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| "paper_id": "J77-3003", |
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| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T02:49:31.902466Z" |
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| "title": "NEWSLETTER OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTATIONAL LINGUI S T I W ASPECTS OF ENGLISH SENTENCE STRESS, by Susan F. Schmerling, Reviewed by", |
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| { |
| "first": "Donald", |
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| "E" |
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| "last": "P A L O Alto", |
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| "first": "Research", |
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| "email": "" |
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| { |
| "first": "M", |
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| "last": "Bruguiere", |
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| { |
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| "last": "Cornit6 De La Langue", |
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| "first": "Eirancaise", |
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| "N" |
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| "first": "A", |
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| "last": "Culioli", |
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| "first": "B", |
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| { |
| "first": "Californle", |
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| { |
| "first": "M", |
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| "first": "Universitk", |
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| "last": "Paris", |
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| { |
| "first": "E", |
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| "last": "Spang-Hanssepj", |
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| { |
| "first": "Univmitd", |
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| "last": "Tie Copesahague", |
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| { |
| "first": "E", |
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| "R" |
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| "first": "Universitc", |
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| { |
| "first": "R.-L", |
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| "last": "De Lurid", |
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| { |
| "first": "Ecble", |
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| "last": "Etudes", |
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| { |
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| { |
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| "last": "Laboratoire D'automakque Documentaire", |
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| { |
| "first": "R", |
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| { |
| "first": "Paris-Vhcennes- J .-C", |
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| "last": "Milner", |
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| { |
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| "last": "Laboratoire", |
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| { |
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| { |
| "first": "-", |
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| "first": "Peter", |
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| "first": "Arjen", |
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| "venue": null, |
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| "abstract": "AMERICAN JOURNAL OF COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS is published by the Association for Computational Linguistics.", |
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| "paper_id": "J77-3003", |
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| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "AMERICAN JOURNAL OF COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS is published by the Association for Computational Linguistics.", |
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| "section": "Abstract", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "body_text": [ |
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| "text": "T h e middle c h a p t e r s ( 3 , 4) examine certain assumptions that most studies of accent have made. Ch. 3 argues t h a t t h e r e is no such t h i n g as a n e u t r a l sentence w i t h a Hnormal~l-position for t h e accent, and o f f e r s t h e interesting explanation t h a t what t h e I1nor-ma1 accenttt advocates have been referring to, without realizing it, is t h e c i t a t i o n form of a sentence--that t h i s is t h e only t r u l y wanted such a pure context-free accent p a t t e r n , as S p o i n t s o u t , we could not g e t i t , because speakers will imagine a context according t~ c e r t a i n clues t h a t t h e sentence i t s e l f may o f f e r . Most w i l l read --John died with t h e accent on __I_ J o h n , but -My physics professor died w l t h t h e accent on died. (A neater p a i r m i g h t have been ---tlSilas Marner is hereft versus \"Silas Marner is hereu--to show mini m a l l y t h e e f f e c t of a personal name, m a t c h e d w i t h a book title.)", |
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| { |
| "text": "It is c e r t a i n l y t r u e that \"neutral accentft has had t p o l i t t l e ... Those people just don't give a damn.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "text": "The l a t t e r censure is milder--it m i g h t imply ' W h a t 1 t h e use of t h a n one, but t h e r e is no space to elaborate here.)", |
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| "text": "The assumptions c r i t i c i z e d i n c h . 4 are two: that membership in a c e r t a i n category (say noun or pronoun) may tell w h e t h e r somet h i n g is accentable, and t h a t , t h e r e is a special kjnd of accent t h a t may be called oontrastive.", |
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| "text": "S points w t that t h e r e are so many exceptions t o t;'h8 rep-dted accenting of nouns and no*-accenting of pronouns--even when one or t h e o t h e r is ~a p h o r i c --t h a t no generalizations can be made. She c i t e s the type -I know who's standfnqin f r o n tof Mary, -- -T h i s like the out t e n s e from verb> Why don't y o u write it? --I wrote it!' specific. In p l a c e of it, S presents a looser g e n e r a l i z a t i o n f o r which she uses such informal terms as t h a t w h i c h is remarkable, noteworthy (67), ornew (72), ~r r c u e positiye side, and lackof simificance (71) or taken f o r anted (71;) ont h e negative side. notion of presupposition .", |
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| { |
| "text": "blit I don't know who -M", |
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| "text": "==== I d i d write i t ! ) -. L -- v - - Though S is undoubtedly r i g h t a", |
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| { |
| "text": "she", |
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| "text": "In a sentence Like -I didn'ttake.", |
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| "text": "m g umbrella because -I didn't r e a l i z e -it w a s raininq t h e f a c t i v e verb realize e n t a i l s t h e factuality of 'raining' But t h i s has t o do w i t h t m t , h , not w i t h knowledge w h i c h t h e speaker and h e a r e r share--there is no reason to take i t f o r granted t h a t $he hearer knows it was r a i n i n g at t h a t place and time.", |
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| "text": "We may now look back at t h e criticism l e v e l e d at B o l i r r g e r for using t h e term predictability. Abdicated is de-accented becauee \"The speaker is interested in t h e f a t e of kings and the rise of democracies. T h e r e is enough mutual underatanding between him and h i s interlocutor to m a k e him reasonably sure t h a t t h e mention of 'kings1--in t h e conkext of de-mocrac-y--will suggest 'abdication'\" (~o l i n g e r 1972, 635). The passage in which t h i s occurs began with t h e statement t h a t Itwhat counts is relative ;J=e;;=;==Ep= semantic weight\" (with emphasis as shown), and t h e only claim intended was that as between 'kings' tiad 'abdicatet, 'kings1 had more to say--the question was 'kingst ( onarc hy ) versus tdemacracy', not ' a b d i c a t e t versus 'remain' In S ' s terme, -w h i c h I conceive t o be naming t h e same thing t h a t I was t r y i n g to name, k i n would be t h e elemeqt designating t h a t w h i c h was most \"remarkablen.", |
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| "text": "S. continues h e r critique w i t h t w o examples from h e r own ex- e r has to decide which element is more suggestive and which is less.", |
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| "text": "To Bay t h a t ~Trumanl s d e a t h was expectedtt is to a t t a c h b t h e expect a t i o n t o t h e whole event, when it needs to be a t t a c h e d d i f f e r e nt i a l l y t o Truman or to death. The question is, given t h e t o t a l context, which word c a r r i e s greater semantic w e i g h t , is more newsw o r t h y , more remarkable--Truman ordied? Everybody h a s been t a l kwg about .Truman .so an ad@Tthmal mentf on of Truman is n o t part i c u l a r l y newsworthy. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e question at t h e ~i m e was, will he l i v e through t h e day? will he linger on? w i l l h e perhaps r a l l y ? Q ' s same misconception regarding what t h e \"expectation\" a t t a c h e s to crops up d a t e r in h e r lttopic-commenttt Cases. She cites t h e example ~6 h n survived as one t h a t llcould be uttered only in a context where some such expectation on t h e p a r t of the audience was assumed t h e speaker know our friend has been ihvolved in a serious automobile a c c i d t n t ) \" ( 9 0 ) . Expect a t i o n of what? Not t h a t John would survive, but t h a t John would be mentioned. If we know that he has been involved in a serious 6 = = = = = = = = accident we no more expect him to a~r v i y e than t od i e or tobe knocked senseless or to -come out witbouka scratch--which possibility w i l l be t h e actuaX outcome i s precisely t h e question. Ano t h e r p a i r t h a t points up t h e contrast mort s h a r p l y :", |
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| { |
| "text": "What dp you have against smoking? --Itv s t h e nicotine t h a t it puts i n youp. body.", |
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| "text": "Given t h e knowledge of t h e world that speaker and Qearer share, (In t h e l a t t e r , it i o not even necessary t~ mention I _ .", |
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| "section": "... It's t h e harm t h a t it does t o your body.", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "It is nob t h e newsworthin,e::s o f the. utterance as a w h o l e t h a t counts, h u t t h e relative newsworthiness of t h e itam to which r e l ative p i t c h prominence* is to be assigned. s misunderstanding was compounded of my c a r e l e s s wording a n & h e~ c~nfusion between overa l l and differential expectetian, o r so i t appears t6 me.", |
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| "section": "door.)", |
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| "text": "S adds some examples of a t y p e where t h e r~~u n appears t o have l i t t i e semantic w e i g h t of i t s own, y e t c a r r i e s t h e accent, T h e y represent, I t h i n k , a balance between accent-for-prominence and 1. Bears a r e a c a n t~n k e r a u c s p e c i e s .", |
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| "section": "door.)", |
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| { |
| "text": "2. Bears are a species t h a t is cantankerous.", |
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| "text": "4; *Bears a r e -a lot t h a t ids cantankerous.", |
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| "section": ". Bears are a cantankerous h t .", |
| "sec_num": "3" |
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| { |
| "text": "Bears are cantankerous. -example suggests t h a t you had b e t t e r heed the signal--if i t were", |
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| "section": ".", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
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| { |
| "text": "sai--'d -Look! -T h a t policeman is beckoning to you!, w i t h the verb de- v -", |
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| "section": ".", |
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| { |
| "text": "accented, the speaker would be implying something like 'Isn't t h a t", |
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| "section": ".", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
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| { |
| "text": "interest in&! But t h e most serious problem h a s t o do w i t h t h e notion of \"lev-els1I. By t r y i n g to t r e a t accent out of its intonational c o n t e x t j S leaves cases l i k e the following undefined, where clearly hot news is inv~lved (the speaker is r e p o r t i n g something he has just read):", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": ".", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Sa: did you see t h i s ? caped pris Some es oners have dered a wan.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": ".", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The ustressesty would be marked, I suppose, l i k e this: Some escaped prhsonershave murdered a man; but tb important thing is t h e na- The \"topic-comment\" notion is t m e by and m r g e , but again suffers by being divorced f r o m intonation. What can be tlassumed to be on t h e &dresscets mindl'may take e i t h e r of t w o forms. In one,", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": ".", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "t h e topic is LO& resumptive--it adds no more information t h a n wou3d be contained in a de-accented pronoun. Typically t h e r e is a repetition, e i t h e r literal or by sense: In t h e first,the front window is a literal r e p e t i t i o n , and cont a i n s no p i t c h prominence whatever. I n t h e second, t h e speaker can assume t h a t t h e hearer will know t h a t your friends is t h e same as Jack, Marion, and Lucg, and again t h e r e need be no p i t c h prominence.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": ".", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "I couldn't g e t in.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": ".", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The trouble is that since p i t c h h e i g h t is ignored, t h e 'lstressl! markings w i l l be t h e same, for instance ont h e f r o n t window, as if an accent were a c t u a l l y t h e r e .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "--", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The second kind of assumption t a k e s some familiarity for granted, but still finds it desirable to single out t h e t o p i c . T h i s is done b~r accenting it, but with a Lower pitch than the one on t h e comment:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "--", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "What were we t o do? Our g o l d had been confiscated. Our jewels had been stolen. O u r clothes were missing. We were al6ne in a strange land.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "--", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "That t h e speaker had had gold and jewels i s assumed to be known and f o i l . Stealing; is not suoh a noteworthy a c t t h a t Lewels cannot otltweigh 3t;. g i n a l l y , the l a s t sentence contains t h r e e accents no one of which is l e s s prominent t h i u l t h e others--an example of something that 3's treatment does n o t to,uch.", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "--", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "I conclude by t a k i n g t h r e e passages from S and testing t h e m for adequacy. The question is w h e t h e r news and topib-comment works b e t t e r , or relative semantib w e i g h t .", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "--", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "The first involves t h e example John survived, w h i c h S says \"seems impossible as an out-of-the-blue P e p o r t f t ( 9 0 ) . The probl'em is t o find a context in w h i c h survived carries relatively l i t t l e", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "--", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "information. If Noah had h a d a son named John, and John had f i n a lly made it t o the a r k alone; w i t h . some o t h e r stragglers, Noah might have exclaimed -~b h n survived! --Tbank God! Given t h e f l o o d , sur-viva1 was on everyone's mind, and no p a r t i c u l a r attentidn needed to be c a l l e d to it--it would almost have bee-n enough to. say John!", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "--", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The second involves t h e -ample What's wrong w i t h ~o h n ? --His ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Thank -God!", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "---- d & -was -run", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Thank -God!", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "The seconZ would be a strange sllswer, n o t because sf t h e form, but because the wrong thing is h i g h l i g h t e d .