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active transport : the process in which a living membrane expends energy to move substances across | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
Bernoulliâs equation : the equation resulting from applying conservation of energy to an incompressible frictionless fluid:P+ 1/2pv2+pgh= constant , through the fluid | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
Bernoulliâs principle : Bernoulliâs equation applied at constant depth:P1+ 1/2pv12=P2+ 1/2pv22 | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
dialysis : the transport of any molecule other than water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
diffusion : the movement of substances due to random thermal molecular motion | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
flow rate : abbreviatedQ, it is the volumeVthat flows past a particular point during a timet, orQ = V/t | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
fluid dynamics : the physics of fluids in motion | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
laminar : a type of fluid flow in which layers do not mix | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
liter : a unit of volume, equal to 10â3m3 | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
osmosis : the transport of water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
osmotic pressure : the back pressure which stops the osmotic process if one solution is pure water | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
Poiseuilleâs law : the rate of laminar flow of an incompressible fluid in a tube:Q= (P2âP1)Ïr4/8ηl | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
Poiseuilleâs law for resistance : the resistance to laminar flow of an incompressible fluid in a tube:R= 8ηl/Ïr4 | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
relative osmotic pressure : the back pressure which stops the osmotic process if neither solution is pure water | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
reverse dialysis : the process that occurs when back pressure is sufficient to reverse the normal direction of dialysis through membranes | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
reverse osmosis : the process that occurs when back pressure is sufficient to reverse the normal direction of osmosis through membranes | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
Reynolds number : a dimensionless parameter that can reveal whether a particular flow is laminar or turbulent | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
semipermeable : a type of membrane that allows only certain small molecules to pass through | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
terminal speed : the speed at which the viscous drag of an object falling in a viscous fluid is equal to the other forces acting on the object (such as gravity), so that the acceleration of the object is zero | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
turbulence : fluid flow in which layers mix together via eddies and swirls | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
viscosity : the friction in a fluid, defined in terms of the friction between layers | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
viscous drag : a resistance force exerted on a moving object, with a nontrivial dependence on velocity | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-glossary |
Flow rateQQis defined to be the volumeVVflowing past a point in timett, orQ=VtQ=VtwhereVVis volume andttis time. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
The SI unit of volume ism3m3. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Another common unit is the liter (L), which is10â3m310â3m3. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Flow rate and velocity are related byQ=Av¯Q=Av¯whereAAis the cross-sectional area of the flow andv¯v¯is its average velocity. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
For incompressible fluids, flow rate at various points is constant. That is,Q1=Q2A1v¯1=A2v¯2n1A1v¯1=n2A2v¯2.Q1=Q2A1v¯1=A2v¯2n1A1v¯1=n2A2v¯2. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Bernoulliâs equation states that the sum on each side of the following equation is constant, or the same at any two points in an incompressible frictionless fluid:P1+12Ïv12+Ïgh1=P2+12Ïv22+Ïgh2.P1+12Ïv12+Ïgh1=P2+12Ïv22+Ïgh2. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Bernoulliâs principle is Bernoulliâs equation applied to situations in which depth is constant. The terms involving depth (or heighth) subtract out, yieldingP1+12Ïv12=P2+12Ïv22.P1+12Ïv12=P2+12Ïv22. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Bernoulliâs principle has many applications, including entrainment, wings and sails, and velocity measurement. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Power in fluid flow is given by the equationP1+12Ïv2+ÏghQ=power,P1+12Ïv2+ÏghQ=power,where the first term is power associated with pressure, the second is power associated with velocity, and the third is power associated with height. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Laminar flow is characterized by smooth flow of the fluid in layers that do not mix. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Turbulence is characterized by eddies and swirls that mix layers of fluid together. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Fluid viscosityηηis due to friction within a fluid. Representative values are given inTable 12.1. Viscosity has units of(N/m2)s(N/m2)sorPaâsPaâs. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Flow is proportional to pressure difference and inversely proportional to resistance:Q=P2âP1R.Q=P2âP1R. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
For laminar flow in a tube, Poiseuilleâs law for resistance states thatR=8ηlÏr4.R=8ηlÏr4. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Poiseuilleâs law for flow in a tube isQ=(P2âP1)Ïr48ηl.Q=(P2âP1)Ïr48ηl. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
The pressure drop caused by flow and resistance is given byP2âP1=RQ.P2âP1=RQ. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
The Reynolds numberNRNRcan reveal whether flow is laminar or turbulent. It isNR=2Ïvrη.NR=2Ïvrη. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
ForNRNRbelow about 2000, flow is laminar. ForNRNRabove about 3000, flow is turbulent. For values ofNRNRbetween 2000 and 3000, it may be either or both. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
When an object moves in a fluid, there is a different form of the Reynolds numberNRâ²=ÏvLη(object in fluid),NRâ²=ÏvLη(object in fluid),which indicates whether flow is laminar or turbulent. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
ForNRâ²NRâ²less than about one, flow is laminar. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
ForNRâ²NRâ²greater than106106, flow is entirely turbulent. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Diffusion is the movement of substances due to random thermal molecular motion. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
The average distancexrmsxrmsa molecule travels by diffusion in a given amount of time is given byxrms=2Dt,xrms=2Dt,whereDDis the diffusion constant, representative values of which are found inTable 12.2. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
whereDDis the diffusion constant, representative values of which are found inTable 12.2. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Osmosis is a process by which molecules of a solvent pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one, thus, equalizing the solute concentrations on each side of the membrane. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Dialysis is the transport of any other molecule through a semipermeable membrane due to its concentration difference. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Both processes can be reversed by back pressure. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
Active transport is a process in which a living membrane expends energy to move substances across it. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/12-section-summary |
