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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3ccf7cd75a88ba9404539a9ecef2a60f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/PDF/H032466.pdf","id":"-1152999907"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5a63a997-8e8b-4d4d-a992-32ed91ef0fa1","content":"gration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources.The publication in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modelling to experience with water user associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical and detailed empirical studies; others are wide ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and other collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwrni.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgement. oods and nature. In serving this mission, IWM1 concantra .The use of treadle pumps for irrigation in developing countries in Africa and Asia has greatly improved the potential for many smallholder farmers. However, it was initially felt that the treadle pump would have a limited market in South Africa. This was due to the vast differences found in South Africa in both the willingness to grow produce and the limited access to water resources, especially ground water. This theory was discarded after more in-depth research showed that treadle pumps could be used to transfer water from both open water sources and water captured from rainwater harvesting. Research also showed that the treadle pumps could greatly assist the rural poor of South Africa in terms of food security and poverty alleviation. This resulted in the development of a project to introduce treadle pumps into South Africa.The first two years of work was aimed at understanding the treadle pumps as much as possible. This involved importing d number of available units from developing countries in Africa and Asia and testing them to determine their suitability in South African conditions. These tests showed the need to redesign the pump according to South African circumstances. Most of the countries where successful introduction has taken place have a much wider availability of water. The water is usually very close to the point of use and the distribution of that water is the limiting factor. Due to the shallow water table, the pumps are merely used to access the ground water, and redistribute it around the fields. South Africa does not have a shallow water table. Open water sources are far more abundant here. However, many sources are incised in deep valleys or are some distance from the desired point of application and are therefore difficult to access. The heads and distances required for pumping are therefore much greater in South Africa.South Africa does, however, have a more convenient access to materials than other developing countries. This makes it possible to manufacture a pump out of standard, ready-made fittings, largely eliminating the problem of quality control that other countries face and allowing for rural based manufacture, Labour costs in South Africa are higher than other developing countries, and many of the steel pumps would be more expensive if manufactured and sold here. South Africa also has a wellestablished hardware trade and better roads, allowing for easier promotion, distribution and after sales service. Initial redesign took place towards the end of the second year of the project. The objective therefore of the third year was to develop this pump into a final prototype stage. This report presents the outcomes of this third year of the study. Results of the initial research can be found in Kedge, 2001. The report contains four sections.Chapter two is the technical work that took place to further develop the pump.Chapter three is an overview of the field evaluations that involved farmers evaluating the pumps in practical conditions. Chapter four presents the results of the rural manufacturing research. Lastly, the Appendix presents the raw data. Each chapter contains a discussion and conclusion section.A prototype treadle pump was designed at the end of 2001. The year 2002 saw this pump undergoing many changes as a result of laboratory and field testing.The process was slow, as it is with any new product. Problems would arise and be solved only to develop into new problems. The difficulty lay in the constant requirement for a low-cost product that still maintained a suitable quality. Anyone could design an ideal treadle pump if the end price is not a consideration. However, this would eliminate the exact end-user target market that the treadle pump technology is attempting to assist, the rural poor. The aim therefore became to settle for a product that was \"good enough\". Factors had to be constantly weighed up against each other and often ideal solutions had to be sacrificed for low-cost solutions. The intention was also to keep the design simple allowing for rural based manufacturing. it was felt that the initial design should centre around similar models that were introduced elsewhere, however, keeping in mind that additional pumps would be required to solve the majority of people's needs in South Africa. A high pressure pump for use in water supply and a high flow suction pump were also considered but were put on standby after it was found that too much time was being spent on those rather than completing the original model. It should also be mentioned here that while suction pumps can also give problems, they are generally a lot more forgiving than pressure pumps due to their operation. Therefore many things that might not provide serious problems with suction pumps require detailed development with a pressure pump. This chapter will present the design work that was carried out on the treadle pump. It will highlight the main challenges that arose and will present the results of laboratory tests carrled out on the pumps.The most challenging aspect of designing the treadte pump was keeping it in an affordable price bracket. Each component had to be carefully considered in otder to keep costs down, but still maintain quality. The intention was to use standard parts so that quality control would be kept to a minimum, in order to allow for local artisans to assemble the pumps, thereby keeping the back up senrice closer to the end user. All the pumps that were imported had been welded and required jigs for manufacture. South Africa could use standard parts due to their availability.The initial pump designed and built in South Africa was based on galvanized fittings. 