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "know. )", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(~o u n s usually code more information t h a n vefbs--a lexical c o a t will show t h a t t h e r e are vastly more nouns t h a n verbs, revealing a tendency f o r nouns in w h i c h the predicate has t h e f o r m of a noun phrase\" (94-5).", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "know. )", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "Messis de-accented because it is \"not very hounym'. True, it is In contrast totheauthors cited before Barbara Partee claims t h a t \"preverb\" is not a s y n t a c t i c category but r a t h e r a f e a t u r e", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "know. )", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "d o t --i t is what I", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "know. )", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "f A C T , O R S I N F L U E N C I N G T H E P L A C E M E N T O F E N G L I S H A D V E R B S I N R E L A T I O N T 0", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "know. )", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "shared by a l l s e n t e n c e adverbs. 7Jacobson, i n a n earlier work It is not even clear that there exists a syntactically i n t e r e s t i n g group of adverbs called preverbs worth extended study as a u n i t , Jacobson has n o t given any evidence t h a t t h e r e is. For the time being, however, I will assume that it is worthwhile to consider \"preverbs\" as a group. where unbiased e m p i r i c a l data is essential. bhis. This shows a weakness i n his theoretical framework. to JAcobson ' s . (19) I t h i n k t h a t Jacobson's t y p e of t e s t is not", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "A U X I L I A R I E S : A S T U D Y I N V A R I A T I O N", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "adequate and needs to be replaced by other types of considerqtions. (20)", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "A U X I L I A R I E S : A S T U D Y I N V A R I A T I O N", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "Also on the same pqge Jacobson claims t h a t it i-s clear that F'almost\" and \"neaylyl' are sometimes sentence adverbs. In contrast many authors have assumed t h a t \"almost\" and \"nearly\" SPe. always nonsentential adverbs. '21) Of course given Jacobson's t e s t f o r sentence adverbg \"almost\" and \" n e a r l y \" are indeed sometimes senteace adverbs, but as I mentioned his t e s t is not. acceptab1.e.. ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "A U X I L I A R I E S : A S T U D Y I N V A R I A T I O N", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Edward K l i r n a , (1964) . \"Neqation in) E n g l i s h \" In The S t r u c t u r e (1976) . \"On-the Form and F u n c t i o ni n g of T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n L i n g u i s t i c I n q u i r y . \" Vol. 7 , (pp. 3-4 0 ) , and Peter C u l i c o v e r , ( 1 9 7 7 ) . \"An I n (1976) . An Iptroduuctioh t o E n g l i s h T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l S y n t a x . London. Longman, p . 8 7 .", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 85, |
| "end": 91, |
| "text": "(1976)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 283, |
| "end": 289, |
| "text": "(1976)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "( 5 )~e e", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "v a l i d E v a l u a t i o n Metric!' i n L i n g u i s t i c A n a l y s i s . V", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "( 5 )~e e", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "( 1 2 )~a n y doubts remain, however, t h e ndtion of t r a n s p o r t a b i l i t y , which aacobson h i m s e l f a c c e p t s , makes t h e claim t h a t \"preve~b\" i s a n interesting s y n t a c t i c u n i t ( 1 9 7 6 ) . pp. 23-51 for a d e q u a t e ways t o d i s t i n g u i s h between s e n t e n c e and n o n -s e n t e n t i a l a d v e r b s . (15) See E n r i q u e D e l a c r u z , ( 1 9 7 6 ) . \" F a c t i v e s and Proposition Level C o n s t r u c t i o n s i n Montague Grammar\" i n Moptague Grammar., ed. by Barbara P a r t e e , New York Academic Press, (pp. 1 7 7 -1 9 9 . ) . p. 179.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 361, |
| "end": 365, |
| "text": "(15)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "( 5 )~e e", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(l6)s-e for example Yehoshua B a r -H i l l e l , Jonathan Malino, and Avishai Margal it, \"On Logic and T h e o r e t i c a l L i n g u i s t i cs. \" ( 1 9 7 5 ) i n c u r r e n t T r e n d s i n L i n g u i s t i c s , V o l . 1 2 ; e d . by Thomas Sebeok. The Hague, Mouton. (pp. 37-101). p. 7 6 , B a r t s c h op. c i t . , Clark op. c i t . Frank Heny.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "( 5 )~e e", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "( 1 9 7 3 ) . \" S e n t e n c e and Predicate Modifiers i n E n g l i s h . \" i n S y n t a x and S e m a n t i c s , Vol. 2 '(pp. 217- ..,,,,.,., 83 HUMANITIES e b .~, e b , .~b , Tile operation of the recogni.tion automaton irlcliides a procedure which pi-cp:tses the description of !he pattern in such a way ns to exclt~dc the' influ;.nce of ~s o~~l o r p l f i c transformattons, that is 'the cl~a~lges of the i r~p~~t i-triage. A inethod i s propose(! which n~a k e s tllc recogr~itioi~ procedures indepc~iden t of tlie isomorphic t ransf or-illat io~ls. Ttie concept is based on a periodjcal rnod~tlation ir, the range of existence of the 1):1ttcr11 or 011 R ~x-i-iodicdl mocit~~nlion o f all the pitraltlcters distinguislietl. Al,plicat.io~is of this procedi~re are cti:,cussed with special referelice to the iso~liorphic fs:lnsf'orl~~:~tim of ihc type of \"gc~lcral i n t e~i s i t y illoclification\" of speccll ftqw for a probabilistic rccogt~itio~~ motlel. The lexical uniformity of a sample is considered to be no less importarit than its size, representiitiveness, etc. A method for determination of the lexical uniforlnity o f text with the aid of the computer is proposed (general flowchart vof the algorithnl i s given). The method is based on stntislical evaluation of the difference of the relative freqi~enci~es of word forms occuring i n two (or niore) portions of tcxt to bc compared as well as on the basis of thc evaluation of the general amount of coincident word forms. The application of the method is i1lustr:)tcd by compcrriso~l of two portio~~s of a hypothetiail text. \"['he word list of one portion covers up to 96% of the word occnrrenccs in tllc olllcr portiofi; only 70% of the coincidcnt words hove statistically insignificant differe~~ccs i n tile--relative frcquenclcs. This result is regarded as sufficient for concluding ns to the lexical unifortnity of B x t represented .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 136, |
| "end": 182, |
| "text": "..,,,,.,., 83 HUMANITIES e b .~, e b , .~b ,", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "( 5 )~e e", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "by the two portions being compnred. 13 refs. For automatic syntactic analysis [he functions are dcscri bed of the brackct structures in English technical text on radiolocation (a f i l e of 2.000 scntences). Round brackcts are divided i i~ to unilateral and bjlatcral. U~~iiatcrnt round brackcts mark liun~bcrs and ictters in e~~llmerntions. Bilateral round brackets single out,: 1. a nurnbcr or ldtcr in enumeration ( i n the same way as unilateral ones, 2. a nunlbcr or letter i n a refere~~ce ( \\~s i~n l l y after a formula) which filnctions as the imnfiFying bausa [he ec-liolion for X is: l (=(l'r)\" ( 1 ) ; 3. a word (in particular, 31. 1 ab1)reviatint-Q 4. a scntetlce or il pair of sentences;", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 597, |
| "end": 611, |
| "text": "(=(l'r)\" ( 1 )", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "( 5 )~e e", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "5. .il phrase. Sentcnccs closed in brackets sllollrln bc sir~gled out as a segment. Therc are such. y-tlrascs which have t l~c snnll: f l~t~ctjon as tt\\r: sell tencc ; l n (~ shot~ld bc see~lrented correspondingly. The f o r r~~a l feature of this type of phrases is the vrrb to see it1 thc i~npcrative forin: 7'llc milnr i~~odulnfar(ssc~ Fig. 3) coir.sisis oJ.. or a psrsoilal vcrb wit11 a n S withailt :I preposition to the icft: Tire figure slrows rcrhere the ivrget is lnca,ed ( t h e cc2nler oaf the lurgct L s : .~)", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 339, |
| "end": 346, |
| "text": "Fig. 3)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "LEXICOGRAPHY -LEXICOLOGY: TEXT I-IANDLING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Exalnples of phrosts that are n o t indcpc~ltlent scgmcnts are noun phrases Functioning as sentences and participle phr:lscs, Y7urthcrmore, rou~ld brackets as wcll as squ;lre brackets ant! braces are usctl in ma thematical expressions. (Teoriin vazyku i inzh. lingvisrika) , Lningrod: 66-16; , 1913. The notion. uf \"systemt' is considered as interprcted by solqe Soviet logicists. The set of linguistic objects is stated to be a system (at lcast \"badly organized\" or \"diffuse\" as cicfincd by V. V, Nniieov). The. linguost.atis~ic studies conducted by the \"Speech Statistics\" research group crnphalicolly do conform to the adopted approach to system analysis. 7' he grotrp lras pioi~eercd in co~~~prelre~~sive research on various linguistic systc~ns (in particular, owing to a uniform plan i~t~d method, some 80 frequency dict iu~~arics of various language subsets already cornpiled can be ir~tegruted in various combinations, etc.) 'l'hc author regrets that as, yet many linguisl~ havc failed to master the inelhod of statistirnl analysis. iekhnicheskoi inforrnutsii,\" 1973, srriia 2,) Symbol-by-langi~age replacement which is performed by a (context-free) si~hstilution does not depend 011 the con text of the symbol. A generalization o f context-f rce substi~ution is introduced so that the rcplncemerll i~ecomes associated with the context. It is proved that: (1) context-sensitive substitutions have, i n a sense, a wider scope limn context-free substitutipn~ (2) many classes of Inngunges src closcd under co~~tcxt-sensitive substitutions. 7 refs.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 275, |
| "end": 291, |
| "text": "Lningrod: 66-16;", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 292, |
| "end": 299, |
| "text": ", 1913.", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 236, |
| "end": 272, |
| "text": "(Teoriin vazyku i inzh. lingvisrika)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1040, |
| "end": 1085, |
| "text": "iekhnicheskoi inforrnutsii,\" 1973, srriia 2,)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "LEXICOGRAPHY -LEXICOLOGY: TEXT I-IANDLING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(zagachakh rnatcmatichesltoi linyvistiki)", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Objectives of Mathematical Linguistics", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Linguistic problcnts requiring colist ruclion of rn:itl~cmatical l a~~g u ;~g e mqdels ore cliscussed: 1. Idwrtificatiun atid clas\\ification of the clcmentary li~igl~istic objects; 2. Study of thc types o f c~m h i n a b i l i ty of variotrs classes of morpl~cmes. Mathc~l~;~ticnl 11~ublcms fnci ng rnathcmdtical l'in'guistics arc c l~~c~~s s c t l :", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Objectives of Mathematical Linguistics", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(a) 1nu1 hcmalical rlescr~p~ 1011 of the set of tcxts or a given Innguagc; study of thc i nv;~riancc condi tioils o f a language clescribcd will1 respect to crrtain transformaliotls; consttc~ctioti of at1 algorithm; (b) cornpitrlson o f sets of tekts its gc~icrnkd by certain strictly forin;ll inodcls-( c ) c;,nslruct~or~ of nlodcls for tril~~slat on of it) ngi~agcs; anti (d) siatislical st~ldies of Ii~t~gi~agcs. M;tlhernaiic;:J I~ngi~isiics IS intri~~sicnlly colinectid with tlicoretic:ll I~nguistics :~nd is i t s n:ltural c o m~~o~i c n t .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Objectives of Mathematical Linguistics", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Matllelnatical l~ngi~istlcs deals wilh tnatlxnutir;ll nlodels uf li llguisiic plicno~nenn. The corlccp~ of \"111odel1 I llg\" is explainctl, disc~lss~tlg a rnngc of associntetl n o t i o~~s silcll as sin~ul;iliol~, aulom:ttion, a l g o r i~l~~n i~u t~~~~ and cornputer implerl~ent:ltion. 7 rcfs. Several independent kn~wledge sources (KSs) interact in a hypothesis-and-test paradigtn and are interfaced through a dytlalllic global data structure, tlre bliickbonrd. Hearsay I: KSa are activated in a lockstep sequence of three phases per cycle: pool, i~ypotlrrsize, fesi. All K% are activated at each phase and the next phasc doesn't start until all KSs have completcd the prcse~it one. A mediator module maintains thc blackboard, calcl~lates coinbitled ratings from ratings assigned to hypotheses by the i~ciividiinl KSs and decides wlren to stop and accept a solution (or to give up). The currently highest rctted hypollirsis is the one used as the context for the next cycle. Hearsay ti: The blnchi,oard has been extended nnd gcncralized to allow a) the representation of a l l levels of information (acoc~stic pl~onetic, syll~bic) in addition to thc lexical and sentence level of Hearsay I, and b) the explicit represenfiition of relationships among hypothesis. The overall control strategy is considerably Inore flexible than tlint for Hearsay I. ", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Objectives of Mathematical Linguistics", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A method for-infor~nation efficiency lneast~re~nent of subject indexes to three separate series of VINITl's abstract journals is described, arltj the results of its evaluation are presented. The informatioil efficieiicy, y , i s shown to be convenicnt for evaluating the e f f~c i e n c y o f use of the sobject indcxes. The value of yl can be uscd as a r n~~s u r e of perfection of thc s~~b j e c t index vocabulary and, by that, as an objective basis for f u r t h e r improvement of the vocabulary. l<cprcsen tative data for thc cn ti re set of stil~jccl indexes can be obtairled only from a inultifactor experiment of thc 2'' type, wl~ere 11 is the nun~hcr of factors For Lhe whole set of VI Nl l 1's abstract journal subject indexes. 8 rcfs. 30-33, 46, 1973. (\"Nciuthno-[~khtrisch%rkaiu ii~Jornlafsiia. Sbornik. Vse-soiuznyi instidut ~~nuchnoi i tekhr~icheskoi iriformutsii\" 1973, serjia 2,) The characterist~cs of aul.omalic translation i n artificial langur\\pcs are illi~strated by an algorithm for translation of names of a group o f chemical c o l n p o l~~l d s froni the Hut~ch W iedmann nomenclature lo the a-nomenclaturz An algorithm is described; its csscn tial function is building t lie p:.tterns o f the structures corresponding to the names of corn pounds to be translated. 'The need is stressed for distiilguishing between im~~slation and interpretation i n algorithmizing artificial langilnge translation. The following issi~es ace clrscussed: 1. Place of tnachine trilnslatiun i n cybert~etics. 2. Goal o f n~nchinc trnlwlation research--creation of an operational n~a c h i n e trt~nslntion system capable of ;kccelcrating t11c translation process as l sa whole and ni;ik~lig i t Less experlsive. 3. 0rganiz:ition of the work on m n c l l~~l c tral~sletion dcvelol)rnent. 1 I'robkms to he faced in dcvclopiilg ;I n~achine tra~islntion nlgoritlim: choice of text, decisiorls 3s to tho efrie~cil typc of algorithm, elabornlion of the rulcs of an :ilgorithm. cornpilation of the dictiun;lry, etc. 5. I'rogmlnrning. 6. Ar~tornalion of work in lnilchir~e transl:tliot~ nlgorit hm constrection. 7.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 748, |
| "end": 898, |
