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Power series centered at x = 0 x = 0
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-equations
∑ n = 0 ∞ c n x n = c 0 + c 1 x + c 2 x 2 + ⋯ ∑ n = 0 ∞ c n x n = c 0 + c 1 x + c 2 x 2 + ⋯
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-equations
Power series centered at x = a x = a
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-equations
∑ n = 0 ∞ c n ( x − a ) n = c 0 + c 1 ( x − a ) + c 2 ( x − a ) 2 + ⋯ ∑ n = 0 ∞ c n ( x − a ) n = c 0 + c 1 ( x − a ) + c 2 ( x − a ) 2 + ⋯
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-equations
Taylor series for the function f f at the point x = a x = a
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-equations
∑ n = 0 ∞ f ( n ) ( a ) n ! ( x − a ) n = f ( a ) + f ′ ( a ) ( x − a ) + f ″ ( a ) 2 ! ( x − a ) 2 + ⋯ + f ( n ) ( a ) n ! ( x − a ) n + ⋯ ∑ n = 0 ∞ f ( n ) ( a ) n ! ( x − a ) n = f ( a ) + f ′ ( a ) ( x − a ) + f ″ ( a ) 2 ! ( x − a ) 2 + ⋯ + f ( n ) ( a ) n ! ( x − a ) n + ⋯
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-equations
binomial series : the Maclaurin series forf(x)=(1+x)r;f(x)=(1+x)r;it is given by(1+x)r=∑n=0∞(rn)xn=1+rx+r(r−1)2!x2+⋯+r(r−1)⋯(r−n+1)n!xn+⋯(1+x)r=∑n=0∞(rn)xn=1+rx+r(r−1)2!x2+⋯+r(r−1)⋯(r−n+1)n!xn+⋯for|x|<1|x|<1
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
interval of convergence : the set of real numbersxfor which a power series converges
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
Maclaurin polynomial : a Taylor polynomial centered at 0; thenth Taylor polynomial forffat 0 is thenth Maclaurin polynomial forff
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
Maclaurin series : a Taylor series for a functionffatx=0x=0is known as a Maclaurin series forff
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
nonelementary integral : an integral for which the antiderivative of the integrand cannot be expressed as an elementary function
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
power series : a series of the form∑n=0∞cnxn∑n=0∞cnxnis a power series centered atx=0;x=0;a series of the form∑n=0∞cn(x−a)n∑n=0∞cn(x−a)nis a power series centered atx=ax=a
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radius of convergence : if there exists a real numberR>0R>0such that a power series centered atx=ax=aconverges for|x−a|<R|x−a|<Rand diverges for|x−a|>R,|x−a|>R,thenRis the radius of convergence; if the power series only converges atx=a,x=a,the radius of convergence isR=0;R=0;if the power series converges for al...
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
Taylor polynomials : thenth Taylor polynomial forffatx=ax=aispn(x)=f(a)+f′(a)(x−a)+f″(a)2!(x−a)2+⋯+f(n)(a)n!(x−a)npn(x)=f(a)+f′(a)(x−a)+f″(a)2!(x−a)2+⋯+f(n)(a)n!(x−a)n
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
Taylor series : a power series atathat converges to a functionffon some open interval containinga
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
Taylor’s theorem with remainder : for a functionffand thenth Taylor polynomial forffatx=a,x=a,the remainderRn(x)=f(x)−pn(x)Rn(x)=f(x)−pn(x)satisfiesRn(x)=f(n+1)(c)(n+1)!(x−a)n+1Rn(x)=f(n+1)(c)(n+1)!(x−a)n+1for somecbetweenxanda; if there exists an intervalIcontainingaand a real numberMsuch that|f(n+1)(x)|≤M...