8rass non-return valves obtainable at most cooperatives and irrigation stores were used. The frame was made of steel. While the pump operated well, it was decided that the valves and galvanized fittings were too expensive, and a cheaper solution was sought.The basic pump then developed has PVC cylinders and contains valves, which are fabricated from standard nylon reducers and rubber balls, T-pieces and elbows. The second pump consisted of the same pump section that is in place today, however, differed in the frame. A wooden frame made out of easily obtainable gum poles was thought to be cheaper, and more accessible for most rural people. However, the frame was large and bulky, and while it could still be an option for some people, it was decided to refine the frame and return to steel.Each component required close development to acquire an effectivefy operating pump. In order to keep costs down it was decided that \"good enough\" would suffice rather than \"perfection\". The following section presents the various components of a treadle pump. Experience gained is divided into: the lessons learnt from testing the imported pumps;the lessons learnt through the development and testing work that has been done on the South African design; problems faced and solved.The most significant result that came from testing the friction through the valves of the imported pumps was the importance of valve design on friction losses through the pump. A pump with small holes produced a friction loss through the vajves of about ten times greater than all the other pumps. This is a result of the smaller diameter holes through which the water must pass. The rubber flap valves of the other pressure pumps did not cause significant friction, however, they did not seal properly resulting in water from the outlet pipe flowing out of the cylinders when pumping stopped. It was therefore highiighted that the water requires sufficient space to pass through the valve, and that the valve must seal properly for a more efficient pump. All the pumps tested had valves that were part of the entire pump frame, and therefore required a fairly complex construction to fit them. This arrangement results in difficulties of accessing and replacing the rubber flaps on some of the pumps, as well as presents complications in manufacture, therefore increasing the need for quality control.In order to decrease the costs of the brass non-return valves used in the initial South African design, an attempt was made to use rubber flaps in conjunction with nylon reducers to make a valve. However, the rubber was difficult to attach and another solution was required. It was then decided to contrive a ball valve. A rubber ball, widely used as kids' play balls, of similar size to the outlet of the nylon reducer was found. It was necessary to prevent the ball from blocking off the outlet side of the valve, and a piece of wire was used. When tested, these valves produced very little friction as a result of the ball being free to move back and forth in the reducer, without needing to be forced open. This differs from the rubber flap valves of the imported pumps in that the flaps' natural position is closed, and they open as a result of the pumping stroke. The balls naturally float, opening the valve, and close as a result of the pumping stroke.This does, however, present a problem when priming the pump. The balls do not move when pumping begins if there is no water in the pump, as air will not cause them to move. It is therefore vital to pour water into the pump before pumping begins. This problem could be solved by mounting the suction side valves vertically. However, this would increase the height that the operator is above the ground. It would also be possible if a spring or a seat was attached inside the fitting, forcing the ball to close naturally. This would, however, complicate manufacture slightly, and add additional friction to open the valve.When the pump was tested against a high pressure tank, in order to see what pressure could be reached, a surprising result was that the ball valves were the first to give way, at 17 metres pressure head. Various tests showed that both pressure and suction side valves were forced into their fittings at this head, due to the direct head of the water on the pressure side, and the combination of the force of the operator pumping and the suction force on the suction side. This was overcome by sourcing slightly larger balls. Various balls, including marbles and squash balls, were tested by exposing them to sudden high heads, thereby simulating the treadling action. Tests showed, however, that the rubber balls sealed the best. Initially it was thought that the smaller balls could be used in a smaller sized fitting, but this did not work as they did not seal properly and vibrated against their seat when pumping began due to the force on the ball being exerted from all directions. As the balls only gave way at 17 m pressure head it was decided that they would be fine to use, with the limiting head of the pump set at 15 m. This proved not to work in practice, as the same result of the balls being pushed into their fittings occurred in the field due to the high friction in the 20 mm delivery pipe that was being used.The cylinder and piston mechanism is the heart of the pump and if not sized and fitted correctly would result in very poor operation of the pump, if any at all. This lesson was learnt from some of the imported pumps, where it was found that the piston cups were incorrectly sized and therefore did not seal against the cylinder walls, preventing a vacuum from being created. In one case, manufacturers imported rubber piston cups, and were totally dependant on the exact sire of the cups in the shipment that arrived. They then had to adjust the sire of the cylinders to accommodate the cups that were obtained, and this resulted again in poor quality pumps. This combination is particularly important for the pressure pump, as the water on top of the cylinders of the suction pumps provides a seal anyway, and the pump can therefore still operate.It appears that the shorter the piston stroke, the easier it is to maintain the seal of the pistons. This is because the treadles move in an arc, and it is therefore necessary to create an additional pivot point in order for the piston rods to still move vertically. Obviously, the shorter the piston stroke the less the treadtes move, the less the arc, and therefore less non-vertical movement occurs. One pump has a simple yet ingenious way of accounting for this arc movement. This involves a chain that rests on a rocker, which is set up so that the chain can only pull the rods vertically. However, this system lends itself to this pump, a completely steel unit, which requires precise welding. The pump also has larger diameter cyiinders than the majority of pumps, allowing for a shorter droke.Other pumps overcome this movement by cutting a slot in the treadles, which allows the piston rod to move in the slot, therefore still rising vertically. It was this simple mechanism that was adopted in the South African design, as it proved the least expensive and again \"good enough\" solution. However, it was still necessary to limit the piston stroke, in order for the rods to have as minimum movement as possible.The cylinders of the majority of the imported pumps are manufactured from rolled steel, which is welded in place. This again presents problems in quality control because if this seam is not smooth, the piston cups could be damaged or would wear quicker. The South African pump's cylinders are made from 110 mm, class 12, PVC pipe. This is readily available in South Africa, and overcomes the problem of rust and the welded seam. 110 mrn was chosen as' this size end cap is the easiest and cheapest to obtain. The end caps are attached to the cylinders using a strong PVC weld glue. They are then screwed into the pump section using a male threaded tank connector, which screws into a female %piece.4\" leather cups were initially used for the pistons because they had the tightest fit inside the cylinders. These leather cups are also a standard part available in South Africa and are used an windmills, Initially, 110 mm, class 9 PVC pipe was used