| "text": "30-33, 46, 1973. (\"Nciuthno-[~khtrisch%rkaiu ii~Jornlafsiia. Sbornik. Vse-soiuznyi instidut ~~nuchnoi i tekhr~icheskoi iriformutsii\" 1973, serjia 2,)", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Yoprosy sovershetzoi sistemy ill forntct/sionnoi izdarzii M., 1973", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Muchi t~e 11~:111slatlo11 and allled arcas. 8. Un~vers;ll vs. spccialir.r=d . machine tra~islatiori algori th~ns. 3. .Role of salnnii~g. 19 rck.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Specifics of Automatic Translation in Artificial", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "On the Machine Linguistic \"Sign\" (0 mashinnom lingvistichcskom \"znake\")", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Specifics of Automatic Translation in Artificial", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "Theory 01 Lang~uge and Engineering I.i~rguls~ics (Teoriia yazyka i inzh, lingvistika) , I e,tingrod: 160-166, 197 3. A machine sign (MS) is the set of input linguistic units (the signifier of MS) and an output tsnlt(s) (denotation of MS) which has bcen put into correspondence with i t in t.he course of text processing. Thc referent of m MS is the nincl~inc document(s) which establislies the cnrrespondet~cc hetwcen n 11nit in thc input language and n unit in the output langun~e. The trnnslatior~ progrilm delivcrs the cienotntion of MS. The lnngilnge of machi t~ struc ructions turns out to be thereby the ~netali\\ngu:ige of description of muchine scmni~tics (and, moreover, i t is a coli~plctcly tcrn~i~iological met;~l,n1igu;1ge). llurirlg automatic indexing thc signifier of MS i s the tcxt to be indexcd as a wholc ant1 its d e l~o t a t i o n is the indexation, that is, the SII b ject field. llcscriptors si118lcd out i l l the text and in;itched agnimt thc stalltlarcl set of (lcsL'~~iptors o f the field co~istilute the tlistinctive fcnturcs of klS atld ;ill other text elements are its inkgral fcntures. i s 1;uigungc is particl~lnrly abundn~~t in synonyms, bc~t scts of synoi~ynls con\\ti L I I~C equiv;llcncc classes, ;IS I l l d c x i~~g is performed in n uniquc way.", |
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| "start": 101, |
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| "text": "160-166, 197 3.", |
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| "start": 49, |
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| "text": "(Teoriia yazyka i inzh, lingvistika)", |
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| "section": "Specifics of Automatic Translation in Artificial", |
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| "text": ") A p r e d i c a t e o r verb V may p r e s u p p o s e a s e n t e n c e p*. I t i s n o t clear t o m e which o f these s e n s e s of \"presepposel' Jacobson h a s i n mind. Here Jacobson c o u l d a v o i d t h i s u n c l a r i t y .", |
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| "text": "4 , 1 9 7 7 . I n it I present a extensive b i b l i o g r a p h y o f t h e work done' o n \"almost\".", |
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| "text": "o f one senteilce takcs some 30 sec). The inistakrs that werc dctccted (luring the ,experimrt~'t have ilot beer] corrected in thc grammar bcause of soine dchnicnl reasons.", |
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| "back_matter": [ |
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| "text": "wri tterl in n tia~ural language are to be entercd illlo the svsttu3r which is to protluce iinswcrs in the s m c form. Tile I IS conlprises lllree u n i 1s: 1. receptor gritnlnlar--the input anti rcqi~est proccssinp unit whicll dissects the reyclcsl illto itldividi~:\\l st:tluments; 2. memory: and 3. generative prnnimar--nlgorith~~ which forlns the answer. A n y statc~rlerlt is divided inio c o t~t c~~t qnd int.ap~ng: n~cailing (-orietitatiol~) of il state~iiel~t roughly coriysponds Lo it~; divisiol~ into l h e~n e ant1 rheme, while cunlrlit i s t;~ntanlount lo the at:itemer~t af'ttr rr~eani~ly has beql e.ucl~rd.cd.-It is si~pposetl that thca I IS will dc:~l only with tlie'co~~tant of statements, wliilc the ~nuonit~g of the iinswer will be J e t e r r~~i n e d by thc request itscif. 4 refs.On f h e Snfarrnntional Nalure of the Applicative Generative hlodel (06 in fomw lsionnoi prlrirode applilt a livnoi porozt:daiusl~chei nfodeli) IJroc*c~edi~r::s of t /re Scic*/ltij*iic Ser~~inti r \"Srt,riot-ics oj' the Alctrtrs of /\\lass Co~~r~~tu~ticcztions,\" ( h l t~/ r r i r t l~+ rtuuclrtrog~ , s t *~n i /~o r u 'Ser~riutikd srcjdstv n~ (i.s.soc~oi kornt?ruttikut, iil) Yo!. 2, ~l, ~iecrcil, v' oj Aio.wo, 197 .1, Shatrnl) ;III'S appl icittive tnodcl i s nsst~ssctl fro111 the st:~ndpoi~lt of gcncr;ll scmiotics. At1 intcrprctalloi~ of tld apl~licatlvc g e n~.~:~t l o n as \"self-gcncrating Ii~npuage systcm\" 1s proposed.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 1143, |
| "end": 1170, |
| "text": "(i.s.soc~oi kornt?ruttikut,", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 1171, |
| "end": 1183, |
| "text": "iil) Yo!. 2,", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 1184, |
| "end": 1187, |
| "text": "~l,", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 1188, |
| "end": 1197, |
| "text": "~iecrcil,", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1198, |
| "end": 1211, |
| "text": "v' oj Aio.wo,", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1212, |
| "end": 1215, |
| "text": "197", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "annex", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "A. N. Popcsky, and M. S: Klbrzhinskaia l,/nguoslotistics and the Alirornured Analysis of Texts (Lingvoslafisrika i automa/. analit rrksrov), Minsk: 296-924, 1973. With special reference to the drying of* varnish andp i n t coaling, a bilingual French-Russian thesailrus and an ai~xiliary thesilurus of relators have been'co~lslructed. The special thesqurus i~rcludcs a grnphit representation of the conne~ted descriptors and the so-called \"thesourus fo~als:', in whith ihe i:rcnch terms arc accq~ilpanied by l l~s s i a n equivalents. 'The aux I l jary lllcsaurus is a list of 5 7 stencil rcliltors :~nd intlicator relators, which differ by the degree, of abslnction and are joined tqgcther into 11 topics expressing the semuniico-syntactic relationship^ between the dcscri ptors, such as eqi~ivalc~~cc. order, dependence, etc. The input md o q a n i~r t i o n of the thesailrus in the Minsk-22 campliter menlory are described as is the operation of the recognidot~ algoriltim working on the basis of the thesaurus. Within the fran~ework o f R u s s i a~~ frcclucncy dictian;~ry pn~jcict, a fretlilcrlcy de~ivatio~lal dictioni~ry to ten Sovict ncwsj);,pers in Russian, dntetl January 5, 1968, is being compiled. ", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 141, |
| "end": 162, |
| "text": "Minsk: 296-924, 1973.", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "The thesaurus method of Automa tic Recognition of the Semantic Pat tern sf Scientific and Technical Text 1 Tezaurusnyi rnetod automaticheskogo raspoznavaniia sm yslovogo obraza nauchno-tekhnlcheskikh teks tov)", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Problems of Lexicology ( Proble~ny Leksikologii), Minsk, BeelorusSian University: [180] [181] [182] [183] [184] [185] [186] [187] [188] [189] [190] [191] 1973 .The current interest is stressed of studying lexical combillabilities both in a general theoretical aspect and for a nun~ber of applied lingiristic studies, primarily for a s c i e~~t i f i c selection of the minimum vocabulary in teaching a foreign language. COIII binabili ty can be studied byt linguistic and statistical methods. The latter imply compili~~p, a frequency word list of phrases. Mosko,v: 199-209, 1973. Data on quantities and frequencies of different wortls beginriiilg wit11 a certilin letter in thrce styles of Russian--'Technical (T), natural science (NS). and fictioi~ (F)--are give11 in for~r tables and n diagram as obtained during a siudy of the respective frcqiloncy lists. The relalive disparities ill the nccrnbcr atid frequency of differen1 words begi 1111 ing with sorne one letter bctween the dictionaries T and NS, NS atid F arc givcn (1'1i4)le 4).", |
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| "start": 82, |
| "end": 87, |
| "text": "[180]", |
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| "start": 88, |
| "end": 93, |
| "text": "[181]", |
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| "start": 94, |
| "end": 99, |
| "text": "[182]", |
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| "start": 100, |
| "end": 105, |
| "text": "[183]", |
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| "start": 106, |
| "end": 111, |
| "text": "[184]", |
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| "start": 112, |
| "end": 117, |
| "text": "[185]", |
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| "start": 118, |
| "end": 123, |
| "text": "[186]", |
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| "start": 124, |
| "end": 129, |
| "text": "[187]", |
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| "start": 130, |
| "end": 135, |
| "text": "[188]", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 136, |
| "end": 141, |
| "text": "[189]", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 142, |
| "end": 147, |
| "text": "[190]", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 148, |
| "end": 153, |
| "text": "[191]", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 154, |
| "end": 158, |
| "text": "1973", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 556, |
| "end": 579, |
| "text": "Mosko,v: 199-209, 1973.", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Sankin", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "Problems of Lrxicology ( Problemy leksi kologii), MLusk, B~v s s i u t t .University: 170-174, f 973.The findings of a statistical analysis of phrases i nclr~ciing lexcmes dciiol i tig petsonr show that 21 nouns have t he highest f rcqucncy chewctcristics: Bubj:, boy, child, chap, friend, etc. i2rdln texts by modern Enelis11 writers (tot:!llir~g 25 million ri~nning words) some 150,000 phrases with the nouhs have been exrritcted. All rhe phrascs werc divitlc.d ity thu sul)ject pr~ncjple i n t o 10% classes, (ibc classes were based on liogct's thesauri~s, K u n i n's p l i~ itsrolo~gicid dictionary and author's intuition). Statistic11 dislri b u t i o~s o f tlic occurrences of ;iti;~l~~sed wortis in the subject classes were compared and tllc intliccs ,of scmn~~tic: prpxi n~i ty wcru ct\\lcul:~tcd I~I*, pairs of words (thr: higt~est proximity win folrtid to rclntc the fidlowing wortlz: hoy--girl; (-kiltl-boy; mun--wontun; mure--Atdi; lad--chap, and the i o w e~t proxiin i f.y, Tor I ful lowirjg words: hurnait being--friend; Doby--people; ci/r z p n --j i . i o r J ) 1 rrrs.", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Distributional Statistical anafysls of Semantics of a Group of Words (~istributivno-statistjcheskii analiz semantiki odnoi gruppy slov)", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The Frequency Dictionary of the Metallurgy Subset of Englist~ (Chzlstotnyi slo var' anyli;'shDyo pod \"iazyka metallurgii)", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "LEXICOGRAPI-IY -LEXICOLOGY: STATIST-ICS", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "A word f~e q t~c~~c y llst of [,(124 most frequent lexemes i s given :I!, occllrrlfig in lhc silnlpb of text on melnl rolling f run1 ilri t i;h and US perioctlr:~ls covcri rig 1 0 1. 'l'hc rjgniple contai t~ed 1 XX,000 running words, n~l~o u n t i r~g to 5,300 ti i f fcrcn t lexe~ncs ( 10 :5 ('d) A model o f a natural language dictionary is proposed. For describing a dictionnry, a hierarchical calculus of specially constructed objects (\"nomemes\") is built as well as a system of rillen\" for transition from these objects to the real vocnl)ulnry units. Ilktjonaries are proliferating i n number and type n r~d bibliqgrephy oil tl~cltl is laggii~g. A semi-eotoinatic dictionafy seems to be o way to begin solvjng the problems this silunCion presents by 'binit~i\\tii~g 'a gradual trarlsi t~o n to a comprel\\cnsive system for the registfa t~o n of lexico-granimntical dataan irif'orrn;rt~on bank. of t1iction;rrics (IBD). I'he I H D is lo be supported by n r~etwork of lexicographic centers which are to khannel thetr rcsults t w t l i e head ccn tcr where the cornputer will trarlsforrn the inforn~nlion by stnndnrcl routines. Two ndditiot~al systems are necessilry: a) information retrieval catnloguc and b) an inforitlnlion rctricval language c~n~p a l i h l e w~t h it to providc fnr au'to~nalic quqslion answering. Thc Il!D is to consist of a few more OW Tess aiitono~~~ous sobsystems .so that i t can bc devclopcd' by itidividual cu~nponcnts: one of thc' first tasks to. be fulfjlled ririny be thc intc-gr;itiotl of word lists of the gcncrnl tlictioi~a ries. of Russian ar~tl cumulatiun of the It'xici~l features. :is& I bcd to eacll word. A pvssible IOU is described. Leningrad, 28/-230, 1972 Leningrad, 28/-230, ( 1973 .", |
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| "start": 293, |
| "end": 297, |
| "text": "('d)", |
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| { |
| "start": 1675, |
| "end": 1699, |
| "text": "Leningrad, 28/-230, 1972", |
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| "start": 1700, |
| "end": 1726, |
| "text": "Leningrad, 28/-230, ( 1973", |
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| "section": "Theory of Lotlgtrage und Btrgitrrcring i.kfguiYics (7-eoriic~ itizyku i i17zh. l i~~g~~i , s~i k~~ I,erlingrud; 94-102, 1973.", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "Every polysemous word in the dibtionnry has a set of diagnostic forms associnted with it which discri minaLe its mranit~gs and a set of translation equivalents [I tliqclel y associated with these forms. C j iven algori t h o~s for rccogni tion of diagnostic forn~s in the text, this would suffice for homonymy resolution. Such n dictionary was built for English newspaper texts (830.833 text words, 30% having multiple n~enni.ngs) by comparing ;roc\\ gradually iinproviirg a concotdnnce dictionary bnscd on a bilingual texi and giving the distri l~ulion, frcqucncy, and An algoiithn~ for syntactic analysis of' a sirbslass UT context-frec langt~agcs is proposed which is rrprescnkd by mri1ns of o pushdown nondetermit~isti'c auton~:ltot~. l'he 1;lsk of syniactic analysis of n co~~tcxt-frcc lahgungc i s to dcfinc, for cach string of the I;\\n~uuge. ils strtrcture, that is 10. define 'the sequence of context-frcc gmmmnr rulrs prot1ilc.i ng thnt string. A subcliiss of con text-frcc gr:lmrnars is discussccl wnosc rulcs mket ;t n utn ber of restf ictions. First, the rulcs of these grariin~ors are defil~cd irr the Rosenkran~ norlnal form: u I , c arc the terl~iinal 'syr~ibols, x is :i nontrnninal symbol, ir is il string of airxiliary ~)~r~~l~o l r ; ; second, n ~iumber of restrairlts of' the following type are formuloted: i f thc gr:imti~ar has a rc~le of a ceytoin form, the presellce of'a ritle ur il certilirl other specif'icd form is prolljl~ited. A simple procctlurc is established for a given clnss of con text-f ree gmrntn:irs, which for ;I given 'class of context-free grali,rnars, which for each i t l p i~t strillg xo 4r0m I(.T()-the S C~ of alternative analysis o f the string xg, as prc~cluccd by theq :Jgorithi~l l~nt~dlii~g the I'eprcscta~tntion of the strit~g--10 i n the nonde~crlninistic p~~shclown auto~nniion) cttooses orlly altcr~intives which arc correct analyses o f clrc slritlg xg. 3 rcfs. ", |
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| "section": "Essay on Computer Implementation of a Distributional Method for Determination of Lexical", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "The procedure of ;~i~tomnti,c syntactic analysis is to be brokcn down into two phases: preliminary and extc~ldecl. 'I'hc preli~nlnory phssc of the syntactic algori thrn is described as carried out on Ru:isic~n mntcrial. 'This p h m makes i~sc of' irlformatlon about words and n \"min igra I I I I~~~I~~' --: L I I ahridgctl dcpcntlcncy gr:llnmnr. Information on wortis (a word is dcf ined as a set bf homony~ns) cor~~priscs tllc following three groups o f features: I Word clisscs (part of speech). I I. Word a class restrictors. I I I. Synhctic -features. Ttie \" n l i nigramrnar\" is based on 8 co~~ventiol~s as t o the directions of arrows in n dependency trec. T h e set of conventlotis disregard5 difFicult cnscs (this is done expressly) 'I'hc gratmn:ir comprises 202 rules. 'I'he prelimina~y alyorithin produccs thc following inforthat ion: 1. it estnblish~s whether tllc sct~tence has a t least one acceptable anillysis; 2. i f so, which typcs of govirnrncnt occur at least in,oile of tile acccptnble analyscs ant1 w l~~c h hnmonyms are :ipices a t least, in me of ncccptnblc anaiyscs; 3. wtlich o f the horno~lyms arc choscn jn a t least one acceptable analysis. A r o~~i p~l t c r tcstite of tllc aIgorithln on 80 ftussion sellkncts f'rdtn at? abstract journal in weltling has becn carricd out. ", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Description", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