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
term-by-term differentiation of a power series : a technique for evaluating the derivative of a power series∑n=0∞cn(x−a)n∑n=0∞cn(x−a)nby evaluating the derivative of each term separately to create the new power series∑n=1∞ncn(x−a)n−1∑n=1∞ncn(x−a)n−1
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
term-by-term integration of a power series : a technique for integrating a power series∑n=0∞cn(x−a)n∑n=0∞cn(x−a)nby integrating each term separately to create the new power seriesC+∑n=0∞cn(x−a)n+1n+1C+∑n=0∞cn(x−a)n+1n+1
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/6-key-terms
Parametric equations provide a convenient way to describe a curve. A parameter can represent time or some other meaningful quantity.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
It is often possible to eliminate the parameter in a parameterized curve to obtain a function or relation describing that curve.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
There is always more than one way to parameterize a curve.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
Parametric equations can describe complicated curves that are difficult or perhaps impossible to describe using rectangular coordinates.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The derivative of the parametrically defined curvex=x(t)x=x(t)andy=y(t)y=y(t)can be calculated using the formuladydx=y′(t)x′(t).dydx=y′(t)x′(t).Using the derivative, we can find the equation of a tangent line to a parametric curve.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The area between a parametric curve and thex-axis can be determined by using the formulaA=∫t1t2y(t)x′(t)dt.A=∫t1t2y(t)x′(t)dt.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The arc length of a parametric curve can be calculated by using the formulas=∫t1t2(dxdt)2+(dydt)2dt.s=∫t1t2(dxdt)2+(dydt)2dt.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The surface area of a volume of revolution revolved around thex-axis is given byS=2π∫aby(t)(x′(t))2+(y′(t))2dt.S=2π∫aby(t)(x′(t))2+(y′(t))2dt.If the curve is revolved around they-axis, then the formula isS=2π∫abx(t)(x′(t))2+(y′(t))2dt.S=2π∫abx(t)(x′(t))2+(y′(t))2dt.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The polar coordinate system provides an alternative way to locate points in the plane.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
Convert points between rectangular and polar coordinates using the formulasx=rcosθandy=rsinθx=rcosθandy=rsinθandr=x2+y2andtanθ=yx.r=x2+y2andtanθ=yx.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
To sketch a polar curve from a given polar function, make a table of values and take advantage of periodic properties.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
Use the conversion formulas to convert equations between rectangular and polar coordinates.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
Identify symmetry in polar curves, which can occur through the pole, the horizontal axis, or the vertical axis.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The area of a region in polar coordinates defined by the equationr=f(θ)r=f(θ)withα≤θ≤βα≤θ≤βis given by the integralA=12∫αβ[f(θ)]2dθ.A=12∫αβ[f(θ)]2dθ.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
To find the area between two curves in the polar coordinate system, first find the points of intersection, then subtract the corresponding areas.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The arc length of a polar curve defined by the equationr=f(θ)r=f(θ)withα≤θ≤βα≤θ≤βis given by the integralL=∫αβ[f(θ)]2+[f′(θ)]2dθ=∫αβr2+(drdθ)2dθ.L=∫αβ[f(θ)]2+[f′(θ)]2dθ=∫αβr2+(drdθ)2dθ.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The equation of a vertical parabola in standard form with given focus and directrix isy=14p(x−h)2+ky=14p(x−h)2+kwherepis the distance from the vertex to the focus and(h,k)(h,k)are the coordinates of the vertex.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The equation of a horizontal ellipse in standard form is(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1where the center has coordinates(h,k),(h,k),the major axis has length 2a,the minor axis has length 2b, and the coordinates of the foci are(h±c,k),(h±c,k),wherec2=a2−b2.c2=a2−b2.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The equation of a horizontal hyperbola in standard form is(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1where the center has coordinates(h,k),(h,k),the vertices are located at(h±a,k),(h±a,k),and the coordinates of the foci are(h±c,k),(h±c,k),wherec2=a2+b2.c2=a2+b2.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The eccentricity of an ellipse is less than 1, the eccentricity of a parabola is equal to 1, and the eccentricity of a hyperbola is greater than 1. The eccentricity of a circle is 0.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
The polar equation of a conic section with eccentricityeisr=ep1±ecosθr=ep1±ecosθorr=ep1±esinθ,r=ep1±esinθ,whereprepresents the focal parameter.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
To identify a conic generated by the equationAx2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0,Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0,first calculate the discriminantD=4AC−B2.D=4AC−B2.IfD>0D>0then the conic is an ellipse, ifD=0D=0then the conic is a parabola, and ifD<0D<0then the conic is a hyperbola.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-concepts
d y d x = d y / d t d x / d t = y ′ ( t ) x ′ ( t ) d y d x = d y / d t d x / d t = y ′ ( t ) x ′ ( t )
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-equations
d 2 y d x 2 = d d x ( d y d x ) = ( d / d t ) ( d y / d x ) d x / d t d 2 y d x 2 = d d x ( d y d x ) = ( d / d t ) ( d y / d x ) d x / d t