absolute zero : the lowest possible temperature; the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
Avogadroâs number : NANA, the number of molecules or atoms in one mole of a substance;NA=6.02Ã1023NA=6.02Ã1023particles/mole | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
Boltzmann constant : kk, a physical constant that relates energy to temperature;k=1.38Ã10â23J/Kk=1.38Ã10â23J/K | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
Celsius scale : temperature scale in which the freezing point of water is0ºC0ºCand the boiling point of water is100ºC100ºC | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
coefficient of linear expansion : αα, the change in length, per unit length, per1ºC1ºCchange in temperature; a constant used in the calculation of linear expansion; the coefficient of linear expansion depends on the material and to some degree on the temperature of the material | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
coefficient of volume expansion : ββ, the change in volume, per unit volume, per1ºC1ºCchange in temperature | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
critical point : the temperature above which a liquid cannot exist | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
critical pressure : the minimum pressure needed for a liquid to exist at the critical temperature | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
critical temperature : the temperature above which a liquid cannot exist | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
Daltonâs law of partial pressures : the physical law that states that the total pressure of a gas is the sum of partial pressures of the component gases | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
degree Celsius : unit on the Celsius temperature scale | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
degree Fahrenheit : unit on the Fahrenheit temperature scale | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
dew point : the temperature at which relative humidity is 100%; the temperature at which water starts to condense out of the air | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
Fahrenheit scale : temperature scale in which the freezing point of water is32ºF32ºFand the boiling point of water is212ºF212ºF | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
ideal gas law : the physical law that relates the pressure and volume of a gas to the number of gas molecules or number of moles of gas and the temperature of the gas | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
Kelvin scale : temperature scale in which 0 K is the lowest possible temperature, representing absolute zero | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
mole : the quantity of a substance whose mass (in grams) is equal to its molecular mass | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
partial pressure : the pressure a gas would create if it occupied the total volume of space available | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
percent relative humidity : the ratio of vapor density to saturation vapor density | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
phase diagram : a graph of pressure vs. temperature of a particular substance, showing at which pressures and temperatures the three phases of the substance occur | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
PVdiagram : a graph of pressure vs. volume | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
relative humidity : the amount of water in the air relative to the maximum amount the air can hold | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
saturation : the condition of 100% relative humidity | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
sublimation : the phase change from solid to gas | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
temperature : the quantity measured by a thermometer | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
thermal energy : KE¯KE¯, the average translational kinetic energy of a molecule | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
thermal equilibrium : the condition in which heat no longer flows between two objects that are in contact; the two objects have the same temperature | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
thermal expansion : the change in size or volume of an object with change in temperature | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
thermal stress : stress caused by thermal expansion or contraction | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
triple point : the pressure and temperature at which a substance exists in equilibrium as a solid, liquid, and gas | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
vapor : a gas at a temperature below the boiling temperature | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
vapor pressure : the pressure at which a gas coexists with its solid or liquid phase | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
zeroth law of thermodynamics : law that states that if two objects are in thermal equilibrium, and a third object is in thermal equilibrium with one of those objects, it is also in thermal equilibrium with the other object | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-glossary |
Temperature is the quantity measured by a thermometer. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a system. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
Absolute zero is the temperature at which there is no molecular motion. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
There are three main temperature scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
Temperatures on one scale can be converted to temperatures on another scale using the following equations:TºF=95TºC+32TºF=95TºC+32TºC=59TºFâ32TºC=59TºFâ32TK=TºC+273.15TK=TºC+273.15TºC=TKâ273.15TºC=TKâ273.15 | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
Systems are in thermal equilibrium when they have the same temperature. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
Thermal equilibrium occurs when two bodies are in contact with each other and can freely exchange energy. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems, A and B, are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and B is in thermal equilibrium with a third system, C, then A is also in thermal equilibrium with C. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
Thermal expansion is the increase, or decrease, of the size (length, area, or volume) of a body due to a change in temperature. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
Thermal expansion is large for gases, and relatively small, but not negligible, for liquids and solids. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
Linear thermal expansion isÎL=αLÎT,ÎL=αLÎT,whereÎLÎLis the change in lengthLL,ÎTÎTis the change in temperature, andααis the coefficient of linear expansion, which varies slightly with temperature. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
The change in area due to thermal expansion isÎA=2αAÎT,ÎA=2αAÎT,whereÎAÎAis the change in area. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
The change in volume due to thermal expansion isÎV=βVÎT,ÎV=βVÎT,whereββis the coefficient of volume expansion andβâ3αβâ3α. Thermal stress is created when thermal expansion is constrained. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
The ideal gas law relates the pressure and volume of a gas to the number of gas molecules and the temperature of the gas. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
The ideal gas law can be written in terms of the number of molecules of gas:PV=NkT,PV=NkT,wherePPis pressure,VVis volume,TTis temperature,NNis number of molecules, andkkis the Boltzmann constantk=1.38Ã10â23J/K.k=1.38Ã10â23J/K. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
A mole is the number of atoms in a 12-g sample of carbon-12. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
The number of molecules in a mole is called Avogadroâs numberNANA,NA=6.02Ã1023molâ1.NA=6.02Ã1023molâ1. | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/13-section-summary |
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