TinyModels/Chronos
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[{'expected': SplitInfo(name='test', num_bytes=15728640, num_examples=540), 'recorded': SplitInfo(name='test', num_bytes=51291, num_examples=884, dataset_name='chronos-wiki-corpus')}]
Error code: UnexpectedError
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File:Castle Bravo nuclear test (cropped).jpg|thumb|The mushroom cloud from the Castle Bravo thermonuclear weapon test in 1954, the largest nuclear weapons test ever conducted by the United States |
Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the performance of nuclear weapons and the effects of Nuclear explosion|their explosion. List of nuclear weapons tests|Over 2,000 nuclear weapons tests have been carried out since 1945. Nuclear testing is a sensitive political issue. Governments have often ... |
The first nuclear device was detonated as a test by the United States at the Trinity site in New Mexico on July 16, 1945, with a yield approximately TNT equivalent|equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. The first thermonuclear weapon technology test of an engineered device, codenamed Ivy Mike, was tested at the Enewetak Ato... |
With the advent of nuclear technology and its increasingly global fallout an anti-nuclear movement formed and in 1963, three (UK, US, Soviet Union) of the then four nuclear states and many non-nuclear states signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwat... |
Underground tests conducted by the Soviet Union continued until 1990, the United Kingdom until 1991, the United States until 1992, and both China and France until 1996. In signing the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty in 1996, these countries pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing; the treaty has not yet entere... |
==Types== |
File:Types of nuclear testing.svg|thumb|Four major types of nuclear testing: 1. atmospheric, 2. underground nuclear testing|underground, 3. exoatmospheric, and 4. underwater |
Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test. |
*Atmospheric testing involves explosions that take place in the Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere. Generally, these have occurred as devices detonated on Bomb tower|towers, balloons, barges, or islands, or dropped from airplanes, and some only buried far enough to intentionally create a surface-breaking crater. The United... |
*Underground testing is conducted below the surface of the earth at varying depths. Underground nuclear testing comprised the majority of nuclear tests by the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War; other forms of nuclear testing were banned by the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. True underground tests... |
*Exoatmospheric testing is conducted above the atmosphere. The test devices are lifted on rockets. These high-altitude nuclear explosions can generate a nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) when they occur in the ionosphere, and charged particles resulting from the blast can cross hemispheres following magnetosphere|ge... |
*Underwater testing involves nuclear devices being Underwater explosion|detonated underwater, usually moored to a ship or a barge (which is subsequently destroyed by the explosion). Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of nuclear weapons against naval vessels (such as in Operation Cr... |
===Salvo tests=== |
Another way to classify nuclear tests is by the number of explosions that constitute the test. The treaty definition of a salvo test is: |
<blockquote>In conformity with treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union, a salvo is defined, for multiple explosions for peaceful purposes, as two or more separate explosions where a period of time between successive individual explosions does not exceed 5 seconds and where the burial points of all explo... |
The USSR has exploded up to eight devices in a single salvo test; Pakistan's second and last official test exploded four different devices. Almost all lists in the literature are lists of tests; in the lists in Wikipedia (for example, Operation Cresset has separate items for Cremino and Caerphilly, which together const... |
==Purpose== |
Separately from these designations, nuclear tests are also often categorized by the purpose of the test itself. |
* Weapons-related tests are designed to garner information about how (and if) the weapons themselves work. Some serve to develop and validate a specific weapon type. Others test experimental concepts or are physics experiments meant to gain fundamental knowledge of the processes and materials involved in nuclear detona... |
* Weapons effects tests are designed to gain information about the effects of the weapons on structures, equipment, organisms, and the environment. They are mainly used to assess and improve survivability to nuclear explosions in civilian and military contexts, tailor weapons to their targets, and develop the tactics o... |
* Safety experiments are designed to study the behavior of weapons in simulated accident scenarios. In particular, they are used to verify that a (significant) nuclear detonation cannot happen by accident. They include one-point safety tests and simulations of storage and transportation accidents. |
* Nuclear test detection experiments are designed to improve the capabilities to detect, locate, and identify nuclear detonations, in particular, to monitor compliance with test-ban treaties. In the United States these tests are associated with Operation Vela Uniform before the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty stopped all... |
* Peaceful nuclear explosions were conducted to investigate non-military applications of nuclear explosives. In the United States, these were performed under the umbrella name of Operation Plowshare. |
Aside from these technical considerations, tests have been conducted for political and training purposes, and can often serve multiple purposes. |
==Alternatives to full-scale testing== |
File:NTS - LLNL subcritical experiment.jpg|thumb|upright|Subcritical experiment at the Nevada National Security Site |
Since the 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, "nuclear explosions" of all kinds are banned. Nuclear nations have invested in many alternatives to maintain confidence in weapon capability: |
* Computer simulation is used extensively to provide as much information as possible without physical testing. Mathematical models for such simulation model scenarios not only of performance but also of shelf life and maintenance.<ref name="Scoles-2023-04-20"></ref><ref name="Hoffman-2011"></ref> A theme has generally ... |