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A = ∫ a b y ( t ) x ′ ( t ) d t A = ∫ a b y ( t ) x ′ ( t ) d t
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s = ∫ t 1 t 2 ( d x d t ) 2 + ( d y d t ) 2 d t s = ∫ t 1 t 2 ( d x d t ) 2 + ( d y d t ) 2 d t
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-equations
S = 2 π ∫ a b y ( t ) ( x ′ ( t ) ) 2 + ( y ′ ( t ) ) 2 d t S = 2 π ∫ a b y ( t ) ( x ′ ( t ) ) 2 + ( y ′ ( t ) ) 2 d t
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A = 1 2 ∫ α β [ f ( θ ) ] 2 d θ = 1 2 ∫ α β r 2 d θ A = 1 2 ∫ α β [ f ( θ ) ] 2 d θ = 1 2 ∫ α β r 2 d θ
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-equations
L = ∫ α β [ f ( θ ) ] 2 + [ f ′ ( θ ) ] 2 d θ = ∫ α β r 2 + ( d r d θ ) 2 d θ L = ∫ α β [ f ( θ ) ] 2 + [ f ′ ( θ ) ] 2 d θ = ∫ α β r 2 + ( d r d θ ) 2 d θ
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angular coordinate : θθthe angle formed by a line segment connecting the origin to a point in the polar coordinate system with the positive radial (x) axis, measured counterclockwise
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
cardioid : a plane curve traced by a point on the perimeter of a circle that is rolling around a fixed circle of the same radius; the equation of a cardioid isr=a(1+sinθ)r=a(1+sinθ)orr=a(1+cosθ)r=a(1+cosθ)
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
conic section : a conic section is any curve formed by the intersection of a plane with a cone of two nappes
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cusp : a pointed end or part where two curves meet
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cycloid : the curve traced by a point on the rim of a circular wheel as the wheel rolls along a straight line without slippage
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directrix : a directrix (plural: directrices) is a line used to construct and define a conic section; a parabola has one directrix; ellipses and hyperbolas have two
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discriminant : the value4AC−B2,4AC−B2,which is used to identify a conic when the equation contains a term involvingxy,xy,is called a discriminant
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
eccentricity : the eccentricity is defined as the distance from any point on the conic section to its focus divided by the perpendicular distance from that point to the nearest directrix
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
focal parameter : the focal parameter is the distance from a focus of a conic section to the nearest directrix
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
focus : a focus (plural: foci) is a point used to construct and define a conic section; a parabola has one focus; an ellipse and a hyperbola have two
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
general form : an equation of a conic section written as a general second-degree equation
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limaçon : the graph of the equationr=a+bsinθr=a+bsinθorr=a+bcosθ.r=a+bcosθ.Ifa=ba=bthen the graph is a cardioid
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major axis : the major axis of a conic section passes through the vertex in the case of a parabola or through the two vertices in the case of an ellipse or hyperbola; it is also an axis of symmetry of the conic; also called the transverse axis
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minor axis : the minor axis is perpendicular to the major axis and intersects the major axis at the center of the conic, or at the vertex in the case of the parabola; also called the conjugate axis
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
nappe : a nappe is one half of a double cone
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
orientation : the direction that a point moves on a graph as the parameter increases
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
parameter : an independent variable that bothxandydepend on in a parametric curve; usually represented by the variablet
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
parameterization of a curve : rewriting the equation of a curve defined by a functiony=f(x)y=f(x)as parametric equations
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
parametric curve : the graph of the parametric equationsx(t)x(t)andy(t)y(t)over an intervala≤t≤ba≤t≤bcombined with the equations
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
parametric equations : the equationsx=x(t)x=x(t)andy=y(t)y=y(t)that define a parametric curve
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
polar axis : the horizontal axis in the polar coordinate system corresponding tor≥0r≥0
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
polar coordinate system : a system for locating points in the plane. The coordinates arer,r,the radial coordinate, andθ,θ,the angular coordinate
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
polar equation : an equation or function relating the radial coordinate to the angular coordinate in the polar coordinate system
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
pole : the central point of the polar coordinate system, equivalent to the origin of a Cartesian system
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
radial coordinate : rrthe coordinate in the polar coordinate system that measures the distance from a point in the plane to the pole
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
rose : graph of the polar equationr=acos2θr=acos2θorr=asin2θr=asin2θfor a positive constanta
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
space-filling curve : a curve that completely occupies a two-dimensional subset of the real plane