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| "text": "The functions of sen~icolon and colot~ in English rnd io-location tcx ts (9.000 scn tencq) are cxa~nincd. The author discrlsses the investigation of some correlative words in Russian-fukf 'Fact', ub,sfoicrtel's~vo 'circumst;lnce', utverzhdenic 'statement. The meanings of these la~~gi~ngc units are described through tlre rules by which they arc introduced inio the sentcrlce structure: byc which they are interpreted t1:rough struct~~res which bclong to the logical information language and are treated 3s elcrnentnry. T h e conditions ore described llt~dcr which the transfornlation of \"insertion of classifiers (correlative words)\" call be performed describing the cl~allges that i t i~~volves in the senterjce strilcti~rc. For the word utl~crzltderrie x~dditional synonymic tra~~sforrnhtions are tiescribed (with a spccinl reference to mi~thernaticiil text) illustrating 'the possi hili ty of varying the syntactic structt~res containing that word. only those sen~nntic differc~lces as can be tnken into account b y traosfortnatyion rules. For example, the description of the meaning of the word tvol'ko (only) is. r(a, tolrko b) -P(n,b), P(n; tol'ko h), -lNCL (c,,b) --13(a,c), wllete INCL is the \"inclusion\" predicate andis the ncgnlion sign- The author proposes && analyze the semantics of a sentence from three viewpoints: (1) as the sum total of the monnings of sinaller constituents--wordi and phmses: (2) as a constituent of a higher level (sentences are subdivided into those carrying .infortn;~tion and those devoid o f it); and ( 3 ) from the stnndpoin t of the \"superstructure\". The soperstruclure is associnted with tile meatling of the sentence as ci whole. and comprises three components: (a) \"central idea\" (the theme ilnd the rhelne); An? spplicative genotype grammar (AGG) is a universal systcm which serves as the basis o f all NLs. By imposing restraints on the AGG, one can obtain gramrnars which generate phenotypic. langu;~gcs (particular NLs). Tile explanatory power of the AGCi lies in its universality while i l s predictive sower lies in i t s abiTity LO predict as & unobserved properties of NL's. Thc theorelical study of NL's implies: I) reconstruction of a genotypc language which exlsts objectively but i s not liable to i*nmcrlinte gbservation. 2) constr~iction of t l~c grarn~llar of this louguage, 3) constructio~~ of [he derivative gcnotypi. grammars, 4) the study of thc tti~nsformations which give rise to phenotypic langvsgcs, 5) tllc construction of a tvpology. of NLs on t!le basis of thgsc trai~sform:~i.ions, 6) iiivestig:rlion o f thc l:~ws governl~lg these semiotic systems, 7) explat~alion of the tranuformat~ons of the gc~:Jlof.ype laqguage from the viewpoint of thcse laws and the ,preditidil of thc possible typesof seruiotic systems. Leningrad: 134-145, 1973h. The relationship of syntax .and scn~antics in some modern linguistic theories i s discussed (tmnsformntionnl generative. grammar, and interpretative semantics. generative semantics; Ch, Fillmore's case griullmar. and the \"me;lning<=> text\" rnoclc!, c tc.). Different intcrprct;\\tiot~s of \"dcep structure\" and \"surf;tce structure\" arc considered. '1-he al~tHor suggests nsslgn ing the tern1 \"deep\" to semantic structure and \"surface\" to syntactic structure of the sentence. To map an intuitive theory into a mathematical one, corgcct defit~itior\\ of I e~r n s is rcquircd. A lcrln in physics shoi~ld be treated as corrcct if and only if for the quantity' ~t denotes thcre exists a ii~ensurenient procc<lure which scts i 11 to correspot~tlcnce with that term a rcacl-i ng o f ah instrumental scale at each tcnlc point. This makes it possible L o identify evcr); tc1-111 with a coordin:~te a x i d o f some hypotl~etical coordinate syste~n. The :laloms o f the thcory in ~h ; \\ t case w o~~l c l be stntcments :rbou t instron~cn t ;eadings; these should be w r i t ten dofvri i n nn i nvarlan t form-, that is in a ilutation I ndepcndon t or the coordillate syctrm adopted (tcnsor analysis). 'The notions of the ~r~ovenlent of solids, d~s t n~~c e between two points, icn,gtli, area and volufi~c ilrc discussed, dc~i~orlstra~in!: tlia t they can he represcn ted in (he lnilgunge proposed. A dcf ini tlon of the p l r y s i~~~l quirntitg and pllysical law i s given, b p c c~f y i tig the sequellcc of opt:ations in inaoping iln in ttti ~i v c illeory ill to a tnn t helllatical one. 7'0 el\\su're a urriforrn opcr:lt~on;rl interprCt:iiion of all physical laws through me:lsuremcal p r o c e d~~r c the ac~lhor proposes lo cliininntc: 111ass f run) the sct of dilnensiorG\\l values which is hound to lead to a dri~stic breakdovir~ of' ~h c clntire systc.~i of dimensior~nlit~es. To fix both the intermediate and end result of semantic analysis n generative semantic model (SM) is used; the resultant semantic represeritn~iorl (SR) of the sentence being obtained recursively through the SlZ of its constituents. The language of SM i s a s~ntactical extension of the language of narrow predicate calculus. 7'lle input fo Sbl is a dependency tree of the sentence ih which anaphoric relatio~~ships have been restoreti. 'The nodes of the tree are labeled with symbols of dictionary SM representation (which includes syntactic valencies) of the correspoclding words and the tree is labeled with sy~nbuls ef syn~actic relationship types. Over and above the valent quantifiers the S M language includes three li~nitcd pritnary quantifiers. An arbitrary sequence of restricted primary c)uantiTiers and valent cjuantifiers is a prefix. An expressior~ in the SM lungt~uge is any expresjiocl of the tlnrrow pr~dici\\lt: ciilci~lus preceded (or not) by a preflx. Duiing tranclation into the SM 1:lnguage t h e priinnry quantifier is sul~stituted by the Final our. Three qc~on~lficr order rirlcs arc given. the proper order of primary quantifiers in thc prefix is becu~ed by an ordering of thc clgdure of relationslril~s in the trce nodcs a~~d arrilnging primiiry and valznt quantifiers ill accordnncc with quantifier power. Tl~e general ilppeanncc of thc rulc for closure of \"standard\" syntactic relationships i s given--prcdicative ant1 scnliprcdicative node. irscd to find thc: nlcariin: of filch input statcn~cl~t, to decide what action to tnkc in the data base, and to select ~n f o r i i n t~o n for output. 'I hc systc~ii cons~sts of a p:rr:;er (which usc9 an ArrN), a gcnerntor (which oses :I vcrsion o f ihc algorilhm dcscrit,ctl by Slrnmo~~s and Slocum, CACM 15: 891, Oct. 1372), :I semantic network, a dnt;\\ b:sc. a ddts b:ac ninnngonlcril system, and a n intcrfnce. Thc sen1;111t1c i~ctwork cot~t;lins notles for conrcpls, i~~~l t s , arld chartrcteiis~ics sucl, nodes rep:esent gene1 lc itlens or instantiations of tllcm. Generic i~odes are organizccl iri : \\ supersci-sub.,et I~i e r a r c h y with S U B arcs, ivi~ilc ir15t:trlliall~ns are li~ikeci to gel~er-n-by E(xsrnp1c of) arcs. I'roperties iisc ~n l~e r i l c d on SUB arcs. 7'be nct h:~n provisions for the ' l'Al('1' rcl:~lion, 10 casc arcs, and CI IAI~ACTZRISP~ IC and V A L U E which ilscd in connection with cliaracterist~c nodes. Linguistics ( M a r . llngvisrikn) , T. I . K[ry University: 97-103, 1973. Two sentences are regarded as semanticnlly associated, if the first of these Sentences includes at least one relevant word which coincides with some word of the second sentence or is semantically connected with it by a generic or part-whole relationship. A speech sernantit network (SSN) is defined as a two-dinlensional graph representing the sernall tic rela tionships between various text units. Two types of SSN are distinguished, sentence-based and wordbased. The possibility is discussed of using SSN tt) introduce quar~litative paran~eters to describe tbc systen~ of semantic relalionsl~i p i n text and its i ndividrrnl elements (words and sentences). The following experiment 011 text has been carried ouC first, all noo~~s, adjccti ves and verbs cnch haviug one inlmediate relationship are elirnir~nted from Llie text; then the words which have retained one relationship after the prccedi~ig operation are eliminated; the operation is repeated until only such words would rennin in the text whose elimination would destroy at least two relationships at a tilde. Or~ly o third part of the words remained but the resulting text was grammatically and scmantic:llly wellformed and co~~veped the basic contents or the original icxt. Types of sen~e~ltic structures o f text are distingubhcd: chain, ring, piece1 ike (including sentencc clusters, each con~lccted with a majority of senlcriccs of the same cluster) and monolithic (each sentence is connected with a mr~jority of other sentences in the text). The semantic plane of natural language--a complex situation expressed by a few scntences--is represented by a n-dimensional graph. There is a conlrad iction between meaning and forln. Methods for fixation of ihe seniantic relationships insiclc the linear seqiicnce of text wards are described. Within a sentence there is a tendency for irlcreasirrg the colnplexity and the number o f expressive meims of tllc 1:lnguage serving to convey n semantic r g l n t i~~~s h i p it1 proportion to the increasing distance between words. 'The major nleans for identification of objects i n different sclltchces to indicate the direct relationships of n word arc as follows: repetition of the word; ~ubslitulion by (local or contexlual) synorlytn or a substitute word 10 refs. The paper discilsses the processing of mahematical formulas during aictornatic translation (with special reference to English text in radiolocation--2,000 seiitences). Formulas we subdivided by their form into \"pure\" (those contai~ui~g only mathcmaticai syrnbols and characters) and \"mixed\" (forrni~las contailling words whose stems can be foi111d in the dictionary: f=loccll r~~icrowave r~ f~r e n c e freque~lcy. Uy syntactic structccre, formulas Bre broken down into formant (tllose including one of the predicntive signs, and nonforn~nnt (containing no predic:ltive signs). Signs of uri thlnctic operations are regarded as 11011predicat ive. Nonforrnant forrnulas function in the sc~itence as a word: an ordinal nur~leral if followed by the suffix rh ( ( n -l tlt) or a noun (in the remaining cases: i f P (QI)", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 7144, |
| "end": 7174, |
| "text": "K[ry University: 97-103, 1973.", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 2787, |
| "end": 2813, |
| "text": "Leningrad: 134-145, 1973h.", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 7100, |
| "end": 7134, |
| "text": "Linguistics ( M a r . llngvisrikn)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "j'itnktsroti~il'trogo n~odelirovcitriia r c c k~v o i deitel'nosli). I.eningrud U~i v e r s i f y : 2 6 -3 3 , 1973.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "is less than...). A formant formula F can be isolated from the sentence as an individual sentence in its own right exccpt in tlrree cases: 1. there is the verb ro /or to the left of 1.: 2.F starlds to the left or to the right of the pcrsonal verb; and 3. F stands after n preposition.In these three cases F is treatcd as a noun. FR-11 was developed at the Institute of Applied Mathematics o f the USSR Academy of Scier~ces and is intended for the translation of mathematical texts. The dictionary has three parts (French and Riissian parts of the dictionary of stems, and the dictioc~ary o f phrases); it includes some 1,300 French words, their Kossinn equivalen~s, and about 220 phrases. The systems translates one sentence at a time in the following steps: 1. dictionary lookrrp; 2.processiilg of phrases (word con~binotior\\s which callnot be translated wordbyword); 3. morphological :~nnlysis; 4. syntactic analysis (usi ng a nl l11t-1 ple algorithm of the filter type); 5. processing of prepositions: 6 . transforlnations; 7. syr~tactical synlliesis; 8. morphological syntl~csis. FR-I1 has been implementcd on n BESM-4 computer; an exi~inple translation (or a I5 sen tencc i'r;~gmen t) is giver]. : 266 -278, 1973 2(\",\" Mitrsk ) The paper reports work on a dictionary of idioms ( I ) intended for automatic text ptoce~sing, primarily automatic translation (English); I is defined as frequent phrases of the input language that cannot be translated ill a regular way either using the existing automatic dictior~nries of word fornis, or with referet~ce to nlorphological or syl~tsctic algori tliins. 1t is proposed to compile tlre dictionary of common I to hc supplemc~~tccl with special dictionaries o f I for each specific subset of language (electro~rics, building ~naterii~ls, ctc.) . The criteria for selection of 1 are briefly described, tlle main beiiig the occllrrencc frcqucncy. For searching I a frequency list of phmses of different lengths wcre used (mostly triads).", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 1201, |
| "end": 1232, |
| "text": ": 266 -278, 1973 2(\",\" Mitrsk )", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 1737, |
| "end": 1788, |
| "text": "language (electro~rics, building ~naterii~ls, ctc.)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Analysis of Texts by Means of Speech Semantic Networks (Analiz tckstov s primeneniern rech vykh semanticheskik h se tei) I,n Mathemarical", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Trenslatior~ of I into R~~ssian was n 1)roblem in itsel('. Esscntlal for odequ;lte tra~~sliltion was the choice of \"reference\" word in the idiomatic phrase. Criteria for this choice ere discussed. AS a rule, the \"reference\" word had the least frequency as compared with other cornponcnts of the idiomatic phrase. The prelicnjnary list of 1 was tested on 12 subsets of language (2 millio~l running words). All I fro111 the list have been found in the text snii~plcs with a frequency of 1 to 80. We start with a considcration o f the nature of comp11Lational linguistics followed by a considerution of how to formulate problems in [he analysis of literary texts so that the techniqires can be fruitfully employed. Rather than adapting one's cot~ception o f l i t e r~t u r e to what one can do with n computer. one must ndnpt one's c o l~~p u t ;~t i o n a l n~odel to the c1ern:rnds of litcrary analysis. If y o u wish to ai~alyzc literary tcx.Ls, tllcn you nectl a theory o f htlrnon literary performance with tvhich to conduct t11e analysis. Next comes a revIcW of current More that) a huridrcd diffcrerlt types of in~erscr~tet~ce rclilliolirhipc h:wc bccn es(al~l'isl~ed, which are rlividcd tnto six classcs: I. cotltiectivr elenlcrlts; 2. 1.cpel1t1t91-1 ut lexlcal forms; 3. colnalon slcm wvrris: 4. s11115t.i tilt ions; 5. strilcturi~l s~rnil;rrr l y ancl rfcpc~lcl~ncc of sctltr:nccs; ;~ricl 6 synor~yri~iu r t b h trotishi ps. h f t c c n irlosl corrirnorl Cypcfi ot conr~cclior~ h:ive b i~n sr rtglt:d out. Uisl:ln t react:lncc of e:\\cl~ typc of rcl:~ ticl115llip h:~s I~ccll studlcd. Ftct l o r 1 is char:\\ctcri/.rd b y niol-c cornplcx ~' r~l ;~t i~t i s I~r p~; 1111 ~~I C~I I C I I~C~ i r j i lit; 1 i i o 1 ~f f c )I-III;II IIIC;IIIS $ 1 I I I I I I I : I I I~~O~I S I~. 'I'hc pcci~l iar fcilt.11 rcs ol' i~~tcrscntetlce r l :~t i o I i i 111 Fogl ish. as c o t~l l~:~~ ctl wiih l<i15si:111~ :trc l i s i~; c l . Otlicr I 1 r ; 1 LU the stt~cly of' i l l ti:rst:r~ tvncc 1 1 1 t i o i l i arc First, a brief review of the state of tlic art in t~rlderstanding systems suitable for answering Englrsh questiorls relative to n given data base. Some of the difficulties discussed are equally applicable to the understairding of poetry. and we illustrutc them by considering a few problems encountered in ui~derstandin~ ii stanLa of Donne's A Vuiedicfion: k'orbidding Mournirg And, as difficult as i t is LO char:rctrrir.e the gralnniar of standard prose [he job of appcnd~ng appropriale modifications to yield a gmnlmar uf poetry is likely to be hi~rder. The problem is even tlJorse with respect to world knovllcdge: what sort of world knowledge is necessary for the underati~ncitng of poclry? A~l d h o w does onc t l c t c r~~~l n e whetlicr or not rt corn puter has urlders tood a poem? Finally, though cu r r t n t potstry gerlcr:~ t ion programs sPem more itnpressive thnn any current NL t~nclerstar~cling programs, the poetry they produce doesn't st:lnd ip 11 ndor skilled critical s c r~i t i n y . This s~tygests that a good poetry pecieration. program will have to inclotlc the essrn tinls of an ade()i~ille tnodel o f poetry undentandi ng.", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Automatic Translation of", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "Akio 'l':riiakaT h e frequcr~cy of occurrence of noun groups having various typcs of case forms arc counted (case particles wa, no, gu, 0, 10, )no) as occl~tring at the beginning o f tilt :,clltencc. ns well i s the frequen~y of vtrhnl forn~s and the l'orlns of' prcdicat~ve -adjeclive5 (lliusitu, t)ru.srlr, r~rtrs, desiiu, tnc1.cc.n desifu, l a no fir.r, rltr, ( f~ ( P , nn d~s , lo, rrakntrcr, dtrrru, ctc.) nt ttlc end of the sentence. Frequrndy data :Ire given o n :,cnte~lces w11l1 ver i o l~s \\yr~tgctic strtlct\\~lcq. A t the b q i n n~n g 01' the ser~tencc the hiphest fr*cqucncy i s po\\sc.;\\cd.hy the 5lruc~ur.e t t~l ( j u n + us\", then stands \"oontl+nol' ( i t 1 r i r 1 1 1 ncwspator tcrt., : 1-8, 57, 1973 A t the e l~d of the Japanese sentence 8 verb or predicative adjective nornlnlly occurs (a norm can occilr only in colloqr~ial speech, i n sentetlces with an elliptic predicate and in some standard documcnt forms). A t sciltcnce ends there arc sucli forms as a verbal stem + rcl; a stem of the predicative adjective -c lo; X a prcdicntivt: + link verb duiiu (de a f f a ) ; a verbal stem -k ICS i~n , etc. I'roceedrng from the yramm:\\tlcal form of vcl b a t the cnd of the sentence, all scnte~lccs o f tnodern Japanesc are broken down into 1 2 types. Using appropriate forniulas the u n i f o r m i t y of the distribution i n text of various types of sentences nrld the distribution of seiliences of one type from the yiewpoint of their re1:ltlvc positions can be rne:is~~rcd. 'Three works by the 20th century Japanese wrltcr Natsume Soseki have been analyzed in these terr~is.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 263, |
| "end": 383, |
| "text": "prcdicat~ve -adjeclive5 (lliusitu, t)ru.srlr, r~rtrs, desiiu, tnc1.cc.n desifu, l a no fir.r, rltr, ( f~ ( P , nn d~s ,", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 705, |
| "end": 720, |