because the piston cups fitted in easily when dry. However, when they were wet they became softer and increased the clearance between the cylinder walls. Class 12 pipe, with a slightly smaller inside diameter was then used and required the cups to be soaked and then formed inside the cylinders before they could be used. The leather cups caused endless problems in the field where operators did not keep them moist. This resulted in the cups drying out and shrinking and therefore not operating correctly. This prompted the change from leather to rubber piston cups. Unfortunately the rubber cups are not 8 standard part, however, no other solution could be found. Dunlop Rubber Company developed a mould based on the Enterprise Works pumps' rubber cups. The initial cups that were obtained had a very tight fit with the cylinders, and therefore resulted in a high friction. Rubber grease was then put on the cups, which improved things greatly. However, it was felt that having to use rubber grease in the field would be a weakness in the pump and Dunlop was again approached to redesign the mould. The second batch of rubber cups was based on cups obtained with the ApproTEC MoneyMaker Plus pump. These included more of a taper with the effect of decreasing the contact surface between the piston cups and cylinder walls. This new design reduced the friction greatly and the rubber grease was no longer required.The piston rods are made from gate hangers, again standard parts, and the piston cups are secured to the rods with steel discs and nuts. This allows for easy replacement once worn.The treadles serve two functions in a treadle pump. They provide a place for the operator to stand, and they link the frame to the pump mechanism. The majority of the imported pumps use wooden treadles, however, due to the lack of availability and the higher cost of suitable wood the South African unit makes use of steel treadles. The positioning of the treadles is very important in order to provide comfort for the operator and to therefore gain a greater ergonomic efficiency. The laboratory tests highlighted this, as well as the need for comfortable foot rests. A stroke length of about 180 mm at the foot rests, the height of an average step, proved the most comfortable. This has to be balanced with the positioning of the pivot point, the length of the treadle and the desired piston stroke length in order to obtain the greatest mechanical advantage. The end positioning of the treadles of one of the tested pumps, was lower than the pivot point, and this angle resulted in pain in the front of the ankles of the operator.The South African pump has a treadle length of 700 mrn. This was chosen in order to keep the pump compact. This length can comfortably reach 12 metres delivery head.The skeleton or frame of the treadle pump has very little influence on the actual operation of the pump. for this reason the frame can virtually be made out of any available materials, as was shown with the initial gum pole frame. However, in order to make the pump more compact, allowing for the possibility of \"kit\" distribution, a smaller steel frame was designed and built. This frame is held together by a combination of welding and bolts, and can be dismantled for easier distribution. The welding required for the frame is not complicated, and does not require the use of jigs.The shape of the frame does, however, affect the stability of the pump. It is thought that two sorts of frames will ultimately be used. The first will consist of the current steel frame, which is small and compact enough to carry home and store after use. However, this frame i s not very stable when placed on uneven ground, especially when the ground becomes wet, which inevitably happens around the pump. Therefore, it would require a level surface, either a concrete slab, concrete blocks placed in the ground or flat wooden planks. The second frame would consist of a more permanent set up for users who do not require the pump to be transported, either home or around the field. This frame could be made from concrete, and would require an actual pump installation. This innovation will likely develop once local people begin manufacturing and using the pumps, and therefore producing the frame as to their needs.The frame underwent many changes throughout the test period due to results from the field evaluations and the durability testing of the pump. The initial frame contained just the necessary parts and was adjusted for strengthenlng as time went by. The following figure shows the changes that were made. The pump initially underwent performance testing in the laboratory in qrder to determine the flow rates at various suction and pressure head combinations. The following table presents the results obtained from these tests. These performance tests were all carried out with the leather piston cups instead of the rubber. It is believed that better values would be obtained with rubber, however this still needs to be done.Table 1. Results from the performance tests.The pump was then also linked up to a pressure tank at zero suction head in order to determine the maximum pressure head that could be reached. The fairly averaged size operator started straining at about 30 m pressure and the frame also staried twisting quite a bit. However, it proved that a pressure head limit of about 12 m could be reached without any problems.The objective of the durability test phase of the pumps was not to determine the absolute life of the pump, as too many factors would influence this in the field, but rather to determine the relative life of the individual components against each other. The \"weak links\" in the design were sought. The test rig, designed and constructed by Anthony Amankrah of Fort Cox College of Agriculture and Forestry, mechanically simulates the manual foot operation of treadling at an optimum cadence of 60 strokes per minute (30 strokes per minute per cylinder).The rig replicates the alternate up and down push on the treadles from the connecting pump rod ends of a crank assembly of two Climax F104 single wheel hand pumps. The shafts from the two crank mechanisms supported in flange bearings are connected to a rigid coupling and each shaft is keyed at 180 degrees out of phase to each other. A 2.2 kW helical gear motor with output speed of 6Orpm drives a chain transmission, which operates the foot-treadling simulator. The pressure head was set at about 5 m throughout the tests and the suction head was zero.This test phase took place after the initial batch of rubber cups was received from Dunlop. As mentioned earlier these cups provided a high friction with the cylinders. They were then greased with motor grease in order to overcome this friction. Four pumps were tested on the test rig and each lasted about 24 hours before two of them broke at the position marked on the below diagram, and the other two's piston cups loosened on the piston rods. The grease appeared to wear away over this period and the pistons were very difficult to remove from the cylinders. Having discussed this later with the Dunlop representative, it was mentioned that motor grease in fact causes rubber to swell, hence the seizing of the pumps. Special rubber grease was then tried. The first pump lasted about 72 hours and then broke in the same place as before. The section that broke was then replaced with a stronger, 32 x 32 x 2 mm square tube. The pump then lasted about 106 hours and again broke in the same place. The next pump tested had the torsion strength adjustment that can be seen in figure 2. It also had the new rubber cups received from Dunlop. It lasted 480 hours. The frame still had not broken after this time, and the test was stupped as a result of a tiny crack that occurred in one of the PVC end caps. It was then decided to rest the end caps on thin rubber strips, rather than directiy on the steel in order to reduce the chance of cracking.  