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
standard form : an equation of a conic section showing its properties, such as location of the vertex or lengths of major and minor axes
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
vertex : a vertex is an extreme point on a conic section; a parabola has one vertex at its turning point. An ellipse has two vertices, one at each end of the major axis; a hyperbola has two vertices, one at the turning point of each branch
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-2/pages/7-key-terms
Parametric equations provide a convenient way to describe a curve. A parameter can represent time or some other meaningful quantity.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
It is often possible to eliminate the parameter in a parameterized curve to obtain a function or relation describing that curve.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
There is always more than one way to parameterize a curve.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
Parametric equations can describe complicated curves that are difficult or perhaps impossible to describe using rectangular coordinates.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The derivative of the parametrically defined curvex=x(t)x=x(t)andy=y(t)y=y(t)can be calculated using the formuladydx=y′(t)x′(t).dydx=y′(t)x′(t).Using the derivative, we can find the equation of a tangent line to a parametric curve.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The area between a parametric curve and thex-axis can be determined by using the formulaA=∫t1t2y(t)x′(t)dt.A=∫t1t2y(t)x′(t)dt.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The arc length of a parametric curve can be calculated by using the formulas=∫t1t2(dxdt)2+(dydt)2dt.s=∫t1t2(dxdt)2+(dydt)2dt.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The surface area of a volume of revolution revolved around thex-axis is given byS=2π∫aby(t)(x′(t))2+(y′(t))2dt.S=2π∫aby(t)(x′(t))2+(y′(t))2dt.If the curve is revolved around they-axis, then the formula isS=2π∫abx(t)(x′(t))2+(y′(t))2dt.S=2π∫abx(t)(x′(t))2+(y′(t))2dt.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The polar coordinate system provides an alternative way to locate points in the plane.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
Convert points between rectangular and polar coordinates using the formulasx=rcosθandy=rsinθx=rcosθandy=rsinθandr=x2+y2andtanθ=yx.r=x2+y2andtanθ=yx.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
To sketch a polar curve from a given polar function, make a table of values and take advantage of periodic properties.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
Use the conversion formulas to convert equations between rectangular and polar coordinates.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
Identify symmetry in polar curves, which can occur through the pole, the horizontal axis, or the vertical axis.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The area of a region in polar coordinates defined by the equationr=f(θ)r=f(θ)withα≤θ≤βα≤θ≤βis given by the integralA=12∫αβ[f(θ)]2dθ.A=12∫αβ[f(θ)]2dθ.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
To find the area between two curves in the polar coordinate system, first find the points of intersection, then subtract the corresponding areas.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The arc length of a polar curve defined by the equationr=f(θ)r=f(θ)withα≤θ≤βα≤θ≤βis given by the integralL=∫αβ[f(θ)]2+[f′(θ)]2dθ=∫αβr2+(drdθ)2dθ.L=∫αβ[f(θ)]2+[f′(θ)]2dθ=∫αβr2+(drdθ)2dθ.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The equation of a vertical parabola in standard form with given focus and directrix isy=14p(x−h)2+ky=14p(x−h)2+kwherepis the distance from the vertex to the focus and(h,k)(h,k)are the coordinates of the vertex.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The equation of a horizontal ellipse in standard form is(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1where the center has coordinates(h,k),(h,k),the major axis has length 2a,the minor axis has length 2b, and the coordinates of the foci are(h±c,k),(h±c,k),wherec2=a2−b2.c2=a2−b2.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The equation of a horizontal hyperbola in standard form is(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1where the center has coordinates(h,k),(h,k),the vertices are located at(h±a,k),(h±a,k),and the coordinates of the foci are(h±c,k),(h±c,k),wherec2=a2+b2.c2=a2+b2.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The eccentricity of an ellipse is less than 1, the eccentricity of a parabola is equal to 1, and the eccentricity of a hyperbola is greater than 1. The eccentricity of a circle is 0.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
The polar equation of a conic section with eccentricityeisr=ep1±ecosθr=ep1±ecosθorr=ep1±esinθ,r=ep1±esinθ,whereprepresents the focal parameter.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
To identify a conic generated by the equationAx2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0,Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0,first calculate the discriminantD=4AC−B2.D=4AC−B2.IfD>0D>0then the conic is an ellipse, ifD=0D=0then the conic is a parabola, and ifD<0D<0then the conic is a hyperbola.
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-concepts
d y d x = d y / d t d x / d t = y ′ ( t ) x ′ ( t ) d y d x = d y / d t d x / d t = y ′ ( t ) x ′ ( t )
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-equations
d 2 y d x 2 = d d x ( d y d x ) = ( d / d t ) ( d y / d x ) d x / d t d 2 y d x 2 = d d x ( d y d x ) = ( d / d t ) ( d y / d x ) d x / d t
https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-3/pages/1-key-equations