisdom, but by the grace of God, we have had our conversation in the world, and more abundantly to you-ward.\n\n18 But as God is true, our word toward you was not yea and nay.\n\n19 For the Son of God, Jesus Christ, who was preached among you by us, even by me and Silvanus and Timotheus, was not yea and nay, but in him was yea.\n\n20 For all the promises of God in him are yea, and in him Amen, unto the glory of God by us.\n\n21 Now he which establisheth us with you in Christ, and hath anointed us, is God;\n\n22 Who hath also sealed us, and given the earnest of the Spirit in our hearts.\n\n24 Not for that we have dominion over your faith, but are helpers of your joy: for by faith ye stand.\n\nMemory Verse: Blessed be God, even the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of mercies, and the God of all comfort. II Corinthians 1:3.\n\nCentral Thought: The sufferings that we bear as followers of Christ are balanced by the comfort and consolation that Christ abundantly fills the heart with.\n\nWord Definitions: Tribulation: Any trouble or distress that we meet in the Christian life. Comfort and consolation: Both of these words are generally from the same Greek word which means solace or encouragement. Simplicity: Singleness (as Jesus said, “If therefore thine eye be single,” Matthew 6:22), sincerity without pretence or self-seeking; also generous and giving abundantly. Godly sincerity: Clearness and purity of God. Yea: Yes, positive. Yea means faith and believing, counting God faithful and true. Nay: No, negative. This is unbelief, doubts, darkness and despair. “Dominion over your faith”: No man can rule or dominate another man’s faith. Every man must stand on his own personal faith and trust in God.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\n\"It is a general opinion among learned men that this second epistle to the Corinthians was written about a year after the first epistle. That the first epistle has produced powerful effects among the Corinthians is evident from what the apostle mentions in this. Titus had met him in Macedonia, and told him of the reformation produced by the epistle; that the Church had put out from among them the evil, and that the epistle had overwhelmed them with great distress; had led them to a close examination of their conduct and state; and had filled them with respect and affection for the Apostle Paul. Hearing this, Paul wrote this second epistle to comfort and to commend them.\" —Adam Clarke. Paul is rejoicing in the comfort and consolation that he was finding in Christ in view of all of the tribulations that he and the saints were going through. He was finding that the sentence of death that he constantly lived under only helped to prove the power of God in his life. The true faith of these Corinthian brethren and their love for Christ and for Paul was the greatest joy to his heart and the richest fruit that he had hoped to see fulfilled in their lives. —Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. What was the gracious title that Paul attributed to God in our lesson?\n2. What is God’s purpose in comforting us?\n3. By what means are we going to be able to comfort others?\n4. As the sufferings of Christ abound in us, what also abounds?\n5. How does the consolation of the Lord help to offset the tribulations?\n6. Why did God allow Paul to have the sentence of death in himself?\n7. In the sentence of death, what did Paul learn to trust in?\n8. In what way did the Corinthian brethren help Paul in the things that he suffered?\n9. What was Paul’s rejoicing in all of his tribulations?\n10. What would be the result of a mixture of positive and negative preaching?\n11. What effect does a totally positive gospel have upon a soul?\n12. Instead of having dominion over their faith, what did Paul seek to be to them?\n\nADULTS' AND YOUNG PEOPLE'S COMMENTS\n\nToday we need a positive gospel. A gospel that does not bring a clear and definite experience of faith and victory in the heart and life is a detriment and a hindrance. Raising questions with no answers is an uncertain sound that will cause no one to prepare for the battle of a Christian. One who seeks the Lord with all of his heart and who takes up his cross to follow the Lord must be backed and supported by strong consolation and assurance from the Lord and His Word. Viewing God as the Father of mercies and the God of all comfort helps to give positive and definite assurance in our hearts to hold fast to our faith in him. What we suffer as a Christian will be made up for by what we enjoy in Him. This consolation that Christ bestows upon the suffering heart is the sweetest reward for the tribulations that we suffer for His sake. Great sufferings and loss for the Lord will be counterbalanced by great joys and victory in the presence of the Lord in our hearts. Many times the children of the Lord literally carry upon them the threat and sentence of death. In another place Paul said that we are killed all the day long and are accounted as sheep for the slaughter. (Romans 8:36). The child of God (in one way or another) finds himself constantly in danger of his life. This is also true for all human beings, but more so for those who are followers of Christ. But this sentence of death only magnifies the miracle of the life of God that is manifested in us. Our trust is in God who raiseth the dead. This gives a decisiveness to our faith, and we are able to go forth each day for the Master with hope and trust for ultimate victory.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nIt is a hard concept to understand, especially when in the midst of sorrow, but good things can come by passing through trials. It is only natural that trials cause us to seek more fervently a close relationship with God, and this is the right approach to take.\n\nIt is foolish to look for ways to suffer in an attempt to get blessings, but neither should we always try to protect ourselves from having to endure those things that may be brought against us.\n\nA story is told of a missionary in Africa on furlough who bought a sundial that it might help African village people to tell the time of day. He set it up in the midst of the village, but his people were so filled with admiration and wonder that\n\nstraightway they built a roof over it to protect it from sun and rain.\n\nThese villagers inadvertently and unwisely ruined the purpose of what the sundial was for since they did not understand its workings. Likewise, it is possible to distance ourselves from trouble and completely annul the purpose God had in letting it take place. Rather than seeking direction from God in their lives, some people let problems come between them and Him. We will not be so prone to do this if we realize the consolation God has for His people in the midst of trials.\n\nA relationship with God brings comfort, for God is a merciful God. Abraham Lincoln once told a friend, \"I have not suffered by the South, but I have suffered with the South.\" This is how God views our trials. He suffers with us. When God is viewed in this manner it brings great consolation to a troubled heart.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nOctober 8, 1989\n\nCOMFORT AND MERCY TO ALL\n\nII Corinthians 2:1 But I determined this with myself, that I would not come again to you in heaviness.\n\n2 For if I make you sorry, who is he then that maketh me glad, but the same which is made sorry by me?\n\n3 And I wrote this same unto you, lest, when I came, I should have sorrow from them of whom I ought to rejoice; having confidence in you all, that my joy is the joy of you all.\n\n4 For out of much affliction and anguish of heart I wrote unto you with many tears; not that ye should be grieved, but that ye might know the love which I have more abundantly unto you.\n\n5 But if any have caused grief, he hath not grieved me, but in part: that I may not overcharge you all.\n\n6 Sufficient to such a man is this punishment, which was inflicted of many.\n\n7 So that contrariwise ye ought rather to forgive him, and comfort him, lest perhaps such a one should be swallowed up with overmuch sorrow.\n\n8 Wherefore I beseech you that ye would confirm your love toward him.\n\n9 For to this end also did I write, that I might know the proof of you, whether ye be obedient in all things.\n\n10 To whom ye forgive any thing, I forgive also: for if I\n\nforgave any thing, to whom I forgave it, for your sakes forgave I it in the person of Christ;\n\n11 Lest Satan should get an advantage of us: for we are not ignorant of his devices.\n\n14 Now thanks be unto God, which always causeth us to triumph in Christ, and maketh manifest the savour of his knowledge by us in every place.\n\n15 For we are unto God a sweet savour of Christ, in them that are saved, and in them that perish:\n\n16 To the one we are the savour of death unto death; and to the other the savour of life unto life. And who is sufficient for these things?\n\n17 For we are not as many, which corrupt the word of God: but as of sincerity, but as of God, in the sight of God speak we in Christ.\n\nMemory Verse: Now thanks be unto God, which always causeth us to triumph in Christ, and maketh manifest the savour of his knowledge by us in every place.\n\nII Corinthians 2:14.\n\nCentral Thought: There is forgiveness for the sinner, and more graces for the faithful in the great provision of grace and blessing that is found in the fulness of Christ.\n\nWord Definitions: Heaviness: Sorrow. Sorry: Sad. “Savour of his knowledge”: The odor or fragrance of Christ. “The savour of death unto death, or of life unto life”: The gospel is preached to all in its purity and assurance. To those who hear, believe, and obey it brings life to the soul, but to those who refuse and turn away it becomes the means of death, spiritual and eventually eternal if they do not turn from their evil ways. “Corrupt the word of God”: To adulterate, add to or take from the sacred meaning of the Scriptures.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nIn his first epistle to the Corinthians, Paul had laid the truth down to them. He had spoken plainly and pointedly to them concerning various issues and problems that existed among them. His tender heart was rent with sorrow to have to say some of the things that he said in his first letter. No real loving parent enjoys having to scold or censure his child. He will do it when he sees it is vital for the welfare of the child, but he does not enjoy it. Many times it hurts the parent as much as the child to have to chastise and discipline. But great\n\njoy comes when the fruits of the discipline come forth. Paul saw the fruits of his ministry coming forth. He seeks now to commend the dear ones there in Corinth, and to encourage them. He seeks to bring assurance of God's forgiveness to that erring one who had repented of his wrong and was seeking mercy and comfort. He did not want that one driven to despair and swallowed up with sorrow. That is why he urges them to confirm their love to him. He forgave him and he wants them to forgive, also. He knew that Satan would get an advantage over that soul if forgiveness, comfort, and assurance was not heaped at the door of his heart. The triumph in Christ really meant much to Paul in seeing what the Lord had accomplished with the brethren at Corinth. —Leslie C. Busbee\n\n**QUESTIONS:**\n\n1. What was the only reason why Paul had made the brethren at Corinth sorry?\n2. What was he wanting to come from this sorrow?\n3. What was to be Paul’s greatest joy concerning the brethren?\n4. What did he want them to know in regard to how he felt about them?\n5. Why did Paul allow himself to be grieved only in part?\n6. How should we treat one who has sinned and has repented of their sin?\n7. What can be the effect on someone who has sinned and is seeking pardon when he finds no mercy, love, or forgiveness at the hands of the Church?\n8. What are some of the things that Satan can suggest to a discouraged soul at this point?\n9. What are we unto God as we proclaim the truth of the gospel to souls?\n10. How are we a savour of life unto life to the saved?\n11. How are we a savour of death unto death to those who refuse to heed the gospel?\n12. What are the serious consequences of corrupting the Word of God?\n\n**ADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS**\n\nIn all of the work of preaching, reproving, disciplining, and proclaiming the truth of the eternal Word of God that comes to us in the gospel, there is a vital ingredient without which the whole business will be an utter failure. This ingradient is very easy to be short of, and that is love—warm, fervent, and affectionate love to one and all. This is the number one ingredient. In all of Paul’s dealings with these brethren, the fervent love and affection he had for them was manifested clearly. They had no doubt of his love and godly sincerity toward them. To the erring soul was given reproof and warning mixed with love and sympathy. When such a one repented, comfort and faith was promoted to be instilled in his heart and mind. He must be aware, not only of the magnitude of his sin, but also of the magnitude of Christ’s forgiveness and good will. And, he must not only know that Christ forgives him, but he must also be assured of the mercy, forgiveness, and good will of the Church from which he had been excommunicated. This expression of love and mercy must be clear and confirmed to him, otherwise the Devil is ever present to put thoughts of discouragement and despair into the mind. This is Satan’s greatest tool. This is his prime device. He can implant seeds of doubt, fear and despair into the heart so easily, and too many times he has succeeded in turning those away that could have been won if the love of God would have been gotten across to them. Let us diligently seek to manifest the Word of Christ as it really is so that hearts can be drawn and won to come to the Lord for mercy, pardon and salvation.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nIn Adam Clarke’s commentary it brings out the thought that the “triumph in Christ” Paul speaks of is a comparison to the triumphal parades given Roman conquerors when they returned from a great victory. Adam Clarke relates that the parade, among other things, consisted of victims of the enemy who were to be sacrificed. During this time, all the temples were opened and every altar smoked with offerings and incense. To some this celebration meant great rejoicing. The smell, or savour, of the incense was very exciting and invoked a thrill in the hearts of the victorious people. But it also meant death to those who were conquered.\n\nThe Apostle Paul was used by God in proclaiming God’s counsel and he felt as the Roman conqueror. A great victory had been won and he was enjoying the triumph of it. However, Paul stressed in the first of our lesson the tenderness of his heart in God using him. His approach toward the people was one of mercy and comfort. How prone man is to conquer\n\nthrough fear and judgment. God knows that comfort will be needed when the Word is used. Great havoc can be wrought when it is not handled that way.\n\nIt is important to notice that his triumphing was in Christ. It was not something that Paul had attempted on his own, but he was motivated by Christ, he preached Christ only, and then he could depend on Christ to give the grace that was needed to make everyone victorious. —Wayne Murphey\n\nOctober 15, 1989\n\nMINISTRATION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE SPIRIT\n\nII Corinthians 3:2 Ye are our epistle written in our hearts, known and read of all men:\n\n3 Forasmuch as ye are manifestly declared to be the epistle of Christ ministered by us, written not with ink, but with the Spirit of the living God; not in tables of stone, but in fleshly tables of the heart.\n\n4 And such trust have we through Christ to God-ward:\n\n5 Not that we are sufficient of ourselves to think any thing as of ourselves; but our sufficiency is of God;\n\n6 Who also hath made us able ministers of the new testament; not of the letter, but of the spirit: for the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life.\n\n7 But if the ministration of death, written and engraven in stones, was glorious, so that the children of Israel could not stedfastly behold the face of Moses for the glory of his countenance; which glory was to be done away:\n\n8 How shall not the ministration of the spirit be rather glorious?\n\n12 Seeing then that we have such hope, we use great plainness of speech:\n\n13 And not as Moses, which put a veil over his face, that the children of Israel could not stedfastly look to the end of that which is abolished:\n\n14 But their minds were blinded: for until this day remaineth the same veil untaken away in the reading of the old testament; which veil is done away in Christ.\n\n15 But even unto this day, when Moses is read, the veil is upon their heart.\n\n16 Nevertheless when it shall turn to the Lord, the veil shall be taken away.\n\n17 Now the Lord is that Spirit: and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty.\n\n18 But we all, with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord, are changed into the same image from glory to glory, even as by the Spirit of the Lord.\n\nMemory Verse: . . . Our sufficiency is of God; Who also hath made us able ministers of the new testament; not of the letter, but of the spirit: for the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life. II Corinthians 3:5, 6.\n\nCentral Thought: In the New Testament of Jesus Christ, the laws of God are ministered by the anointing and inspiration of the Holy Spirit, written upon the tender hearts of humble and submissive souls who are able to look steadfastly upon the glory of the Lord, and are changed from the glory of the flesh to the image of Christ.\n\nWord Definitions: \"Our epistle written in our hearts\": The Greek text says \"written in your hearts.\" The epistle Paul wrote to them was not only read and heard, but it was received and inscribed upon the tablet of their warmest inmost affections. \"Fleshy tables of the heart\": The word \"fleshy\" or, fleshly, refers to tenderness and pliability, an attitude of submissiveness and willingness to lovingly obey. Sufficiency: Ability: \"Ministration of death\": The handing down from God of His laws to Moses on Mt. Sinai, engraved upon tables of stone. It is labeled the ministration of death because the effect that it had upon hearts was to magnify and increase the sin and, in consequence, to bring condemnation and spiritual death. \"Ministration of the spirit\": This is the law of Christ administered to the heart by the Holy Spirit, enabling man to fulfill it with joy and victory. \"Where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty\": Liberty here is defined as access and freedom to partake of. Through the Holy Spirit we have an entrance into the realities of the Almighty God. \"With open face beholding as in a glass\": Unveiled by pride and the flesh we can behold as in a mirror the reflected glory and beauty of Christ. \"Changed from glory to glory\": Changed from the glory of the law system to the spiritual glory of the Spirit of God.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nIn chapter 2 Paul had expressed his joy and rejoicing for the good effect that his epistle had produced in the lives of the\n\nsaints at Corinth. They had openheartedly received his counsel and admonitions and were greatly benefited therefrom. In our lesson today Paul views his epistle being written in their hearts by the Spirit of God, making them living epistles of Christ known and read of all men. He calls this operation of the Word of God from his ministry to them as the ministration of the Spirit, and compares it to the giving of the law of God to Moses on Sinai. He is specifically speaking of when Moses was come down from the mountain on that second occasion and brought with him the tables of stone which God had given to him to replace the ones that he had broken to pieces after coming down from the mountain the first time upon seeing the idolatry of Israel around the golden calf which they had made. He called this the ministration of death, speaking of its glory in that Moses shone in his countenance the glory of the Lord so brightly that the people could not look steadfastly upon him. This was the ministration of death, and it was glorious. He points us now to the glory of the ministration of the Spirit in Christ, which ministration, he says, would exceed in glory the other. The veil that Moses put on to cover the brilliant glow of his countenance was for the sake of the people. Therefore, Paul rightly concluded that the real veil was upon their hearts, a blindness to spiritual things that yet hung over their hearts unto that day. Exodus 34:33-35 tells us that while Moses was speaking to the people he put on a veil, but when he went in before the Lord, he took the veil off. Paul drew a parallel to this by saying that when people turn to the Lord, the veil will be taken away from their hearts. The Lord here he refers to, is the Spirit of the Lord which opens up and gives us access to the great riches of the knowledge of Christ. In the New Testament we can, with open face and without a veil on our hearts, behold the beauty and glory of Christ and, by beholding, we can be transformed to the same likeness of holiness, faith, love and righteousness.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. Where did Paul joyfully find his epistle to be written?\n2. Where does God want His laws written?\n3. What kind of heart can the Spirit of God write upon?\n4. How does the letter without the Spirit kill?\n5. What is the difference in the law of God written on tables of stone and the law written upon the tender heart of a child of God?\n\n6. How was the giving of the law of Moses a glorious thing?\n7. What was done so that the children of Israel could look upon Moses?\n8. Where did Paul say that the veil really was?\n9. What are some of the elements and influences that constitute a veil upon the heart?\n10. How can this veil upon the heart be taken away?\n11. What kind of liberty does the Spirit of God give to us?\n12. What happens to the heart that with open face beholds the glory of the beauty of Christ Jesus?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\nIt was a glorious sight to see Moses coming down from the mountain after being in communion with God for forty days and nights. His skin shone with a glorious light so brightly that the children of Israel and the elders could not look steadily upon him. In order for Moses to converse with the people he had to cover his face with a veil. This was a glory that accompanied the giving of the first covenant, the law on Mt. Sinai. This glory was done away with. It soon faded from view. After a lapse of time the glory faded from Moses and his countenance became so that people could commune with him. The giving of the law upon tables of stone did not accomplish the real purpose of God, because there was a veil upon the heart of man. To have the law written on a tablet of stone did not quicken the soul to enable it to perform the holy standard of God’s law. Man was unable to perform the will of God, thus the glory of that law was for condemnation and death. Some people today are still trying to live up to written laws and creeds. As the poet Whittier said, “But yet my human hands are weak to hold your iron creeds, Against the words ye bid me speak my heart within me pleads.” Many preachers today preach with a law spirit. Their attitude is: “You do this, and God will bless you.” But oh, there is a better way. The letter kills because it affords of itself no strength or inspiration to perform. The current of the rebellious heart is too strong to be withstood by a mere doctrine or creed. There must be the work of the Holy Spirit written upon the very tables of the heart. We are saved without the law, but as we behold the glory of the risen Christ, we are inspired and strengthened to live, to perform, to do, and to be all that His precious will is calling us to.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nIt is so important to have the indwelling Spirit of God if we are to receive the blessings outlined in the New Testament. It is the law spirit of the Old Testament that has blinded the eyes of many people.\n\nThe following parable was addressed to an assembly of Jews by a Mr. Moritz. \"A poor Jew wanted very much to be rich; he therefore put a bandage on his eyes, that he might pray to Mazal (or Fortune), and went everywhere through the streets, looking up to heaven, and crying, 'O Mazel, Mazel, make me rich!' At length Mazal threw down a great bag full of precious treasure, which fell right before him. The poor man did not take off the bandage, but ran on, and stumbled over the treasure. Neither did he turn back to see what it was, but went on still crying, 'O Mazel, Mazel, make me rich!' Mazal seeing her gift neglected, took it up again into heaven, and the Jew remained a beggar as before.\" The Jews who were present requested an explanation of the parable, which he gave them by referring to Isaiah 9:6 and the 2nd Psalm. A deep silence followed. At last, some young men asked, \"And will the bandage always be on our eyes?\" He told them to pray that the Spirit of God might take it away. Five of these young men received salvation that evening.\n\nIf we want to be able to live acceptably before God, understand His deep mysteries, enjoy the liberty of spirit that is in Christ, and enjoy the full benefit of the riches God has willed to all men through Christ, we must forsake a legalistic approach to God as a means of salvation and drink deeply of His Spirit.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nOctober 22, 1989\n\nTHE MANIFESTATION OF THE TRUTH\n\nII Corinthians 4:1 Therefore seeing we have this ministry, as we have received mercy, we faint not;\n2 But have renounced the hidden things of dishonesty, not walking in craftiness, nor handling the word of God deceitfully; but by manifestation of the truth commending ourselves to every man's conscience in the sight of God.\n3 But if our gospel be hid, it is hid to them that are lost:\n4 In whom the god of this world hath blinded the minds of them which believe not, lest the light of the glorious gospel of Christ, who is the image of God, should shine unto them.\n\n5 For we preach not ourselves, but Christ Jesus the Lord; and ourselves your servants for Jesus' sake.\n\n6 For God, who commanded the light to shine out of darkness, hath shined in our hearts, to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ.\n\n7 But we have this treasure in earthen vessels, that the excellency of the power may be of God, and not of us.\n\n8 We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed; we are perplexed, but not in despair;\n\n9 Persecuted, but not forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed;\n\n10 Always bearing about in the body the dying of the Lord Jesus, that the life also of Jesus might be made manifest in our body.\n\n11 For we which live are alway delivered unto death for Jesus' sake, that the life also of Jesus might be made manifest in our mortal flesh.\n\n12 So then death worketh in us, but life in you.\n\n13 We having the same spirit of faith, according as it is written, I believed, and therefore have I spoken; we also believe, and therefore speak;\n\n14 Knowing that he which raised up the Lord Jesus shall raise up us also by Jesus, and shall present us with you.\n\n15 For all things are for your sakes, that the abundant grace might through the thanksgiving of many redound to the glory of God.\n\nMemory Verse: But we have this treasure in earthen vessels, that the excellency of the power may be of God, and not of us. II Corinthians 4:7.\n\nCentral Thought: The truth is manifested to men by Christ being seen in and through the lives of holy men and women by their meekness and bearing the sufferings of Christ with courage and steadfast faith.\n\nWord Definitions: \"If our gospel be hid, it is hid to them that are lost\": The word \"hid\" in this sentence means in the Greek text, \"having been veiled.\" Paul had just spoken in the previous chapter about the veil being on the heart. \"The god of this world\": Satan, the Devil. \"Always bearing about in the body the dying of the Lord Jesus\": Living constantly under the threat and possibility of death.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nHaving emphasized in the previous chapter of the blessed ministry of the Spirit that he had seen working in his life, and recognizing it as the New Testament ministry of Christ, Paul speaks of its manifestation in the true saints. Knowing that many promote their cause, and merchandise by trickery, flattery and fraud, he senses that this holy and sacred office of preaching and promoting the gospel must never be done in that way. Those who preach the gospel must blend with their preaching a life of righteousness and holiness, which will convince hearts and persuade those who have an open mind for the truth. He also recognized the fact that not everyone would give heed to the gospel. Only those who open their hearts to the light of Christ will be affected by it. The gospel is not to be projected in an undermining manner. It is straight out and open, plain and simple. “The fruit of the righteous is a tree of life; and he that winneth souls is wise.” Proverbs 11:30. The fruit that is seen in such times as Paul mentions in our lesson is the advertisement of the gospel. In trouble, in perplexity, while being persecuted, and in times of being cast down—in all of these times—the child of God remains undistressed, nor in despair, not forsaken nor destroyed. The death that is working in their lives is producing spiritual life in others. The spirit of faith and trust in God prevails over all the opposing powers of Satan and men. Their confidence foresees the great day of reward in the resurrection, and the fleeting things of this present world have no bearing on their purpose and decision for Christ.