| "text": ": 1-8, 57, 1973", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1061, |
| "end": 1092, |
| "text": "+ link verb duiiu (de a f f a )", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Sentence Patterns in Japanese Literature", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
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| "title": "First-and second-language acquisition and the theory of thought and perception\" Hans Moennig", |
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| "venue": "The semantics of 'possible': epistemic possibility", |
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| "raw_text": "H. E. Hinch and Evelyn Pike, \"Speaker-addressee versus third person within the Maung verb\" Rodney Huddleston, \"In defence of parasytic base structures\" Y. Malkiel, \"On hierar ehizing the components of multiple causation\" J'oseph Margolis, \"First-and second-language acquisition and the theory of thought and perception\" Hans Moennig, \"Meaning and speaker's intentions:' Rita Nolan, \"The semantics of 'possible': epistemic possibility\"", |
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| "raw_text": "W, Zwanenburg, G. R. E. Ouweneel and W. J. M. Levelt, \"La frontihe du mot en francais\"", |
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| "text": "t h e accents o f simple sentences Itare preserved through d e~i v a t i o n s~~ ( 3 0 ) . In the derivation of a sentence llke --I have instructionst o leave t h e r e is an embedded d i r e c t o b j e c t to w h i c h the NSR assign3 a primary acoent (leave -instructions), a u t o m a t i c a l l y roducing t h e accent on leave: T h i 9 direct o b j e c t is t h e n d e l e t e d , and the derivation paeses t o the next cycle, on w h i c h a primary accent is assigned to the instructions i n the matrix sentence. s cites derivations in w h i c h Bresnan's hypothesis leads to wrong predictions. Lakoff 1972 accepts t h e essential correctness of the NSR but revises i t to apply at the leml o f surface structure. For varicrus reasons, i n c l u d i~l g both t h e i n h e r i t e d difficulties of t h e NSR i t s e l f and pro'olems in interpreting the global r u l e t h a t -Lakoff p r o p o s e s , S rejects this revision as well. The critique the2 passes t o Bolinger 19W, 1972. He denies the dependence 00 accent on syntactic structure, claiming that it ref l e c t s the speaker's intention to mark points of information focus. S f o r %he most p a r t accepts t h e negative s i d e o f t h i s claim, but cites a number o f examples that supposedly disprove the idea that semantic weight and relative predictability are the t h i n g s t h a t count. As t h e same examples a r e re-used in t h e chapter that s t a t e s S's own t h e o r y , I reserve discussion of them till later.", |
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| "text": "====l=== ncontext-freelt form t h a t a sentence can have. C i t a t i o n forms are obviously not what we want ---t o t a l k a b o u t , however, when dealing ---w i t h t h e function of accent i n real discourse. But even if we", |
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| "text": "explicit justification. But Whether it s h o u l d be abandoned because of a few apparent inconsistencies is not so clear. Is it only an qccident that so many sentences are accented on the l a s t stressed syllable--so many as to have i n s p i r e d t h e inclusion o f this fact in some form or o t h e r in practically a l l attempts to define sentence accent? It is true of the c i t a t i o n form of a l l words in English, w h e r e no p i t c h prominence occurs after the stressed syllable though one or more may occur e a r l i e r : of t h e relative h e i g h t s of t h e e a r l i e r syllables, it is t h e last stressed one t h a t g e t s the accent. If t h e r e :vere no tenaerccg E=5D23=-in t h i s direction, a sentence l i k e us as strange. I suggest that t h i s tendency d o e s manifest something t h a t is \"neutralH as regards highlighting any particular part of the sentence (see also Ladd 1977 f o r a similar i d e a ) , though i t i s not n e u t r a l in i t s o m sphers!: namely, t h e performative function of intonation, signifying something like '1 have t h i s important t h i n g t o say' (more specifically, in a declarative sentence, '1 declare t h a t * ) . The fact that t h e accent tends to come close t o t h e end is a linguistic univel?sal, haying t h e psychol o g i c a l c o r r b e l a t e of c l i m~ = = = = = a sentence h a s more impact when t h e most recently-spoken part; of it is made prominent. Thb phenomenon is found in t h e most diverse languages. That it i s nbt n e u t r a l i n its own s p h e r e , bat contrasts l~l t h e a r l i e r p o s i t 5 ons of the accent5 can be shown by such t y p e s as God, t h e y w e r e a l l o v e r t h e place! Youcouldn't escape them! God, t h e y w e r e allover the place! Youcouldn't escape them! T h e r e is no highlighting ofover versus place h e r e , but r a t h e r two levels of impact--the second, with its e a r l i e r accent, \"holds backH Performative accent may occur on every word--even every syllable-t of an utterance f o r maximum impact: -f will not open -the duor! In I did it w i t h own t w o hands t h e word two serves little purpose carrier of an extra accent. But the favored location is at the end, given the principle of recency. (~ctually t h e nextto-last syllable, to accommodate the intonati'oon turn--see Hyman 1975 and Bolinger 1977.) If t h i s is t r u e , every sentence represents an adjustment be-Ween performative accent and accent on particular constituents. If besides putting t h e main accent a* t h e end f o r m a x i r n b m impact we a l s o find a tendency to maneuver t h e least p r e d i c t a b l e element ( t h e wcommentw in S ' s scheme) t o t h e end, it is probably t o enable t h e accent to kill two b i r d s w i t h one stone. S r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e r e is some \" g e n e r a l --phenomenonrt (-9) whereby the accent goes toward the end, but she g i v e s only a negative characterization--if a s t r i n g is \"unanalyzablem it tends t o have a t e r m i n a l accent. An example is I _ f o r Pete's -3 sake analyzable, yeasusfor Pete's -* sake unanalyzable exclamation ( r e a l l y t h e exclamation has the multiple accents noted above, with Pete's accented as well; it might otherwise seem t h a t eake was being analyzed out for some purpose). But such idioms may move the accent for d i f f ' e r c n t degrees of impact when doing so will not appear t o break t h e m up (if indeed not in all cases--but the point is not worth arguing h e r e ) . Givea -damn ' c a r e ' is an instance: I keep a f t e r t h e~ but t h e y won't h e l p . T h o s e p e o p l e j u s t don't give a damn.", |
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| "text": "He studied medicine. He studied architecture. He studfed PHYSICS. But the essence of things eluded him. So S is probably r i g h t when she says t h a t t h e r e is no such thing as a neutral context and no such thing a s a \"normaltt accent, b u t t h e r e does seem to be an accent that is not d i r e c t l y relevant to the semantic relations w i t h i n ----t h e sentence. (In P a c t , m o r e -s----", |
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| "text": "a r y 9 (she1 s)in frontof t o show t h e accenting of an anaphoric nominal. Later she explains t h i s accen* as t h e expression of a chanee in s y n t a c t i c relationships (72). (She might have added t h a t t h e change i s sometimes made e x p l i c i t i n the syntax, w i t h a shift o f accent: -but I don't -know who Maq [she]", |
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| "text": "h e r judgments about t h e o l a ss e s of nouns m d pronouns in g e n e r a l , it is still w o r t h w h i l e to l o o k f o r sqbclasses t h a t may be i n h e r e n t l y unstressed. Possibly English has a l o o g e set of \" c l a s s i f i e r t 1 nouns such as are Eound in maby languagesl Why do we say +-cent piece b u t 25-cent , -9 coin -T h e oranRe had a soft spot but The orange had a soft blemis5 for sake but I _ for Pete's welfare Elm -S$reet but I Elm Lane? As 2atr v c o n t r a s t i v e t v accent, S argues t h a t it cannot be characterized e i t h e r phonetioally o r semantically. H e r . judgments are surely correct. As a semantic explanation, contrastive is t o o", |
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| "text": "embodies t h i s opposition in her \" P r i n c i p l e I: 3 e r t a i n items in an utterance are t r e a t e d by t h e s p e a k e r as relatively 'insignificant' and f a i l to be a s s i g n e d stress [ = (75). S h e i s careful to distinguish her \"taken f o r grantedn principle from t h e", |
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| "text": "perience, t o disprove t h e i d e a Chat when t h e accent f a l l s on t h esubject and not t h e verb. t h e verb has t o be \" p r e d i c t a b l e u : died; (2) Johnson died. The f i r s t was s p o k~n when Trumant$ ultimately f a t a l illness was on everyone's mind.T h e second came at a time when Johnson's health \"was not on people's minds as Trum a r s had been, and when his d e a t h came it was a surprise1I. As S puts it, \"Truman's death was expected, Johnson's was not. Bol-Ingerla theory would appear t o suggest, however, t h a t t h e mention o f T r u m a n in t h e relevant context s h o u l d have suggested Ideatb'\"-and accordinglydied s h o u l d not be accented. \"On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e mention o f Johnson in the re1evant.context should not have suggested 'death1 any more than anything e l s e one m i g h t have wanted t o say about him\", and t h e r e f o r ed i e d should have been accented, The e r r o r h e r s i e to aqsllme t h e mention of flruman, making i t ====== part o f t h e context. It is in t h e a c t --of mentioning t h a t t h e speak---c", |
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| "text": "w h i c h noun \"tells morew? What we know o i should know of nicotiqe clues us in: t h e spqaker cpuld have s a i d --It's t h e nicotine and l e t it go at t h a t . But in t h e second sentence,harm is not particui larly informative--the question i t s e l f , in itshave a~ainst part, could e a s i l y suggest 'harm'. !I!-he point now is 'body', t h a t is, 'b6dily health1. The apQaker could have fronted body: -It's your body, --t h e harm t h a t smokinq --does to it. The same f r o n t i n g is possib1.e w i t h S ' s examples: What's t h e news today? ---He d l e d . Truman, you undzrszana. What's the news today? --J0hnson.t He died. And so w i t h S ' a additional examples: Hey, your coat's on f i r e ! = Hey, your c o a t i i t ' s on f,iire! Come on inr--t he door's open = Come on in--it ' s 6pen.", |
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| "text": "performative o r climactic accent. All are examples withbe as main v e r b . I illustrate w i t h examples of m , j own, to make t h e dis-tinc4tions c l e a r e r :", |
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| "text": "observations up to t h i s point have involved the contrast between accent and non-accent. The problem of r e l a z i v e p i t c h h e i g h t b r i n g s a new dimension (see below). S t s examples a r e n e i t h e r proof#nor disproofof t h e notiond pred-5-ctab&Mty, newsworthiness, focus, or whatever one wants, to c a l l i~. The very marklng represents on ly an optional sequence--either accent can be \"mbren than t h e ofher--end t h e marking in many cases is simply f a l s e : % h e asc:aPlra of t h e t w o is a ggn-accent or s de-accent. The circumflex i d a --= r e l i c of Trager-Smith phonolpgy, a confusion of accene d i t h stress or vowel quality. 6's own proposals are mostly contained in ch. 6, wbeHe sue presents three more principles (11, 111, IV) plus a t l r h y t h m rule\". Principle III is merely a statement o f t h e llrightm~s%-the-loudestll n o t i o n , which I have claimed to be t r u e at-l e a s t p a r t of the time to the extent t h a t p e r f o r m a t i v e f a c b o r s make i t s o . Principle 11", |
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| "text": "'iihat made t h e t r a i n l a t e ? --A c6w h a d ' b l o c k e d t h e tracks. 4. What happened today? --Marie ~n t o i n h t e just ha& h e r head chopped bff, 5. Why are you looking s o worried, Major? --A Me$serschmitt ~wo-six-~wh j u s t penetrated our defenses.6. How come you were late f o r work? --The 8:15bhs didn't put in an appearance, (Even if \"no particular expectationsfl means 8 t d i s c~u r s e i n i t I i a l u , same of these are still normal. Trainman says Listen, everyb6dy: a cow's blocked t h e tracks; we'll have to change t r a i n s . SanSCU-Do the direct o b j e c t s in t h e s e sentences, qualify as \"argumentsw? Do t h e expectations that p s t i f y t h e de-accenting W L the o b j e c t s qualify as \"partie~ll-ar expectations\"? In 1 t h e r e c;m be no s p e c i f i c expectation of t h e concept ' m a k e no sense', t h o u g h a l i s t e n e r will c e r t a i n l y expect ideas t o comnunicate more. In 6 , put -in an appearance is an existential expression ( s e e below)-the speaker could have s a i d -didn't show u~, w i t h no d i r e c t o b j e c t ; of courAe if a bus was \" t h e troublen, one expects somethi-ng l i k e \"not hhowing uptt or \"being laten. As f o r 2 and 3 , w e naturally expect sentries to have posts and t r a i n s to have tracks, though if tvinforrnation contenttg in G ' s definition m e a n s t h e event i t s e l f , nobody expected t h e p o s t s to be deserOgdl or the t r a c k s to be blocked. Its for 4 and 5 , we can assume t h a t 4 w a s uttered at a time when head-chopping was a national diversion and hence to be expected, and 5 in wartime when iiefenses were a daily preoccupation. And there is no real difference 'between cases l i k e t h e s e and o t h e r s w h e r e the expectations are mors llparticularu, as in Who can solve I . -the mysterg? --I think that ~b h n h o l d s the key, w i t h holds t h e can solve t h e mysteryt. B u t consider S ' s prime eiample --John died--isn't it t h e ubiquity of tleath t h a t makes it possible for us to say t h a t ? Suppose he had not simply died, but exploded. W i t h o u t some extremely heavy contextualisation it would be impassible t o say -John eml6ded. The sentence would have to be di%ided--John--he -exploded--in answer to a question like Why are -C I you lookinqso glum? It i considerations l i k e these--including j u a t t h e ueualness ~f some things--that cause speakers t o place = = L L -= r C ; u emphasis a3 t h e y do. So even w h e r e the strongest case can be made--with \" h o t newsu--S's principle leads back to r e l a t i v e semantic w e i g h t , t o w h a t does and what does not contribute most t o making the point t h a t t h e speaker wishes to make. Actually S doea not m e a n %ewant in this extreme sense of newness, because among h e r examples is t h e proverb Great oaks from l i t t l e acorns grow, cited to show t h a t t h e p r i n c i --p l e works regardlesu of t h e o r d e r , the accent9 being the same asin Great oaks rowfrom l i t t l e acorns (83). As far as I can see,S has not considered proverbs w i t h intransitive verbs, where, unl i k e the -John died case, i t is t h e verb t h a t normally carries t h", |
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| "text": "even f i n d s i m i l a r stereotypes referring to hot news: Aren't you staying? --'Fraid not -; dcty c h l~s . ) S t s proverb example is w o r t h a second look. Take a pair such a s M~L his tzme must bide. M&II inmust bsde his time. where, by S's accounting,bide andt i m e would have to be said to g e t = a t h e main accent by virtue of t h e i r final position. In my view, t h e important t h i n g is t h a t both a r e accented in b o t h sentences, and t h e r e is no reason to de-accent e i t h e r one. In S 1 s example there i s a reason f o r de-accenting t h e verb: r o w is a kind of exr P i s t e n t i a l --i f ; is of r e l a t i v e l y l o w semantic value, contributes littile to t h e content of t h e sentence. Great oaks -from li-ttle acorns sums it up.", |
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| "text": "e of t h e accents on prisoners (A-rise) and murdereq (plain A).", |
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| "text": "t h e r e to be an rlexpectationM, t h e usual thing would he a con-tinuation gf t h e ~i s s B B pxi.mmr~; mur . . .pris onerg have dered.. . It is impos-sible to s o r t this out using S f s discussion. One m i g h t suppose, f i r s t , t h a t it is a case of two \"intonational u n i t s t t and t h a t an acute accent should appew on b o t h prisoners and murdered; but \"intonational unitstt are defined as p~p h o n b l o g i c a l phrasesn or \"breath groupsn (11)-and t h e r e is no evidence, aside from the pattern of t h e A-rise itself, for any separation between prisoners andhave. (And S m s discussion of h e r example ----Now ~6 h n I like makes it f a i r l y clear t h a t she would not put a separation j u s t on t h e strength of an A-rise. From t h e fact that she equates t h i s examp l e with -Il i k e -9 ~b h n w h i c h has A-rises on b o t hl i k e and -9 J o h n I t a k e it t h a t she intends an A-rise on -John in t h e f i r s t examplemanifested m i n i m a l l y . b y a drop in p i t c h on d I. Without it, the kins h i p is less-close.) Or one m i g h t suppose t h a t this is one of S f s topic-comnent sentences, w h e r e the rule is .to accent b o t h t h e t o p i c and the comment (Principle IV, 94); but t h e n topic is define& as ttsomething t h e speaker can assume to be, in a sense, on the addressee's mind, or immediately i n f e r a b l e from the t o t a l contextft-w h i c h can hardly be t h e case withsome escaped pr.isoners. The f a c t is t h a t separate items can convey news separately when each is given an A accen.t. In this sentence, b o t h the ppesence of the prisone r s on the scene, and t h e murder, m e news.", |