The main aim of the field evaluations that took place during the year 2002 was to evaluate the new treadle pump design whilst being used in practical situations. The pump required testing by farmers in order to view technical problems that might arise while being used in the field. A secondary objective was to view the applications of the pumps, how people would use them and if the design was suited to the requirements of the end user. Eleven sites were used in order to carry out these evaluations. This chapter presents a summary of the results obtained from the field evaluations. A more detailed look at the particular sites can be found in Appendix B in terms of lessons learnt, feed back gained and both successful and unsuccessful experiences. Figure 5 presents a map of South Africa showing the position of the sites.Figure 5. The sites used for the field evaluations of the treadle pumps.The intention behind the site selection for the fietd evaluation phase was to select sites that could be monitored by people working with the farmers and dealing with them daily. A few sites were also chosen as a result of interest showed by people working with communities. In hind site, it would have been better to select all the sites according to the interest shown by those involved, rather than asking extension officers to monitor something that they did ask for in the first place.The pump installation phase took time, as each site required a pre visit in order to determine its suitability and the quantities of piping required. The monitoring phase also took up a lot of time and each site was visited as often as was practically possible.There is a mixed feeling about the success of the field evaluations that took place in 2002. It is believed that the site selection was not done suitably. O f the 11 pumps that went out, five were used often by farmers, five were not and the remaining pump at site 4 is unclear to the extent of its use. 4t is interesting to note here that four of the five pumps that were not used were Department of Agriculture assisted gardens, where the extend involved stated that they did not feel that the gardens wouid still ope their input and assistance. It might therefore not be a reflection on the pumps that they were not used, but rather the people invofved.The most successful site was the garden situated at the homestead near Bureford. This was an ideal situation where water was available new th and the pump assisted the farmers to expand their garden. Ofher 8 sites were lnanda and the other Bureford site, where the farmers !eft the pumps in the gardens and therefore did not have to set it up and prime it everyday. On more than one occasion farmers mentioned that it was an effort to carry the pump and set it up at the garden everyday. This highlights a difference in South Africa where water is not readily available and therefore gardening is carried out in community gardens nearby water sources. Groups of women use these gardens to grow vegetables during the dry season, when they cannot grow them at their homesteads. They do not, however, all irrigate at the same time but rather when it suits each individual. Sharing a pump therefore becomes difficult in this situation. The farmers at the Riverside garden overcame this by taking advantage of their children on a Saturday morning by pumping all the drums full, which were then used throughout the week.Technical problems did arise throughout the evaluations, and suitable adjustments were incorporated into the design. Changing from leather to rubber piston cups was a major adjustment that took place as a resuft of the fieldwork.The farmers were not able to keep the leather permanently wet, and it was therefore decided to make this modification. It is still unclear whether the frame should be small and compact for easier transport, or whether a permanent installation would be better. It is believed that there will be a need for both types, depending on the specific site.None of the sites used the pump for anything else but irrigation. The applications usually involved filling up drums situated in the gardens. A few sites irrigated using a hosepipe and the Hazyview site filled drums for drip irrigation. The field evaluations did focus more on the technical aspects of the product, as that was the main objective. It is felt now that the design is finished, the applications side can be looked at in more depth. This will prompt redesign according of the people. This might include a high-pressure pump for water theory is correct that this is the priority for rural people.In conclusion, it is recommended that the site selection for future introduction work be carefully carried out. This initial phase can determine the failure of the product. Sites where people are motivated and hard are carrying out irrigation should be used. Sites where water is situated nearby a homestead are ideal, as would be the case where people are practicing rainwater harvesting. The initial intention when designing the kit treadle pump was to obtain a simple product that could be manufactured in rural areas. This would create a huge advantage when it came to future dissemination, as it would put the end user in close contact with the manufacturer. It would also cut out a number of roleplayers in-between that would potentially increase the cost of the pumps. It would create a new product for many manufacturers who are currently all manufacturing the same products, namely burglar guards, fences and gates. Rural manufacturing would also give the end users much more direct contact with the manufacturers which could then assist in providing spares and maintenance for the pumps. However, a number of disadvantages also follow this theory of rural manufacture, the most significant being the requirement for quality control. In order to keep this to a minimum it was decided that rural manufacturers would be supplied with kits containing all the required materials to manufacture the pumps. This would eliminate the possibility of incorrectly sized components or poor quality steel being purchased and used.Fannie MashaIn order to test the practicality of rural manufacture, which would be the first of its kind in the treadle pump sector, a small workshop was held with a group of selected manufacturers. This chapter presents the outcome of this workshop and reports on the pumps that were made by these manufacturers. It also contains a copy of the manual that would be rece.ived by future manufacturers along with the kits, if this direction is to be followed. It was initially unclear as to the types of manufacturing skills in the rural areas, as well as the level of machinery that can be found there. The aim of this phase of the research was to hold a workshop in order to train a few selected rural welders to manufacture the treadle pumps, as well as to learn