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. Where is seen the most convincing proof of the truth of the gospel?\n2. Why cannot a person be tricked into believing the gospel of Christ?\n3. What is the usual cause for a person to reject the Lord Jesus?\n4. What does a blinded mind do to the light of God?\n5. Is it possible for a person to preach himself and not the Lord Jesus?\n6. How does a true minister feel about himself in his ministry?\n7. Who is it that really commands the light to shine out of darkness?\n\n8. Is it possible for a soul to see and appreciate the light if he or she does not sense their state of darkness?\n9. In what way can we let the excellency of the power be attributed to God and not to us?\n10. What part does tribulation and suffering play in manifesting the truth to others?\n11. How can the life of Jesus be truly manifested in our mortal flesh?\n12. With what strength can a person let death work in them?\n13. What is the assurance that we have as we endure the cross for Christ?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\nThe ministry of the gospel of Christ is void of human promotion or self-glorification. One does not need to stoop to carnal ways of high pressure, trickery and dishonest means in order to advance the knowledge of Christ. These kinds of activities are clear indications of the desire for fleshly gain and prominence. Many so-called Christian churches of today are filled with programs and drives and activities bent on adding new members to their number. At the bottom of this active and energetic system is the desire for more financial and social prestige. This is not so with the true ministers of the holy gospel of God. To glorify God and to be a blessing to needy lost and dying souls is the desire of the anointed minister of God. His soul is full of rest as he labors in the ministry, for he knows that it is not his efforts that will avail, but it is the working of the Spirit of God in him. If we are to be the true ministers of God, we must keep this kind of attitude. We are but earthen vessels. Any good done or accomplished is not our doing, but the working of the Spirit of God. God allows us to suffer many things in our mortal bodies to help keep us weak and inferior in ourselves so that it can be plainly known that it is not in our strength that the labor is being done. It is a constant fight of faith to keep one moving on for God. The way gets hard and narrow, but we faint not, knowing that there is a great reward coming for the faithful. Let death and sufferings be our lot, for we know that in the resurrection there will be a full reward. All things work together for our good and we press on to the goal, praising God for the blessings that witness His divine presence in our lives.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\n\"But have renounced the hidden things of dishonesty, not walking in craftiness, nor handling the word of God deceitfully; but by manifestation of the truth commending ourselves to every man's conscience in the sight of God.\" II Cor. 4:2.\n\n\"How is it that a certain member of your church who is an ignorant man, is so successful in the villages as a preacher, when I cannot command a congregation?\" This is the question one clergyman, well versed in the Bible, asked a certain pastor. \"Well,\" came the answer, \"the reason is this: the member of my congregation that you refer to is touched with the power of the gospel, and speaks from heart to heart; that is the secret of his success.\" By having the gospel within our hearts is the only way that the Gospel will be effectively manifested to the world.\n\nThe first part of the verse above speaks of things that will hinder the manifestation of the truth. No matter how bright our profession, if we are dishonest in our dealings our lives will not carry much weight on others' estimation, and how often it has been proven that if we use the Word of God deceitfully with a crafty motive for personal gain, our influence is greatly hampered.\n\nWhen it speaks of \"commending ourselves to every man's conscience\" it does not infer that we should conduct ourselves according to how every man thinks we should. We would be mixed up individuals indeed if we endeavored to do that. It does mean that we should so live that all people can recognize the truth being in us.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nOctober 29, 1989\n\nASPECTS OF THE HOPE OF THE RIGHTEOUS\n\nII Corinthians 4:16 For which cause we faint not; but though our outward man perish, yet the inward man is renewed day by day.\n\n17 For our light affliction, which is but for a moment, worketh for us a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory;\n\n18 While we look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen: for the things which are seen are temporal; but the things which are not seen are eternal.\n\n5:1 For we know that if our earthly house of this tabernacle were dissolved, we have a building of God, an house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.\n\n2 For in this we groan, earnestly desiring to be clothed upon with our house which is from heaven:\n3 If so be that being clothed we shall not be found naked.\n4 For we that are in this tabernacle do groan, being burdened: not for that we would be unclothed, but clothed upon, that mortality might be swallowed up of life.\n5 Now he that hath wrought us for the selfsame thing is God, who also hath given unto us the earnest of the Spirit.\n6 Therefore we are always confident, knowing that, whilst we are at home in the body, we are absent from the Lord:\n7 (For we walk by faith, not by sight:)\n8 We are confident, I say, and willing rather to be absent from the body, and to be present with the Lord.\n9 Wherefore we labour, that, whether present or absent, we may be accepted of him.\n10 For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ; that every one may receive the things done in his body, according to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad.\n\nMemory Verse: For we know that if our earthly house of this tabernacle were dissolved, we have a building of God, an house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.\nII Corinthians 5:1.\n\nCentral Thought: We are willing to suffer all the adversities that attend the ministry of the gospel because our hope is bright of a rich and a full reward in glory when this mortal life is swallowed up in immortality.\n\nWord Definitions: \"Outward man perish\": Our mortal part utterly rots, decays, is ruined or wasted. \"Far more exceeding weight of glory\": The Greek text renders this phrase thus, \"an exceeding on an exceeding heaviness of glory.\" Tabernacle: Tent. Groan: To sigh, or grieve, being in difficulty and straits. Naked: Without the garments of immortality. \"Earnest of the Spirit\": The Holy Spirit working in our lives is likened unto the part of the purchase money or property given in advance as security for the rest of the payment. By us allowing the Holy Spirit to lead, inspire, and rule our lives it becomes the pledge for the eternal fulfillment of our inheritance in Christ.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nIn our previous lesson Paul spoke about facing death constantly in the Christian life and the service of the Lord. He stated that the reason this could be endured was for the hope\n\nof being resurrected by the Lord Jesus with those who had received His ministry. Our lesson today contains his expressions of what this hope meant to him. He counted the things that he suffered as a Christian as light affliction, and that it was working something far better for him in glory. The perishing of his outward man did not affect the constant renewing of his inner man. He was not looking at the material realm of life, but rather was fixing his spirit's adoring gaze to the treasures in heaven that would never pass away. His earthly house he likened unto a tabernacle, or tent. A tent is not a permanent dwelling. It is but a temporary thing soon to be folded up and discarded when the real dwelling is ready to be moved into. There are many inconveniences in living in a tent, especially if it is in a climate where rain and snow and wind are prevalent. There are many things to be suffered and endured while living in this mortal shell, hence the groaning and the yearning for that better house.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. What are the things that cause the outward man to perish?\n2. What are the things that help keep the inward man renewed?\n3. What helps to make our affliction \"light?\"\n4. What happens when we begin to look at the things that are seen and consider their worth and value more than the eternal, unseen things?\n5. How can we keep from looking too much at the things that are seen?\n6. What kind of structure is our physical body likened unto?\n7. What are some of the things that cause us to groan while in this tabernacle?\n8. Where did this hope come from and with what assurance is it certain to us?\n9. What will be the state of the person who will have to move out of this tent and have no house waiting for him to move into for eternity?\n10. While we are at home in the body, where are we with the Lord?\n11. What do we strive to be, whether present or absent?\n\nADULTS' AND YOUNG PEOPLE'S COMMENTS\n\nJesus taught His disciples in Luke 16:9 to \"make to yourselves friends of (or with) the mammon of unrighteousness\n\n(material riches); that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habitations.” This expression is parallel with the teachings of Paul in our lesson today. We are going to be put out of this earthly house we are in right now. We need to make provision for ourselves of another dwelling to move into when we have to leave our present dwelling. We want to be sure of this, so sure and steadfast that our future home will swallow up in glory all of the sorrows and sufferings that we have had here. Only by receiving the salvation of Christ and being led by His Spirit can we have this kind of hope. By bearing about in our bodies the dying of the Lord Jesus and bearing the cross for Him this house eternal is made more sure and precious. We do not want to be found naked. There are many people who think that they have hope in Christ who are not preparing for this house from heaven. When death comes they will be ushered by its cold hand out into the outer darkness of eternity where it is desolate and homeless. There will be no shelter or a place of habitation for them. They have lived only for this present life, having their good times while the faithful have suffered. There will be no friends in eternity to welcome them into eternal habitations. They will be found naked, oh, terrible thought! This is the serious cast to our lesson today! We need to have a dwelling for us over there. We need another body to inhabit after this body is gone. Let us prepare for the house of our eternity.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nWhat a glorious revelation will come to us, as we sweep through the portals of glory! There are not words in the English language to describe the beauties awaiting those who belong to the Lord. As the outward man perishes day by day and the strength grows weaker, the hope grows brighter for a life that is beyond this veil of tears. This old house of clay, the earthly tabernacle, will go back to dust and the soul, or the inward man, will be taken to be with the Lord. Over there, “we have a building, a house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.” What a glorious hope we have within us! The Apostle Paul tells us, “absent from the body, and . . . present with the Lord.” Oh, what could be greater than to see the Lover of our soul face to face. We will be safe and secure from all the power of the enemy. What more could we desire? Heaven is beyond our comprehension, yet it is real, very real and it will be all that the soul longs for or ever could desire. Nothing there will be imperfect, but will be peace, peace, and\n\nmore peace. Oh, my soul magnifies the Lord when I think about these glorious things. No wonder the Apostle Paul looked back over the persecutions, imprisonments, tumults in this life and said, \"For our light affliction, which is but for a moment, worketh for us a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory.\" \"It will matter but little at last, what we have passed through, when the shades of the evening as sunset we view.\" When we get a glimpse of heaven's glory, then the burdens and trials of this life will fade away and all the beauties and grandeur of heaven will envelop us.\n\nWhen we die, we await the judgment in the presence of the Lord, in paradise or in Abraham's bosom. Luke 16:25; 23:42, 43. The unjust or wicked are \"reserved in everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day.\" (Jude 6). Knowing what awaits the wicked and the \"terror of the Lord, we persuade men\" to turn unto the Lord while they have time and the right use of their minds. Surely, one needs to know that \"today is the day of salvation.\" It is time to seek the Lord and be ready to meet Him in peace.\n\n—Marie Miles\n(Written in 1975.)\n\nNovember 5, 1989\n\nTHE MINISTRY OF RECONCILIATION\n\nII Corinthians 5:11 Knowing therefore the terror of the Lord, we persuade men; but we are made manifest unto God; and I trust also are made manifest in your consciences.\n\n12 For we commend not ourselves again unto you, but give you occasion to glory on our behalf, that ye may have somewhat to answer them which glory in appearance, and not in heart.\n\n13 For whether we be beside ourselves, it is to God: or whether we be sober, it is for your cause.\n\n14 For the love of Christ constraineth us: because we thus judge, that if one died for all, then were all dead:\n\n15 And that he died for all, that they which live should not henceforth live unto themselves, but unto him which died for them, and rose again.\n\n16 Wherefore henceforth know we no man after the flesh: yea, though we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now henceforth know we him no more.\n\n17 Therefore if any man be in Christ, he is a new creature:\n\nold things are passed away; behold, all things are become new.\n\n18 And all things are of God, who hath reconciled us to himself by Jesus Christ, and hath given to us the ministry of reconciliation;\n\n19 To wit, that God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself, not imputing their trespasses unto them; and hath committed unto us the word of reconciliation.\n\n20 Now then we are ambassadors for Christ, as though God did beseech you by us: we pray you in Christ’s stead, be ye reconciled to God.\n\n21 For he hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin; that we might be made the righteousness of God in him.\n\nMemory Verse: . . . God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself, not imputing their trespasses unto them; and hath committed unto us the word of reconciliation.\n\nII Corinthians 5:19.\n\nCentral Thought: God sent His Son, Jesus, and was in Him, to atone for man’s sins and bring about a reconciliation between God and man, and the ministry which Christ imparts to us is one of bringing the lost back to the fellowship of God.\n\nWord Definitions: “Beside ourselves”: To be astounded or astonished beyond measure. The Greek expression is “to be put out of wits, to be amazed.” This can be for joy or because of sorrow. Sober: To be of a sound mind in full control of thought and feeling. “The love of Christ constraineth us”: We are moved, compelled, controlled and motivated by knowing and understanding the love that Christ manifested for us in giving Himself for all. “Know we no man after the flesh”: We look upon every man as a precious soul Christ died to save. We will have no relationship with any one that is fleshly or sinful in God’s sight. Only in the Spirit and according to purity and holiness will we relate to anyone. Reconcile and reconciliation: Bringing God and man back into fellowship and harmony again. On God’s part there is mercy, atonement and forgiveness; on man’s part there is godly sorrow, repentance, faith and obedience. Ambassador: A representative, one who goes in the place of another.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nOur previous lesson ended with Paul’s statement that all shall appear before the judgment seat of Christ to give an account of ourselves to God. Because of this there is a sincere\n\nburden in the heart of the saint to help people to prepare for that great day. While Paul seeks to persuade men, he realizes that he is before God all of the time. Also, he is being made manifest before men, even to the ones to whom he is addressing this epistle. His life was before God and to God, and it was before men and for the cause of men. The love of Christ caused him to seek to live in this manner, not to the flesh or to men, but unto Him who gave His life on Calvary. He knew Christ no more as a man, but as the eternal Son of God in the heavens. He knew that if any man could get in Christ, he would be changed from his old habits of lust, greed, pride and sin unto the new life of faith, love, hope and patience. Here was reconciliation between God and man, a perfect cure and solution from the problem of sin that had defiled the human race.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. What does knowing the terror of the Lord cause us to want to do?\n2. Who did Paul desire to be made manifest to?\n3. Why did Paul not commend himself to them?\n4. What are some of the things in the Christian life that might make a man be beside himself?\n5. Because Christ died for all, who should we that are alive in Him live to?\n6. How will we treat people if we know them only in a fleshly sense?\n7. How did men treat Christ who knew Him only in a fleshly sense and never perceived His spiritual values?\n8. Because of this, is there any way that a man can be truly in Christ, and not be born again?\n9. What was God’s attitude toward a lost world when He came down to this world in Christ?\n10. What is the plea of the gospel toward the wandering, lost souls of men?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\n“Be ye reconciled to God”! This is the earnest plea of the Holy Spirit working in and through His ministry and Church to the fallen race of men. God has sent His Son, and accompanied His Son to come down to this cold, dark world to bear man’s sin and transgressions. He does not impute their sins against them any more. He has a new life to give to one and all. There is power in the blood of Christ and the Spirit of\n\nour God to make a new creature out of everyone. Man must sense and recognize his lost and undone condition, and be sorry deep within his heart that he has strayed from the fold of God. He must turn his heart towards the Lord in genuine repentance and humility, and be willing to submit to God and obediently follow Him all the way. God and man can meet once more on these terms. Here is where they can be reconciled. Man who has wandered in his own ways far from the loving heavenly Father’s embrace returns unto Jesus, the Shepherd and Bishop of his soul. Oh, what a wonderful blessing this is! What a great message we have to share with the souls of men! A new creature in Christ! All things are made new and all things are of God. Old things of the flesh, the world, and selfish gratification pass out of our lives. We do not seek for their treasures any more. We have found a richer treasure, one that fadeth not away. No more are we in despair and sorrow of heart. Comfort and hope spring up in our hearts. We are no more a barren desert void of life and beauty and rest. The Rose of Sharon, the Lily of the Valley now grows abundantly within us. We are reconciled to God, one with Him and His people in love and faithfulness forevermore.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nThere are some who feel that since man has been given the ministry of reconciliation, it gives men the power to absolve other men’s sins. When we consider closely the meaning Paul had we understand that the ministry of reconciliation is the message of the Gospel. II Corinthians 5:19 tells us what the message is. God was in Christ while He was on this earth and He forgave men of their sins, which means all was clear between God and repentant man. Since Christ is now at the Father’s right hand it is up to us to tell others what He can do. We are ambassadors for Christ. We do not fill His role but we are spokesmen for God, beseeching people to find His forgiveness.\n\nThere is no greater One that we can bring people to than God. He can do far more for a person than anyone else. After Mark Twain had made a triumphant tour through Europe, where he was honored by great universities and kings, his daughter said: “Daddy, I guess pretty soon you will know everybody except God.” If we should be acquainted with all the important people of our time and yet fail to seek God and His forgiveness, we will be in great distress on the day of judgment. No one will be able to stand to aid us then.\n\nAn account recorded in the Scriptures tells of an infirm man who laid a long time at the pool of Bethesda. He was unable to get into the water when it was troubled to receive his healing. When Jesus asked the man about this, the reply was, \"Sir, I have no man, when the water is troubled to put me into the pool.\" John 5:7. Likewise there are many in the world today who have no one to help them into the forgiving fountain of Christ's blood. We have quite a ministry of reconciliation to fulfill.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nNovember 12, 1989\n\nAPPROVING OURSELVES AS THE MINISTERS OF GOD\n\nII Corinthians 6:1 We then, as workers together with him, beseech you also that ye receive not the grace of God in vain.\n\n2 (For he saith, I have heard thee in a time accepted, and in the day of salvation have I succoured thee: behold, now is the accepted time; behold, now is the day of salvation.)\n\n3 Giving no offence in any thing, that the ministry be not blamed:\n\n4 But in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God, in much patience, in afflictions, in necessities, in distresses,\n\n5 In stripes, in imprisonments, in tumults, in labours, in watchings, in fastings;\n\n6 By pureness, by knowledge, by longsuffering, by kindness, by the Holy Ghost, by love unfeigned,\n\n7 By the word of truth, by the power of God, by the armour of righteousness on the right hand and on the left,\n\n8 By honour and dishonour, by evil report and good report: as deceivers, and yet true;\n\n9 As unknown, and yet well known; as dying, and, behold, we live; as chastened, and not killed;\n\n10 As sorrowful, yet alway rejoicing; as poor, yet making many rich; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things.\n\n11 O ye Corinthians, our mouth is open unto you, our heart is enlarged.\n\n12 Ye are not straitened in us, but ye are straitened in your own bowels.\n\n13 Now for a recompence in the same, (I speak as unto my children,) be ye also enlarged.\n\nMemory Verse: (For he saith, I have heard thee in a time accepted, and in the day of salvation have I succoured thee: behold, now is the accepted time; behold, now is the day of salvation.) II Corinthians 6:2.\n\nCentral Thought: In every situation of life, by every holy means that God has supplied in Christ, we must seek to approve ourselves as the ministers of God, being defamed and rejected by men, and yet blessed and enriched by the Lord Jesus.\n\nWord Definitions: \"Receive not the grace of God in vain\": Do not fail to make the proper use of the grace given to us, not giving any cause for the work of God to suffer reproach. Succour: Help. Necessities: Needs, close places. \"In tumults\": In the midst of confusion and disorder. \"Love unfeigned\": Sincere love without pretence or hypocrisy. \"Ye are not straitened in us, but ye are straitened in your own bowels.\": We are not cramping you or pressing you. You are cramped and pressured in your own mind and feelings. Do not fear or doubt the love we have for you.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nAfter Paul’s most sublime and eloquent appraisal of the reconciliation of God and man to one another and the ministry of that reconciliation that he most joyfully bore within his heart, he now urges that diligence be exerted on the part of everyone to approve themselves as the ministers of such a vocation. He quotes from Isaiah 49:8 rejoicing that the accepted time of God’s reconciliation with man is now, and that today is the day of salvation. No offence must be given but the offence of the cross. We are to prove our divine calling as the ministers of God in things and by things. In the various close and difficult places of life we are to employ all the graces and blessings that God has supplied in Christ to show forth the preciousness of Christ. There will be honor and dishonor, good report and evil report to surmount. We will be called deceivers, so let us be sure that we are true. We will be small and unknown by the praise of the world, but let us remember that we in Christ are well-known to God. Dying, chastened, sorrowful, poor and having nothing, yet will we live, rejoice, make many rich (in faith) and we will possess all things (in Christ).\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. Is it possible to receive the grace of God and fail to use it properly?\n2. What effect does an unfaithful minister have upon souls?\n3. In what special conditions of life does the faithfulness of a minister really shine?\n4. What are the things that must be seen when a servant of God is faced with these difficult times?\n5. Where will the honor bestowed come from?\n6. Where will the dishonor come from?\n7. How can we be unknown, and yet well-known?\n8. How can we be sorrowful, and yet always rejoicing?\n9. How can we be poor, and yet make many rich?\n10. How can we have nothing, and yet possess all things?\n11. Is it possible for us to be straitened and cramped in our own minds when in God and Christ we could be free and happy as a bird?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\nIt behooves every child of God to take heed to his conduct and manner of life. Many, many souls have been driven away and discouraged from finding the real life of Christ because of a misrepresentation of the truth by some careless person who professed to be a follower of the Lord. People are watching us, weighing our actions as well as our words. In times of adversity and stress the sweet Spirit of Christ shows up very plainly. If we murmur and complain in our times of adversity, people will take note of that. If we will be honest in the face of loss to ourselves, people will mark that. We preach more loudly by what we do than by what we say. When we can be joyful in provoking times of stress and disappointment, it will be a great witness for the Lord. It is a careful walk that we make before men. At the best we can do, there will still be those who will condemn and criticize us. We must take those things quietly and meekly, too. We will not be popular in a worldly sense according to the praise of men. We will rather be scorned and looked down upon. One lowly saint was reproached by a proud relative at a funeral for riding in their car. It was very evident, and the action of this proud relative was terrible. The saint took it meekly, and later the Lord allowed this proud relative’s car to crash in a most unusual way. God will fight for us, and we will not need to lift a hand or voice in our defense. It is most certain that we will not be rich in material things, although God will be faithful to supply\n\nour needs. The Lord said to one of His ministers who was praying to have more money to give, \"I have better things for you to give than money!\" Let us set our goals heavenward and prove to the Lord and others that we are genuine children of the most High God.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nOne minister used to give his final charge to candidates before their ordination in these impressive words, \"Tomorrow I shall say to you, wilt thou, wilt thou, wilt thou? But there will come a day to you when Another will say to you, 'hast thou, hast thou, hast thou?'\"\n\nIt is a sobering thought to think that someday we will give an account of our ministry. Therefore it is well to constantly take account of our works and to see if they are being profitable and edifying. We should make sure that we are a credit to our calling when it comes to patience, pureness, kindness and love. Our attitude must be a proper one in times of affliction, distress and labor.\n\nIn many ways the success of a minister's labours can be measured according to how big his heart is. First our heart must be big enough to take in God. He is the very foundation and inspiration for all of our works. Next our hearts must be big enough to take in other people. If the Apostle Paul's heart had not been enlarged enough to take in all the saints at Corinth he would have had a limited effect upon them.\n\nIn our lesson the Apostle Paul charges the people that their hearts also should be enlarged. So this matter extends to everyone, not just preachers. To enlarge means to make larger than normal. People in their natural state, only have a heart big enough for themselves and maybe a few close friends and relatives. But let God in your heart and as He begins working, you will find ample room for others.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nNOTICE: If your subscription expired with this quarter please send your renewal at once. It is necessary that your subscription for the first quarter of 1990 be in this office by Dec. 1, 1989. For your convenience there is an order blank at the end of this book.