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| "text": "phrases are definite), but t h e y are t o o important t o %he situation to be de-accented. But t h i s passage illustrates o t h e c things as well. For one, the wnewslt type -Our clothes were miming occurs in a context. of r~topic-commentll tjrpes, yet there is no sensation of incorlgruity. It is only by insisting on a dichotomy between nnewstt and ~~t~p i c -c o m r n e n t~~ t h a t any inconsistency i s created; a t h e o r y that embraces b o t h as examples of r e l a t i v e information value ( r e l a t i v e importance, relative newsworthiness) causes no 6uch trouble. The reason why missin6 is de-accented is t h a t i t i s the l e a s t i s p o r t a n t of t h e three verbs in t h a t series--it is an existsential verb, like p o w and makeabove, only more so: it is a L i t --I -era1 ---existential, referring, as p a r t of its meaning, to what is ---I or is n o t on the scene. (What i s brought on t h e scene--the e n t i t y = a = = introduced--is foregrounded even when expressed w i t h an indefinite such as eomethinp; or a noun such as thing. In Something very fun the normal thing is to put everything at high p i t c h up to the A g h plateau can be t i l t e d e i t h e r way, with affective d i f f e rences--if t i l t e d up it could express 'heightened suspiciont. But t h e important point h e r e is that happened is an existential verb f o r evenbs, and illustrates t h e downplaying of such verbs.) Bnother point here is t h e r e l a t i v e noteworthiness 04 confiscated and stolen. The f i r s t is t h e more unusual act (or wodld be except in a context like t h a t of customs inspection), and to de-accent t h e word in t h i s setting would be less likely. On t h e o t h e r hand, ifOur jewels had been s t o l e n preceded Our &old had beea coqfiscateq, l e n m i g h t readily be de-accented. T h e r e is no p r i o r sentence w i t h a parallel construction and ah accented verb t o serve as model", |
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| "text": "-5 over classed as a u'newsl examplev (97,). 6's explanation is in terms of grammatical classes (subject versus verb) or l o g i c a l form (arguments and p r e d i c a t e s ? : t h e verb has ttlower stresstf by Principle 11. B u t why should a speaker be governed by such a rule, w h i c h has no direct bearing on his intentions? Suppose we give minimal answers to What's wron8 -with John? as a way to d i scbver what is most essential: What's wrong with John? --His dog. (Run over, you know.) What's wrong w i t h John? --A hit-and-run. (His dog, y o u", |
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| "text": "t o be more precise and verbs more inclusive4. B u t t h a t is only a s t a t i s t i c . ) The t h i r d involves t h e example -1 didn't -~a n t , t o because h a i r was a mess. T h i s is supposed-to illustrate \"news sentences -1", |
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| "FIGREF18": { |
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| "text": "have elsewhere termed a p r e d i c a t i v e degree noun, one w i t h t h e characteristics of an a d j e c t i v e . B u t t h a t is n o t Why it is de-accented. If we choose a not-very-nouny w o r d . t h a t has more impact than mess -9 i t will be harder. to de-accent: -1 didn't w b t to because h & i r w a s a f r i g h t . On t h e o t h e r hand, by 7 ---L C addingsuch -3 a w h i c h normally applies t o something known, we can get away w i t h de-accenting either messo r f r i g h t -: -I d i d n ' t wantto because hair was such a mess (such a f r i g h t ) . s done a f i n e j o b of exposinm the shortcorninas of grammat i c a l approaches to accent, and where h e r own work fails it is mainly because of g l a s t vestige of trying t o put t h i n g s in grammatical or l o g i c a l terms: nouns versus veybs, arguments versus predicates. Her training in syntactic theory, plus a keen e a r f o r prosodic contrasts, make h e r one of the few persons wbo could challenge t h e current t h e o r i e s on t h e i r own grounds. One can only regret t h a t so muoh energy and f i n e t a l e n t had to be spent on disproving an elalPcrate s e t o f f a l l a c i e s . A l o t Ghat goes on In linguistics reminds one of t h e Gross National Product, which adds t o g e t h e r t h e sums spent on causing cancer and the sums spent on preventing it. It would be nice if we could be construotive more of t h e t i m e . since t h e 1970 review. The t u t o r i a l i s p r f m a r i l y a d d r e s s e d t o Inforxnatlon s c i e n t i s t s n o t famlliar w i t h recent hardware t e c hn o l o g y . I t s purpose i s t o recourlt t h e advances. i n o f f -t h es h e l f c o m p o n e~t s , s u c h as d i s k n a c k s , i n t e r a c t i v e t e r m i n a l s , and micronroce s s o r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y as t h e y a f f e c t large on line i n f o rmation s y s t e m s . T h i s n u n o s e i s e f f e c t i v e l y achieved by t h e le v e 1 o f d e t a i l s e l e c t e d f o r e x p l a n a t i o n ; the shape of the technological advances is nresented w i t h o u t I n u n d a t i n~: a computer novice w i t h too much t e c h m i c a 1 d e t a i l . \"Online Systems* -Tk c h n i q u e s and S e r v i c e s 1 ' i s w r i t t e n by Be a t r i c e Marron and Dennis F i f e . R i b l i o g r a~h i c o n l i n e s y s t e m s r e e i v e t h e most a t t e n t i o n , s i n c e t h e y are o r e d o m i n a n t ia t h e l i t e r a t u r e . The r e v i e w c o n c e n t r a t e s t h r o u g h o u t on s t u d i e s arid a n a l y s e s of t h e impact, t r e n d s , ~r o b l e m s , and f u t u r e of o n l i n e services; therefore, i t s h o u l d be o f value to a l l i r l t e r e s t e d in o n l t n e s e r v i c e s . T chap te r i s w e 1 1 -w r i t t e n t h r o u g h o u t , Though a review of the i n t e r f a c e of c o m p u t a t i o n a l l i n q u i st i c s , artificial inte l l i g e n c e , and i n f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l i s beyond t h e scope of t h e c h a p t e r , s e v e r a l aspects of t h e chapter w i l l be i n t e r e s t i n g t o t h o s e o f u s active in a r t i f i c i a l i q t e l l igence and c o m p u t a t i o n a l l h g u i s t i c s . The authors n o t e t h a t the areas of \" n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e , s e m a n t i c s , inference and d e d u c t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n and a s s o c i a b i o n \" have progre ssed s l o w l y , though the se p r B b l e m areas \"are critical i f o n l i n e information s y s t e m s are to become e v e r y d a y t o o l s i n g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s o l v i n g and r e s e a r c h . \" (p.166). Also, the s e c t i o n on the user ,inteeface should be a v a l u a b l e saurce of references f o r anyone conductin.g research i n art i f t c i a l b t e l l i g e n c e approaches t o data base user interfaces. The r e f e re n c e s cited there d i s c u s s c r i t e r i a needed f o r a good b t e r f a c e , problems of p r o v i d i n g such, a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f requiring a human intermediary f o r o c c a s s i m a l u s e r s , and i s s u e s in u s e r t r a h l l n g . \"Automated Language Processing\" b y Fred J. Damerau reviews research trends in n a t u r a l language o r o c e s s i n g during 1974 and 1975, though some r e f e r e n o e s from 1973 are i n c l u d e d as w e l l . To k e p the r e v i e w manageab#le, only a r t i c l e s p u b l i s h e d i n b gl i s h are i n c l u d e d ; also, work in which language i s treated as m i n t e r p r e t e d character s t r i n g s i s e x c l u d e d . C o n t r i b u t i o n s from artificial intelligence, zognitive p s y c h o l o g y , and l i n g u i s t i c s are revie wed . The a u t h o r states ( p . 1 0 8 ) \"The aim of the entire r e v i e w i s t o guide i n t e r e s t e d reader t o t h e most significant o r widely r e a d l i t e r a t u r e , while making h i m a t l e a s t aware of t h e difficulties and p r o b l e m areas which may n o t be e m p h a s i z e d i n t h e works cf te d. \" Personally, I f i n d that t o be tbe most valuable purpose such a review can s e r v e . B admirably a c h i e v e s this p u r p o s e , and h i s treatment of t h e t o p i c s i s thoropgh.For i n s t a n c e , i n dlscuss31g semantic n e t s , he first p o i n t s o u t their widespread acceptance a.s a representation of knowledge. The review con t i n u e s , m e n t i o n i n g som of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l ~r o b l e m s with semantic nets, such as r e p r e s e n t i n g b o t h e x t e n s i o n a l and in-tensional d e s c r i p t i o n s o f o b j e c t s and r e p r e s e n t i n g q u a n t i f i e r s . Then, p r o p o s e d solutions and the a r t i c l e s containing them are d e s c r i b e d , As an a i d t o t h e uninitiated, s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s i l l u st r a t i n g t h e u s e of s e m a n t i c networks in c o n c r e t e l a n g u a~e D r ocessine; systems are m n t i o n e d . I n a d d i t t o n t o a o i n t i n g o u t some t e c h n i c a l w e a k n e s s e s , t h e a u t h o r a l s o draws a t t e n t i o n t o n weal:ness ln o u r me t h o d o l o g y of r e p o r t i n g on s y s & m s Wh o a~e s 110-111, he states, \"I-t Is hoped t h a t t h e comments o f Woods and o t h e r s on t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e ~a s t u s e s o f rletworks w i l l be remembered i n f u t u r e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s . Prec ise snecir'icat i o n o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f e a c h c o m m e n t i n an u n d e r s t a n d i n g system i s n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r t o e v a l u a k meaningf u l l y one p i e c e of work against a n o t h e r . I I B c a u s e of the s t a t e d aim of the a u t h o r , the c h a p t e r will be v e r y v a l u a b l e t o t h o s e w i s h i n g t o learn of t h e f i e l d . However, i t i s a l s o v b l u a b l e f o r t h o s e of u s t h o r o u g h l y f a m i l i a r w i t h the field, t o have a r e v i e w o f t h e weak s p o t s i n t h e work and in o u r app r o a c h e s . American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 68: 29", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF19": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "rules would in t u r n give us new insights about the way natural language8 work. However the syntax of adverbs is s t i l l not adequately understood, precisely because of the complexity of the phenomena involved. The standard reference work in t h i s area remaina s t i l l to be written, although several attempts have been made to tackle aome of the problems in this f i e l d . Unfortunately most o f these-are q u i t e c o n t r o v e r s i a l , and l i t t l e agreement exists between the v a r i o u s authors. (l)' Hence Sven J a c o b s o n ' s book i s a c o n t r ib u t i o n t o a p a r t of t h i s f i e l d of research. Jacobson tries t o g i v e a comprehensive d e s c r i p t i o n of prevembal adverb placement in surface structure. F o l l o w i n g Jacobson I w i l l r e f e r t o preverbal adverbs as preverbs. The term \"preverb\" was coined by Robert Lees. He i n t r o d u c e d preverbs by means of t h e following phrase s t r u c t a r e r u l e (where MV stands f o r t h e finite verb and its modifiers, o b j e c t s , e t c . ) . r e v ) Aux + MV H e a l s o remarked t h a t their normal (surface) p o s i t i o n i s after the second member of the auxiliary in most sentence-types. ( ) 0wen Thomas used the same p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e r u l e t o i n t r o d u c e t h e n o t i o n of \"preverb\", b u t he argued t h a t t h e y occur normally after the f i r s t auxiliary verb. (4 Hence, according t o Lees and Thomas, prev e r b s are n o n -s e n t e n t i a l adverbs, s i n c e t h e y a r e directly dominated by t h e node VP and n o t by t h e node S. Edward Klima, however, introduced praverbs i n a totally d i f f e r e n t way. ( 5 ) All t h e items t h a t he i n c l u d e d i n the c a t e g o r y Adu seem, i n f a c t , to be preverbs. Hence, his way o f introducing t h e n o t i o n of preverb maybe repre-) (Prev (Neg) ) [Prev) Nominal -Predicate C l e a r l y he regards p~e v e r b s as s e n t e n c e adverbs since they are d i r e c t l y dominated by t h e node S. Charles F i l l m o r e takes a s i m i l a r approach. He introduced the notion of \"preverbs\" by the phrase s t r u c t u r e rule ( 3 ) : t o o regards preverbs as s e n t e n c e adverbs.", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF20": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": ", d e f i n e s preverbs a s a d v e r b s in surface s t r u c t u r e t h a t occur between NP and V, or between NP and adjectives in predicative syntactic position. ( * ) He adds t h a t i n phrase-markers preverbs can be immediately dominated e i t h e r by t h e node S or by the node VP and, hence can be e i t h e r sentence adverbs or verb-phrase adverbs respectively. In t h e book under review regards \"preverb\" as an e n t i r e l y positional n o t i o n and d e f i n e s it a s follows: (I) A verb phrase adverb that p r e c e e d s a v e r b node, i f t h e adverb and the verb in question are immediately dominated by V in the surface structure. E v i d e n t l y he assumes t h a t the U node can sometimes be r e w r i t t e n by phrase s t r u c t u r e rules a s Verb i . e . , sentence adverb tW w d s a V node, if the adverb and V node are immediately dominated by t h e S node. (9) In c o n t r a s t to his earlier definition, adjectives in predi c a t i v e position are assumed to be verbs, and hence do not need s p e c i a l mention. On this p o i n t he agrees with the G e n e r a t i v e S e m a n t i c i s t . I b e l i e v e , however, t h a t t h i s i s a n untenable s y n t a c t i c view which h a s r i g h t l y been c r i t i c i z e d . ( l o ) Hence, I f i n d his failure t o m e n t i o n adjectives i n p r e d i c a t i v e p o s i t i o n una c c e p t a b l e . Now it i s c l e a r t h a t h i s i d e a of an entirely p o~i t i o n a l n o t i o n presupposes a theoretical framework w i t h i n which t h e r e l a t i v e positian of preverbs in the surface structure can be discussed, and t h i s f r a n e w o r k c a n of course b e q u e s t i o n e d . llence Jacobsod's n o t i o n of p o s i t i o n i s n o t a s eypected a purely e m p i r i c a l one, cont r a r y t o what o n e m i g h t suppose when one l o o k s a t his use of s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a . Moreover t h e t h e o r e t i c a l framework h e uses has to be defined somewhere, which he unfortunately does n o t d o . The reader should keep this i n mind when I will d i s r l l s s w h e t h e r J a c o b s o n has l a i d an adequate foundation f o r h i s quantitative s t u d y . It i s perhaps worth n o t i n g that Rodney H u d d l e s t o n seems t o agree w i t h Jacobson's i d e a that \" p r e v e r b \" i s a n e n t i r e l y p o s i t i o n a l term. F o r h e claims that a \" p r e v e r b t l i s so called because of its most usual position. (11) T o c o n c l u d e , there seems little agreement in the l i t e r a t u r e about how to d e f i n e or even introduce t h e n o t i o n o f \" p r e v e r b . d l There is parhaps more agreement about which adverbs are a c t u a l l y preverbs, but so far the d i f f e r e n t authors have not given sufficently comprehensive lists of preverbs to determine whether t h i s is t h e case.", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF21": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "The book's aim is $0 present a survey of how preverbs a r e actually used by carrying out a quantitive s t u d y , but as I already mentioned this study depends also on the theoretical framework chosen by the author. His statistical analysis is richly illustrated by examples, consisting of actual usage of America1 ~n g l i s h which he draws from a finite corpus of written sources. tIe thus suceeds in avoiding the marginal examples t h a t many linguists use. However, there are serious problems connected with his approach, since a finite corpus seldom captures adequately all of a native speakers intuitions about his language. (See