more about their skills and their ability to make a satisfactory, quality product. Five participants were randomly selected by merely observing their signs outside their welding stores and stopping to talk and demonstrate the pump. The following table presents the details on the participants.The training workshop was held at the premises of Norman Mariri's welding shop in Jane Furse on the 21 November, 2002. It was a practical training session in which a pump was manufactured using the step-by-step guide. The participants were then each issued with a box kit containing all the components and materials to manufacture a pump. They also each received a manual, a copy of which can be found at the back of this report. The participants were then given a week to manufacture their own pump. These pumps were colfected the following week and brought back to the Institute for inspection and durability testing. A payment of W O O for labour costs was made to each participant.Figure 6. The welding shop where the workshop was held.The training workshop began with a short discussion on the plan for the day. Details of each participant were obtained and the manuafs were handed out. The PVC end caps were first glued onto the cylinders as the glue needed to dry while the pump was being made. The group then moved into the workshop to begin the training. The first step was to make the frame. All the components required to make the frame were taken out of the box and shown to the participants. The steel had already been cut to size and all the 20 mm holes and fhe slats in the treadles had already been drilled. This was because it was unclear before as to the extent of the machinery that would be available during the workshop.The pieces that required drilling (42.5 mm holes) were then set aside. Marin's welding shop had a drill press. It did not look as though it had been used before.The holes were then drilled, however this took a very long time. Perhaps the drill bits were blunt, or the drill was not strong enough. It showed that they woutd definitely not have been able to drill the 20 mm holes. This drilling and preparation phase took about an hour. The 8 mrn holes were not drilfell as they were not crucial to the pump's frame. The steps were then followed to manufacture the frame, The attendants appeared quite competent in their welding skills. The frame took about an hour to weld together. There was no workbench to work on so it was done on the floor. A sample pump was set up for the participants to view.Figure 9. final touches on the frame. Figure 10. The completed frame.The frame was set aside once it was completed in order to begin with the pump section. Again each component was taken out of the box and shown to the participants. The steps of the manual were followed. Care was taken to explain the importance of placing the balls in the correct place for the valves, and of Pump-Two additional attendants from the next-door welding shop also took part in the training session as they were interested, however, were not given kits to build. The workshop was finished at about 12 pm after which Norman provided lunch for the participants. Discussions were held about the pump and the kits were handed over. It was decided after much debate that the trainee pump would be left at Norman's shop if any of the attendants wanted to use it as an example. It was also decided that a week would be sufficient time for them to complete their pumps.   3.3.12 Weld one of the pieces of the 27 x 2 hollow tube onto the centre of the 250 mrn piece (J) on the same side as the two 20 mrn holes. 3.3.14 Complete the three bushes of clauses 3.3.12 and 3.3.13 by placing the 0 20 mm polyethylene pipe inside the 27 x 2 mrn hollow tube. Lubricate the pipe first with oil to make it easier to slide inside the tube and then hit the pipe inside with a hammer. Cut off the excess pieces of polyethylene pipe that protrude.Weld piece Q to the centre of piece R as shown to make a handle.   Make two pistons by placing the steel discs and the rubber piston cups onto the gate hangers and securing with nuts as shown in the diagram below. The 0 98 mm disc goes between the rubber cups with the 0 87 mm discs inside each rubber., L~ \"---have two options when building the kit treadle pump. They can either purchase their own materials, in which case they would be required to cut them to size and drill all the holes. They can also purchase a kit form of the pump, where by all the materials required to build the pumps are placed in a box. The steel has already been cut to size, and the machine work for the more complicated sections has already been completed. The following table presents the tools required to manufacture the pumps for the two different options. "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aa00fdb05ea4f14bf0ce53bbc22e7105","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/89253351-f44a-4607-9af5-3ca954d65836/content","id":"931745143"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bbcaac51-f699-4db4-9a07-6c8d270c8dd9","content":"Farmers inevitably make trade-offs when choosing which crop varieties to grow based on each variety's unique strengths (and weaknesses). This study uses choice experiment data from 1288 maize farmers from western Kenya and applies a mixed logit model to estimate willingness to sacrifice yield as an experimental devise to measure such trade-offs when farmers are called upon to chose varieties with varying levels of desirable agronomic or consumption traits. We find that men and women respondents had similar preferences for maize traits, but differed in the rate of tradeoffs between traits. Women respondents appeared to make larger yield sacrifices for tolerance to drought, Striga weed and good storability than men. Men showed higher willingness to sacrifice yield for closed tip. Implications for gender-sensitive maize breeding and seed market development are drawn.Maize remains the single most important staple for calorie nutrition and, in many cases, a source of cash income for many families in Kenya. Maize provides more than 30% of total dietary calorie intake and nearly 70% of daily pa capita cereal consumption. Moreover 85% of the population consumes at least some maize, confirming its ubiquitous consumption in the country (see Kariuki et al., 2020). By some estimates (FAO, 2008;Schroeder et al., 2013) the crop accounts for 20% of total agricultural production and 25% of employment. As a result, the maize crop provides a key barometer for food security in the country. The per capita annual consumption is variously estimated to be between 88 -103 kg (Short et al. 2012;Abate et al., 2015). In terms of aggregate consumption, there are recurring deficits in supply that have to be met by imports (Kariuki et al., 2020). As reported by Kariuki et al. (2020), maize deficits in Kenya are caused by low productivity growth (about 2%) compared to population growth of 3.5%. Moreover four million vulnerable Kenyans typically need food aid every year (with an estimated maize consumption of 114 kg/yr) as per a recent government publication (Republic of Kenya, 2019). For strategic food security reasons, the policy ambition is to reduce (or eliminate these imports) through increased productivity, with a stated potential of 157% yield increase (Republic of Kenya, 2019).Unfortunately, the productivity of maize in the country