\n\nThe Story of the Spring by the Side of the Road\n\nA stranger made his way down a road leading into a wide, expansive, fertile valley. It was late in August, hot, sultry and dusty. The stranger was worn with the journey and was hungry and thirsty. He wondered where he might find a well or spring; a place to rest and be refreshed.\n\nAs he made his way down the road he saw a sign nailed to a tree. On this sign was an arrow, pointing to a path that led back from the road. Beneath the arrow were the words, \"To the spring,\" evidently written by some trembling hand.\n\nThese were very welcome words; \"To the spring.\" So the stranger wended his way down the path to where he found a great gushing spring pouring forth from beneath huge jagged rocks. All around about this wonderful spring were mammoth oak trees growing in their luxuriance. Beneath the spring was a pool of water made by the falling of the stream. There were cups by the side of the spring. The underbrush had all been cleared away. Near the spring a rustic seat had been built.\n\nThe stranger drank freely from the spring and was refreshed. He took off his coat and his linen and bathed his face, hands and arms in the pool below the spring and was refreshed again. This done he sat down on the rustic seat to rest. From there he beheld what at first he had not seen, a basket of ripe, beautiful apples, hanging to a limb of a tree just over the spring.\n\nOn the basket was a sign, evidently written by the same trembling hand that had made the one by the side of the road. The sign read, \"Stranger, these apples are yours. Help yourself.\" He took a couple of fine juicy ones and ate them. O, they were so good. Glancing up he read the sign again, \"Stranger, these apples are yours. Help yourself,\" so he filled his pockets and took a couple more to eat.\n\nAs the stranger sat there rested and refreshed he found himself wondering what in the world this could mean. All this comfort and no one there to collect any money. What could it mean!\n\nThe birds were singing their evening songs. All the air held a solemn stillness. The golden threads of sunlight poured down through the leaves of the trees. What could it all mean?\n\nIt finally dawned on him that there must be someone nearby whose love for humanity and whose unselfish devotion had led them to arrange the wonderful setting of the spring and asked no returns except the sweet satisfaction of having\n\narranged a place where weary travelers might be directed so they could lay down their burdens and be refreshed.\n\nHis curiosity was deeply aroused. He wanted to meet persons with such a vision and with such a passion for service and to inquire why all this comfort. He looked for some path which might lead to the explanation. He discovered the path, leading out of the forest trees, and followed it up thru the farm-yard gate, thru the garden gate, up the garden path past the old-fashioned flowers, pinks and holyhocks, to a little old house on the edge of the orchard. After knocking, an old man with a benign face came to the door. \"Good evening, stranger, good evening. Come in. Come right in.\"\n\n\"Neighbor, I have called to ask about the story of the spring. Can you tell me the story of the spring down by the side of the road?\"\n\n\"Oh, it's the story of the spring you are after, is it?\" The old man said as he laughed the deep laugh that came from the depths of his great generous soul. \"The story of the spring. Excuse me please, stranger, and I will call Mother. She loves to tell the story of the spring.\"\n\nHaving called the old mother, she came in, sat down, and folded over her gingham apron to cover up the spots. \"The story of the spring is it, stranger, you are asking for the story of the spring?\"\n\nBrushing away a tear and swallowing a lump that came in her throat, for it was a tender story she was to tell, she proceeded.\n\n\"It was this way, stranger, Fifty years ago Father and I were sweethearts together. Frequently we would take long walks in the moonlight after the day's work was done. On these walks we would dream of how we would invest our lives for others. Sometimes we would think how interesting it would be to give the world a song it might go singing down life's weary way. Sometimes we would wonder if the time would ever come when we could give the world a book that might cheer, instruct, encourage and gladden humanity with all its burdens, heartaches and struggles. And sometimes we would dream of a possible time when we might have piles of gold with which we might help the ambitious, relieve the distressed and render such blessed service as we observed humanity so much needed.\n\n\"All these thoughts seemed but vain dreams for we were poor young people, shut away from educational advantages, necessary to so ambitious a dream, so we decided that if we were never to be permitted to give the world a song, or a book or never to have the piles of gold, we would do the next greatest thing, make a home that might be a help and an\n\ninspiration in making other homes great and worthwhile. After all, great homes count as the nation's greatest asset.\n\n\"The years were repining and so we were married.\n\n\"The immediate question was, 'Where was the home to be located?' Father at once began to look about for a strategic location for such a home. He found this wide, expansive, fertile valley. Here we knew that we would be finally surrounded with many homes, the setting of our dream.\n\n\"So Father filed on this claim as a homestead. The evening he came home with the papers we came to this spot and kneeled down upon the sod and dedicated this quarter to be God's acre for service. We soon cut away the timber with which to build our house. We added an extra room as our guest chamber. Father proceeded to clear the farm and put out the orchard.\n\n\"We would listen for the settlers driving in with their ox wagons. At the sound of the rumbling of these wagons Father or I would go down to the valley road and ask the settlers to come in for the night. Father helped them locate their homesteads, then rally the neighbors to help roll up their log cabins. Loving service was the word, the passion of our hearts. Many a young family found the Saviour about our family altar.\n\n\"So, stranger, for fifty years now, Father and I have lived for the people of the valley. We have shared with them all our joys. We have been by their sides as they have needed our help. We have loved their children and sought to inspire them to become useful and great for their country. Our little brood has come up and mingles with the children of the valley. We have seen swarms of these blessed young lives come up thru these beautiful years.\n\n\"So for fifty years now, stranger, Father and I have lived for the people of the valley and have beautifully realized our dream. But one day I was coming in from the garden and found Father sitting by the fireplace crying. I said, 'What in the world are you crying for, Dad?'\n\n\"When I saw you down in the garden this morning, Mother, with your face so pale, your hair so white, your shoulders so rounded by the burdens you have borne by my side these fifty years and when I saw you come up the garden path so trembly and faltering like, I could not keep the tears back and found myself saying, 'Never again, never again, never again will Mother and I have the strength to go out and steady the aged down thru the valley of the shadow. Never again will Mother and I have the strength to smooth the pillows of the dying thru the long, weary nights. Never again will we be able to load the flour, hams and potatoes into the wagon or sleigh and take relief to the poor and the suffering.'\n\nI am not crying, Mother, because we are getting old. Heaven never beckoned with a sweeter call than now, but it was such a joy to go out by your side, Mother, and minister to the people of the valley that my heart is hungry to go right on and on with this blessed work. So when I saw you this morning, Mother, looking so frail I realized how nearly our race was run. It is from heart hunger that I am crying, Mother.'\n\n\"So,\" she said, \"I sat down and cried by his side and we talked it all over. Finally I said, 'Father, let's do one more fine service for humanity before the touch of time shall palsy our hands utterly. Let's do what we have been thinking of doing so many years. Rest good Father, and sharpen your ax and take plenty of time and cut away the underbrush from about the spring. Build a rustic seat. Cut a path thru to the road. God will hand the boughs of our apple trees full of apples every year. I'll take my old trembly hands and, as best I can, fix up the signs and then we will render this last expression of our love to God and our fellow travelers down life's rugged way.'\n\n\"The old man arose and began to pull on his boots. 'Capital, Mother, capital,' he said. He immediately went out to sharpen his ax. He came in and said, 'Have dinner early today, Mother.' After dinner he swung his ax over his shoulder and I used to see him in his palmy days and start off down to the spring with the zest of a war horse, having sniffed the smoke of the battle. With many times his usual strength he swung into cutting away the underbrush. The path to the road was soon completed. The rustic seat was soon built. I did my best with the signs.\n\n\"When all was done, while the caroling birds accompanied us with their evening symphony, we dedicated the spring to God and humanity, asking no return except the sweet satisfaction that we had rendered one more service to our fellow man and made it possible for him to turn aside from this dusty weary way, find a place of quiet, find refreshment and rest and a place to lay down his burden and in sweet meditations catch the spirit of the valley.\"\n\nLittle did those old people realize that this stranger was none less than the great American poet, Sam Foss. When he heard this story he went out and wrote that poem that you love and I love and that has gone around the world, entitled, \"The House by the Side of the Road and Being a Friend of Man.\"\n\n\"THE HOUSE BY THE SIDE OF THE ROAD\"\n\nThere are hermits souls that live withdrawn,\n In the peace of their self-content:\nThere are souls like stars, that dwell apart,\n In a fellowless firmament;\nThere are pioneer souls that blaze their paths,\n Where highways never ran—\nBut let me live by the side of the road\n And be a friend to man.\n\nLet me live in a house by the side of the road\n Where the race of men go by—\nThe men who are good and the men who are bad.\n As good and as bad as I.\nI would not sit in the scorner's seat,\n Or hurl the cynic's ban—\nLet me live in the house by the side of the road\n And be a friend to man.\n\nI see from the house by the side of the road,\n By the side of the highway of life,\nThe men who press with ardor of hope,\n The men who are faint with the strife.\nBut I turn not away from their smiles nor their tears,\n Both parts of an infinite plan—\nLet me live in the house by the side of the road\n And be a friend to man.\n\nI know there are brook-gladdened meadows ahead,\n And mountains of wearisome height;\nThat the road passes on through the long afternoon.\n And stretches away to the night.\nAnd still I rejoice when the travelers rejoice\n And weep with the strangers that moan,\nAs I live in my house by the side of the road\n And be a friend to man. —Sam Walter Foss\n\nPERFECTING HOLINESS IN THE FEAR OF GOD\n\nII Corinthians 6:14 Be ye not unequally yoked together with unbelievers: for what fellowship hath righteousness with unrighteousness? and what communion hath light with darkness?\n\n15 And what concord hath Christ with Belial? or what part hath he that believeth with an infidel?\n\n16 And what agreement hath the temple of God with idols? for ye are the temple of the living God; as God hath said, I will dwell in them, and walk in them; and I will be their God, and they shall be my people.\n\n17 Wherefore come out from among them, and be ye separate, saith the Lord, and touch not the unclean thing; and I will receive you,\n\n18 And will be a Father unto you, and ye shall be my sons and daughters, saith the Lord Almighty.\n\n7:1 Having therefore these promises, dearly beloved, let us cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God.\n\n4 Great is my boldness of speech toward you, great is my glorying of you: I am filled with comfort, I am exceeding joyful in all our tribulation.\n\n5 For, when we were come into Macedonia, our flesh had no rest, but we were troubled on every side; without were fightings, within were fears.\n\n6 Nevertheless God, that comforteth those that are cast down, comforted us by the coming of Titus;\n\n7 And not by his coming only, but by the consolation wherewith he was comforted in you, when he told us your earnest desire, your mourning, your fervent mind toward me; so that I rejoiced the more.\n\n8 For though I made you sorry with a letter, I do not repent, though I did repent: for I perceive that the same epistle hath made you sorry, though it were but for a season.\n\n9 Now I rejoice, not that ye were made sorry, but that ye sorrowed to repentance: for ye were made sorry after a godly manner, that ye might receive damage by us in nothing.\n\n10 For godly sorrow worketh repentance to salvation not to be repented of: but the sorrow of the world worketh death.\n\n11 For behold this selfsame thing, that ye sorrowed after a godly sort, what carefulness it wrought in you, yea, what clearing of yourselves, yea, what indignation, yea, what fear,\n\nyea, what vehement desire, yea, what zeal; yea, what revenge! In all things ye have approved yourselves to be clear in this matter.\n\nMemory Verse: Having therefore these promises, dearly beloved, let us cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God.\n\nII Corinthians 7:1.\n\nCentral Thought: God commands us to separate ourselves from being in agreement with the sin and error of this present evil world, and be holy and pure as His sons and daughters.\n\nWord Definitions: Concord: To be in accordance or harmony. Filthiness: Soil, stain, defilement, immorality. \"Fervent mind\": Zeal and warm affection. \"Godly sorrow\": Sorrow according to God, regret and grief for grieving God. Indignation: Sore grief and displeasure against sin and wrong. Revenge: Holy retribution and punishment, judgment.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nPaul, in our previous lesson had dwelt on the thought of approving ourselves as the ministers of God. He had expressed his sincere love for them, having an enlarged heart to bear them in his thoughts and concern. In our lesson today he enters into another very important topic of instruction, and that is of us being separate from the evil influences in the world around us. We are in the world, but not of the world. We can live among people, eat and drink with them, work side-by-side with them in the temporal affairs, share the common blessings of life, and do many things that they do as human beings, but when it comes to what we fellowship, condone and agree with, there is a strict and clear cut line that has to be drawn. Paul expressed it in another place like this, \"Have no fellowship with the unfruitful works of darkness, but rather reprove them. (Ephesians 5:11). We do not know what all that the brethren in the Church at Corinth were being involved with, but it is possible that they were mixed up with things that were not edifying to their souls. There are many influences in the world today that we as Christians cannot partake of, that we must in honor of Christ stay away from. The apostle is not wanting to put the brethren in a strait jacket, but he knew that these influences can stain the soul and involve the person in a way that is not good. In his first epistle to them he had made them sorry, but rejoiced that their sorrow was a godly sorrow and that it worked repentance to\n\nsalvation and victory. In their repentance they had fully approved themselves to be clear in those things wherein Paul had instructed them.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. Why is there danger and spiritual detriment in the fellowship of evil?\n2. Can we be friendly, kind, cordial and gracious to people without fellowshipping their evil?\n3. What is the real temple of God?\n4. What does God want us to do about the sinful influences in the world?\n5. What has God promised to do if we will come clean for the truth?\n6. We are sanctified by the Holy Spirit. Is there a cleansing that we must carry out in separating ourselves from the evils of the world?\n7. Why was Paul so full of comfort concerning the brethren at Corinth?\n8. What effect did his letter have on them?\n9. What had Titus told Paul that had brought him so much comfort?\n10. What effect did their godly sorrow have upon their lives?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\nBeing the children of God and the objects of His great love and affection, we owe to Him everything, and He is justly worthy of all of our love, devotion, trust, allegiance and service. We join ourselves to Him, and He is all we need. But, there are always other influences in the world that are constantly reaching out their hand to us for sympathy, support and fellowship. We must be careful of what we get ourselves involved with. Now and then we get a telephone call soliciting the purchase of a worldly concert ticket to help promote some community function to solve some problem or need. We answer that we are willing to do what we can to help in solving our community’s problems, but that we are not interested in attending the concert or buying tickets for it. There is a line to be drawn. God can help us know where it is to be drawn. The Spirit of the Lord can help us to know of these things. He is faithful to reprove us if we get into something that He is not pleased with. One brother told about how that after he was saved, he was invited to go with a party to a ball game. He consented to go, but while in the midst of\n\nthe game he became very sensitive to the evil around him. One man near him was cursing, another was waving a beer bottle. He felt the Lord reprove him for being there. Another young man went to a gathering of young people at a home. He was told that it was to be an effort to better their study of foreign language. As the evening progressed he saw that it was not a good place for a Christian to be. He became so troubled that it began to even affect the activities and those in attendance. Finally he requested that he be allowed to leave. He said that he believed they all were glad to see him go. A true child of God just cannot be in harmony with the spirit of the world. Christ shed His blood and sent His Holy Spirit to cleanse us, but unless we separate ourselves from the evils of the world, we will not be fully clean.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nHoliness is a wonderful virtue of the saint of God. Think of the fame of Christ that spread throughout Israel. He was a man different from any other. The only one who had even approached this popularity had been John the Baptist. Christ, through His holiness made an impact upon the world that time has been unable to erase.\n\nIn following Christ, we also may create an impact upon those around us. Through our holiness, individuals will be able to mark our lives as something above the ordinary. This is that city set on a hill that cannot be hid—the New Jerusalem of which Christ is the head.\n\nNot only will holiness claim the attention of strangers, but our lives will be equipped to stand the scrutiny of our family and close acquaintances. It has been said that if you want to know what kind of Christian you are, go ask your family. The holiness of God as set forth by Christ should so infiltrate our lives that the closest friend or companion can have perfect confidence in us.\n\nI recall the story of a preacher who discovered some young boys skipping school. Upon inquiry the boys informed the preacher that they were \"lying for a dog.\" The one who told the biggest lie would receive a little puppy. After the preacher admonished the boys for telling lies, one of the children inquired of the preacher if he had ever lied. With sanctimonious air, the preacher replied with a \"No-o.\" One of the little boys scoffed and said, \"What a whopper—give the preacher the pup.\"\n\nWe should live such an example in holiness, modesty, truthfulness and integrity that those whom we are unaware\n\nare observing us, will have a good report of our general conduct.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nNovember 26, 1989\n\nBEING POOR IN THIS WORLD, BUT RICH IN CHRIST\n\nII Corinthians 8:1 Moreover, brethren, we do you to wit of the grace of God bestowed on the churches of Macedonia;\n2 How that in a great trial of affliction the abundance of their joy and their deep poverty abounded unto the riches of their liberality.\n3 For to their power, I bear record, yea, and beyond their power they were willing of themselves;\n4 Praying us with much intreaty that we would receive the gift, and take upon us the fellowship of the ministering to the saints.\n5 And this they did, not as we hoped, but first gave their own selves to the Lord, and unto us by the will of God.\n7 Therefore, as ye abound in every thing, in faith, and utterance, and knowledge, and in all diligence, and in your love to us, see that ye abound in this grace also.\n8 I speak not by commandment, but by occasion of the forwardness of others, and to prove the sincerity of your love.\n9 For ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, that, though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor, that ye through his poverty might be rich.\n10 And herein I give my advice: for this is expedient for you, who have begun before, not only to do, but also to be forward a year ago.\n11 Now therefore perform the doing of it; that as there was a readiness to will, so there may be a performance also out of that which ye have.\n12 For if there be first a willing mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath, and not according to that he hath not.\n13 For I mean not that other men be eased, and ye burdened:\n14 But by an equality, that now at this time your abundance also may be a supply for their want: that there may be equality:\n15 As it is written, He that had gathered much had nothing over; and he that had gathered little had no lack.\n\nMemory Verse: For ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, that, though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor, that ye through his poverty might be rich.\n\nII Corinthians 8:9.\n\nCentral Thought: Spiritual life thrives in the generosity and sacrifices of those who are poor and needy, who rather than choose riches give of themselves to the Lord and to ministering for the welfare of others.\n\nWord Definitions: \"To their power... and beyond their power they were willing of themselves\": As they were able and beyond their ability (depriving themselves of the necessities of life) they gave of their own accord.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nPaul, in our lesson today, is pointing the brethren at Corinth to two examples of spiritual riches in the midst of earthly poverty. He mentioned the Macedonian brethren, and how that the grace of God was so great on them in their giving. They had great trials of affliction, and very deep poverty, but it all abounded to their joy and the riches of their generosity. They wanted Paul to have the gift that they had so sacrificially provided for him. An offering from the poor given from a heart of love is one of the most precious gifts ever given to a minister. It touches their heart so deeply. It warms them with a love that transcends all else. Paul knew that these people were poor, very poor. And yet they gave and gave some more. Oh, what a bond this brings between the servant of God and those to whom he ministers the gospel! He wanted these Corinthian brethren to be blessed in this way, also. Not that he was desiring their means, but he wanted them to know the joy and blessing of giving. He referred them also to the Lord Jesus Christ. Oh, what a splendid example our dear Saviour is of this! Though He was rich and powerful as the Son of God, yet He humbled Himself to become the poorest of the poor. He willingly offered Himself to die in our stead. He was homeless, penniless, and destitute of every human necessity. He did this for our sakes, so that we could be made rich in salvation and the fulness of grace.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. Under what circumstances had the Macedonian brethren given to help Paul?\n\n2. What had their great joy and deep poverty abounded unto?\n3. To what extent had they been willing to give?\n4. Who did they give themselves to first?\n5. In what way was Jesus rich?\n6. In what way did He become poor?\n7. How can we be made rich?\n8. What kind of riches is Paul speaking of here?\n9. How can we all help one another to make things come out equal?\n10. Would there be enough provision in the world for everyone if there was equality?\n11. Why is there not equality in this world?\n12. Is there equality in the Church of God?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\nOne of the greatest temptations to humankind is to be rich. To the carnal mind, riches mean money, wealth, earthly possessions and security. But these are not the true riches that we should seek after. Earthly riches have a way of dominating the mind and soul to where one becomes insensitive to God and the true riches. Jesus Himself declared that it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of heaven. The true riches of faith, love, patience, meekness, wisdom, kindness and peace are the most worthy objects of our desires. There is great joy in being poor in this world and knowing the realities of being rich in the favor and fellowship of God. Many people work hard to be rich. They make it the goal of their lives to be wealthy. It fills their waking hours and many times their sleeping hours. The thirst for earthly wealth is an all-consuming thirst. It makes a person cold and selfish. Very few people can survive prosperity in material things. There is something about material wealth that causes one to put their trust in it. It is a deceitful thing that preys on the heart of man. Oh, how we need to heed the truth that only Christ has the true riches! He gave up everything to come down to the cold, dark world to become the poorest of the poor. The wealth of the world had no attraction for Him. He had a better home to look forward to. He was not impressed by the things Satan sought to entice Him with. He had a joy set before Him that helped Him to overcome all of the sufferings of the cross. Oh, if more people could but see the blessing of giving and self-denial! What a change would be in our society! Only Christ can make us truly rich.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nPaul said \"to live is Christ.\" Christ was the center of his life. Just so, He should be the center of our lives. Every plan and purpose should be derived from Christ. Jesus stood before the Father with the attitude of, \"Then said I, Lo, I come to do thy will, O God.\" Psa. 40:7, 8. \"I delight to do Thy will.\" Jesus did the will of the Father here on earth until He said on the cross, \"It is finished.\" First, Jesus gave Himself to do the will of the Father and then He gave Himself to ministering to those about Him, and finally gave His life. First, we must give ourselves to Jesus and then He prompts our giving and ministering to the saints. \"Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me.\" Matt. 25:40. Christ is the one who prompts our giving, therefore we have a real fellowship with Christ. We abound in the grace of giving as well as in the other graces. Giving is good for saints, as it checks any tendency to selfishness and it keeps the heart tender. Blessings come from giving, therefore we fellowship Christ, who was rich, yet for our sakes became poor that we might have everlasting life. This brought joy to our Saviour, \"for the joy that was set before him endured the cross . . . and is set down at the right hand of God.\" Heb. 12:2. He had joy in seeing us saved from sin and therefore was willing to endure the cross. We fellowship our Lord in giving because we love to see the joy in those that are given to.\n\n—Marie Miles\n\n(Written in 1975.)\n\nII Corinthians 9:1 For as touching the ministering to the saints, it is superfluous for me to write to you:\n\n2 For I know the forwardness of your mind, for which I boast of you to them of Macedonia, that Achaia was ready a year ago; and your zeal hath provoked very many.\n\n3 Yet have I sent the brethren, lest our boasting of you should be in vain in this behalf; that, as I said, ye may be ready:\n\n4 Lest haply if they of Macedonia come with me, and find you unprepared, we (that we say not, ye) should be ashamed in this same confident boasting.\n\n5 Therefore I thought it necessary to exhort the brethren, that they would go before unto you, and make up beforehand your bounty, whereof ye had notice before, that the same might be ready, as a matter of bounty, and not as of covetousness.\n\n6 But this I say, He which soweth sparingly shall reap also sparingly; and he which soweth bountifully shall reap also bountifully.\n\n7 Every man according as he purposeth in his heart, so let him give; not grudgingly, or of necessity: for God loveth a cheerful giver.\n\n8 And God is able to make all grace abound toward you; that ye, always having all sufficiency in all things, may abound to every good work:\n\n9 (As it is written, He hath dispersed abroad; he hath given to the poor: his righteousness remaineth for ever.\n\n10 Now he that ministereth seed to the sower both minister bread for your food, and multiply your seed sown, and increase the fruits of your righteousness;\n\n11 Being enriched in every thing to all bountifulness, which causeth through us thanksgiving to God.