for example Sgmuel Keyser's review of Jacobson's dissertation. (12) It illustrates n i c e l y t h e dangers of u s i n g o n e s own intuition about the language of which one is a n a t i v e speaker. Jacobson p o i n t s o u t on P. 13 that one of ikg.ser examples i s odd. ( 1 3 ) He c~u l d strengthen his claim to say that Keyser's exalhple \"John will send t h e money back t o t h e g i r l roughly\" i s semantically deviant. Hence Keyser has n t b t ' been c a r e f u l enough when using his i n t u i t i o n as a native speaker t o illustrate his s y n t a c t i c p o i n t s . Still, it also shows the weakness of Jacobsos's approach s o l e l y using a finite corpus.) Furthermore, o n e cannot be sure of finding the rlght typer; Q& examples, since t h e probab i l i t y that q suitable example occurs in a given corpus c a n be very low even if t h e corpus is quite large. A better method, in my opinion, would b e t o combine the use of a c o r p u s w i t h e l i c i t a t i o n from t h e o r e t i c a l l y u n b i a s e d i n f o r m a n t s . One pp. 12-15, J a c o b s o n expresses some d o u b t s about t h e value o f e l i c i t a t i o n , but I b e l i e v e t h a t h e u n d e r e s t i m a t e s i t s v a l u e . Using e l i c i t a t i o n , c r u c i a l s e ntences l a c k i n g from a c o r p u s can be fabricated and tested i n a n unbiased way. \" U n c o n t r o l l e d \" i n t u i t i o n s c a n be used t o d i s c o v e r what c r u c i a l s e n t e n c e s need t o be t e s t e d . Clearly t h i s method i s preferrable t o using t h e b i a s e d i n t u i t i o n s of t h e theory c o n s t r u c t o r t o test h i s own t h e o r i e s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t i c e here t h a t i n t h e t h e o r y c~n s t r u c t i o n s t a g e any guessno matter how biased it i si s a c c e p t a b l e , i f it l e a d s o n e t o make c o r r e c t p r e d i c t i o n s , ( b u t of course such a situation i s unlikely t o o c c u r ) . However, i n t h e t h e o r y t e s t i n g stage o n e needs unbiased empirical d a t a t o check, i f o n e s predictions are c o r r e c t o r n o t . T h i s f a c t o b t a i n s for all s c i e n c e s , and i s just t h e way t h e h y p o t h e t i c o -d e d u c t i v e method works. Jacobson seems t o be unaware of t h i s , when, on p. 1 3 , h e talks vaguely a b o u t b e i n g both a n e m p i r i c i s t and a r a t i o n a l i s t . Empiricism and r a t i o n a l i s m a r e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s t h a t have no direct b e a r i n g on theory c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h e o r y t e s t i n g . To c o n c l u d e , J a c o b s o n s h o u l d make a distinction between the theory c o n s t r u c t i o n stage and t h e t h e o r y testing stage of scientific a c t i v i t y , and l'eave room f o r hunches and b i a s e d i n t u i t i o n s a s well as u n b i a s e d e m p i r i c a l data. Transformational grammar, i t s h o u l d be pointed o u t , i s s t i l l by and large in t h e t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n stage so t h a t any insight of any nature i s important, and n o t in the theory testing stage,", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF22": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "Jacobson characterizes what preverbs do syntactically and semantically. Syntactically verb phrase preverbs modify the v e r b , and s e n t e n c e preverbs modify the clause t o which t h e y belong t o . semantically v e r b p h r a s e preverbs c h a r a c t e r i z e processes o r s t a t e s ; s e n t e n c e adverbs characterize propositions (i.e., t h e semantic c o n t e n t s of the s e n t e n c e s or clauses'), acts o.f communication, and e v e n t s o r circumstances. However, t h e s e f u n c t i o n s are n o t unique t o p r e v e r b s . T h i s leads one t o wonder why i s t h e adverb p o s i t i o n before t h e main v e r b s h o u l d be i n t e r e s t i n g enough t o w a r r a n t a s p e c i a l l a b e l . ( I f Barbara Partee i s r i g h t i t i s even h a r d e r t o motivate a s p e c i a l l a b e l . ) What do p r e v e r b s have i n common that i s e x c l u s i v e t o them b e s i d e s their position? I f it i s o n l y t h e i r p o s i t i o n , one c o u l d j u s t a s w e l l study grdups of adverbs called \" p r e s u b j e c t s \" o r \" p o s t v e r b s \" t o o . I t should a l s o b e mentioned t h a t J a c o b s o n ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the f u n c t i o n s o f verb p h r a s e and s e n t e n c e a d v e r b s i s i n a d e q u a t e . ( 1 4 On p. 23 Jacobson s a y s that a p r e v e r b -c a n presuppose t h a t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d by the s e n t e n c e t h e preverb o c c d r s i n s t a t e s a fact. Now a c c o r d i n g t o Enrique D e l a c r u z , \"presuppose\" c a n have three distinct senses: 1) A s e n t e n c e p may presuppose a s e n t e n c e s p*, The s p e a k e r of a s e n t e n c e p may presuppose a p r o p o s i t i o n P* r I disagree with Jacobson's statement on p . 25 t h a t t h e gene r a t i o n of a preverb is o f t e n hinted at by means of a p a r a p h r a s e which i s l e s s remote from deep s t r u c t u r e than the preverb itself. Ray Jackendoff has shown t h a t this type of paraphrase d o e s n o t work i n general and hence, is of limited usefulness. (15) On the same page J a c o b s o n talks about a n uttered clause being subordinate t o some h y p e r s e n t e n t i a l clause; which is wholly o r partially deleted i n t h e course of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l d e v i a t i o n . H e should have explained h i s p o i n t a little more, s i n c e it is far from clear what t h o s e d e l e t e d h y p e r s e n t e n t i a l clauses a r e . S i m i larly, h i s phrase \"sentence praverbs that are derivable from sent e n c e s on d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l hierarchy\" needs more explanation t o be comprehensiblel Jacobson goes on t o expound on pp. 25-27 what I consider t o be a confused and erroneous view, namely that a preverb can simultaneously be b o t h a s e n t e n c e and verb phrase modifier. He explains t h i s in terms of a notion of l'coalesencel' (i.e., double d e r i e a t i o n ) . But c o a l e s e n c e s i m p l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t the s e n t e n c e i n question i s ambigious. Consider, for example, the following example given by Jacobson: \"They were s u d d e n l y a t t a c k e d . \" One reading t h a t (corr e s p o n d i n g t o t h e case where wsuddenlyf' i s a s e n t e n c e adverb) i s t h a t t h e r e w a s an attack o n them that w a s sudden. The o t h e r r e a d i n g [correspondihg t o t h e case where \"suddenly\" i s a v e r b phrase adverb) is t h a t they were attacked i n a sudden manner. These two r e a d i n g s have d i f f e r e n t t r u t h -c o n d i t i o n s , and t h e s e n t e n c e i s therefore two-way ambigious. The preverb i s a s e n t e n c e adverb m one reading and a verb phrase a d v e r b o n the other, b u t never s i m u l t a f i e o u s l y both. Jacobson o o n s i d e r s a managable-number of preverb c l a s s e s on p . 4 9 . H i s ~Lassification is based on syntactic and semantic c r i t e r i a . Now it i s r e l e v a n t t o a s k why syntactic and semantic c r i t e r i a t a k e n together should delimit n a t u r a l preverbal c l a s s e s . It m i g h t be that some classes of preverbs are syntactically n a t u r a l w h i l e o t h e r s are semantically n a t u r a l , but not b o t h , and v i c e versa. After all, syntax h a s mainly to d o with the d i s t r i b u t i o n of m o rphemes that d e t e r m i n e s the w e l l formedness c o n d i t i o n s f o r a n a t u r a l language, whereas semantics has mainly t o do with t h e information contained i n the sentences that accounts for which inferences are v a l i d in a wide s e n s e of the term \"valid1'. Jacobson fails to show t h a t h i s combined s y t l t a c t i c and semantic c r i t e r i a do indeed d e l i m i t n a t u r a l classes of preverbs. Once more Jacobson fails t o motivate adequately his theoretical framework. The distinctions used to i n t r o d u c e the twelve olasses o f p r everbs on pp. 52-66 s e e m somewhat a r b i t r a r y . Why s h o u l d o n e p i c k these among the large amount of o t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n s t h a t have been proposed i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . (16) Jacobson should at least have t r i e d to motivate why one should choose his distinctions but he has n o t done t h a t . There is a general problem about how one can test e m p i r i c a l l y Jacobson's claims about t h e semantics of preverbs. Maybe some of his distinctions a r e too s u b t l e to be e m p i r i c a l l y tested, because t h e y require J a c o b s o n i a n semantic i n t u i t i o n s . Here i s a case where one w i s h e s t h a t Jacobson s h o u l d have a more empirical orientation t h a t would make h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n more s u i t a b l e t o actual. e m p i r i c a l t e s t s . (I7) I t i s t r u e t h a t he uses a n i n t e r e s t i n g corpus as h i s e m p i r i c a l d a t a , b u t his analysis o f the c o r p u s , r e s t s h e a v i l y on his own semantic i n t u i t i o n s . T h i s i s another i l l u s k r a t i o n of the t h e o r e t i c a l inadequacy of his s t u d y . Consider, f o r example, h i s d i s c u s s i o n of i n t r a -c l a u s a l temporal preverbs on pp. 52-53. I n t r a -C l a u s a l t e m p o r a l p r e v e r b s d e n o t e a large v a r i e t y o f temporal a s p e c t s , namely t h e f o l l o w i n g : p o i n t of t i m e , e . g . , today; duration, e . g . , long, frequency, e.g., o f t e n , temporal p r o x i m i t y , e . g . , soon, and p r e c e d i n g c o i n c i d i n g and s u b s e q u e n t t i m e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e moment of speaking or w r i t i n g , e . g . , b e f o r e , now, and later. Now Jacobson c l a i m s that many t e m p o r a l p r e v e r b s have homonymos expressing v e r b a l manner. He c o n s i d e r s t h e following two sentences: ( a ) II . . .an offer which has been a c c e p t e d i s immediately e x t i n g u i s e d , \" (bl \"Now t h e argument of t h i s book is not immediately concerned w i t h the t r u t h o r f a l s i t y of what w e s a y a b o u t China o r R u s s i a . \" tIe a r g u e s t h a t \"immediately\" i s a i n t r a -c l a u s a l t e m p o r a l preverb i n ( a ) but that it expresses verbal manner i n ( b ) . However \"immediately\" can be andlysed as expressing some kind of p r o t i m i t y i n b o t h ( a ) and ( b ) . I n ( a ) i t i s temporal p r o x i m i t y , and i n ( b ) it is proximity between the argument and t h e t r u t h o r f a l s i t y of what w e say a b o u t China o r Russia. On this analysis \"immediately\" i n ( a ) and i n (b) a r e n o t homonymos. The o t h e r examples can be dealt w i t h similarily. (18) This ilLu@tra'tes yet again t h e dependence of Jacob-n's classification on a t h e o r e t i c a l framework which is nowhere motivated or even articulated in h i s book. On p. 64 Jacobson claims ( w i t h o u t supporting evidence) tb t if a paraphrase of a sentence containing \"almost\", \"It was almosb it is p o s s i b l e then t h i s occurence of l'alrnosth the case that. . . . is a sentence adverb. This claim is, howeveri f a r from s e l f e v i d e n t and, in fact, o t h e l tests f o r an adverb being,a sentence adverb has been proposed in the l i t e r a t w e tHat are different from t h i s test, but some of the less successful tests proposed are rather similar", |
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| "text": "b e l i e v e t h a t Jacobson's book is a praiseworthy attempt to investigate a ~p e s i a l class of' adverbs empirically, b u t t h e details of h i s study leave something to be desired.FOOTNOTES *I would like to thank Anthony Ungar for commenting on an earlier version of t h i s artirle, (\"see for example R e n a t e B a r t s c h , (1976) . The Grammar of 8dverbials. Amsterdam, North-Holland, ~omank Clark, (1970) .-' \"Concerning t h e logic of Predicate Modifiers\" in Nous, (pp. 3 1 1 -3 3 5 ) , Jonnie Geis, (1970). Some Aspects of verb Phrase Adverbials I n : E n g l i s h . Unpublished d i s s e r t a t i o n , . University of Illinois ~t ! Urbana-Champaign, Ray Jackendof f , (1972). Semantic, Intetpretation in Generative Grammar. Cambridge, MasSachusetts. MIT Press, Don Nilsen, (1972) ,. ,Eaglish Adverbials. The Hague. Mouton, Malcolm Rennie, (1974). -. Some Uses of Type Theory in the Analysis of Language. Canberra. Department of Philosophy; Research School of Social Sciences, The Australian ~a t i o h a l University. Mono-graph Series, No. 1, -Barry T a y l o r . The Semantic5 of Adverbs, (1974) Unpublished dissertation. Oxfo,rd University, Richmond Thomasqn and Rober S t a l n a k e r , (1973) . \"A Semantic Theory of Adverbs\" in Linguistic Inquiry. Vol. I , (pp. 195-220). (''see Robert Lees, (1960). The Grammar of English ~dminallzations. Bloomingt~n. The Indiana University R e s s d r c h . C e n t e r in Anthropology, P o l k l o r e~ and Linguistics, p . , 5 . 13)see Robert Lees, (1962) . \"The Gramatical B a s i s of Some Semantic N o t i o n s \" in Monograph Series on Languages and ~i n g u i s k i c s , No..1 3 . Georgetwn. Georgetown University Press, ( p p . 5-20) , p. 13. ( 4 )~e e Own Thomas. (19661 . T~ansforrnational Grhmmar and the Teacher New York. Hol-tr, R f n e h a r t and 'winston.", |
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| "text": "Language ed. by-J e r r y Fodor and h r r b l d Katz . Barbara Partee, (1973). \"Negation\" in The Major Syntactic S t r u c t u r e s of English by Robert Stockwell, pa31 Schachter, and Barbara partee. New York. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, (pp. 230-2 9 3 ) . p. 267. see Sven Jacobson, (1971) . S t u d i e s , in EnglLsh ~r a n s formatianal Grammar. Stockholm. Almavist & Wiksell. D. 31. ('),see p. 20 o f the book under review. (lo) See f o r example J o a n Bresnan,", |
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| "text": "o l . 3. (pp. 6 5 -1 0 0 ) . '11) see Rodney Huddl e s t o n ,", |
| "num": null, |
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| "text": "especially d u b i o u s . See Samuel Keyser, (1968). \"~e v i k~ of A d v e r b i a l P o s i t i o n s i n English.\" by Sven Jacobson i n Language. Vol. 4 4 , (pp, 3 5 7 -3 7 4 ) . pp. 368ff, a a b k e n d o f f op. c i t . pp. 67-68, 8 0 4 1 , 95, 1 0 6 a n d . J a c o b s o n (1971) QP. c i t . p. '83. I f p r e v e r b s can b e moved, around i n a sentence, why .dhould the p r e v e r b a l p o s i t i o n be c o n s i d e r e d a s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t ? Jacobson fails t o answer this q u e s t i o n , (13)see Keyser op. cit, examples (33)a -(40)b. T h e problem i s t h a t you e i t h e r send t h e money or n o t , b u t t h e r e i s n o way t o s e n d mohey r o u g h l y . However you c a n d e c i d e t o do something that means r o u g h l y that you send back t h e money, b u t t h i s reading i s hard t o get f o r t h e n a t i v e sepakers I have asked. T h i s h o l d s p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e word order i n E n g l i s h s u g g e s t s p r eferred r e a d i n q s but does not e x c l u d e compbetely t h e o t h e r nowp r e f e r r e d r e a d i n g s . I n general it i s bad s t r a t e g y t o base your i l l u s t r a t i o n of theoretical p o i n t s on language examples t h a t are at b e s t m a r g i n a l . (14)see my u n p u b l i s h e d S t a n f o r d d i s s e r t a t i o n A Formal Semantics for A d j e c t i v a l s and A d v e r b i a l s .", |
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| "text": "and Rennie op. cit. I n hy d i s s e r t a t i o n I give a s e m a n t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of adberbs t h a t consist of e l e v e n classes, and t r y t o motivate why one s h o u l d choose t h i s specific classification. (17'See Chdpt er 3 of my d i s s e r t a t i o n . ( 1 8 '~o fairther support my c l a i m c o n s i d e r Jacobson's t r e a t m e n t of \" b r i e f l y . ' Again he claims t h e a d v e r b is a i n t r a -c l a u s a l temporal pre=erb i n (a) b u t expresses v e r b a l manner i n ( b ) . (18) (Con't) H i s s e n t e n c e s a r e : ( a ) I1 . . . t h a t g r e a t v o i d in his soul which bitterness and r e b e l l i o n had b r i e f l y left v a c a n t , \" (b) \"Our prelirni'nary remarks about the c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e United S t a t e s may, then, be briefly summarized. \" I n t h i s case however \"briefly\" can be understood t o express a s h o r t s p a t i o -t e m p o r a l e v e n t . ~n (a) the event is the short e v e n t when h i s s o u l i s void, ahd i n (b) t h e e v e n t i s t h e s h o r t e v e n t d u r i n g which t h e remarks can be spoken or read. Hence (a) and (b) do ~, o t~c o n t a i n a homonymous use o f \" b r i e f l y \" as J a c o b s o n claims. Once more a n alternative analysis destroys the assumption about horn~nymity. (19)see Thomason and Stalrnaker op. c i t . C r i t e r i o n 4 , p . 2 0 5 f u r a t e s t t h a t i s very similar t o H c o b s o n ' s . for. o t h e r t e s t of whether a n a d v e r b is a s e n t e n c e a d v e r b see f o o t n o t e 1 4 .( 2 4 ) s e e f o o t n o t e 1 4 .", |