has been on a declining trend over time. Currently, maize yield potential stands at 6 t/ ha, yet only an average of 1.8 t/ha is realized (Njagi et al., 2017;Ouma et al., 2006). The decline in production is attributed to several factors, including low and inconsistent use of the most improved varieties, poor agronomic practices, and inappropriate fertilizer application. In efforts to ensure national maize supplies meet rising demand, a steady pipeline of new varieties is needed (Marechera et al., 2016). The aim is to maintain productivity through consistent genetic gains and to respond to emerging climatic and environmental stressors (Cairns et al., 2013). The Kenya national plant registry suggests that there are about 366 varieties registered in the country as of 2019 (KEPHIS, 2019). A study by Abate et al. (2015) estimated that the number of commercialized varieties in 13 African countries (including Kenya) was 500, suggesting an average of 38 commercialized varieties in each of the 13 countries. The apparent disjuncture between the large number of registered varieties and those that are commercially available suggests that while the breeding pipelines are robust, the commercialization and delivery parts of the seed systems are still left somewhat wanting. One reason can be that the development of new varieties is not sufficiently client-focused; therefore, many varieties fail to gain market share (Witcombe and Yadavendra, 2014).Three critical considerations should guide variety development: a) What varieties do farmers currently prefer, and what attributes/traits do these varieties possess? b) What new traits are being demanded by farmers (and other value chain actors) but are currently not available in the existing varieties? c) What trade-offs are farmers willing to make when confronted with a bundle of traits, given that no single variety can possess all desirable traits? Addressing these questions can guide improvement of the selection criteria by maize breeders to help them design and optimize market-driven and farmer-centered breeding programs. Products from such programs will likely have higher chances of being commercialized and gaining market share. This study was designed to contribute to the understanding of the key trade-offs farmers are willing to make in choosing varieties. This information is essential in informing breeding strategies regarding the minimum traits required in future varieties currently under development.The motivation for this research was to provide a farmers' lens to variety attribute prioritization. There are large investments by governments and development partners in maize breeding programs in Africa. At the same time, there are many on-shelf varieties with limited market share (as shown by the large numbers of registered varieties with only a fraction of those being actively commercialised). One of the problems may be lack of conformity of the new varieties with farmers' priorities. Yet this type of preference prioritization is often lacking. Moreover, these preferences need to be studied empirically if the necessary tradeoffs (prioritization) are to be identified. To the best of our knowledge ours is the first paper to conduct this empirical prioritization in the mid-altitude agro-ecozones of smallholder maize farming systems of western Kenya. Our paper attempts to fill this gap by conducting a multi-criteria choice experiment, typically used in market analysis to understand farmers priorities in chosing maize varieties. The aim is to contribute information that can help future breeding programs to produce new varieties that are consistent with the farmers' stated preferences and with better commercial potential, thereby avoiding the scenario where finished varieties stay on-shelf for many years.Several studies have previously explained farmers' preferences for attributes in different crop varieties. In Zimbabwe, Kassie et al. (2017) examined farmers' preferences and willingness to pay for drought tolerance in maize using choice experimental data. Their results showed that drought tolerance, grain yield, covered cob-tip, cob size, and semi-flint texture were the most preferred traits. For instance, farmers were willing to pay a premium for drought tolerance that was about three to seven times higher than all other attributes. Also, using choice experiment data, Asrat et al. (2010) found that farmers in Ethiopia were willing to forgo some income or yield to obtain more stable and environmentally adaptable crop varieties. Ward et al. (2013) reported that although farmers in India were willing to pay more for high yielding rice than local varieties in all conditions, they were willing to pay significant amounts for seeds that outperformed the local varieties under drought stress conditions even without yield advantages under normal circumstances. These findings emphasize that although the yield is an overarching attribute, in some instances, non-yield traits are equally or even more important to farmers when presented with a bundle of both yield and non-yield traits.To this end, most studies looking at trait preference and the associated willingness to pay using choice experimental data have used seed prices to assess the demand for selected traits (Kassie et al., 2017;Ward et al., 2013;Asrat et al., 2010). In the Kenyan market, maize seed prices are almost dictated by a single player-the Kenya Seed Company-which has about 80% market share (Smale and Olwande, 2011). In western Kenyan seed markets, different seed companies charge different prices but have a uniform price for all of the company's seed products. Various products from a seed company have specific trait combinations and unique strengths. However, seed pricing does not seem to be based on particular traits, but perhaps on inter-company market competition (Smale and Olwande, 2011).This paper, therefore, makes the following contributions to the literature on farmer-centered maize seed systems. First, we use a novel approach to explicitly determine the value farmers place on various attributes, using yield as a \"price\" variable. This is important due to the minimal seed price differentiation mentioned above. Given that seed prices are not based on trait variations, they do not accurately reflect the attribute choices that farmers make. Secondly, we use a genderdisaggregated data set that elicits choice responses from individual men and women within the household. It is well known that intrahousehold differences in resources, ability to make choices (agency), and similar factors constitute the bulk of gender issues in agricultural development. Thirdly, we combine stated choice and bid auction methods to improve the data on maize variety choices by supplementing the choice experiment data with an auction method that is more incentive compatible. This study improves on existing studies that tend to rely only on preference voting (ranking), typical in participatory variety evaluation but devoid of means to enable farmers to make trade-offs in the choice process. To the best of our knowledge, ours is the only paper that uses the two methods in maize variety choice.The rest of this paper is organized as follows. The next section outlines the data sources and the methods used in this study. The methods section includes descriptions of the choice experiments and the auction procedures. The methods section ends