\n\n12 For the administration of this service not only supplieth the want of the saints, but is abundant also by many thanksgivings unto God;\n\n13 Whiles by the experiment of this ministration they glorify God for your professed subjection unto the gospel of Christ, and for your liberal distribution unto them, and unto all men;\n\n14 And by their prayer for you, which long after you for the exceeding grace of God in you.\n\n15 Thanks be unto God for his unspeakable gift.\n\nMemory Verse: Every man according as he purposeth in his heart, so let him give; not grudgingly, or of necessity: for God loveth a cheerful giver. II Corinthians 9:7.\n\nCentral Thought: God wants us to give of ourselves and our means freely, sacrificially, and cheerfully to help support the work of the Lord and to help those who are in need.\n\nWord Definitions: Superfluous: Not needful.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nIn our lesson today we have some very good pointed truths concerning the blessing of giving to the gospel of Jesus Christ. God has always accomplished His designs for man, making use of the freewill offerings that come from what man has been blessed to have. When God began to unveil to Moses His plans for the tabernacle, He instructed him to take offerings of every man that giveth willingly with his heart, of the gold, silver, brass, and all of the other things that would be necessary for the building of the tabernacle. When David made public his plans to have the great temple built, the people offered and gave willingly the things that were needed for the service of the house of the Lord. In the New Testament Church we still have this principle. God surely sees that it is good for us to give. When we offer of ourselves and what we have to the Lord with a cheerful and yielded heart to the Lord, the sacrifice thereof is a sweet smelling savour to Him. No one prospers by holding back on God. No one gets ahead by closing their fists on their money. “Give, and it shall be given unto you,” said Jesus in Luke 6:38. As our lesson plainly states, we are not to give because we have to, or just because it is a necessity, but we should give because we want to give, and be cheerful while we are doing it from the heart. God loves a cheerful giver. There is a rich reward for the faithful and cheerful giver. The attitude of the giver who gives in the spirit that God is pleased with, will help him to be in a condition where God can and will pour out the fulness of His grace upon him. Giving is the basic principle of life and success. No one gets very far in the Christian race who does not learn and know the joy of giving. God’s unspeakable gift, the gift of His Son is the greatest gift of all, and the giving of ourselves and of our substance is the just and proper thing for us to do.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. Why is giving such an important phase of the Christian life?\n2. What will one’s blessings be if they give sparingly?\n3. What is the attitude in giving that God loves?\n4. What is the great reward of giving?\n5. What will God’s abundant grace enable us to do?\n6. What kind of righteousness will be to the man who disperses abroad and gives to the poor?\n7. Will a person who gives consistently and sacrificially ever really miss the things that he gives for the Lord?\n8. What will the bountifulness that God bestows cause to spring up in the heart?\n9. Will this thanksgiving be in the giver’s heart alone?\n10. What are the good and perfect gifts and the one unspeakable gift of God?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\nOne of the most important functions of the Christian life is that of giving. We must give of ourselves, of our time, of our means, of our strength, and every other phase of our lives. One who does not give does not prosper in the Lord. Selfishness and greed are foreign to the Spirit of God. No man can have these dispositions in the heart and have fellowship with God. The Christian life is to give, give, give, and give some more. God’s nature is to give. Think of the blessings that He bestows daily upon humanity. The sunlight from the sky, the rain from heaven, the air we breathe, the beauties of nature, food, and many more things are the tokens of the love of our beneficent heavenly Father. He gives because He loves to give. He gives bountifully and richly all things for us to enjoy. If we are His sons and daughters, we will have the same kind of desire and pleasure to give. We must first give ourselves to the Lord, then everything we have is His. It really belongs to Him anyway, but He wants to receive it from our hand of faith and love. It is more than just merely giving a tithe. There are times when a tenth will not satisfy the craving of love and desire to give that He puts in our hearts. Oh, the spiritual poverty that there is in the world on account of people not knowing the blessing of giving to the Lord and others. As we give freely and cheerfully, God sees to it that our needs are supplied and that His abundant grace will be constantly in our hearts. Let us be diligent to give freely and sacrificially as never before. Learn the great joy of giving and\n\nyour Christian experience will grow and prosper by leaps and bounds.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nA beggar at the end of the day heard the cry, “The king comes!” Expecting a princely gift from the king, the beggar was astounded when he extended his cup only to have the king stop his great white charger and ask, “What gift have you for the king?” Is this our perspective of giving; that God is the giver and we are always on the receiving end?\n\n“The Golden Ladder of Giving” by Maimonides, a Jewish scholar of the twelfth century, included the following steps which lead from the lowest rung of giving to the most perfect. (1) To give reluctantly, the give of the hand, but not of the heart. (2) To give cheerfully, but not in proportion to the need. (3) To give cheerfully, and proportionately, but not until solicited. (4) To give cheerfully, proportionately and unsolicited, but to put the gift into the poor man’s hand. (5) To give in such a way that the distressed may know their benefactor, without being known to him. (6) To know the objects of our bounty, but remain unknown to them. (7) To give so that the benefactor may not know those whom he has relieved, and they shall not know him.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nDecember 10, 1989\n\nTHE RIGHT KIND OF WARFARE AND STRIFE\n\nII Corinthians 10:1 Now I Paul myself beseech you by the meekness and gentleness of Christ, who in presence am base among you, but being absent am bold toward you:\n\n2 But I beseech you, that I may not be bold when I am present with that confidence, wherewith I think to be bold against some, which think of us as if we walked according to the flesh.\n\n3 For though we walk in the flesh, we do not war after the flesh:\n\n4 (For the weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God to the pulling down of strongholds;)\n\n5 Casting down imaginations, and every high thing that exalteth itself against the knowledge of God, and bringing into captivity every thought to the obedience of Christ;\n\n6 And having in a readiness to revenge all disobedience, when your obedience is fulfilled.\n\n7 Do ye look on things after the outward appearance? If any man trust to himself that he is Christ’s, let him of himself think this again, that, as he is Christ’s, even so are we Christ’s.\n\n12 For we dare not make ourselves of the number, or compare ourselves with some that commend themselves: but they measuring themselves by themselves, and comparing themselves among themselves, are not wise.\n\n13 But we will not boast of things without our measure, but according to the measure of the rule which God hath distributed to us, a measure to reach even unto you.\n\n14 For we stretch not ourselves beyond our measure, as though we reached not unto you: for we are come as far as to you also in preaching the gospel of Christ:\n\n15 Not boasting of things without our measure, that is, of other men’s labours; but having hope, when your faith is increased, that we shall be enlarged by you according to our rule abundantly,\n\n16 To preach the gospel in the regions beyond you, and not to boast in another man’s line of things made ready to our hand.\n\n17 But he that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord.\n\n18 For not he that commendeth himself is approved, but whom the Lord commendeth.\n\nMemory Verse: (For the weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God to the pulling down of strongholds;) II Corinthians 10:4.\n\nCentral Thought: We are not in a literal combat with carnal men using carnal weapons, but we are in a spiritual conflict, daily bringing into captivity every part of our being to the will of God, and we are striving to fulfill all that God is calling us to, that He might be glorified.\n\nWord Definitions: Imaginations: Reasonings, opinions, ideas, beliefs, things that the carnal mind has proposed to be truth. The gospel attacked all superstitions, myths and theories that men in darkness had devised in their idolatrous worship.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nPaul was meek and gentle when he was among the brethren, but in his letters he exercised more boldness. He did it this way because he did not want to have some thinking\n\nthat he was walking after the flesh. This is a very important thought. Real Christian warfare is accomplished by the workings of the Spirit of God through meek and lowly saints of God. Our weapons are faith, love, righteousness, hope and the gospel of Christ. Only by these weapons can we pull down strongholds and bring every heart and mind into the captivity of the grace of God. It seemed that some tried to take an advantage of Paul because he was so meek and gentle, but he assured them that he could be bold in Christ, also. He states in our lesson that he disapproved of those who measured themselves by themselves, that is, looking on one another for the evaluation of their own spiritual life. There is a tendency for us to do this. We hear someone testify and expound what God has done for them, and the enemy tries to make us feel inferior or dissatisfied with our own spiritual accomplishments. He would even get souls who are unaware to try to imitate and be like someone else, but we must all remember that God deals with us as individuals, and we are to walk according to the rule of faith that He has personally joined unto us. If we will keep our individual places in Christ and commit our brother or sister to Him, we will find that God will be near us to make our experience and labors prosperous and successful.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. How did Paul treat the brethren when he was in their midst?\n2. Why was he bolder in his letters than he was in their presence?\n3. What kind of warfare did Paul fight in?\n4. What kind of imaginations does the gospel tear down?\n5. What high thing exalts itself against the knowledge of God?\n6. What does bringing every thought into captivity to the obedience of Christ involve?\n7. When can we be ready to deal with sin and disobedience?\n8. Why is it unwise to compare ourselves with others and measure ourselves by ourselves?\n9. What happens if we overstretch ourselves and go beyond what the Spirit of God is working in us?\n10. If self motivates and approves our labors, who is glorified?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\nThe service of the gospel and Christian warfare are two very important things to the child of God. Knowing how to\n\ndeal with others and how to present the gospel message is very, very important. When we are dealing with souls and in the presence of the unsaved we need to be very loving, gentle, and meek. Some in their zeal think that they need to pressure and talk people into getting saved and lining up with the truth, but there is something here that we had better be careful about. If we pressure people and get them to heed our efforts, the Spirit of God may not have as much to do with that as we might think. The people could be responding to us instead of the Lord. And when that is true the results will not be what they should be. Our labors and our warfare in the Christian life must be kept strictly under Holy Spirit rule and inspiration. It is possible that we might be fighting a carnal fight even if we do not have a gun or a sword in hand. We might be fighting a carnal fight with our words. We may be able to persuade and pressure people, but if the Sword of the Spirit is not in the fray, the strongholds and imaginations will not come down. We want people won to the Lord and not to us. When they are won to us, there will be a tendency to measure and compare with one another. This goes on in many religious circles today. Many preachers literally rule their \"offspring,\" domineering them into things that they have devised. Not all religious activity is of God. Show me a man who is not meek and gentle in his ministry and I will show you a man who is ruling over people in an unjust, unauthorized manner. Faith, love, kindness, patience, peace, purity and divine wisdom are the weapons and tools that really get the work done for the Lord.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nSometimes young converts are troubled about not being able to testify like some older saint. But as the lesson tells us, we are not to measure ourselves by ourselves nor compare ourself with others. We are to testify like the Lord shows us, and just be ourself. The older saint has gone through many trials and has had a lot of schooling in the things of the Lord. They have a deeper depth than the young convert. So don't try to be like them. The young convert will be able to testify to more grace in his life as he continues to live for God. As the young convert continues to exercise himself, the Lord will add to his service for Him. We should desire to labor for the Lord, yet we must not go beyond our ability that the Lord gives us. We are not to \"stretch beyond our measure.\" One elder minister said that every young minister should teach a class of little children and learn how to teach before trying to teach adults.\n\nI don’t know if that rule would hold always, but there is something in it. If you can’t feel an anointing, or get over a truth in teaching children, how can you teach adults? Teaching is one of the qualifications of a minister, “apt to teach.” I Tim. 3:2. I don’t believe that the Lord calls a person to take the pulpit to teach others just as soon as they are saved. The qualifications of a minister are that they are “not a novice, lest being lifted up with pride he fall into condemnation of the devil” I Tim. 3:6. A novice is one, “newly come to the faith.” What a young convert has to say can be said while he is standing at his seat. We then will not be going “beyond our measure.”\n\nZeal without knowledge will get us into trouble, yet we must be busy for the Lord and move as the Lord leads.\n\n—Marie Miles\n(Written in 1975.)\n\nDecember 17, 1989\n\nWARNINGS AGAINST FALSE TEACHERS\n\nII Corinthians 11:1 Would to God ye could bear with me a little in my folly: and indeed bear with me.\n2 For I am jealous over you with godly jealousy: for I have espoused you to one husband, that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ.\n3 But I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent beguiled Eve through his subtilty, so your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ.\n4 For if he that cometh preacheth another Jesus, whom we have not preached, or if ye receive another spirit, which ye have not received, or another gospel, which ye have not accepted, ye might well bear with him.\n12 But what I do, that I will do, that I may cut occasion from them which desire occasion; that wherein they glory, they may be found even as we.\n13 For such are false apostles, deceitful workers, transforming themselves into the apostles of Christ.\n14 And no marvel; for Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light.\n15 Therefore it is no great thing if his ministers also be transformed as the ministers of righteousness; whose end shall be according to their works.\n23 Are they ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool) I am\n\nmore; in labours more abundant, in stripes above measure, in prisons more frequent, in deaths oft.\n\n24 Of the Jews five times received I forty stripes save one.\n\n25 Thrice was I beaten with rods, once was I stoned, thrice I suffered shipwreck, a night and a day I have been in the deep;\n\n26 In journeyings often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils by mine own countrymen, in perils by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea, in perils among false brethren;\n\n27 In weariness and painfulness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness.\n\n28 Beside those things that are without, that which cometh upon me daily, the care of all the churches.\n\n29 Who is weak, and I am not weak? who is offended, and I burn not?\n\n30 If I must needs glory, I will glory of the things which concern mine infirmities.\n\nMemory Verse: For I am jealous over you with godly jealousy: for I have espoused you to one husband, that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ. II Corinthians 11:2.\n\nCentral Thought: Satan has many agents and workers who pose as the ministers of Christ, ever seeking to win people to them, preaching false doctrine, and making it treacherous and difficult for the faithful servants of God to labor for souls.\n\nWord Definitions: \"Bear with me a little in my folly\": Paul thought it needful to defend his ministry, speaking much of himself, his sufferings, his revelations and his success. He knew that some would think it unwise and vain. \"Ye might well bear with him\": The word \"him\" here is an added word by the translators. Some have felt that the word \"me\" would have been more appropriate here, as he had already in verse 1 asked them to bear with him.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nThere seems very surely to have been a false teacher trying to influence the brethren at Corinth, working against Paul. Paul had preached Christ to them, and they had believed. He had counseled them by letter and they had received that. Someone was now coming among them preaching another Jesus, presenting Christ in another spirit, and holding forth another gospel, all which was foreign and different. In Paul's\n\npreaching he had espoused them to Christ, and had held a standard of holiness that pleased the Saviour. Paul did not seek to draw people to himself. But the false teacher, as it is with every false prophet, had sought to draw people away from the teachings of Paul unto himself, using the name of Jesus as a ruse or bait to attract them. Perhaps he was more eloquent than Paul, or a little more persuasive with his words. Paul was seeking to defend his ministry, reminding them of the things that God had worked in His life. This is why he made the list of the things that he had suffered and gone through with. It has happened more times than one that a minister has labored to win souls and build up a work for God, and then another spirit comes in and steals the hearts of the people. Now we know that there is but one real Jesus, and only one true Spirit of the Lord, and only one pure and true gospel. But when two different men preach from the same Bible two different gospels, then we know something is wrong. God help us today and safeguard us from false teachers and their destructive work.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. Is there a jealousy that is justified and right?\n2. In the preaching of the gospel, who are we to seek to draw people to?\n3. What was Paul afraid of concerning the Church at Corinth?\n4. Is it possible for a man to preach the wrong Jesus?\n5. Just where is this “other Jesus” formed?\n6. What do false apostles transform themselves into?\n7. How does Satan make himself appear?\n8. What to you is the worst peril that Paul had to meet along life’s journey?\n9. What weighed down on Paul on top of all the other things from without?\n10. What did Paul glory in?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\n“A chaste virgin to Christ.” Oh, what weighty words are these! The Holy Spirit of God accompanies the gospel to woo and win our hearts from the ways of sin and the world, to find a new life in Jesus Christ, our Lord and Master. We hear how He so loved us when we were all so undone. It comes to us personally and individually. It charms us so to realize how much He cared for our souls to take our place and die for us on Calvary. The love of Christ bears down upon us, and we finally fall at His feet and repent of our sins. As our faith\n\ntakes hold of His precious promises, the peace of God's forgiving love floods our hearts with the greatest joy that we have ever known. We know that He has delivered us from sin. Our hearts are changed from the old to the new. We are new creatures in Christ Jesus. Oh, how our hearts are filled with love and worship to Him! We are lost in the love of Jesus, just carried away by the grace and power that we feel in our hearts from day to day. We love everybody. Oh, what a wonderful experience to have in this life! How sweet is our walk with Jesus! We see the wonderful hope that He is giving us, and we want to see His sweet face some blessed day. We seek to please Him. We want to be pure as He is pure. We are a chaste, pure virgin to Christ. We are united to Him in one sweet holy Spirit of love, holiness and power. This world and all of its folly attracts us no more. We have found the pearl of great price! This is an experience that is so precious in the sight of God, but we must be on our guard. Jesus warned us about false prophets who come to us in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves. Their effect will be to corrupt us from the chaste singleness of heart that we have to the Lord, to them and their ideas. Oh, it has happened many times to many people. Let us be on our guard, and seek to maintain a constant life for Jesus above all things.—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nChrist can be presented in many different ways. It is amazing how that sometimes He can be presented in such a way that His character is hardly recognizable. It is of utmost importance that we have an ongoing, personal relationship with Him so that if we have occasion to come into the influence of a false prophet, we can recognize it.\n\nPaul insinuated, by comparison, that this false prophet at Corinth was very subtle. He was adding to what Paul had told them about Christ, and making the way of holiness more complicated. Judas, who was the brother of Jesus, exhorted in his epistle, \"that ye should earnestly contend for the faith that was once delivered unto the saints.\" Jude 3. This is a good admonition. We need to go all the way back to the fountainhead. Jude was written in approximately A.D. 75, and already there had been many things to complicate and draw away from the simple salvation Christ taught. How much more it has been done in nearly 2,000 years! Man's concoctions have thrown many impurities into this gospel stream. When a false doctrine or theory is a trouble to you, there is more surety and comfort for your soul, if rather than approaching the theory\n\nand trying to sort out the impurities, you simply turn your attention to the simplicity of Christ. There are times that false spirits are hard to put your finger on, for Paul said that Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light, but the plan of salvation is easily understood by even the simple.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nDecember 24, 1989\n\n“WHEN I AM WEAK, THEN AM I STRONG”\n\nII Corinthians 12:1 It is not expedient for me doubtless to glory. I will come to visions and revelations of the Lord.\n\n2 I knew a man in Christ above fourteen years ago, (whether in the body, I cannot tell; or whether out of the body, I cannot tell: God knoweth;) such an one caught up to the third heaven.\n\n3 And I knew such a man, (whether in the body or out of the body, I cannot tell: God knoweth;)\n\n4 How that he was caught up into paradise, and heard unspeakable words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter.\n\n5 Of such an one will I glory: yet of myself I will not glory, but in mine infirmities.\n\n6 For though I would desire to glory, I shall not be a fool; for I will say the truth: but now I forbear, lest any man should think of me above that which he seeth me to be, or that he heareth of me.\n\n7 And lest I should be exalted above measure through the abundance of the revelations, there was given to me a thorn in the flesh, the messenger of Satan to buffet me, lest I should be exalted above measure.\n\n8 For this thing I besought the Lord thrice, that it might depart from me.\n\n9 And he said unto me, My grace is sufficient for thee: for my strength is made perfect in weakness. Most gladly therefore will I rather glory in my infirmities, that the power of Christ may rest upon me.\n\n10 Therefore I take pleasure in infirmities, in reproaches, in necessities, in persecutions, in distresses for Christ’s sake: for when I am weak, then am I strong.\n\n11 I am become a fool in glorying; ye have compelled me: for I ought to have been commended of you: for in nothing am I behind the very chiefest apostles, though I be nothing.\n\n12 Truly the signs of an apostle were wrought among you in all patience, in signs, and wonders, and mighty deeds.\n\n15 And I will very gladly spend and be spent for you; though the more abundantly I love you, the less I be loved.\n\nMemory Verse: And he said unto me, My grace is sufficient for thee: for my strength is made perfect in weakness. Most gladly therefore will I rather glory in my infirmities, that the power of Christ may rest upon me. II Corinthians 12:9.\n\nCentral Thought: There are things that God will allow to come upon us in life that He will not take away in answer to our prayers, but will rather use those things to try and to keep us humble, and give us His all-sufficient grace to make us strong and triumphant in our weakness.\n\nWord Definitions: Infirmities: Weaknesses, inabilities, limitations, difficulties. Reproaches: Insults or injuries. Necessities: Times of constraint and being forced into unpleasant situations. Distresses: Close and difficult situations, calamities.\n\nLESSON BACKGROUND\n\nIn our previous lesson we saw where Paul was defending his ministry in the face of false teachers who were seeking to prey on those to whom he had preached. He continues his defense now by telling how that the Lord Jesus dealt with him in outstanding visions and revelations, balancing them out with special and unusual trials and heavy infirmities. The one he is speaking of as being caught up to the third heaven and into paradise was himself. Just when he was caught up to these heights of glory we cannot accurately tell. Some have thought it might have been when he was taken up for dead after being stoned as related in Acts 14:9. Whenever it was, Paul was granted the special privilege of being taken up into the presence of the Lord where things were spoken that are not permitted to be uttered here on earth. It seemed that God saw fit to bless Paul in a very outstanding way with visions and revelations of His glory. But, to counter-balance these wonderful blessings in order to help keep him humble, God saw fit to allow Paul to suffer unusual difficulties which are listed in our lesson. Paul called it all a thorn in the flesh. There has been a lot of speculation as to what this thorn in the flesh was. Some think it might have been his poor vision. I am more inclined to count it as the things mentioned here all together, making up a great heavy load of physical difficulties that plagued him wherever he went. It is not strange nor out of reason that Paul sought God’s mercy to escape these things. However, the answer of Christ to him is our main lesson today.\n\nHe got an answer, but it was different from what he had hoped. That same grace will be ours today as we face the thorns that we find in our flesh, for we are in the same fight that he was in. God still works to counter-balance our lives. As Frances Ridley Havergal said in her poem of the compensating springs and the balance wheels of life, \"The hand that takes the crown must ache with many a cross.\" This is true in our day. May the Lord help us to see the depths of the meaning of the expression, \"When I am weak, then am I strong.\"\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nQUESTIONS:\n\n1. Why did Paul not want to glory in the fact that he had been caught up to heaven?\n2. Is there any danger of us speaking too much about the revelations and special blessings of the Lord?\n3. Why did the Lord give Paul a thorn in the flesh?\n4. What was his first reaction to this thorn in the flesh?\n5. What did the Lord say to him?\n6. How did Paul take the counsel of the Lord concerning this unanswered petition?\n7. Can you give an illustration of how the Lord’s strength is revealed in the weakness of humanity?\n8. What were some of the things Paul found that he could take pleasure in?\n9. When a man is weak in himself, can he expect the help of God in his life?\n\nADULTS’ AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\nThe infirmities that Paul faced and suffered every day in his life were a special blessing from the Lord. They helped to make manifest the power of Christ in his life. When Christ uses weak things to confound the mighty, the weak vessel takes no credit. In every Christian, sooner or later, there will be this special working by God. God will allow some difficulty to come your way. It will test your courage and decision over and over. It will root out the tendency to be slothful and overly self-confident. To press against this thorn in the flesh will be the most difficult thing you have ever done. Sometimes it will seem that you are going to falter and not be able to make it, but press onward and hold steady. That physical problem, that vexing situation, that unusual difficulty has a very special mission in your life. It will help you to witness the power of Christ more clearly and more closely in your heart.