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| "text": "Sge m j un lshed a y t i c l e \"A S e m a n t i c s f o r llAlmost\"\", presented at the c o s e n c e on Montague Grammar at SUNY a t Albany, A p r i l American Journal of Cornput at i0aal Linguistics Microfiche 68: SO ARTS & HUMANITIES CITATION INDEX ih%HCI) Beginning in 1978 the Institute for Scientific Information (325 Chestnut St. Philadelphia PA 19106) will p u b l i s h a new index, t h e ARTS & HUMANITIES CITATION I N D E X , c o v e r i n g more t h a n 1,000 key journals f s o m literature, h i s t o r y , , languages, religion, philosophy, drama/theatfe, art, music, and other related fields. Two softbound triannuals issued in June and October of each year will cover, respectively, the l i t e r a t u r e actually published from January through April and from May through August. A hardbound annual cumulation will appear the followins May. The ARTS & HUMANITIES CITATION INDEX will have three types of indexes: a c i t a t i o n index, an author index, a title-", |
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| "text": "an Object of Bilingual Lexicography fLeksich&kala sochetaernost ' kak ob \"ekt dvuiazychnoi leksikografii)N. 1, SukaletrkoApplications in bil ingusl diclion~rics of lcxicnl f unctions.(l,F) ptoposcd by A. K. Tho1 kovski i nt~d I. A. Mel'chuk arc .discussed. 'T'hc ilufhor s t~g c s t s certnii~ refinemrntscof I I : and the addition nf new, lnorc spccific 1. F to the cxistiflg sct. I+r exenrplc, lllc 1. F wit11 tllc nlcaning, \"to show to advat1 tugc\" for tlescrihil~g such oxprks,ior~s 3s do rhit~i. witlY k,low1t*ti,y~, to set on' wlritel~rss, to slrike [ltr .tmtcpcriori/j: lo sirtgle or)/ j'or c~bNify; the I , F H. i t l i the 1ileii11 i 11g \"divcrgc from the. ordinary cotlrse of cret~ts\" for such phrhscs its fo i t~s c .(thc W i l y , coursc), to get o 1 ) ' (tile sc~hjcct), to d i v e r g~* ( ' f ronl [Ire con versi~ti~orl). to jttn~p :(the i~;tcl.s), to lurll off (one's rolltc), to .driJt uwuy (fro111 the old friends). Ap;~rt from stindard La! : , thc entries of bili~~guol dict iotierics nurst cot\\titi~l i n t l i r itlud 1. 1: scrr*rcc.--rr -c~t~,ytr~rd, uc.ti vc, ctc. and ilifornlnkioll ahout s c m ;~i~t i c am~hinnliili ties: fnP only I mlic~h~n to pcoplr -;lntl animels, stout--only about people, bu.to~n--only i~l~o u t wolncll. LEXICOGRAPt-1Y-LEXICOI-OGY: BILINGUAL Gorman-Russian Automatic Diction.ary of Comrnori Words (Nern~etslto-russkiy av toma ticlloskii slovar' obshcheupotrebitel'rloi leksiki N. E:. Okulictr All alphnhe[ic listing of 1681 wort15 i' ; given, cbl~\\itlurcd as tlie c o~l \\ n o r~ voc:lbulary f o r scientific i111d tecllnicnl <;cltnal; prose. 7.11~ wortls were s~lcrletl ijn thc h:tsis oft cor~iparilrg frequency cvord lists f o r six si~bsrls tit' tcchnici~l i,tglr: ~s c~r~l s whil h J1:icl t llu: s:llns iiic.lnlng in :111 the S I Y sul%cts were i~icludcti in tlrc list. Sor~lr s p c c~r i c selecl~on crittbri;t dc tllscussetl (c: g. or~ly the words wllich werc' ilot r i m . ilk t l~e Crccl~lciicy t l l c t~o~~:~~i r s of llic II\\\\I;II t y p~ WBIC countcd I co~iinloi~ i s ) . The list ngrces well with simil:~r lists f o r , \\,ttglihl~, e;\\rl tcr co~npi lal hy tflc Specch St:~tistics C; roup. 'I'hc colilpal lsotl was basrtl OII Cicrln:~n -I'IIE~ is!! ;111tl I :~~, g l~s h -( j c r~~~a l~ tlicl~on:~r~cs. 13 refs. all meaning of each word. Thc 111c:ini ng rksolut ion algorithms take into accoi~nt morphological featt~res, lexical-grammatical class and syntactic funct~ons of the word in the scntencc (deLerniit~ed witllout semantic criteria). Sets of 'words or fcolures which were dctccterl in the context and eiinbla a un iqi~e , detcrn~ ihrption of onc o f , thc m c n n i~~y s are determinirnts. T l~r r e are five types of simple d e t e r r n i n :~~~~~: -sii th compound deter/r~in:~nts built from simple ones. For a m;~oriiy of verhs one or two dclermii~nnts are used. A m;iclline tmnslation expcri ment using this system on 30,000 ru nninp wortls o f text has bcen carricd out, yielding correct translation of n~ultiple-meaning words i n 80% o f casts. Snnlples are given. LEXICOGRAPHY -LEXICOLOGY: DICTIONARY Choosing the Type of the Out ut Automatic Dictionary (Vybo tipo vykhodnogo avtomaticheskogo slovar I ? a) V. A, Vcltel' I,inguostarist ics and /he A u t u i t~a t~ J Attnlysis 01 Tcsis (I,ir~gvostalislikoisik i uvto/~?trf. utlaliz tekstov), Minsk, 383-401, 1973. The characteristics of two types of automatic dictionary ;Ire c o n ? p i~r e d --~~r d form clictionary (WFD) arid sten1 dictionary (Sf)). WI:D is shown to cantniii fur illore retlundant iiifur111:ition than SD; a forlnula expressing this diri'erer~ce ill quitn t ~tati ve trrnms is given. I'licse two types of dictionary are further c o r n~~r o d by criteria of I. M c l ' r h u k --c x h ;~r~s~~v c n c~~, cldeql~acy.", |
| "num": null, |
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| "text": "Indexes to VINITl's Abstract Journals: Efficiency Measurement (Otsenka effektivnosti predmetnyhh ukazatelet. k RZH VINln) V. V. Bcl tsova, B. B. M o k s l~r~l t u e v , N. M. Sag;llevicl~, and A. Y. I'okina Qrlestions on the Per fect~d S y s i e~n of J~?/ormufionrrf lJi;blication, hloscow: 7 9-98, 1973.", |
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| "text": "Machine Translation: Aspects of Me thodology ( Otnssiashchikhsia k mashinnomu perevodu) G. 1' . Bagrinovskaia, 0. S. Culiiginn, ant1 A. A. Lirpunov In A Few Questions on Tl~coreiicul Cyhernelics and Algorif luns n f I'rogrrrt~znring, Noro.sibirsk: 67-94, 1971. (\"0 nekotorykh voprosov feoreficheskiklr kiherrrcrik i algori/nrokh progrommur\", Novosibirsk 1971)", |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td>A l t h o u g h t h i s</td></tr></table>", |
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| "text": "Though everyone knows that bears a r e a", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>and I;; t h i s t r e a t gerformative accent as a separ-</td></tr><tr><td>a t e e n t i t y . xf -= species is more accented t h a n cantankerous in 1,</td></tr><tr><td>i t is because of gradient. climax. It may e a s i l y be less accented,</td></tr><tr><td>t h a t is, lower in p i t c b</td></tr></table>", |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">[ = accent] t h a n t h e subject</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">and t h e direct o b j e c t , if theye is one; in o t h e r words, apredi-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">c a t e s receive lower stress [ = accent3 t h a n t h e i r arguments, ir-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">respective of t h e i r linear position in surface structuren ( 5 2 ) .</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">T h i s concerns %irnple 'news ~entences'~', whme 'Itbe sgeaker as-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">sumes no particular expectations with regard t a t h e information</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">content on t h e part of his audiencen (81). Examples: ~6 h n hi,$</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">sill; ~6 h n d%ed. The p r i n c i p l e d o e s not a p p l y t o sentences l i k e</td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>l r e a o y</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">been introduced.</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">T h e main problem is t h a t \"news sentencesw are not sufficiently</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">defined. Fake S t s p r i n c i p l e in t h e narrowest sense, whepe news</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">means what WcCawley has c a l l e d l1hot newsff--something being men-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">tioned for t h e first time:</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>1. \\Phat do you have a g a i n s t Smithers? --Oh, h e ' d e s e r t e d t h e i r p o s t s .</td><td/></tr></table>", |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td>-* -</td><td>w</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">Another consideratiofi is t h e nature of the subject. Even w i t h</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">hot news, indefinites may well not carry t h e main accent: Hey,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">morn! Something's burn in^!; Hey, mom! Some p~ ---here ! -</td><td>qcreaminq out _._</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">S t i l l --</td><td>-</td><td>-L</td><td>--</td></tr></table>", |
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| "text": "to falsify any explicitly formulated grammar by considering examplesathat have not been understood by the t h e o r y constructor, and hence are not adequately accounted for by h i s theory. It i s He finds the relation between preverbs and auxiliares to be especially interesting. Hence to reiterate he intends to present a survey of how preverbs are actually used by carrying out a ment in surface structure; the taxonomic aim, to give the necessary discrete categories is subsidiary to this. I n his study he finds that there is no significant difference between American and British ~n g l i s h . The tests on which Jacobson bases h i s conclusions repre-", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>common knowledge that as yet no adequate grammar for any natural language has been c o n s t r u c t e d , and t h a t everybody is a l o n g way His book begins with a s h o r t p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e aims of t h e Work. quantative study, illustrated by examples. The s y n t a c t i c aim of cussion of some details of Jacobson's work. Jacobson remarks on p. 7 that the relations of preverbs to auxiliaries is especailly interesting. It seems to me, however, that he fails to distinguish between stylistic and syntactic or based t h e since I am not qualified to do so. I now want to turn to a d i s -results.</td></tr><tr><td>Jacobson also has a problem with his discrete categories. On</td></tr><tr><td>p. 9 and p. 49 he states that h i s taxonomy requires countable items</td></tr><tr><td>and cannot therefore use the concept of a continumn. Hence Jacobson</td></tr><tr><td>has to find a way to classify p r e v e r b s that gives rise to r a t h e r</td></tr><tr><td>sharp b o u n d a r i e s , but I do not think that he has succeeded in d 6 i n g</td></tr></table>", |
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| "text": ". . , , , 76 SPEECH UNDERSTANDING , , . . . 77 DOCUMENTATI M\\l t I WEXI NG . , 77 TRANSLATION . . . , , . . .. . . . . .", |
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| "text": "Device for Agton~atic Recognition of Phonemes (Ustrovistvo dlia recognition dev,ice which isolates.phone~nes ffonl the ~o n t~n u o u s speech flow. A pho~leme is defined as a set of physical realizations grouped together by their common .role in the verbal rl~essage i n a given language. Each physical realization of n p h o l~e n~e i s described by a set o f mensitrable features. which are tile intensities i n sepnr;lte freriucncy bands of the acuustic spectrunl. 'T'lle device has 30\u00b0frequency baiids erico~npnssing the range from 60 cycles to 8.3 kHz. A recogl~ition [nodel i s based 011 statistical tlleory of' p:tttern rccogr~iliot~. A flow chart of tilt (levice is presented, d e z~r i bing the operat ions o f the 1 ndividual con] ponents, the input amplifier, the band filters, amplifiers of the. fil'ter chant~els, detectors, and the fi~iictiunaI converter. -15 refs, Method for hflodification of the Overall Intensity o f Sound I tervals for zvukovvkh otrezkov vtseliakh ikh mashinnoso rassoznavaniia) J Machine Recognition (Ob odnorn sposobe izrnencniia. nbshchei tensivnosli", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>PHCBVETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION</td><td>Microfiche 68: 51</td></tr><tr><td>A a vtorna ticheskogo ~aspoznavaniia fonern)</td><td/></tr><tr><td>I. a. Strel'nikov</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">Questions on the Atln1,ysis of Speech (Yopr. nnaliza r e~h i ) ,~4 Tbilisi. \"Metsnierebd\": 145-</td></tr><tr><td>153, 1973.</td><td>In t h i s issue and the next</td></tr><tr><td/><td>AJCL will be featuring abstracts</td></tr><tr><td/><td>of Russian language material</td></tr><tr><td/><td>covering the l a s t four years.</td></tr><tr><td/><td>Our regular coverage w i l l be</td></tr><tr><td/><td>back to normal with the next</td></tr><tr><td/><td>issue (the current 'sltnnp' is</td></tr><tr><td/><td>the result of the pressures</td></tr><tr><td/><td>imposed on the U b l i o g r a p t h e r</td></tr><tr><td/><td>by dissertation writing) .</td></tr><tr><td>PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: R~CO'GNITION</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">A Qllestions on ihe utlalysis of Speech (Vopr. Atluliza R r c / l i 4 Tbilisi \" M o i s~~i e r e h n \" : 154-159,</td></tr><tr><td>j973.</td><td/></tr><tr><td>b , 84</td><td/></tr><tr><td>ANALYSIS m~e~e e e m e e e m m~e e m 86</td><td/></tr></table>", |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td>LEXICOGRAPHY-LEXICOLOGY: TEXT HANDLING</td></tr><tr><td>A Method of</td></tr></table>", |
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| "text": "On Some Procedures for Obtaining Reduced Word Codes (0 neltotorykh metodov polucheniia s vernutylth kodov slovThe importance of reducing the volu~ne of input information ljy efficacious codl~ig is strcsretl. The gcneral t~chnicli~es of word form code rcduction arc discusseti. The tecllliiclues are sllown to be efficient for retlncing the length o f ~npiit text hut they fail to provide for i~~~amblguous identification o f the word form. It is proved that in principle such n soltltion of the rcduction prohlem exists which cnsurcs u n n m biguous identi fica~ion. This solution is supposud lo be b.:~scJ on stotistic;~l-distrib~~tioi~ features of texl. 4 Russian verbal word forms can proceed in three stages: 1) isolation (in ttlr word form) of segments, 2) determination of t h e sytltagrnadc position of the segment depending on the meaning. it expresses and establishment o f the -type of meanin35 expressed by the segment, (ill this way morphs are singlor. out i n the word form), , 3) rncrke~ of individual positions in one o.rder if their nieanings coincide, but independent of the expression of these meanings. ~n * o r d e r is defined as thc sum of positions of thc ~norphs that are combiacd within one morphernc. Nine orderi are introduced for personnl verbs; they are lil~car~zed in strict sequence. Cc)inpulsory/optional presence, in a word form, of morphs of this or that order and colnbihtlbjIitics of individual orders arc discussed. Conclusions regarding the clependence of the meaning of a morph on its position in the word form are made. Exanlples of segment analysis of verbal words f o r t~i s arc given.An algorithm of morphological analysis of Russian is described that has been developed at the Mathematical Linguistics G r o \\~p of the Corn puting Ccntrc of L.en~ngratl U~liversi ly. 7'hc input dilta for the algorithm are the Russian cnIry word form and a tabular dictionary describing the Russian nrurphology in terms of a f i~l i t e at1to1n:t ton moclel. l'hc ta bulor ,dictionary fa11s iato a dictio~iery of stems and the tablc o f affixcs. 1 he alp01 itt1111 scans the nlterriative paths for generi~tion o f the word fornr. 'The structure of the tabular dlctionury i s described (each l inc'contai~ls a string genen ted) a s arc the preceding and su bsccjuen't states of the automaton. A list of morphologicai feilturcs for tlifferenl parls of spccch is giveti.For automatic semantic analysis, text units ate classified which signal the srlurce of message (equalized to an individual sentence): (1) reference to the aotl~or's knowledge (1 say that...);( 2 ) reference to collective knowledge (According to q~mntum theory,...); ( 3 ) reference to a particular source (from the Rol tzm:intl formula it i s obvious that ..., Ru therford supposed", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>funktsional'nogo modelirovaniia rechevoi deitel'/losri,) Leningmd Universily: 140-144, 1973.</td></tr><tr><td>'nogo modelirovoriiia prechevoi i e i c t ' s i ) , Letlingrad U n i v e r s i !~: 145-174,</td></tr><tr><td>/973.</td></tr></table>", |
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| "text": "LINGUISTICS: METHODS:", |
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| "text": "Three common types of A l hubris are offered for cot~sideration. 1) Wist~jul rnr~ernatrics: Calling the maill loop o f , a program \"UNDERSTAND\" ~nakes it loo easy to beg the itnportant theoretical it un'derstnnd'? W1sllf111 labeling ot links Tea& to the s:me type of questionbegging (the ubiqt~itous IS-A link is discussed). 2) Unrrccirtral Innglrccge. A l workers tend both to oversimplify and ovcrglorify the proble~ns of NL processing. N", |
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