with a discussion of the econometric strategies. The methods section is followed by a presentation of the key results, discussed from multiple angles. A final section concludes by summarizing this study with key take-away messages.The data used in this paper came from personalized interviews involving the administration of a choice experiment (CE) and auction bids, as explained in the next sub-section. Moreover, a structured questionnaire was administered to each participant to collect data on demographic and farm characteristics. The selection of the households was done using a three-stage sampling technique, combining purposive and random sampling. The first stage involved the selection of counties and sub-counties where a CGIAR/CIMMYT-led consortium implemented the Stress Tolerant Maize for Africa project from 2016-2020 (and later the Accelerating Genetic Gains in Maize and Wheat project from May 2020 onwards). Both projects were meant to inrease the supply of stresstolerant maize varieties for resource-limited smallholder maize-growing regions of west, eastern and southern Africa. For the purporses of this study, the locations chosen were those dominated by small-scale farmers in mid-altitude ecological zones in western Kenya. The counties chosen were Busia (Matayos and Butula sub-counties), Kakamega (Mumias East and Butula sub-counties) and Siaya (Gem and Ugenya sub-counties). The second stage procedure involved the selection of villages within these project zones. The number of villages were selected using a sampling design that made explicit use of the population-in particular, \"the probability proportional to size (PPS)\" sample design 1 . Therefore, the larger sub-counties was assigned two to three villages, while the rest were assigned one village each. In each sub-county, the next administrative unit was the ward. One ward was randomly selected based on the predominance of maize in those wards. The selection of villages to include in the study was also done randomly from the entire list of 1 Probability proportional to size (PPS) is a method of sampling from a finite population in which a size measure is available for each population unit before sampling and where the probability of selecting a unit is proportional to its size. Its use arises in two particular contexts: (i) multi-stage sampling and (ii) singlestage sampling of establishments.villages in a county. Randomization was also used in the final stage to select 40 households from each randomly selected village. Based on this procedure, a total of 719 households (40 households per village) were selected from the three counties, six sub-counties, and 18 villages. In each household, efforts were made to administer the CE to two adult members of the household, typically the husband (or typically a man, with 53% of households being male-headed). Therefore, a total of 1288 respondents participated in the survey: 53% being household heads, 33% being spouses, and 14% being other household members. Sampled counties, sub-counties, wards, as well as the number of villages and households are presented in Table 1 below. The structured questionnaire elicited information from respondents on aspects such as household demographics, education, household occupations, marital status, relationship to the household head, ownership of assets, and intra-household maize variety decision making (see Table 2).The descriptive statistics presented in Table 2 show that the respondents were roughly equally distributed between the three CEs. In the four experiments, 43-45% of the respondents were household heads. On average, 51-56% of the respondents were aged below 35 years, while less than 30% had post-primary education. Most households were located less than 4 km from the nearest trading centers, implying that these households are generally closer to markets. As expected, a majority of the respondents (more than 67%) rely on agriculture as their primary occupation, which is typical for most rural families in Kenya. Note that the share of household heads is lower than the 80% or higher that is typically observed in western Kenya or the eastern and southern Africa region (Laiglesia and Morrisson, 2008). When we just count the number of families headed by mean in our data it was 67%. This is because we interviewed multiple respondents within the same household. This approach (of interviewing men and women within the same household) is consistent with the most recent understanding of gender issues. Capturing data from both men and women within the household generates true intra-household sex-disaggregated data suitable for gender analysis (Doss et al., 2018;Peterman, 2011). This important because as Doss et al. (2018) shows, the vast majority of women live in dual adult households and therefore the bulk of gender issues starts with women in these (typically male-headed) households.A discrete CE was conducted to generate data on maize variety preferences. Specifically, the CE required participants to choose one of two varieties in ways that would compel them to make trade-offs-an improvement over other ranking methods such as contingent valuation (Fonta et al., 2018;Hynes et al., 2011;Bennett and Adamowicz, 2001). Choice experiments have been applied in diverse fields such as choice of modes of transportation (Hensher et al., 2005), health (Hole and Kolstad, 2012), marketing (Feit et al., 2010;Louviere et al., 2010;Louviere and Woodworth, 1983), and environmental economics (Veettil et al., 2011). More recently, CEs have been applied in agricultural value chains to evaluate the demand for nutritious foods and food safety (Wanyama et al., 2019;Ortega et al., 2011), preferences for crop traits (Kassie et al., 2017;Ward et al., 2013;Asrat et al., 2010), preferences for weather index insurance products (Sibiko et al., 2018), and the design of sustainability standards (Meemken et al., 2017). Others include system characteristics such as product marketing options and supply chain differentiation (Ochieng et al., 2017;Schipmann and Qaim, 2011), and input support policy preferences (Marenya et al., 2014).While the CEs provide thought experiments that allow participants to make trade-offs in their choices, willingness to pay using hypothetical valuation mechanisms such as CEs can still result in hypothetical bias because the actual choice does not involve any real cost (Murphy et al., 2005;Little and Berrens, 2004). However, using incentive-compatible mechanisms like the Vickrey, random n th price auction, or Becker-DeGroot-Marschack (BDM) frameworks can reduce such biases (Lusk and Shogren, 2007;Vickrey, 1961;Becker et al., 1964). For robustness check, we also conducted an auction experiment following the BDM framework. The advantage of the BDM framework is its simplicity and convenience for use in a wide range of field situations, thus increasing the external validity of estimates, albeit with some loss of accuracy compared to more complicated incentive-compatible methods (Lusk and Rousu, 2006;Noussair et al., 2004).To reduce the complexity of the CEs, we designed four separate experiments in which three were CEs, and one was an auction experiment in the manner of the BDM framework. In each household, the CEs and BDMs were conducted separately with both the household head and the spouse, unless there was only one adult responsible for maize production, in which case