\n\nLook for unusual and special blessings when you enter these times of dire need and temptation, and when heaven opens its windows and pours out its blessings in a special way, do not be surprised if it will be accompanied by some unusual trials of faith. As Ecclesiastes 7:14 says, \"In the day of prosperity be joyful, but in the day of adversity consider: God also hath set the one over against the other, to the end that man should find nothing after him.\" God sets the day of adversity over against (or to balance out) the day of prosperity. It helps keep us humble and to remember that we are absolutely nothing in ourselves. If you haven't already, you will need this lesson someday. The time will come when you will know what it means to be truly strong when you are weak.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nDo you ever get tired of having to go through some kind of trouble? So did the Apostle Paul. In fact he became so weary that it almost became a contention with him and God. But God let him know that although the problems would continue, His grace would be sufficient. With God as our helper we can bear all things and keep a good, wholesome attitude. We can continue to work for God and actually gladly be spent for Him. We don't have to complain as we go through life.\n\nThere is an Aesop fable which tells of a heavily laden wagon, pulled by a yoke of oxen over a dusty road. Each time the wheels turned on their axles they set up a tremendous creaking. Driven almost frantic by the ear-piercing noise, the driver cried, \"Wagon, why do you make all this clamor and complaint, when they who are drawing all the weight are silent?\" If God is willing to do the pulling for us in problems, surely we can bear a little weight without complaining.\n\nIf God is doing the work for us in the hard places it is easy to understand the point that is made in the verse, \"When I am weak, then am I strong.\" It is all contingent on the One to whom we are hooked to. When the hard times come then we can feel the Lord starting to pull. We can feel a divine power working in our lives.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nEXAMINING AND PROVING OURSELVES TO BE IN THE FAITH\n\nII Corinthians 13:1 This is the third time I am coming to you. In the mouth of two or three witnesses shall every word be established.\n\n2 I told you before, and foretell you, as if I were present, the second time; and being absent now I write to them which heretofore have sinned, and to all other, that, if I come again, I will not spare:\n\n3 Since ye seek a proof of Christ speaking in me, which to you-ward is not weak, but is mighty in you.\n\n4 For though he was crucified through weakness, yet he liveth by the power of God. For we also are weak in him, but we shall live with him by the power of God toward you.\n\n5 Examine yourselves, whether ye be in the faith; prove your own selves. Know ye not your own selves, how that Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates?\n\n6 But I trust that ye shall know that we are not reprobates.\n\n7 Now I pray to God that ye do no evil; not that we should appear approved, but that ye should do that which is honest, though we be as reprobates.\n\n8 For we can do nothing against the truth, but for the truth.\n\n9 For we are glad, when we are weak, and ye are strong: and this also we wish, even your perfection.\n\n10 Therefore I write these things being absent, lest being present I should use sharpness, according to the power which the Lord hath given me to edification, and not to destruction.\n\n11 Finally, brethren, farewell. Be perfect, be of good comfort, be of one mind, live in peace; and the God of love and peace shall be with you.\n\n12 Greet one another with an holy kiss.\n\n13 All the saints salute you.\n\n14 The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Ghost, be with you all. Amen.\n\nMemory Verse: Examine yourselves, whether ye be in the faith; prove your own selves. Know ye not your own selves, how that Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates? II Corinthians 13:5.\n\nCentral Thought: We should be very attentive to the reality and genuineness of our faith, examining it constantly\n\nthat it be kept in right order, fulfilling every requirement and meeting every responsibility that Christ in love has handed down to us.\n\n**Word Definition:** *Reprobate*: Unapproved, rejected, worthless, counterfeit.\n\n**LESSON BACKGROUND**\n\nPaul is bringing his second epistle to a close. He calls it his third time to come to them. He came the first time when he visited there and the work for the Lord was started. His second time to come to them was in his first epistle which proved to be such a great blessing to them. He may have counted each visit a witness. He tells them that if he comes again he will not spare. They were seeking a proof of Christ in him, and he was proving to them that Christ was mightily working in him. He explained that though Christ was crucified through weakness, yet He lived by the power of God, and that Paul was weak (in the flesh) in Christ, but would live with them by the power of God toward them. Instead of making such a stiff requirement that Paul prove himself, he tells them that they need to turn the searchlight on their own lives, examining themselves whether they be in the faith or not. He warned them about the possibility of being reprobates, and the chance they had of being cast away at the last. He wanted them to be assured that he himself was not a reprobate. All through this we see that loving and tender concern that he had for their state. So convinced was he of this thing that he declared that nothing could be done against the truth, but for the truth. The truth will stand by itself. It needs no one to support it. As the poet William Cullen Bryant said, “Truth crushed to earth will rise again, The eternal years of God are hers; But error, wounded, writhes in pain, and dies among her worshipers.” Paul expressed himself boldly but with desire that his authority would not be for their destruction, but for their edification. Then he closed with loving words of comfort and courage, admonishing them to greet one another with an holy kiss, praying that the grace of Christ, the love of the Father, and the communion of the Holy Spirit would be with them all.\n\n—Leslie C. Busbee\n\n**QUESTIONS:**\n\n1. Who is to examine who in this matter of who is in the faith?\n\n2. How can we know that we are in the faith for sure?\n3. What must we have in our hearts and minds that will correspond with the weakness of Christ?\n4. Can we be in the true faith without sharing Christ’s weakness?\n5. Make a list from the previous studies in this series and from the Word of God in general, of the things that are vital to be in the faith.\n6. Can we really do anything against the truth and prevail against it?\n7. What were the final things that Paul lovingly entreated them to do as he closed his epistle?\n8. Why was Paul glad to be weak?\n9. In what way did Paul want to use his power and authority?\n10. What three things did he pray to be with them all?\n\nADULT’S AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S COMMENTS\n\n“Examine yourselves,” our lesson tells us. It didn’t say for us to examine someone else, but this often is the case, and we fail to examine ourself. Not only are we to examine ourself, but we are to prove ourself. Watch how you act in times of trouble or distress. How do you act when others talk about you or cast your name out as evil? Jesus spoke to the Pharisees and told them that they were careful to pay tithes of mint, etc., but they had omitted the “weightier matters of the law,” which were “judgment, mercy and faith.” (Matthew 23:23). They were careful to pick mint and be sure that they gave the tenth sprig, but they were not careful to “judge righteous judgment.” (John 7:24). Some say that the Bible says, “By their fruits ye shall know them.” This is true, but many do not judge “righteous judgment” when they inspect another person. We need to be careful about being fruit inspectors. We need to see that we have mercy and faith. We need to do as our lesson says for us to do—“examine ourselves.” Many judge from appearance, and that is not righteous judgment. We can know if we are the Lord’s. His Spirit bears witness with our spirit that we have passed from death to life. (Read Romans 8:14-17). If Christ dwells in us, we are not reprobates, but have the power of Christ working within us. We can’t mix the worldly spirit with the Spirit of Christ. We must reject worldliness and cling to the true Spirit of Christ to be acceptable in the sight of the Lord. We can’t mix truth with error. We are under the influence of the spirit of Satan or the Spirit of the Lord. Praise God, we can know if we are the Lord’s, and if we\n\nmeasure our lives to the Word of God, we belong to Him!\n—Sis. Marie Miles, December, 1975\n\nFOOD FOR THOUGHT\n\nWhen an airplane ticket is purchased in advance, it is a good idea to confirm the ticket before you go to take the flight. Things can happen that make an airline ticket void. How disappointing to attempt to board the plane only to find out you have been “bumped” from that flight. How much more important it is to confirm our salvation. This needs to be done frequently and is accomplished by examining ourselves. I Cor. 1:8 tells about the words and life of Christ which shall “confirm you unto the end, that ye may be blameless in the day of our Lord Jesus Christ.” As we read the Word of God and apply it to ourselves, we can have an assurance that all is well. Disappointment is hardly the appropriate word to use when describing what it would be like to stand before God on the day of judgment and find out our experience is not up-to-date. Eternally devastating might convey more the proper feeling.\n\nOne way to know if we will be reprobates at the close of our life is to see if we are of any use to God in this life. Those whom Satan is the master of lead a very unproductive life. Their time and talents are wasted. There are some who have a Christian profession, but because Christ is not the motivation for their actions their experience is a counterfeit. But these things do not have to be, for God has something better. We can maintain a vibrant experience with God in which He gives daily assurance that all is well.\n\n—Wayne Murphey\n\nMARY SLESSOR OF CALABAR\n\nFrom early girlhood Mary Slessor of Scotland had dreamed of being a missionary to Africa. During her early life she helped her widowed mother support the family, but while toiling in the mills, she planned for the day when she would carry the Gospel to the lost in West Africa.\n\nThe time came when she exchanged the cold grey skies of her native land for the warm tropical breezes of Africa and she began to learn of the awful conditions of the heathen—their sin and ignorance, their superstition and degradation.\n\nShe knew the Gospel was the only power on earth to turn them from their degrading practices—and she made up her mind to do all in her power to help them.\n\nThere was one custom that grieved her—and that was against twins born in the home. Twins were not allowed to live, but were stuffed into containers and thrown into the bush to be eaten by wild beasts. The mother was also driven into the wilds and left to starve or to be eaten by wild animals because her body was supposed to be inhabited by evil spirits.\n\n**Devotion To Christ**\n\nPurity was unknown among them in those days and only the love of God in her heart could cause a girl, who had been brought up as had Mary Slessor, to live under such conditions.\n\nBut Mary did it for Jesus’ sake and for the sake of the souls He had died to redeem, and so great was her devotion to Christ and to the people that she soon won the hearts of all and became almost supreme among them.\n\nHer fame spread from tribe to tribe and from chief to chief, and far back into the jungles, and they sent her invitation after invitation to come and bring them the Gospel.\n\nThe life dream of Mary Slessor seemed to be realized when she at last landed among the people of a very needy tribe.\n\nThere she began in the same tender way giving them the Gospel and sacrificing her every comfort for their welfare. She won the hearts of these people and gained such power over them that they soon learned not to resist her wishes.\n\nMany times when war seemed inevitable between tribes, and their wild passions ran high, she would throw her life into the situation and the trouble would be averted.\n\nShe did not attempt to save herself, but even when chiefs were heavily drinking and very dangerous, she did not hesitate to appeal to them in the interest of the people, and she nearly always won.\n\nThe tribe where she worked was especially cruel and was constantly fighting among themselves and with other tribes. They had practiced every horrible custom imaginable. Every man carried a defense day and night.\n\nThere are no words that can describe the depths to which these people had fallen in their social and moral customs. From the standpoint of men, they were beyond hope. But Mary Slessor did not depend upon human resources.\n\n“I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ: for it is the power of God unto salvation to every one that believeth: to the Jew first, and also to the Greek.” Romans 1:16.\n\nShe knew the Gospel was the power of God—and the only power in the universe that could change the hearts of these people. It did change thousands of them from the cruel and benighted people that they were into new creations in Christ.\n\n\"Therefore if any man be in Christ, he is a new creature, old things are passed away; behold, all things are become new.\" 2 Cor. 5:17\n\nIn fact, Mary Slessor had not been long among this tribe until she began to see changes for the good among them. Many of them accepted the Gospel and became wonderful Christians, upright, moral, clean citizens of their community, and thousands of others, moved by their example, left off their evil practices.\n\nMary Slessor’s chief reliance was prayer. She said she did not believe there was anything that prayer could not do. She had resorted to it on a thousand occasions, and it had never failed.\n\nYielded, In Every Fiber Of Her Being\n\nShe was powerful in prayer because she was yielded to God in every fiber of her being. Prayer had many times restrained drunken chiefs from their cruel purposes and kept them from those evil practices that they had long followed. It had done away with the wicked practice of twin and wife destruction.\n\nShe knew, in a way that only a few have known, that prayer is the greatest power that God has put into the hands of His people for service!\n\nShe often said that prayer is harder than work, but that it lies in the way of every advance in God’s kingdom.\n\n\"I have no idea how or why God carried me over so many hard places and made these people subject to me, except it was in answer to the prayers of those in the homeland for me. It is all beyond my comprehension. The only way I can explain it is that I have been prayed for more than most.\"\n\nThat We May Learn The Meaning Of Sacrifice And Service\n\nTo Mary Slessor, Christ was real and even more real than any person. She said, \"When I am out in the bush, I have no one to talk to but Him, and so I just talk to Him.\"\n\nYes, she talked to Him and He listened to her, because there was nothing in her life that she had not given up for Him.\n\nShe knew that He had given up all for her and why should she not give all to Him, such a wonderful and dear Saviour and Friend?\n\nThread Of Her Being\n\nShe had heard from childhood God's call to go, and she had obeyed with every thread of her being. There was nothing that she kept back from Him, and how small do the meager sacrifices of the average one of us seem when compared to those she made for Christ!\n\nWe are of the opinion that God gives us such characters as Mary Slessor that we may learn the meaning of sacrifice and service. There was no sacrifice that she was not willing to make for the Lord Jesus Christ who had saved her from the power of sin, and made her a member of His heavenly kingdom.\n\nInstant In Service\n\nThere was no service too menial for her to perform. Her labor for those around her was incessant. She had rescued one of the twins sacrificed in the bush, brought it to her home, and cared for it as tenderly as she would have cared for her own child.\n\nShe had in her home a number of these rescued children and she served and trained them as carefully as she would have cared for her own. She did as much manual labor as any man, always seeing the necessity of leading the natives in work, for without, they were always in favor of putting the work off until 'tomorrow' and we know tomorrow never comes. —Sel.\n\nSubscription Order\n\nPlease send _____ copies of the Bible Lessons quarterly to:\n\nName ____________________________________________\n\nAddress ___________________________________________\n\nCity ________________ State ______ Zip ______\n\nSubscription rate: 50¢ per copy per quarter; or $2.00 per copy for one year (issued quarterly).\n\nPlease find enclosed payment in the amount of $____.\n\nMail to:\nFAITH PUBLISHING HOUSE\nP. O. Box 518\nGuthrie, Okla. 73044"}}},{"rowIdx":204798,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"BE IT RESOLVED BY THE ZONING COMMISSION OF PALM BEACH COUNTY, FLORIDA, in regular session assembled this the 1st day of September A.D. 1966, that the following modification is hereby adopted as an Amendment to Zoning Resolution #3 pursuant to the authority vested in said Commission by Chapter 57-1691, Special Laws of Florida 1957, and Chapter 59-1686, Special Laws of Florida 1959:\n\nUnder SECTION 2 - DEFINITIONS delete the following definitions as written:\n\nADVERTISING SIGNS, ACCESSORY\nADVERTISING SIGNS, PRINCIPAL USE\nADVERTISING SIGNS, OUTDOOR\n\nand insert the following in proper alphabetical order:\n\nSIGNS AND OUTDOOR DISPLAYS\n\nFor the purpose of this resolution, all sign definitions and terms shall be as outlined in Chapter XXIII of the Palm Beach County Building Code.\n\nDelete SECTION 4-B-9 as written and substitute the following:\n\n9. Signs and Outdoor Displays meeting the regulations as set forth in Section 15.\n\nDelete SECTION 8-B-5 as written and substitute the following:\n\n5. Signs and Outdoor Displays meeting the regulations as set forth in Section 15.\n\nDelete SECTION 14-6 - Sign Regulations as written and substitute the following:\n\n6. Signs and Outdoor Displays (See Section 15 of this resolution)\n\nRenumber present SECTIONS 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 and 21 as SECTIONS 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22.\n\nADD NEW SECTION 15 - SIGNS AND OUTDOOR DISPLAYS\n\nA. REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO BILLBOARDS\n\n1. Locations\n\nNo billboard shall be erected:\n\n(a) Upon any property zoned as a Residential District except as approved under Section 15-B-3.\n\n(b) Within TWO HUNDRED FEET (200') of a residence, church, or school except in a Commercial or Industrial Zone.\n\n(c) Within TWENTY-FIVE FEET (25') of any ultimate right-of-way in a Residential, Commercial, or Industrial Zoning District or FIFTEEN FEET (15') in an A-1 Agricultural District.\n\n(d) Within TWENTY-FIVE FEET (25') of the ultimate right-of-way lines, on any corner lot, except that such signs may be erected on roofs of buildings in accordance with Section 15-B-9 of this Resolution governing roof signs.\n\n2. Maintenance\n\nIt shall be the duty of every person maintaining any billboard within the unincorporated areas to keep the property within TWENTY FEET (20') of such billboards free of trash and debris; to cut the weeds and brush around said billboards and to paint or cover by shrubbery or lattice work, the frame of any signs visible from any street.\n\nB. REGULATIONS AS TO OTHER SIGNS\n\n1. Flat or Wall Signs\n\nNo flat or wall sign shall be erected at a distance of more than TWELVE INCHES (12\") beyond the face of any building, marquee being considered as a part of a building. The outside edge of wall signs on marquees shall be no closer than the ultimate right-of-way line.\n\n2. Fixed Projecting Signs\n\nThe outer edge of any fixed projecting sign shall not extend closer than the ultimate right-of-way.\n\n3. Real Estate Signs\n\nReal estate signs shall be permitted only for the purpose of advertising the land or building for rent or for sale unless otherwise approved by the\n\nSECTION 15-B-3 (Continued)\n\nZoning Commission, and shall relate only to the premises upon which the sign is located. Only one double faced real estate sign, visible from one street front shall be permitted on each parcel of land located within any residential district. Such sign shall not exceed the number of square feet of sign area if located within the distances of a residence in such residential districts as hereinafter specified, to wit:\n\n| MAXIMUM SIGN AREA | WITHIN DISTANCE OF RESIDENCE |\n|-------------------|-------------------------------|\n| 6 sq. ft. | 50 ft. |\n| 12 sq. ft. | 100 ft. |\n\nSubdivision development signs in a County Approved Subdivision shall be permitted to exceed the above sizes where the location of such signs is more than TWO HUNDRED FEET (200') from any residence and approval shall be on a temporary one (1) year basis.\n\n4. Point of Purchase Signs\n\nNot more than three (3) point of purchase signs shall be permitted for each street front at each place of business or premises. These signs may be any combination of the following types: Marquee, Projecting, Pylon, Roof or Detached. A temporary real estate sign may be added to those enumerated in this subsection.\n\n(a) Provisions:\n\n(1) Detached Signs - The total maximum area of a detached sign or signs shall be SIXTY SQUARE FEET for a business with a street frontage of SIXTY FEET (60') or less in length. One additional square foot of sign area will be allowed for each additional foot of street frontage over SIXTY FEET (60') up to a maximum of SIX HUNDRED FEET (600').\n\nOn business property with SIXTY FEET (60') or less of street frontage, there shall be a minimum SIX FOOT (6') setback from the interior side lot lines except pole signs with a minimum clearance of NINE FEET (9') between the bottom of the sign and the established grade which may be allowed at, but not overhanging, the interior side lot lines. On business property with a street frontage between SIXTY FEET (60') and ONE HUNDRED FEET (100') there shall\n\nbe a minimum setback from the interior side property lines equal to 10% of the street frontage. On business property with a street frontage of over ONE HUNDRED FEET (100'), there shall be a minimum setback from the interior side property lines equal to 20% of the street frontage, with a maximum setback of FIFTY FEET (50') required.\n\n(2) Projecting Sign - No size limitation except as set forth in Section 2303.4 - Projecting Signs - of the county building code.\n\n(3) Marquee Sign - No size limitation except as set forth in Section 15-B-11 of this resolution and Section 2303.5 of the county building code.\n\n(4) Pylon Sign - No size limitation except as set forth in Section 15-B-6 of this resolution.\n\n(5) Roof Sign - No size limitation except as otherwise provided in Section 15-B-9 of this resolution.\n\n5. **Pole or Ground Signs**\n\n(a) No supporting member or any part of a pole or ground sign utilized as a Point of Purchase Sign shall be erected nearer the street than the ultimate right-of-way.\n\n(b) No pole or ground sign shall be erected to a height exceeding THIRTY-FIVE FEET (35') above the ground or street level except as otherwise provided in Section 15-D-2. Lighting reflectors may project beyond the face of the sign.\n\n(c) One pole or ground sign may be located within TWENTY-FIVE FEET (25') of a property corner at a street intersection where not otherwise prohibited by County Code. No part of any pole or ground sign so located shall project over the public right-of-way; such sign shall not exceed THREE FEET (3') in height unless there is at least a NINE FOOT (9') clearance from the ground. The total permissible diameter of sign poles within TWENTY-FIVE FEET (25') of an intersection property corner shall be TWELVE INCHES (12\").\n\n6. **Pylon Sign**\n\n(a) All pylon signs shall meet the requirements of projecting signs as to maximum projection from the wall, minimum height above sidewalk and horizontal clearance from the public right-of-way.\n\nSECTION 15-B-6 (Continued)\n\n(b) Maximum height of pylon signs will be limited to TWENTY-FOUR FEET (24') above the roof level and THIRTY-FIVE FEET (35') above ground level except as otherwise provided in Section 15-D-2.\n\n7. Entrance Gates\n\n(a) All entrance gates shall be located a minimum of FIVE FEET (5') from any ultimate road right-of-way line.\n\n(b) All Entrance Gates shall be a maximum height of THREE FEET (3') within a distance of FIVE FEET (5') to FIFTEEN FEET (15') from the ultimate right-of-way. A continuous fence of no more than THREE FEET (3') in height may be used in conjunction with said entrance gate provided no traffic hazard is created. The maximum height of the Entrance Gate shall be EIGHT FEET (8') from ground level at a distance of FIFTEEN FEET (15') or more from the ultimate right-of-way line.\n\n(c) Lettering - The maximum allowable size of any lettering shall be TWENTY-FOUR INCHES (24\") in height, and shall only identify the county approved subdivision or community.\n\n8. Home Occupation Name Plates\n\nAll Home Occupation Name Plates shall be located in the vicinity of the main entrance at or behind the building setback line. The maximum size shall be ONE FOOT (1') square.\n\n9. Roof Signs\n\nRoof signs shall not extend over public property and shall be limited to a maximum height of TWENTY-FOUR FEET (24') above the roof level, or THIRTY-FIVE FEET (35') above ground level, except as provided in Section 15-D-2.\n\n10. Conditional Use Signs\n\nConditional Use Signs for churches, including church bulletins, clubs, and schools, may not exceed EIGHTEEN SQUARE FEET in gross area. Other signs authorized under conditional use may not exceed TWENTY-FOUR SQUARE FEET in gross area, meet a minimum side setback of TWENTY-FIVE FEET (25') from the interior lot line and may be illuminated but not flash.\n\nA day nursery may have a non-illuminated sign not exceeding SIX SQUARE FEET in gross area at the building setback line.\n\nSECTION 15-B (Continued)\n\n11. **Marquee Signs**\n\nAll marquee signs shall be hung so as to be at least EIGHT FEET (8') at its lowest level above the sidewalk or ground level or both. A marquee sign shall not extend over the ultimate right-of-way line.\n\nC. **CERTAIN SIGNS OR ADVERTISING STRUCTURES PROHIBITED**\n\nFrom and after the effective date of this Amendment, it shall be unlawful for any person to erect or use within the unincorporated areas of Palm Beach County:\n\n1. Any swinging projecting sign.\n2. Any anipe sign.\n3. Any banner over any street or sidewalk or within any County playground or park without permission from the County Commission.\n4. Any sign erected, relocated or maintained so as to prevent free ingress to or egress from any door, window, or fire escape.\n5. Any sign attached to a standpipe or fire escape.\n6. Any sign, portable or fixed, placed or erected on or over any part of the ultimate road right-of-way other than directional signs erected by authorized County or State Officials.\n7. Temporary political signs erected within FIVE FEET (5') of any public right-of-way.\n8. Any unauthorized sign on County property.\n9. Any sign which, in its design, lighting, animation, or embellishment of any nature, simulates the appearance of any state or local traffic sign or lighting.\n10. Any illuminated sign of such intensity that the observer becomes temporarily blinded.\n11. Any sign with copy, or lighting of such nature as to interfere with, mislead, or confuse traffic.\n12. Any sign which exhibits thereon any lewd, lascivious, indecent or immoral material.\n\nSECTION 15-C (Continued)\n\n13. Any sign attached to trees, utility poles or any other unapproved supporting structure.\n\nD. GENERAL\n\n1. **Height Above Sidewalks, Etc.**\n\n No portion of any sign projecting over a private sidewalk in said unincorporated areas shall be less than NINE FEET (9') above the grade of said sidewalk. Any sign projecting over private property and located where motor trucks may be required to pass beneath them, shall be erected and maintained at a height not less than FOURTEEN FEET (14'). No portion of any sign shall project over public property.\n\n2. **Height Above 35 Feet**\n\n For any signs over 35 feet in height, measured from established grade of property to top of sign structure, there shall be a minimum setback from overall all property lines of 110% of the height.\n\nAttest:\n\nViola McCarthy\n\nClerk\n\n---\n\nW.R. Moore \nChairman\n\nWillie F. Koch\n\nAs and constituting the Zoning Commission of Palm Beach County, Florida"}}},{"rowIdx":204799,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"COLUMBIA COLLEGE\nRABI SCHOLARS PROGRAM\n\n6TH ANNUAL\nSCIENCE RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM\n23, SEPTEMBER 2011\n\nPRESENTATION ABSTRACTS\n\nCONTENTS\n\nIlya Belopolski .......................... Open questions in multi-messenger gravitational wave astronomy\nRohan Bhandari ......................... Observation of the Interlayer State in Graphene on Ir(111)\nNathan Booth ........................... Electron transport in bilayer graphene\nAlice Chang ............................ Single-Molecule Conductance through Direct Au-C Contacts\nVadim Chanyshev ....................... The St. Petersburg Paradox\nRena Chen .............................. Optimized synthesis by chemical vapor deposition of atomic layer hexagonal boron nitride\nWoo Chang Chung ...................... Characterization of the Charge Density Wave Phase in NbSe2\nKevin Guo ............................... Virus Classification with Hierarchical motif clustering\nJonathan Huggins ..................... The Structured Explicit Duration Infinite Hidden Markov Model\nRaina Jain .............................. The Effect of Bioglass Particle Size on Cell Response\nJoon Ho Kang ........................... Proteolytic machine studied at single-molecule level with Total Internal Reflection Microscope/electromagnetic tweezer\nPin-Joe Ko .............................. Quantification of tip proteins in *S. pombe* using confocal fluorescence microscopy\nNilay Kumar ............................ Baryons and baryonic matter in the 't Hooft model under the heavy quark limit\nAlexis Kurmis .......................... Development of Enantioselective Reductive Coupling Reactions\nAndre Lazar ............................ Modeling Integrin Clustering as Diffusion to a Sink\nDan Margulies ......................... A Tight Binding Model for Molecular Conductance and Transmission\nJames Nugent ........................... Compactification on Calabi Yau Manifolds\nJulia Oktawiec ......................... Synthesis of a Organoboron Compound and Possible Novel Ligand\nDarpan Patel ........................... Iron-Dependent, Non-Apoptotic Cancer Cell Death Requires NADPH Oxidase (NOX) Enzyme Activity\nMilesh Patel ............................ Barriers to Optimal Nutrition for Very Low Birthweight Infants: A Quality Improvement Study on Parenteral Amino Acid Administration\nJenny Shao ............................. Investigating the Role of Actin Polymerization State in Synaptic Plasticity\nKatharina Shaw ......................... Synthesis of Resveratrol-Derived Analogues: Phosphorylated Isopaucifloral F, Phosphorylated Paucifloral F, and Yuccaone A\nHyoun Ju Sohn ......................... Crystal formation of Dibenzotetrathienocoronenes (DBTTC) on graphite in ambient scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) using platinum-iridium tips\nTyler St. Denis ......................... Enhancement of Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy by Potassium Thiocyanate/Selenocyanate Salts\nScott Zhang ............................ Diffuse high-energy neutrino spectra from high and low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts\n\nOpen questions in multi-messenger gravitational wave astronomy\n\nGravitational wave astronomy promises to forever alter our view of the universe by enabling us to observe astrophysical phenomena that are not directly associated with the emission of light. However, although the existence of gravitational waves was first predicted nearly one hundred years ago, they have not yet been directly detected. The Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) is a network of phenomenally high-precision optical interferometers that detects minute distortions of space-time due to incident gravitational radiation of cosmic origin. By 2014, the second generation of LIGO interferometers, Advanced LIGO, will be operational and will incorporate upgrades that allow it to detect displacements of its long-arm optics as small as $10^{-21}$ meters, several orders of magnitude smaller than the diameter of a proton. The effective sensitivity of Advanced LIGO will be further improved by comparing gravitational wave data with astronomical observations from conventional light telescopes through so-called multi-messenger searches. Since many transient gravitational wave emissions coincide closely with E&M bursts, direct observation of the associated E&M signal can provide precise knowledge of the event time, the source location, and the source distance. This information allows gravitational wave searches to be more robust to detector glitches, reduces the computational power required for analysis, and yields more interesting physics by allowing estimates of the gravitational wave energy emitted at the source. As higher sensitivities are achieved through Advanced LIGO and as conventional light telescopes become ever-more precise, this multi-messenger approach offers us powerful observational tools to investigate fundamental problems in cosmology and astrophysics.\n\nHere we survey the open questions in multi-messenger gravitational wave astronomy and evaluate the state of current research for several of the most provocative fields of investigation, as follows: (1) Are there regimes in which Einstein’s theory of general relativity is violated? We consider, in particular, strong-field regimes such as those which characterize the imploding core of supernovae, the structure of rapidly-rotating neutron stars, and the final stages of the merger of two compact bodies. We also consider cosmological length scales, where a failure of general relativity might allow for the existence of the dark energy which appears to dominate the universe and drive its expansion. (2) Is the speed of propagation of gravitational waves less than, equal to, or greater than the speed of light? If gravitational waves propagate more slowly than light, could they be associated with a massive graviton and could these gravitons account for dark matter in the universe? Lastly, (3) do quark stars exist? How easily will Advanced LIGO be able to set upper limits on the quadrupole deformations of the pulsars which currently serve as possible quark star candidates? When will non-detection confront theoretical models of exotic matter? By evaluating current research on these fundamental problems, we hope to define directions for future work in the field.\n\nRohan Bhandari: Physics, CC’13\n\nObservation of the Interlayer State in Graphene on Ir(111)\n\nBy analyzing and understanding the image states of graphene, one can gain insight into its electronic properties. An image state refers to an electron that has been excited outside of the surface of the metal, and its resulting electric field. Graphene is of particular interest, because it exhibits very curious electronic properties: its electrons are able to travel relatively far distances before colliding with other electrons. Also, these electrons behave as Dirac particles, essentially acting as particles in an accelerator, while\n\nactually traveling relatively slowly and residing in a metal. From a better understanding of these properties, it is hoped that Graphene can be applied towards nanoelectronics and superconductors, among other fields.\n\nThe image states were probed through 2 Photon Photoemission of graphene that was grown on Iridium (111) by chemical deposition. This procedure uses a high frequency (on the order of a femtosecond) laser to bombard the graphene surface with photons, which can doubly excite the electrons. The resulting electron energies are measured and the original electron energy can then be inferred.\n\nThe collected data was then analyzed and fit with a Voigt curve, which is a convolution between a Gaussian and Lorentzian curve. By fitting the Fermi cutoff with a Fermi function, it was found that the experimental resolution was 40 meV. This resolution corresponds to the width of the Gaussian curve in the convolution, which is fixed. The analysis showed the existence of an interlayer state between the graphene and Iridium, which had been previously obscured due to resonance from the other image states.\n\nNathan Booth: Physics, CC’14\n\nElectron transport in bilayer graphene\n\nGraphene, which has attracted great interest in the scientific community and in the media in the past several years, is a two-dimensional substance consisting of a single atomic layer of carbon. Recent research has suggested that few-layer graphene also has properties worthy of exploration. The research discussed here explores electron transport in such substances—specifically, bilayer graphene. The samples used in these experiments were developed by exfoliating high-quality graphite pieces and pressing them down onto silicon chips. From there, areas of bilayer graphene were located on the chip and patterns for Hall bars were etched using electron beam lithography, and contacts were formed to match the pattern by evaporating gold onto the sample. Finally, the graphene was suspended in an electrolyte. We then did Hall measurements across the sample to measure its conductivity as temperature changed. We experimented with mixing lithium and other metals into the electrolyte and then cooling the system down to low temperatures to gauge how the Kondo effect changes the conductivity of the substance as the metal intercalates between the layers. This course of research may eventually lead to observation of superconductivity in graphene. So far the results have been promising and high conductivities have been seen, especially with samples that have lithium intercalated, but the research is ongoing and conclusive results remain to be seen.\n\nAlice Chang: Chemistry, CC’13\n\nSingle-Molecule Conductance through Direct Au-C Contacts\n\nThe phenomenon of single-molecule conductance has potential applications to building molecular-scale electronics. In a few generations, the composition of electronic devices is expected to be controlled on the atomic scale; the ultimate miniaturization would use components that are single molecules. Molecular conductance junctions are nanoscale structures in which single molecules conduct electrical current between two electrodes. In such junctions, the contacts between the molecule and the electrodes determine current-voltage characteristics. One class of molecular conductors consists of compounds synthesized by attaching two linker groups to a conjugated molecular core. Strained rings in the linker\n\ngroup can directly bind to the two gold electrodes used to measure conductance, allowing efficient charge transport across the molecular junction. Conductance through the linkers and core can be optimized by directing charge transport through a delocalized $\\pi$-electron system, since conductance through $\\sigma$-bonds alone is typically weak. The goal of this project is to explore $\\pi$-conductance phenomena through simple strained single-molecule conductors that form direct Au-C contacts. Toward this goal, encouraged by DFT-predicted structures, we synthesized 1,4-dicyclobutenebenzene and 1,4-dicyclopentenebenzene in high purity (>99%) and submitted samples for STM-based break-junction conductance measurements. For both compounds, conductance measurements were on the order of $10^5 \\times G_0$, where $G_0$ is the quantum of conductance through two gold electrodes in direct contact. Although the conductance is low compared to the conductances reported in the literature for molecules with known heteroatom linker groups (the conductance measured for 1,4-diaminobenzene, for example, is on the order of $10^2 \\times G_0$), it is higher than expected considering that the electrodes form direct Au-C contacts with the strained-ring linkers. Such linkers have advantages over known linkers, such as improved stability and low toxicity, that would be crucial to applying single-molecule conductors to nanoscale electronics.\n\nIn order to further investigate properties of direct Au-C contacts, we plan to synthesize other strained molecules with novel linkers. Another extension of this project will be to measure the conductance of a family of straight-chain alkanes with the same strained linkers. The conductance $G$ decays as $G \\approx e^{\\beta N}$, where $\\beta$ is the decay constant and $N$ the number of methylene groups on the backbone; by measuring the conductances of linker-terminated alkanes with $N = 4, 6, 8,$ or 10 methylene groups, we can compare the effectiveness of our novel strained-ring linkers to that of linkers discussed in the literature.\n\nVadim Chanyshev: Mathematics, CC’13\n\nThe St. Petersburg Paradox\n\nThe St. Petersburg Paradox is a relatively well-known problem in game theory, which is famous for having no numerical solution. The problem describes a lottery game that is played by flipping a coin as many times as needed until it results in tails. Every time the coin is flipped, however, the payoff is doubled. The paradox of the problem is that the expected payoff is impossible to calculate. However, that does not mean that the game is not playable in practice. Working on this problem in the past I have found a way to estimate the expected payoff at certain confidence level, which is useful for finding the average loss the lottery can expect to have with each game it allows its customers to play.\n\nThis summer I have found a formula to calculate exactly what the chance is that the payoffs (the money it pays to its players after each round, for an unlimited number of rounds), which are a random variable, cross a diagonal boundary that represents the lottery’s growing revenue. The complexity of this problem is that there is no way to calculate this exactly without making millions of calculations, which by hand would take an indefinite amount of time. The formula that I created in Excel, however, generates all the possible combinations of outcomes for any number of rounds and then calculates the probabilities of these outcomes occurring. With those values it is possible to calculate the probability that a boundary with any slope and intercept is crossed at any point. The formula itself is infinite in length and takes up an indefinite number of cells because no finite number of operations in an Excel spreadsheet can calculate an infinite number of probabilities that correspond to an infinite number of combinations. However, this is not an issue, because the formula not only generates new combinations for each round but also expands itself to\n\nfit the required number of calculations for the task that it is given, which means that it is only limited by the speed of the processor in a computing machine.\n\nBoundary crossing problems are well known, however, they have never been applied to the St. Petersburg Paradox in particular. The formula is extremely useful because it can easily be altered to make calculations for relevant sequences since there is nothing exceptional about the St. Petersburg Paradox other than an infinite expectation of outcomes. Finally the formula gives the exact risk a lottery experiences when letting the public play the game, which has never been calculated before. For example if a lottery has $10,000, collects $10 per game, it could use the formula to find out the probability that it will be bankrupt after 5000 games played. It can also find out other relevant information such as the probabilities that other boundaries (determined by the initial amount the lottery has and the price it collects) are crossed to know how its risk of going bankrupt will be affected by changing the price of the game or the initial amount of money it has in its savings. The formula I have developed, therefore, produces a business model for any lottery willing to install this or a game that has a similar structure.\n\nRena Chen: Astrophysics, CC’14\n\nOptimized synthesis by chemical vapor deposition of atomic layer hexagonal boron nitride\n\nHexagonal boron nitride ($h$-BN) is a two dimensional material complementary to graphene that can be used to engineer devices with unusual electrical and optical properties such as high mobility electron transistors and far ultraviolet light emitting diodes. Recently, atomic layers of graphene with $h$-BN have been grown using chemical vapor deposition (CVD). CVD also produces high quality $h$-BN films that are thin, uniform, and continuous. Although $h$-BN films of two atomic layers have been demonstrated using CVD, we endeavor to produce monolayer $h$-BN. We used CVD to synthesize $h$-BN on copper and nickel substrate with ammonia borane as the precursor. The $h$-BN was characterized by Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Scalable synthesis of monolayer $h$-BN films using CVD, which can produce $h$-BN in large quantities at low costs, has the potential to galvanize further research in graphene electronics and the production of optoelectronic devices in industry.\n\nWoo Chang Chung: Mathematics, Physics, CC’13\n\nCharacterization of the Charge Density Wave Phase in NbSe2\n\nMetals often undergo a phase transition to a new electronic state when they are cooled down to a low temperature; superconductivity is a well-known example of such transition. Another interesting example of an electronic phase transition occurring in low dimensional metals is the charge density wave (CDW). A CDW is a coupled periodic modulation of conduction electron density and atom positions in the lattice. For some low dimensional metals, the CDW state is more energetically favorable at low temperature than the metallic state. However, the true reason for the existence of the CDW state is not known for many materials. Most experimental measurements of the CDW we have thus far are from momentum space, which is the Fourier transform of real space. The goal of this experiment is to better understand how the CDW forms in the real space from the metallic state as the temperature of the material is lowered. The material of choice is two-dimensional metal NbSe2, which is the most well studied CDW material so far, but one in which the reason for the CDW transition is still debated. Our scanning tunneling microscopy\n\n(STM) data confirmed that CDW persists around crystal defects beyond the transition temperature (33.7 K). A part of the characterization of the CDW was to determine the relationship between the phase of the CDW near defects and the bias voltage applied to the sample crystal (= energy levels of the crystal). A set of tunneling spectroscopy maps with bias voltage ranging from -1.4V to 1.4V in intervals (or frames) of 0.05V was obtained. For each frame, CDW components were selected using 2D-FFT filtering. Then an autocorrelation analysis was performed between each frame and the CDW at bias = 1.4V, which was chosen as the reference. The autocorrelation analysis showed the variation of the CDW phase with applied bias giving us information on the effect of the CDW on the various energy bands of NbSe$_2$.\n\nKevin Guo: Mathematics, CC’15\n\n**Virus Classification with Hierarchical motif clustering**\n\nMolecular biologists will classify viruses based on its shape, form, and other phenotypical features. Relying solely on phenotype will capture large differences between viruses, but often will fail to capture any genetic nuances between the same family and strain. Using machine learning techniques, we seek to learn protein subsequences from a virus’s genome that are strong classifiers of its host: plant, invertebrate, or vertebrate.\n\nOur data consist of 146 virus sequences along with their designated hosts. This method uses a boosting algorithm modeled on an alternating decision tree (ADT). For each round of boosting, the algorithm searches for the weak rule that minimizes an exponential loss function on the dataset, which is strongly correlated with the accuracy of the classifier. After finding the weak rule, the algorithm attaches it to the ADT and continues to the next round of boosting. Each decision node of the ADT has two output nodes, with an associated $+$ and $-$$. When a virus’s protein sequence is run through the ADT, if it passes the threshold of a decision node, $+$ is added to its score; otherwise, $-$ is subtracted, with each virus’s final score determining its classification based on our boosting model. More specifically, we first search for the top N protein subsequences (kmers) of length k whose exact matches classify the train set with the least exponential loss. We then convert each subsequence into a Position Specific Scoring Matrix (PSSM) smoothed by a machine epsilon. The PSSMs are clustered using Hierarchical Motif Clustering based on their \"similarity\", which is determined by a weighted, symmetric form of the Kullback-Leibler Divergence. The final step searches over N-1 PSSMs to find the PSSM, decision/output node, and threshold combination with the least exponential loss, compares it to the kmer with the least exponential loss, and choosing the lesser of the two to add to the ADT as the new weak rule.\n\nOur method when tested with k=8 N=10 achieves a test accuracy of 92% when averaged across 5 rounds of cross validation. Unsurprisingly, the top 10 kmers were more than enough to seed the initial PSSMs. Greater values of N mostly decreased the test accuracy, although some upward spikes resulted. However, this was expected, since a greater number of seed kmers would lead to more variability. Previous techniques of classification involving machine learning did not use the probability distribution methods of the PSSM. Instead, it was necessary to specify a mismatch neighborhood m for each kmer with thresholds being a kmer match within m amino acids. The mismatch neighborhood attempts to capture the high rate of mutation in viruses, so that a mutation of one amino acid will not be discounted in the decision node. The mismatch method for (k,m)=(8,0) yields very poor test accuracy (84%); however, when m=1,2 test accuracy improves dramatically to 95%. A confidence interval concerning the test accuracy reveals there is\n\nno statistical difference in test accuracy between our Hierarchical Motif Clustering method and the previous mismatch neighborhood technique. It is necessary to generate a mismatch neighborhood array for each value of $m$; when considering the number of candidate kmers, for large data sets, this step could take weeks. Hierarchical Motif Clustering only requires that we preprocess one array for $m=0$, while effectively capturing the mismatch neighborhood within its probability distribution. In addition, PSSMs often outperform individual kmers in terms of boosting loss even when the initial seed kmers are generated by $m=1$ or $m=2$. This indicates PSSMs are stronger at differentiating subtle differences in genetic data during later rounds of boosting than single kmers.\n\nIn further work, we will use different values of $(k,m)$ to seed our Hierarchical Motif Clustering. The mismatch neighborhood method for larger values of $k$ naturally requires larger values of $m$ for decent accuracy. Although using $m=0$ to seed our model may no longer be accurate, we hope that Hierarchical Motif Clustering will significantly reduce the size of the mismatch neighborhood to be generated to get high test classification accuracy.\n\n**************************\n\nJonathan Huggins: Computer Science, CC'12\n\nThe Structured Explicit Duration Infinite Hidden Markov Model\n\nMy research was in the area of statistical machine learning. I developed a novel statistical model, which I call the structured explicit duration infinite hidden Markov model (SED-iHMM). The SED-iHMM can be used to model data generated from a process evolving over time. For example, it could be used to model human speech or changes in the stock market. Usually, statical models have a fixed number of parameters that are adjusted to fit the data. My model is \"non-parametric\" (and is thus referred to as \"infinite\") because the number of parameters is automatically determined based on the data. Thus, if the data is simple, the SED-iHMM will have only a few parameters, whereas if the data is complex, the SED-iHMM will have many more parameters. In particular, for the SED-iHMM, there are an infinite number of \"states\" that the model transitions between. Because the model is trained on a finite amount of data, however, in practice the model only makes use of a finite number of states. The model only knows about its current state when it decides whether to transition to a new state, and, if so, which state to transition into. Each state has its own probability distribution of output values--these distributions are used to account for the observed data.\n\nMany existing models can be described as special cases of the SED-iHMM. I focused my experimentation on a particular case of the SED-iHMM, which I call the explicit duration infinite hidden Markov model (ED-iHMM) and which had not previously been described. The ED-iHMM was able to successfully fit a range of datasets and produced equivalent, and in some cases superior, results to those of a related non-parametric model, the HDP-HMM. On a theoretical level, it places many other versions of the hidden Markov model in a more general conceptual framework. I expect that the SED-iHMM will be a useful tool because it is a flexible framework that allows for countless specializations capable of meeting practitioners' modeling needs.\n\nThe Effect of Bioglass Particle Size on Cell Response\n\nWith increasing life expectancy, a greater percentage of the population suffers from diseases that cause bone destruction. To replace defective bone, titanium implants are most commonly used, but they cause scarring and have a limited lifetime of about 15 years. In contrast, Bioglass (45SiO$_2$-24.5CaO-24.5Na$_2$O-6P$_2$O$_5$) appears more promising with superior biocompatibility. Currently, the majority of Bioglass implants are used in dental applications in the form of powder. Past research has shown an influence of particle size in the growth of bone in vivo, but no study has been conducted to understand and explain these findings with in vitro experiments. The goal of this study was to examine the effect of Bioglass particle size on cell behavior, both morphologically and quantitatively.\n\nTo examine the effect of Bioglass particle size on cell behavior, at first trials were conducted to establish an appropriate experimental procedure. Various types of adhesive substances (silicone, agarose, nail polish, cyanoacrylate, and epoxy) were tested for cell toxicity. Results from the trial experiments showed that silicone was the best material to use as an adhesive between the Bioglass particles and coverslip substrate, since it was neither toxic to cells nor bioactive.\n\nThe Bioglass powder was commercially produced with particle size ranging from 90 to 710 µm. The mixture of particles was further sieved into four size categories for a more precise assessment. Using silicone, Bioglass particles of various sizes were scattered on cover slips for biological experimentation with MC3T3 precursor osteoblasts. After the samples were sterilized, these cells were seeded and grown on particles of various sizes for multiple time-points. At appropriate times, the samples were removed and fixed with formaldehyde. Then, all samples underwent immunofluorescence staining for their nuclei, actin cytoskeleton, and vinculin (focal adhesion protein).\n\nBy means of fluorescence microscopy, the samples were imaged and the morphology of the cells was recorded to compare cell proliferation qualitatively as well as quantitatively with respective to Bioglass particle size. The nuclei of cells on Bioglass particles were imaged at a low magnification and counted manually. Morphologically, the cell shape appeared healthy in the majority of samples at all time-points. Cells on the smallest particle size, however, appeared rounded in shape, indicating a lack of compatibility with the surrounding environment. This observation was further confirmed by the quantitative analysis of cell growth. On the smallest particle size, over 3 days, cell numbers quickly dropped down to zero. Other trends in cell growth were also evident, with two of the larger size particle size showing a clear enhancement of cell proliferation. It appears that the concentration of dissolution products in culture medium, which depends on the surface area (hence also the size) of particles, reached a threshold toxic value for the finest powder, leading to complete cell death after one day. The larger size powder, however, appeared to promote cell growth. Further experiments are needed to establish the optimum particle size as a function of the ratio of particle surface area to culture medium volume.\n\nJoon Ho Kang: Biophysics, CC’12\n\nProteolytic machine studied at single-molecule level with Total Internal Reflection Microscope/electromagnetic tweezer\n\nAll cells employ ATP-fueled protease to regulate protein activity. In the Clp XP protease, Clp X recognizes particular protein sequences, unfolds and then translocates these molecules into the central pore of Clip P for degradation. In this study, we use evanescent nanometry/Electromagnetic tweezers to observe translocation activity of Clp X and degradation of Clp P. The distant-dependent intensity decay of evanescent wave was calibrated using Atomic Force Microscope. Vertical motions of a fluorescent bead were then converted into displacement by measured evanescent wave transfer function. This experiment reveals the fast, combinational unfolding and translocation activity of Clp XP under low force regime (<80pN) with the translocation size of 11-15nm. This study anticipates other AAA+ (ΔATP associated with a various cellular activities) protease to share similar features with Clp XP.