* Physical testing |
** Materials testing |
*** Subcritical (or cold) tests involving fissile materials and high explosives that purposely result in no nuclear weapon yield|yield. The name refers to the lack of creation of a critical mass of fissile material. Subcritical tests continue to be performed by the United States, Russia, and the People's Republic of Ch... |
*** Proxy isotope testing: high temperature/density/pressure compression testing of non-fissile isotopes such as plutonium-242 or uranium-238, to determine a bomb core's relevant equation of state. |
** Fission testing |
*** Critical mass experiments studying fissile material compositions, densities, geometries, and Neutron reflector|reflectors. They can be subcritical or supercritical, in which case significant radiation fluxes can be produced. This type of test has resulted in several criticality accidents. |
*** Hydronuclear tests (hydrodynamical + nuclear) study nuclear materials under the conditions of explosive shock compression. They can create subcritical conditions, or supercritical conditions with yields ranging from negligible all the way up to a substantial fraction of full weapon yield.<ref></ref> Any fission yie... |
** Fusion testing: inertial confinement fusion experiments using lasers, like the National Ignition Facility, or magnetized liners, like the Z Pulsed Power Facility, or projectile compression. These study the plasma physics and Fusion ignition|ignition of deuterium-tritium mixtures. |
Subcritical tests executed by the United States include:<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> |
{| class="wikitable sortable" |
|+Subcritical Tests |
|- |
!style="background:#efefef;" | Name |
!style="background:#efdead;" | Date Time (Universal Time|UT) |
!style="background:#efefef;" | Location |
!style="background:#efdead;" | Elevation + Height |
!style="background:#efefef;" | Notes |
|- |
! A series of 50 tests |
| |
| Los Alamos National Lab Test Area 49 |
| and |
| Series of 50 tests during US/USSR joint nuclear test ban.<ref></ref> |
|- |
! Odyssey |
| |
| Nevada National Security Site|NTS Area U1a |
| and |
| |
|- |
! Trumpet |
| |
| NTS Area U1a-102D |
| and |
| |
|- |
! Kismet |
| |
| NTS Area U1a |
| and |
| Kismet was a proof of concept for modern hydronuclear tests; it did not contain any SNM (Special Nuclear Material—plutonium or uranium). |
|- |
! Rebound |
| 10:—:— |
| NTS Area U1a |
| and |
| Provided information on the behavior of new plutonium alloys compressed by high-pressure shock waves; same as Stagecoach but for the age of the alloys. |
|- |
! Holog |
| |
| NTS Area U1a.101A |
| and |
| Holog and Clarinet may have switched locations. |
|- |
! Stagecoach |
| |
End of preview.
Chronos Wiki Corpus 📜
540 Wikipedia articles walked into a FAISS index. The retriever said "top 4." The cross-encoder said "just one, actually." The language model said "let me tell you about a Finnish shipwreck." We fixed that last part.
This is the dataset that powers Chronos-3B — a curated, cleaned collection of Wikipedia articles covering the most consequential events, figures, and inventions of the 20th century. Built for RAG. Useful for a lot more than that.
540 documents. 15 MB. The entire century, more or less.
What's inside
| Category | Examples |
|---|---|
| World War I | Causes of WWI, Western Front, Treaty of Versailles, Trench warfare, Christmas Truce |
| World War II | European Theatre, Pacific War, D-Day, Pearl Harbor, Atomic bombings, Holocaust |
| Cold War | Iron Curtain, Cuban Missile Crisis, Berlin Wall, Space Race, Nuclear disarmament |
| Inventions & Technology | Radar, Penicillin, Transistor, Computer, Internet, Jet engine, Satellite |
| Political & Social Movements | Decolonisation, Civil rights, Women's suffrage, Marshall Plan, United Nations |
| Key Figures | Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin, Hitler, Mussolini, Truman, Eisenhower, Rommel |
The corpus focuses strictly on 1900–1999, with a heavy emphasis on the two world wars and the Cold War. No sports. No celebrity biographies. No articles about specific types of zoo keys. Just history.
How it was built
The pipeline had four stages:
1. Category-based scraping
The Wikipedia API was queried across 26 carefully chosen categories — things like World_War_I, Cold_War, 20th-century_inventions. This returned over 1,000 candidate article titles.
2. Smart filtering List articles, timelines, bibliographies, disambiguation pages, and anything about films, novels, music, or sports were automatically removed. The goal was historical substance, not breadth for its own sake.
3. Raw text extraction
For each valid page, raw wikitext was fetched via ?action=raw and converted to plain English — templates stripped, HTML removed, references gone, markup cleaned. What remains is the narrative text a reader would actually read.
4. Quality control Articles under 400 characters were discarded. Stubs and disambiguation pages produce terrible retrieval chunks. The 540 that made it through are actual, substantive articles.
Usage
For RAG pipelines
from huggingface_hub import snapshot_download
folder = snapshot_download(
"QuantaSparkLabs/chronos-wiki-corpus",
repo_type="dataset"
)
# All .txt files are in the downloaded folder
# Chunk them, embed them, index them — you're done
For fine-tuning Load the text column directly and use it as a domain-specific pretraining corpus to push a model's 20th-century historical knowledge.
For text analysis 540 structured, clean historical articles make a solid corpus for topic modelling, entity extraction, stylometric analysis, or anything else that benefits from consistent, well-written source text.
Dataset stats
| Property | Value |
|---|---|
| Total articles | 540 |
| Total size | ~15 MB |
| Language | English |
| Source | Wikipedia (public domain / CC-BY-SA 3.0) |
| Time period covered | 1900 – 1999 |
| Format | Plain text, one article per file |
| Min article length | 400 characters |
License
Source text is from Wikipedia, available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. This curated collection is released under the same license. Use it, build on it, cite it.
Acknowledgments
This dataset exists because thousands of Wikipedia editors have spent years documenting history for free, for everyone. The scraping, filtering, and cleaning took days. Their work took decades. The credit belongs to them.
Built as part of the Chronos project. If you use this corpus in your own work, open a discussion on the dataset page — we'd genuinely like to know what you made with it.
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