\n\n*********************************************\n\nPin-Joe Ko: Biology, CC’14\n\nQuantification of tip proteins in *S. pombe* using confocal fluorescence microscopy\n\nIn many unicellular and multicellular organisms, cell polarity is crucial to differentiation, proliferation and the morphology. In the fission yeast *Schizosaccharomyces pombe*, cell polarity is maintained by protein clusters at the tips of microtubule bundles that carry these proteins to the long ends of the rod-shaped cell. However, while these tip proteins have been identified and are well-studied, not much is known concerning how the proteins gather on the microtubule tips. Furthermore, these proteins have never been individually quantified. In this project, we used high-resolution, confocal fluorescence microscopy to visualize and quantify natively tagged proteins at the microtubule tips. Different *S. pombe* strains were created that would fluoresce each specific protein. In order to obtain a count of proteins on each tip, we imaged the cells and compared relative fluorescence at protein clusters with a previously quantified control protein. Preliminary results indicate that dozens to hundreds of proteins can exist on a single microtubule tip. Furthermore, we found a large spread in the numbers of proteins among individual tips. In addition, we found that microtubule length does not correlate with protein quantity. These results imply a high tolerance for variation in protein numbers, which raises the question of whether the stoichiometric relationships between different proteins play a bigger role than the absolute quantities of the proteins.\n\n*********************************************\n\nNilay Kumar: Physics, CC’15\n\nBaryons and baryonic matter in the 't Hooft model under the heavy quark limit\n\nStudying the nuclei of atoms from a purely theoretical standpoint using the quantum field theory of the strong interaction, quantum chromodynamics (QCD), is generally intractable due to the long range strength of the strong force. Additionally, the well-known Monte Carlo numerical methods of lattice QCD suffer from numerical instabilities and thus cannot be used to study finite density nuclear matter. Consequently, it is useful to study limiting cases of QCD in which calculations becomes tractable in order to gain some intuition into nuclear matter. The 't Hooft model, studied in this work, considers QCD in 2 spacetime dimensions in an artificial world where the number of quark colors, Nc is large. Unfortunately, even this problem is intractable except using a recently developed numerical technique discussed below.\n\nThus we consider the regime in which the mass of the quarks, $M_Q$, is large, as it allows us greater theoretical control.\n\nFirst, we consider a baryon - in this artificial world, baryons consist of $N_c$ quarks in a color-singlet interacting with each other through color-Coulomb interactions. In this regime of QCD, baryons can be described using a mean-field approximation. We used a variational approach to determine the baryon mass in terms of $M_Q$, $N_c$ and the strong coupling constant. The mean-field approach used for the single baryon is assumed to hold for the multiple baryon sector of our model as well. It is shown that, at low densities, all leading-order interactions are repulsive, and an expression is determined for the energy per baryon.\n\nWe previously conducted a study of baryons and baryonic matter in the full 4 spacetime dimensions – one may ask the relevance of our 2 dimensional calculation. In fact, due to recent orbifold-inspired computational techniques, the 2 dimensional problem can be solved numerically. We hope that checking the results obtained here against numerical calculations will validate our (and previously, Witten's) assumption that the mean-field approximation does indeed hold in the many-baryon sector of both the 2 and 4 dimensional problems.\n\nAlexis Kurmis: Chemistry, CC’13\n\n**Development of Enantioselective Reductive Coupling Reactions**\n\nTwo key goals of modern organic synthesis are the synthesis of new C-C bonds from readily available starting materials and the formation of these bonds in an enantioselective manner. Advancements in these areas enable advancements in everything from materials chemistry to the development of new pharmaceutical agents. The vast majority of reactions currently used rely upon organometallic reagents, which require extra steps to synthesize and which can limit compatibility with many functional groups.\n\nThe goal of this summer was to optimize a reductive coupling reaction, which would eliminate the need for organometallics. All reaction parameters were investigated, including catalyst, temperature, solvent, substrates, reducing agent, and ligand. Both reactivity and enantioselectivity need to be high for a reaction to be considered successful. By the end of the summer, there were no conditions that met both these requirements, but some promising results were obtained.\n\nWith more development, this method could become an alternative to traditional reactions, where the use of organometallic reagents limits substrate scope. With a larger substrate scope, this reaction will be extremely useful in the synthesis of larger molecules.\n\nAndre Lazar: Biology, CC’12\n\n**Modeling Integrin Clustering as Diffusion to a Sink**\n\nCell motility is a vital cell function that depends on a cross-linked cytoskeletal actin network that involves numerous protein systems that coordinate signal and force transduction throughout the cell. Integrins are intermembrane proteins that link the extracellular matrix to the cytoskeleton through the formation of focal adhesions, diverse protein complexes that dynamically assemble and disassemble. Modeling focal adhesion growth and decay is therefore important in understanding cell motility at the molecular level. We examine the growth cycles of integrin clustering in focal adhesions and model their movement as\n\ndiffusion to a sink on the cell membrane. We show that early integrin clustering can be modeled as diffusion to a sink and that later stage clustering is accelerated due to myosin activity.\n\nDan Margulies: Chemical Physics, CC’13\n\nA Tight Binding Model for Molecular Conductance and Transmission\n\nTrends in computer technology show exponential growth in the number of components per integrated circuit. For this trend to continue, components must reach the molecular scale. Conventional electronics deals with current across macroscopic components. Molecular electronics studies the same principles in single molecules. Quantum mechanical models for electron dynamics guide and explain conductance experiments. Green’s functions provide the theoretical framework for studying electron transport at these scales. Tight binding simplifies the calculations involved by considering only discrete sites, reframing electron transport as a matrix equation. Thus, any molecular junction can be described by a finite matrix.\n\nI developed a computer program using NumPy (numerical python) to calculate the transmission of incident electrons through molecular junctions at a range of energies. Molecules were considered as Hamiltonian matrices, built using only nearest neighbor coupling and on-site energies. The molecules modeled included benzene, ethene, 1,3,5-hexatriene, and the conjugated infinitely long chain limit.\n\nTransmission maxima are found to correlate with the energies of molecular orbitals, calculated using the same tight-binding model. Intuitively, this suggests that the molecular orbitals serve as conducting channels for incident electrons. This tight-binding model suggests that such a simple model is sufficient to derive useful qualitative predictions. Future research should expand the model to better explain the differences between transmission minima, of which there are several types.\n\nJames Nugent: Computer Science-Mathematics, CC’13\n\nCompactification on Calabi Yau Manifolds\n\nSuperstring theory predicts six additional spatial dimensions in addition to the three dimensions of space and one of time we are familiar with. Assuming string theory is correct, the extra dimensions provide a means of unifying the four known fundamental interactions of physics, the Strong Nuclear, Weak Nuclear, Electromagnetism, and Gravitation. However, since we do not interact with these dimensions in our macroscopic life, a theoretical approach is necessary to explain why we do not see them. The most standard approach is to compactify them, or make them very small. While there are many shapes that these compactified dimensions could take, the primary candidate is a class of manifolds called a Calabi Yau manifold.\n\nWith the help of Dr. David Kagan of Columbia University, we are developing computational techniques to analyze fourteen such Calabi Yau Manifolds that are reasonable candidates for compactified space. These fourteen manifolds are chosen because they allow for a direct, hands-on set of examples for studying the physics of giving fundamental particles a large mass. Using Mathematica, algorithms for modelling the geometry of these Calabi Yaus were developed using Meijer G functions and Hypergeometric functions. They were then revised to maximize both accuracy and processing time. Graphs and data tables of the Meijer G functions were generated and refined to ensure accuracy. The Meijer G data was then used to generate data about the potentials whose minima indicate the possible compactifications of six-dimensional\n\nspace. These general algorithms could then be used to explore some of the physics involved in introducing large masses for the parameter field controlling certain geometrical aspects of the Calabi-Yau.\n\n******************************\n\nJulia Oktawiec: Chemistry, CC’13\n\n**Synthesis of a Organoboron Compound and Possible Novel Ligand**\n\nSince their discovery by Trofimenko, tris(pyrazolyl)hydroborato (“Tp”) ligands and their derivatives have proven to be extremely versatile, capable of being adapted in various ways and used in various inorganic systems. Tp and related scorpionate ligands generally consist of a psuedo-tetrahedral boron atom, bonded to a hydrogen atom and three heterocycles that subsequently bind in a Lewis-base fashion (L₂X) to a metal atom. A variety of heterocycles have been used, some incorporating bulky substituents coupled to the heterocycles, and the boron atom may also be substituted. The versatility and tunability of scorpionate ligands have made them ubiquitous in inorganic chemistry, and have proven to be very useful, for example, as catalysts for organic transformations and polymerizations and as models for metalloenzymes, among other uses. In this project, a neutral borane ligand, B(Mim\\textsuperscript{Me})\\textsubscript{3}, analogous to the anionic tris(2-mercapto-1-R-imidazolyl)hydroborato ligand, HB(Mim\\textsuperscript{R})\\textsubscript{3} or (Tm\\textsuperscript{R}), has been targeted. The synthesis of the precursor compound, Me\\textsubscript{3}PB(Mim\\textsuperscript{Me})\\textsubscript{3} has been accomplished by treatment of trimethylphosphine-borane with three equivalents of 2-mercapto-1-methylimidazole (Hmim\\textsuperscript{Me}). The product was characterized by homo and heteronuclear NMR spectroscopies, which provided evidence for the formation of Me\\textsubscript{3}PB(Mim\\textsuperscript{Me})\\textsubscript{3}. Several reactions have been performed to use Me\\textsubscript{3}PB(Mim\\textsuperscript{Me})\\textsubscript{3} as a precursor for a B(Mim\\textsuperscript{Me})\\textsubscript{3} ligand, which we expect to bind as a tetradentate ligand (L\\textsubscript{2}Z) to form complexes known as boratranes. Unfortunately, to date, no structurally characterized metal complexes with a B(Mim\\textsuperscript{Me})\\textsubscript{3} ligand have been obtained, but evidence for their formation has been observed.\n\n******************************\n\nDarpan Patel: Biology, CC’14\n\n**Iron-Dependent, Non-Apoptotic Cancer Cell Death Requires NADPH Oxidase (NOX) Enzyme Activity**\n\nTreatment of cancer cells \\textit{in vitro} with the small molecule erastin induces non-apoptotic, iron-dependent cell death. Notably, this process involves increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The NADPH oxidase (NOX) family of enzymes, a key source of intracellular ROS, was analyzed to gain insights into the mechanism of action of erastin. A two-pronged approach was used to determine the necessity of NOX activity for erastin-induced death: (1) NOX inhibitor profiling of erastin versus other anti-cancer drugs, and (2) silencing of NOX-related genes using RNA interference (RNAi). Cancer cells were rescued from erastin-induced death by small molecules 2-acetylphenothiazine (2-APT) and GKT137831, both of which are selective inhibitors of the NOX1 isoform. Silencing of NOX1 gene expression protected cells from erastin-induced death, while silencing of the other NOX isoforms (2-5) did not yield appreciable rescue. This is consistent with the small molecule data, and together they suggest NOX1 might be responsible for increased ROS generation seen in erastin-induced death. A better understanding of NOX-dependent, non-apoptotic form of cell death could aid deployment of new small molecule drugs, such as erastin, to circumvent issues with acquired cancer cell resistance to apoptosis.\n\nMilesh Patel: Biochemistry, CC’12\n\nBarriers to Optimal Nutrition for Very Low Birthweight Infants: A Quality Improvement Study on Parenteral Amino Acid Administration\n\nAdvances in perinatal and neonatal care have increased the survival of preterm infants. However, improving the long-term outcomes of these surviving infants remains a challenge. Compared to normal fetuses of the same gestational age, the postnatal growth of premature infants is restricted. The discrepancy between extrauterine and intrauterine growth at the same gestational age has been attributed to protein and energy deficits. This is particularly important because poor neurological outcomes and pulmonary morbidity have been associated with delayed postnatal growth.\n\nIn response to these new findings, the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit at Children’s Hospital Boston has updated its guidelines for administering parenteral nutrition (PN). A retrospective chart review revealed that these guidelines were not being met, with less than a third adherent on day 2. In most cases no barrier could be identified. This study is a prospective patient-oriented quality improvement project that incorporates the practitioner’s perspective. For each patient admitted to the NICU, we monitored IV fluid and PN orders for adherence each day for 3 days. If an order was not adherent, we asked the prescriber to choose from a list of potential reasons, or to provide another reason. We also monitored each patient’s BUN level for toxicity.\n\nThe major barrier on day 1 was receiving starter PN off-hours. We found that some practitioners were not aware of the availability or indication for starter PN. In addition, there were misconceptions about PN administration in general. We looked specifically to make changes to our process to improve our outcome. Because we found that the indication for starter PN in the CHAMPS software is obtuse, we can change the process by which starter PN is ordered, making it easier and more intuitive. In addition, we can modify practitioner training to specifically address misconceptions about PN administration. Knowledge deficits and logistical problems can be addressed directly in the context of an ongoing quality improvement project, leading to improvements in adherence, and ultimately nutrition-related outcomes for these patients.\n\nJenny Shao: Biochemistry, CC’13\n\nInvestigating the Role of Actin Polymerization State in Synaptic Plasticity\n\nA critical component of the cytoskeleton and ubiquitous in eukaryotes, actin has been implicated in several important functions in learning and memory. This long-term endeavor strives to identify the relationship between the actin polymerization state—the dynamic equilibrium between g-actin and f-actin—and the local synaptic strength, which thereby sheds light on actin’s function in the broader phenomenon of learning. To accomplish these aims, it is necessary to first develop visualization system that provides an accurate, dynamic, and high-resolution representation of the polymerization state: we utilized a variation of Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET), namely energy-migration FRET (emFRET or homoFRET). Since a single fluorophore is used in emFRET, the method eliminates potential noise from fluorophore crosstalk and combinatorial issues that are often observed in regular FRET. Since quantitative analyses demonstrated that mStrawberry had the optimal optical properties, most importantly low levels of Rayleigh Scattering, it was selected to visualize actin dynamics in tissue. Molecular cloning was then utilized to generate an mStrawberry-Actin vector. Specifically, after obtaining pmStrawberry and pActinGFP vectors from Clontech, the region corresponding to the fluorophore (mStrawberry) was amplified via PCR, the inserts and vector were purified, and the inserts were ligated into the actin backbone. Restriction enzyme digestion and gel electrophoresis analyses subsequently indicated that the cloning and ligation processes were successful. Bacterial transformation and Maxipreps were then used to harvest the newly generated DNA (Actin-mStrawberry). To confirm the efficacy of the Actin-mStrawberry plasmid, the DNA was transfected into HEK cells; robust expression levels that were detected after 24 hours indicated that the newly constructed plasmid did indeed contain mStrawberry and actin in the correct sequence. Furthermore, DNA sequencing also returned a 100% match between the expected and actual plasmid sequence. This construct, once injected into either culture or mouse, gives rise to a precise and high-resolution representation of actin dynamics. By shedding light on the role of actin in learning and memory, this study also informs us on possible mechanisms of several pathological conditions, such as Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s diseases, in which clear distortions in learning and memory are observed.\n\nKatharina Shaw: Chemistry, CC’13\n\nSynthesis of Resveratrol-Derived Analogues: Phosphorylated Isopaucifloral F, Phosphorylated Paucifloral F, and Yuccaone A\n\nFor the past decade, resveratrol – a ubiquitous, polyphenolic phytoalexin found in grape skins and red wine – has captivated the attention of the scientific community. In addition to its potent antifungal, anti-aging, and neuroprotective properties, resveratrol has been cited as responsible for the “French paradox” – a concept formulated by epidemiologists to describe the low incidence of coronary heart disease in French people despite their high intakes of cholesterol and saturated fats.\\(^1\\) However, while much attention continues to be devoted to resveratrol, its analogues have been largely disregarded in spite of their vast clinical potential. The difficulties posed by their synthesis, coupled with the inability to isolate sufficient quantities from natural sources, have rendered many such oligomers unattainable. Thus, for this project, the controlled and potentially scalable synthesis of three such oligomers was undertaken – namely, that of phosphorylated Paucifloral F, phosphorylated Isopaucifloral F, and Yuccaone A. Previous attempts to biomimetically access such members of the resveratrol family have proven unsuccessful – even in those cases where the desired resveratrol derivative was obtained, an array of non-natural products were generated.\\(^2\\) As a result, the synthetic approach utilized here rejected a biomimetic pathway in favor of reagent-guided functionalization of a unique core molecule that possessed multiple sites of similar reactivity. Using a three-aryl ring precursor as the core building block, both phosphorylated Paucifloral F and Isopaucifloral F could be generated in relatively high yield. Careful manipulation of the same triaryl precursor remains underway for the synthesis of Yuccaone A. In light of resveratrol’s promising array of biochemical behaviors, the controlled syntheses of oligomers such as these may be key to tapping the full clinical potential of this family of natural products.\n\nCrystal formation of Dibenzotetrathieno-coronenes (DBTTC) on graphite in ambient scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) using platinum-iridium tips\n\nWe investigate the use of graphene surfaces to assemble organic molecules into crystals. The morphology of such crystals is important in applications such as solar cells. We choose the Dibenzotetrathieno-coronenes molecule since it has optical response and has a pi backbone that can interact with the graphene surface. Crystals were formed by drop-casting from a solution of DBTTC in high vacuum and the morphology of the films was studied using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). Initial STM analysis was done on graphite and graphene using platinum-iridium tips to find optimal conditions, ranging bias (-1.0~ 1.0V) and setpoint (500pA~2nA). The size of the scan was reduced from 100nm to as low as 5nm while generally maintaining scan rates of 5~10Hz for graphite and 2~5Hz for graphene. The DBTTC sample that was aimed to deposit a 10~15nm film on graphite were seen to form aligned stalk-like structures on the substrate with roughly 10nm heights for alignments with 250nm widths. In the sparser regions, hook-shaped 50 x 50nm stalks captured the crystal forming process that involves growing uniformly flat layers of DBTTC between the converging stalks as the deposition progressed. A difference in periodicity is also observed between a graphite surface and a thin DBTTC surface (single to few layers thick) on graphite. Future experiments will focus on the study of a single atomic layer of DBTTC on graphite and graphene.\n\nTyler St. Denis: Biochemistry, CC’15\n\nEnhancement of Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy by Potassium Thiocyanate/Selenocyanate Salts\n\nThe emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens has initiated global searches for new antimicrobial modalities. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a novel antimicrobial technique consisting of visible-light, a light sensitive dye, and oxygen, which together yield reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS reactivity is diffusion rate controlled and is thus limited to the cellular envelope of bacteria. In efforts to potentiate bactericidal activity of PDT, this report sought to create less reactive, but longer-lived radical species, capable of deeply penetrating bacteria. Comparing a control PDT regimen to PDT with the pseudohalide salts thiocyanate (SCN⁻) or selenocyanate (SeCN⁻), PDT-mediated killing of the Gram-negative *Escherichia coli* and the Gram-positive *Staphylococcus aureus* was potentiated by 1-4 log₁₀ with the addition of SCN⁻/SeCN⁻. This is presumed to be the result of the formation of SCN⁻/SeCN⁻ radicals, likely due to reactivity of SCN⁻/SeCN⁻ with the hydroxyl radical (OH⁻). Pseudohalide radical formation was confirmed by theoretical redox potential studies and comparison of the bactericidal effect of a chemical OH⁻ generator (Fenton’s reagent) with or without SCN⁻/SeCN⁻. Interestingly, potentiation of PDT was not additive and at high concentrations, SCN⁻ and SeCN⁻ reduced PDT killing, presumably due to the formation of insoluble methylene blue-pseudohalide salt products.\n\nScott Zhang: Astrophysics, CC’14\n\n**Diffuse high-energy neutrino spectra from high and low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts**\n\nThe fully operating IceCube neutrino observatory, designed to detect TeV-scale high energy neutrinos, opens up a new window for high energy astrophysics. Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs), with their extreme energetics, are one of the most plausible sources of diffuse high energy neutrinos detectable by IceCube. While some, high-luminosity (HL) GRBs are individually much brighter than many other, low-luminosity (LL) GRBs, the latter subclass may play a major role in contributing to the diffuse high-energy neutrino background, due to their much higher abundance, as well as their somewhat different emission process. Further, LL-GRBs may be the key in understanding choked GRBs, an important subclass of GRBs with no observable gamma-ray emission. It is important to compare the contribution of diffuse high energy neutrinos by both high-luminosity (HL) and low-luminosity (LL) GRBs. Using the gamma ray data of GRBs collected by the Swift satellite, assuming the neutrino spectrum for individual GRB derived by Guetta et al. and the rate of HL and LL GRB per year estimated by Liang et al., I calculated the total diffuse neutrino spectrum by both HL and LL-GRBs. My result is consistent with the neutrino spectrum 90% CL upper limit implied by cosmic ray observation (Ahlers et. al. 2011) except for the neutrino energy range $6e6 \\sim 7e7$ GeV, but it suggests that HL GRBs typically produce 1~2 orders of magnitude more neutrino than LL GRBs, contrary to the claim of some authors that the neutrino spectrum by HL and LL-GRBs are comparable. This may be because the emission mechanism in LL-GRBs differ from the Guetta et al. emission model due to, e.g., the larger abundance of baryons in the jet.\n\n*************************************************************************"}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":true},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":2047,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":208496,"offset":204700,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSJ9.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc3ODk1NzcxNiwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL1RlbGVBSS1BSS1GbG93L0luZm9ybWF0aW9uQ2FwYWNpdHkiLCJleHAiOjE3Nzg5NjEzMTYsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.YejOv6sXfhMajEqQrrP5SiR65kudzQ9yk5yhJPCX9R5tdgG8qfbwZFcdsKrCqmx6Eqq6liJ_KIB3VQJ4BxD5CA","displayUrls":true,"splitSizeSummaries":[{"config":"default","split":"train","numRows":208496,"numBytesParquet":2762384337}]},"discussionsStats":{"closed":1,"open":0,"total":1},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false,"savedQueries":{"community":[],"user":[]}}">
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Borre v. United States: An Improper Interpretation of Property Rights
Michael C. Bennett
Follow this and additional works at: https://via.library.depaul.edu/law-review
Recommended Citation
Michael C. Bennett, Borre v. United States: An Improper Interpretation of Property Rights, 42 DePaul L. Rev. 1499 (1993)
Availab... |
The Commissioners of the Housing Authority of the City of Tacoma met in Regular Session at 902 South L Street, Tacoma, WA 98405 at 4:45 PM on Wednesday, February 22, 2023.
1. CALL TO ORDER
Commissioner Young called the meeting of the Board of Commissioners of the Housing Authority of the City of Tacoma (THA) to order... |
Some Realism about Bar Associations
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Bruce A. Green
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Two-step wireline log analysis of overpressure in the Bekapai Field, Lower Kutai Basin, Indonesia
Agus M. Ramdhan\textsuperscript{1*} & Neil R. Goult\textsuperscript{2}
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Modulation of central noradrenergic function by the anti-obesity agent, sibutramine
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All rights r... |
Enhanced methods for Evolution in-Materio Processors
Benedict. A. H. Jones
Department of Engineering
Durham University
Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
email@example.com
Noura Al Moubayed
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Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
firstname.lastname@example.org
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Charles C. Lee and S. Murray Sherman
*J Neurophysiol* 100:317-326, 2008. First published Apr 24, 2008; doi:10.1152/jn.90391.2008
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Electrical insulation properties of the perfluoronitrile C4F7N
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Publication date:
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Permanent link:
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Rights / license:
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 Internat... |
Simulation of Interaction
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SIGIR Geneva 2010
Proceedings of the SIGIR 2010 Workshop on the... |
WIRELESS WEEKLY
THE HUNDRED PER CENT AUSTRALIAN RADIO JOURNAL
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3D
Oct. 5th 1923
REGISTERED AT THE GENERAL POST OFFICE SYDNEY FOR TRANSMISSION BY POST AS A NEWSPAPER
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Dear Resident:
You are receiving the enclosed information to provide you with the opportunity to discuss a proposed zone change that is being considered within 300 feet of your property.
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Fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy of benign skull-base tumors: a dosimetric comparison of volumetric modulated arc therapy with Rapidarc® versus non-coplanar dynamic arcs
Fanny Martin¹, Florian Magnier², Lucie Berger², Jessica Miroir¹, Emmanuel Chautard³, Pierre Verrelle¹,³, Michel Lapeyre¹ and Julian Biau¹,³*
A... |
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Sevegnani, Michele (2012) Bigraphs with sharing and applications in wireless networks. PhD thesis
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Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author
A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge
This thesis... |
Machine Learning-based Channel Prediction for Widely Distributed Massive MIMO with Real-World Data
David Löschenbrand*, Markus Hofer*, Lukas Eller†‡, Markus Rupp†, Thomas Zemen*
*Center for Digital Safety & Security, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Austria
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Green roofs as a means of pollution abatement
D. Bradley Rowe
Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, A212 Plant and Soil Sciences Bldg., East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received 29 July 2010
Received in revised form 22 September 2010
Accepted 15 October 2010
Keywords:
Air ... |
THE ANTI-NUCLEAR FACTOR
AS AN AUTO-ANTIBODY
BY
D.M. WEIR, M.B., Ch.B.
Department of Bacteriology
University of Edinburgh
Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Medicine
October, 1962.
PREFACE
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A Cellular Mechanism to Detect and Alleviate Reductive Stress
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Re-evaluation of propane-1,2-diol (E 1520) as a food additive
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Willed Action and its Impairment in Schizophrenia
Rebecca L M Fuller
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Clinical Neurology
Institute of Neurology
University College London
University of London
ProQuest Number: U643996
All rights reserved
INFORMA... |
Modulation of Intracellular Calcium by Inflammatory Mediators in Sensory Neurones
by
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A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the Faculty of Sciences of the University of London
February 2000
Department of Physiology
Royal Free and Uni... |
May 14, 2010
Public Utility Commission
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550 Capitol Street NE, #215
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The Portland Business Alliance, representing more than 1,300 small, medium and large employers and electric consumers in the Portl... |
Working performances of carrot root extraction machines
Abstract
This paper presents results of field measurements of working performance and fuel consumption evaluation in various operating conditions. Three versions of carrot extraction machines (Dewulf, Europa 2000 and Asa lift) at three locations and two varieties... |
The Hundred per cent. Australian Radio Journal.
THE WIRELESS WEEKLY
A Journal Devoted to the Interests of Wireless Enthusiasts both Amateur and Professional
Vol. 1 - No. 6
SYDNEY, SEPTEMBER 8th, 1922.
Price Three pence
BEAUTY LISTENS TO A WONDER CONCERT
Wireless Electric Company,
Beach Street, Coogee, N.S.W.
We ... |
2015 General Elections: The Untold Story
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The PRESIDENT (Lieutenant Governor Jim Cawley) in the Chair.
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The Chaplain, Reverend CHUCK LOCKARD, Pastor of Church of the Nazarene, Homer City, offered the following prayer:
Let us pray.
Lord God, we acknowledge Your pow... |
6 Ways to Grow Your Audience
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INVESTMENT BANK,
OR DO WE NEED AN
INDUSTRY SPECIALIST?"
"Yes."
In a perfect world there would be no compromise. Investment banks would provide large-scale distribution capability and h... |
Please fill out the form below. The Ft Wayne Metro USBC does not discriminate on the basis of age, race, gender, creed, ethnic origin, religion, nationality, or physical disability.
**Basic Information (please print)**
Name: Janet Gardiner
Email Address: [Redacted]
Address: [Redacted]
Daytime Phone: [Redacted] ... |
COOKE AND LEIGH DOCUMENTS
AT
BALLIOL COLLEGE
(MISC235A & MISC235B)
Notes by Robert Cooke
# CONTENTS
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| Introduction ... |
Theses Digitisation:
https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/research/enlighten/theses/digitisation/
This is a digitised version of the original print thesis.
Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author
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RCA VICTOR'S MAGIC BRAIN
Magic Brain eliminates interference, insures more stations, better tone, easier tuning. Silver-plated copper-band coil system now gives even better performance than previously. The first radio frequency stage used even in D-band ahead of first detector, has the "Watchman Tube," which guards pr... |
CANADIAN COUNTRY MUSIC
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Russia: Won’t start war over Ukraine tensions
AP IN MOSCOW
Russia’s top diplomat said Friday that Moscow will not start a war in Ukraine but warned that it would allow the West to tamper on its security interests, adding it is planning to send its troops home.
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ON DEATH AND DYING: COUNSELING THE TERMINALLY ILL CLIENT AND THE LOVED ONES LEFT BEHIND
by Georgia Akers *
I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 3
II. STAGES OF DEATH ............................................................. 3
A. Denial and Isolation .................. |
Address Delivered Before the National Conference of Teamsters Lawyers Entitled "The American Labor Movement"
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/carter
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FINAL ANNUAL REPORT
1968 - 1969
Southwest Center for Advanced Studies
Southwest Center for Advanced Studies
Final Annual Report
1968-1969
The Southwest Center for Advanced Studies became The University of Texas at Dallas on September 1, 1969
Table of Contents
Chairman of Governors Letter .................. 2
Pres... |
POSTAGE METERING SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR A STAND-ALONE METER HAVING VIRTUAL METER FUNCTIONALITY
Inventors: Charles R. Malandra, Jr., Monroe; Perry A. Pierce, Darien, both of CT (US)
Assignee: Pitney Bowes Inc., Stamford, CT (US)
Notice: Under 35 U.S.C. 154(b), the term of this patent shall be extended for 0 days.
App... |
Crow Dog's Case: A Chapter in the Legal History of Tribal Sovereignty
Sidney Harring
CUNY School of Law
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This work is mad... |
May 9, 2019
Board of County Commissioners
Clackamas County
Members of the Board:
Approval of a Construction Contract with Clackamas Construction, Inc. for the E. Clarendon Street Project in Gladstone
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An atmospheric inversion over the city of Cape Town: sensitivity analyses
Alecia Nickless\textsuperscript{1,2}, Peter J. Rayner\textsuperscript{3}, Robert J. Scholes\textsuperscript{4}, Francois Engelbrecht\textsuperscript{5}, and Birgit Erni\textsuperscript{1,6}
\textsuperscript{1}Department of Statistical Sciences,... |
FIRM AND FAIR
IMPROVING THE DELIVERY OF JUSTICE IN SCOTLAND
Firm and Fair
Improving the Delivery of Justice in Scotland
Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Scotland
by Command of Her Majesty
June 1994
EDINBURGH: HMSO
Cm 2600
ISBN 0 10 126002 4
# CONTENTS
## FOREWORD BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE ... |
Conjure: Summoning Proxies from Unused Address Space
Sergey Frolov
University of Colorado Boulder
Jack Wampler
University of Colorado Boulder
J. Alex Halderman
University of Michigan
Nikita Borisov
UIUC
Sze Chuen Tan
UIUC
Eric Wustrow
University of Colorado Boulder
ABSTRACT
Refraction Networking (fo... |
'A Little Bit of Love for Me and a Murder for My Old Man': The Queensland Bush Book Club
Robin Wagner
Gettysburg College
Follow this and additional works at: https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/librarypubs
Part of the Australian Studies Commons, Cultural History Commons, Library and Information Science Commons, Social His... |
Introducing Feedback Control to Middle and High School STEM Students, Part 2: Control System Math*
Daniel Y. Abramovitch
*Mass Spec Division, Agilent Technologies, 5301 Stevens Creek Blvd., M/S: 3U-WT, Santa Clara, CA 95051 USA (e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org).
Abstract: This paper presents some insights on ... |
OUR MISSION STATEMENT:
"Saint Francis Xavier Parish is a Christian Family dedicated to the mission of Jesus and the teachings of the Catholic Church. We are committed to fostering spiritual growth and to responding to the human needs of both our faith community and the larger community by sharing our gifts and resource... |
Flow Analysis of the Arctic Ocean (the Kara Sea and the Barents Sea) by a Hybrid Box Model
Akira WADA* and Minoru OCHIAI*
Abstract: The objective of this report is to discuss the characteristics of flows in the Arctic Ocean Seas (the Kara and the Barents) in connection with marine contamination. In recent years, rese... |
TRAIN YOUR BEST ASSETS
THE 40 BEST PDs IN AMERICA
WHAT BUSINESS ARE YOU REALLY IN?
Steal This!
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Identify Your Best Opportunities for Growth with PD Advantage
Your GM wants results. You’ve got mounds of data—but no real benchmarks to provide direction. You need a tool to make s... |
No.PA/ Khyber Pakhtunkhwa/Bills/2011/26460 The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Establishment of Information Technology Board Bill, 2011 having been passed by the Provincial Assembly of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa on 2nd May, 2011 and assented to by the Governor of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa on 10th May, 2011 is hereby published as an Act of the... |
January 30, 2013
VIA ELECTRONIC FILING AND U.S. MAIL
PUC Filing Center
Public Utility Commission of Oregon
PO Box 2148
Salem, OR 97308-2148
Re: UM 1481 – Staff Investigation of the Oregon Universal Service Fund
Enclosed for filing in the above-referenced docket are an original and five copies of the Reply Testimony... |
CONTENTS
"One of the Eight." 136
Maine, 8; Colby, 2. 136
Coming Events 137
The Maine Baptist Institute 138
The Classical Association of New England 138
Editorials 139
Debating Society 139
Esperanto 140
Junior Prom. 140
Alumni Notes 140
Campus Chat 140
Y. M. C. A. 141
De Feminis 141
College Chaps
You are Charter Memb... |
Section 2038: Present Economic Benefit v. Technical Vesting of Title or Estates
Frank Berndt
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/caselrev
Part of the Law Commons
Recommended Citation
Frank Berndt, Section 2038: Present Economic Benefit v. Technical Vesting of Title or Estates,... |
REPORT ON THE SHOWS SPOOLS VERSUS CARTRIDGE
THE MYSTERIOUS BEAT RESLO VRT/L MICROPHONE REVIEW
QUALITY PORTABLE RECORDERS NEED QUALITY BATTERIES—MALLORY
Mallory batteries last far longer than ordinary batteries. They deliver their power uniformly without fading for lack of rest. And they keep their energy until it's... |
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Plaintiff-Appellant,
v.
GIG AND JEANNETTE EBERHARDT,
Defendants-Appellees.
No. 85-1212
D.C. No.
CR 84-395-EFL
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Plaintiff-Appellant,
v.
TOM WILSON AND SONNY ERICKSON,
Defendants-Appellees.
No. 85-1213
D.C. No.... |
SAN FRANCISCO, CA
39TH ANNUAL REUNION
JUNE 12 - 16, 2010
Yes San Francisco
Greetings to all USS Ticonderoga Shipmates!
First of all, I want to thank Bob and his wife for setting up the Corpus Christi reunion. It certainly was a lot of work. We missed a lot of you, but the members and their wives who did attend had a... |
The emergence of braided magnetic fields
C. PRIOR† and D. MACTAGGART‡*
†Department of Mathematical Sciences, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
‡School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QW, UK
(Received 00 Month 20xx; final version received 00 Month 20xx)
We study the emergence ... |
A Session with Lou Rawls
The Care and Feeding of Your Multi-track
Lab Reports - New Products - Record Reviews
Sound engineering is as much a part of creative music today as the performance itself, and is changing the scope of the industry. Audio technology is presenting a new range of creativity. It is the audio eng... |
ART. I.—RUSSIA, AND HER COMMERCIAL STRENGTH.
POPULATION AND TERRITORY OF RUSSIA—PHYSICAL RESOURCES—MANUFACTURES—COMMERCIAL RESOURCES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE—COMMERCIAL QUALIFICATIONS OF THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE.
In the spring of 1698, there arrived at Amsterdam a pilgrim from the farthest east, who had placed before him a sh... |
Accuphase
INTEGRATED STEREO AMPLIFIER E-202
Owner's Manual
The wooden cabinet is an option.
Thank you for purchasing this Accuphase product, which we here at Kensonic, who are dedicated to the policy of creating the highest quality audio components, are proud to introduce. You can be assured that in preparing this ... |
The Apogee of the Commodity
Anthony Paul Farley
Follow this and additional works at: https://via.library.depaul.edu/law-review
Recommended Citation
Anthony P. Farley, The Apogee of the Commodity, 53 DePaul L. Rev. 1229 (2004)
Available at: https://via.library.depaul.edu/law-review/vol53/iss3/12
This Article is brou... |
Motorola's IC Remote Receiver
Servicing CB Transceivers
Quadraline Four-Channel Sound
When people turn to you to make things right again...
use GE receiving tubes
(made by professionals for professionals)
TUBE PRODUCTS DEPARTMENT • GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY
OWENSBORO, KENTUCKY 42301
GENERAL ELECTRIC
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RPM Weekly
Volume 15 No. 1
February 20, 1971
Russell Thornberry of MCA's Sound Conspiracy
A&M's Rios and Mullan Canadian promo tour
Liam Mullan, national promotion for A&M (Canada) welcomed Miguel Rios back to Canada at Vancouver's International airport and immediately set off on a hectic promotion tour that would t... |
GOVERNING BODY STUDY SESSION
April 23, 2014
9:00 A.M.
Market Station
Roundhouse Conference Room, Suite 200
500 Market Street
1. CALL TO ORDER
2. ROLL CALL
3. DISCUSSION OF CITY SERVICES
4. ADJOURN
Persons with disabilities in need of accommodations, contact the City Clerk's office at 955-6520, five (5) days prior to ... |
NOVEMBER 5, 8:15 - 9:30 P.M.
FRIDAY EVENING SERVICE
Note New Starting Time: 8:15 P.M.
RABBI BRICKNER
will preach
IS THE BIBLE REALLY TRUE?
With Special Reference to the Recently-Published Volume, "Book of Books," by Rabbi Solomon Goldman . . . A Sermon in Response to Many Requests for a Clear-Cut, Modern Explanat... |
PREMEXO PEB LLP
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BE UNIQUE
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An Investigation of Ecclesiastic Architecture as an Historic Source for the Christianisation of Northumbria, c. 500-800 AD: an Interdisciplinary Study
Vol. 1 of 2
Elizabeth Ashlyn Bartley
M. Litt.
University of Glasgow
Department of Medieval History
Department of Archaeology
October 1996
All rights reserved
INFOR... |
TSIT: A Simple and Versatile Framework for Image-to-Image Translation
Liming Jiang$^1$, Changxu Zhang$^2$, Mingyang Huang$^3$, Chunxiao Liu$^3$, Jianping Shi$^3$, and Chen Change Loy$^{1\blacktriangle}$
$^1$ Nanyang Technological University
$^2$ University of California, Berkeley
$^3$ SenseTime Research
email@... |
THE STARS ARE BORN AT CBS
Since October 1st, an average of one gold or platinum record every three days.
Gold Singles
- SILVER CONVENTION - Fly Robin Fly
- SILVER CONVENTION - Get Up And Boogie
- LABELLE - Lady Marmalade
- PENNY MCLEAN - Lady Bump
- TINA CHARLES - I Love To Love
- TINA CHARLES - Disco Lady, Dancin'... |
Genetic Analysis of Sporulation in *Magnaporthe grisea* by Chemical and Insertional Mutagenesis
Zhixin Shi and Hei Leung
Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6430, U.S.A.
Received 8 May 1995. Accepted 28 August 1995.
Chemical and plasmid insertional mutagenesis were used t... |
Changing Words in Sacraments Can Make Them Invalid, Dicastery Warns
By Cindy Wooden
VATICAN CITY (CNS) — The Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith said it continues to receive reports of Catholics, including priests, finding out all the sacraments they have received are invalid because they were baptized years earli... |
Preferred for modern set servicing
IRC TYPE Q CONTROL
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Satisfying Customers for Profit
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A PHOTO ACT PUBLICATION
satisfying CUSTOMERS for PROFIT
An Electronic Industries Association Project
HOWARD W. SAMS & CO., INC.
THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY, INC.
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Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
The National Engineering University
Rizal Avenue Ext., Batangas City, Batangas, Philippines 4200
Tel Nos.: (+63 43) 980-0585 loc. 1122
E-mail Address: email@example.com | Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph
EXCERPT FROM THE MINUTES OF THE SEVENTY THIRD (7... |
The Colby Echo
Volume XV Waterville, Maine, June 5, 1912 Number 29
SIGILLUM COLLEGI COLBYANII
LUX MENTIS SCIENTIA
Published Wednesdays during the College Year by the Students of Colby College.
COLBY STUDENTS
WILL FIND
THE WARDWELL-EMERY COMPANY
A good place to buy Couch Covers, Draperies, Pillows, Stationery a... |
Using Your Computer To Hear Our Troops, AM/FM, And Shortwave Broadcasts!
52 Pickup: How Many Of These Radio “Cards” Can You Catch? p. 6
Digital Scanning Is Here—And You Can Be Part Of The Action! p. 12
Spotlight: The RadioShack PRO-96 Scanner, p. 36
PLUS: Being Prepared—VHF/UHF Antenna Basics, The Ultimate Intercep... |
Thermal properties of coarse RCA concrete at elevated temperatures
Hui Zhao, Faqi Liu, Hua Yang
PII: S1359-4311(17)34217-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.05.032
Reference: ATE 12171
To appear in: Applied Thermal Engineering
Received Date: 22 June 2017
Revised Date: 15 November 2017
Accepted Date:... |
Interferometric control of the photon-number distribution
H. Esat Kondakci,1,a Alexander Szameit,2 Ayman F. Abouraddy,1 Demetrios N. Christodoulides,1 and Bahaa E. A. Saleh1
1CREOL, The College of Optics & Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816, USA
2Institute for Physics, University of Rost... |
Federal Building Under Review
Mayor Says Post Office Threatened
by Dan Davidson
Mayor Peter Jenkins feels quite certain that the days of the Dawson outlet of Canada Post are numbered, and he addressed June 21's council meeting on this subject.
"Privatisation (of Canada Post) is not in the best interests of the city,... |
COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY
ON
REGISTER MACHINES
by
Richard Simpson Bird
Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy of the
University of London
October 1973
Institute of Computer Science
Gordon Square, London WC1
ABSTRACT
This thesis investigates the computational complexity of programs based on thei... |
Some pages of this thesis may have been removed for copyright restrictions.
If you have discovered material in Aston Research Explorer which is unlawful e.g. breaches copyright, (either yours or that of a third party) or any other law, including but not limited to those relating to patent, trademark, confidentiality, ... |
Contractor's Claims under the FIDIC International Civil Engineering Contract
Christopher R Seppala
The FIDIC international civil engineering contract (the 'FIDIC Conditions') has enjoyed wide currency in recent years due, in part, to the boom in international construction in the oil producing countries, which began i... |
abc's of Transformers & Coils
BY EDWARD J. BUKSTEIN
abc's
of
TRANSFORMERS
and
COILS
By
Edward Bukstein
A Revision of
UNDERSTANDING TRANSFORMERS AND COILS
By
Edward Bukstein
HOWARD W. SAMS & CO., INC.
THE BOBBS-MERRILL CO., INC.
INDIANAPOLIS • KANSAS CITY • NEW YORK
SECOND EDITION
FIRST PRINTING—1968
Copyright©1... |
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control: The Remaining Issues
Michael P. Walsh
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.law.colorado.edu/air-quality-protection-in-west
Part of the Administrative Law Commons, Atmospheric Sciences Commons, Automotive Engineering Commons, Climate Commons, Environmental Health a... |
Large optical nonlinearity enhancement under electronic strong coupling
Journal Article
Author(s):
Wang, Kuidong; Seidel, Marcus; Nagarajan, Kalaivanan; Chervy, Thibault; Genet, Cyriaque; Ebbesen, Thomas
Publication date:
2021
Permanent link:
https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-b-000474721
Rights / license:
Creative Comm... |
Analysis of Fiber Reinforced Plastic Bolted Flange Joints
by
Ali KHAZRAIYANVAFADAR
THESIS PRESENTED TO ÉCOLE DE TECHNOLOGIE SUPÉRIEURE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY PH.D.
MONTREAL, JULY 22, 2019
ÉCOLE DE TECHNOLOGIE SUPÉRIEURE
UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC
Ali Khazraiyan... |
14 April 1944
SUBJECT: Transmittal of Missing Air Crew Report.
TO: Commanding Officer, 451st Bombardment Group (H) APO 520, US Army.
1. Transmitted herewith Missing Air Crew Report of Crew #451-3-23, assigned to this Squadron, reported missing in action as of 12 April 1944 on mission over Zagreb, Yugoslavia.
| RA... |
Memorandum
To: Mayor and City Council
From: Roger Krieger
Date: May 10, 2023
Re: Dalton Creek Plat Approval – File LP 2021-2
Final approval of the first phase of the Dalton Creek Subdivision submitted by Two Old Boys LLC is before the Council for approval pursuant to DPMC 17.28.040(C)(5), which provides “the City ... |
The Bendectin Litigation: A Case Study in the Life Cycle of Mass Torts
Joseph Sanders
Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.uchastings.edu/hastings_law_journal
Part of the Law Commons
Recommended Citation
Joseph Sanders, The Bendectin Litigation: A Case Study in the Life Cycle of Mass Torts, 43 Ha... |
Construction: Beginner’s Guide to Power Supplies
On Test: the Yaesu FT736R VHF/UHF Multiband Multimode Transceiver
Out of Africa – The Story of A22KZ in Botswana
6 Straight and Level
All the latest news, comments and developments on the amateur radio scene
12 DX Diary
Don Field G3XTT with this month's DX news
14 F... |
4th Grade
Packet 3
May 4, 2020
That night, Pinocchio, instead of going to bed at ten o'clock, waited until midnight, and instead of making eight baskets, he made sixteen.
After that he went to bed and fell asleep. As he slept, he dreamed of his Fairy, beautiful, smiling, and happy, who kissed him and said to him, "B... |
REGISTRATION AND TUITION
2024-2025 School Year
Children will be accepted for enrollment pending a review of records including but not limited to academic, behavior, and financial; admissions testing; and interview with the administration. First priority will be given to children currently enrolled in Our Lady of the L... |
Boys will be Boys
When I hear people say that only female cats need to have surgery to sterilize them, it makes me crazy! Spay and neuter of ALL cats is the best and most basic thing that we can do for them. Male cats may not produce kittens, but they suffer from not being neutered.
A kind lady named Jane called when... |
Our Lady of Mt. Carmel Church
120 Prospect Street, Nutley, New Jersey 07110
January 8, 2023
Rev. Paciano A. Barbieto, S.T.L.
Pastor
Rev. Dennis E. Reiff
Pastor Emeritus
Deacon Aldo Antola
Retired Deacon
Sr. Mary Rose Conforto, MPF
Director of Religious Education
Andres Cardona
Director of Music Ministry
Amanda Andrade... |
Hydrography and circulation near the crest of the East Pacific Rise between 9° and 10°N
A.M. Thurnherr a,*, J.R. Ledwell b, J.W. Lavelle c, L.S. Mullineaux d
a Division of Ocean and Climate Physics, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, NY 10964-8000, United States
b Department of Applied Ocean Physics and Eng... |
STUDIO SOUND
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Like the revolutionary Saturn multitrack with 'Total Remote' control.
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This Was Radio
A Personal Memoir by Joseph Julian
Introduction by Harold Clurman
This Was Radio
A Personal Memoir
by Joseph Julian
Introduction by Harold Clurman
The Thirties and Forties were the Golden Era of Radio, when Burns and Allen, Jack Benny, Fibber McGee and Molly, and Bob Hope softened the hard times of the... |
Bible Lessons
"Holding as in a glass the glory of the Lord, we are CHANGED . . ." II Cor. 3:18
ADULTS -- YOUNG PEOPLE
Volume 21, No. 4
Oct., Nov., Dec.
1989
Faith Pub. House
Guthrie, Okla.
73044
| Date | Title | Page |
|--------|--------------------... |
BE IT RESOLVED BY THE ZONING COMMISSION OF PALM BEACH COUNTY, FLORIDA, in regular session assembled this the 1st day of September A.D. 1966, that the following modification is hereby adopted as an Amendment to Zoning Resolution #3 pursuant to the authority vested in said Commission by Chapter 57-1691, Special Laws of F... |
COLUMBIA COLLEGE
RABI SCHOLARS PROGRAM
6TH ANNUAL
SCIENCE RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM
23, SEPTEMBER 2011
PRESENTATION ABSTRACTS
CONTENTS
Ilya Belopolski .......................... Open questions in multi-messenger gravitational wave astronomy
Rohan Bhandari ......................... Observation of the Interlayer State in Gr... |
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