only one member (typically the household head) was interviewed. Each household was assigned randomly to one of the four (three CEs and one BDM) experiments using an excel random number generator. To minimize biases, the BDM procedure was further divided into two sub-categories (low-to-high and high-to-low). To generate the CE sessions, we used a statistical D-efficient design using the Ngene software (ChoiceMetrics, 2012). Table 3 shows the sample distribution among the four experiments. The traits and trait levels used for the CEs are described in Table 4 below.Prior to the implementation of the field surveys, this study was reviewed and cleared by the Institutional Research Ethics Committee (IREC) at the lead author's institution. The IREC is responsible for research ethics review and compliance monitoring. The questionnaires and the choice experiment and BDM questions were sent to IREC and were deemed as being \"...regular household attitude and opinion elicitation. Nevertheless, the research is extremely benign and there is no danger whatsoever of putting the respondents in harm's way. The proposal is clear on how they will handle the data...\" Each questionnaire was designed in a computer assisted personal interview (CAPI) program to ensure that the interview did not start until a verbal consent was given. The CAPI program was designed to bring up the consent statement by default and only after entering the respondents consent, would the skip pattern allow the interviewer to open the question modules. To safeguard the right of the respondent the consent statement made it clear that the respondent had a right to stop the interview at any stage, request the data to be expunged and they were not required to explain the reason for terminating the interview. This study was conducted in liaison with the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization and complied with research regulations and protocols in Kenya.Choice experiments are grounded in Lancaster's consumer choice theory, which suggests that utility is derived from the underlying char-acteristics or attributes of a good (Louviere et al., 2000) and that consumer behaviour can be cast in the Random Utility (RUT) framework as in Thurstone (1927), McFadden (1973), and Adamowicz et al. (1998). In the present study, farmers were presented with two stylized maize varieties with different attribute bundles at each choice scenario. In general terms, for the farmer faced with J varieties, the utility of variety j is U ij . By choosing j, we assume that U ij is the maximum among the J utilities. Hence, the statistical model is driven by the probability that variety j is chosen:Following the random utility reasoning, farmers' utility for a particular maize variety is modeled as follows:In Eq. ( 1), where V ij is the explainable component of the utility of maize variety j for farmer i, and ε ij is the random component of the utility function. Let Y i be a random variable that indicates the choice made. Given a choice between alternatives j and k, the probability that farmer i chooses alternative j is such thatThe utility U ij therefore depends on the attributes of the variety j, and farmer i 0 s individual characteristics. Assuming x is a vector of farmer characteristics, and z is a vector of characteristics of the alternatives, it follows (in Eq. ( 2))where β and α are the corresponding vectors of parameters to be estimated. A The proportion of families headed by men was 67% in this sample.Discrete choice models have often used multinomial logit (MNL) and conditional logit (CL) models (Hensher and Greene, 2003;McFadden and Train, 2000;Hoffman and Duncan, 1988;McFadden, 1973). The basic notion is a probability distribution function of the maximum of a series of random variables (Gumbel, 1958). The MNL focuses on the individual as the unit of analysis and uses the individual's characteristics as explanatory variables, while CL focuses on the choice alternatives, which are used as explanatory variables (Hoffman and Duncan, 1988). These models can be specified as follows:where in Eq. (3) X represents the characteristics of individual i, and in Eq. ( 4), Z ij are the characteristics of alternative j for individual i, while β and α are the corresponding vectors of parameters that represent the influence of individual and attribute characteristics. The specification of the MNL and CL models require that the unobserved effects are independently and identically distributed (IID) across the alternatives in the choice set, according to the extreme type 1 distribution. This assumption results in a more rigid property of \"independence from irrelevant alternatives\" (IIA) (Hoffman and Duncan, 1988;Ben-Akiva and Bierlaire, 1999). The IIA property assumes that everybody in the population has a homogeneous preference structure, and therefore restricts the β 0 s to be the same for all members of the population (Holmes and Adamowicz, 2003). That is, given ε ij for all i, j, the probability that a given individual i chooses alternative j within the choice set S i is given in Eq. ( 5) below asIn this paper, we use the mixed logit model (MIXL) (also known as the yy All the 10 traits were also used in the BDM auctions.random parameters model), now common in estimating choice data (Hall et al., 2004;Hole, 2007;Hensher et al., 2005). Unlike standard logit models, MIXL allows for random taste variations, unrestricted substitution patterns, and correlations in unobserved factors that relax the IIA assumption (Campbell et al., 2006;Train, 2009;McFadden and Train, 2000). Therefore, we use the MIXL to understand farmers' preferences for selected maize variety traits. In Eq. ( 6) below, the MIXL, the utility derived by farmer i from choosing maize variety j on choice occasion t is given bywhere β is the vector of mean attribute utility weights in the population, and η i is the vector representing person i 0 s specific deviation from the mean. The random error term ε ijt is still assumed to be an IID extreme value. Following McFadden and Train (2000), the η i can be specified to take any distribution: normal, log-normal, or triangular.Although most applications use the multivariate normal, MVN (0, Ʃ), the price coefficient is sometimes assumed to be log-normal to impose an intuitive sign restriction (Fiebig et al., 2010;Train, 2009). Note that in our case, we replace the price variable with yield.Assuming that most farmers prefer to maximize yield, we then look at the amount of yield that farmers may be willing to \"sacrifice\" to obtain other non-yield traits, where such trade-offs are warranted. Yield therefore constitutes the basic numeraire against which other varietal traits can be evaluated. We therefore use a fixed coefficient for yield while assuming preference heterogeneity across respondents for the non-yield attributes. The use of yield as a cost variable can also be found in Silberg et al. (2020) and their reasoning is that yield is the key measure of food security (and therefore maize choice decisions) and maize grain can constitute a form of exchange in rural communities. In the absence of a correlation between the attributes, in Eq. ( 7), the MIXL model takes the following form:where Y is a binary decision variable that takes the value of 1 if farmer i chooses variety j in choice scenario t, and 0 otherwise. Here Q is the yield attribute, which was used in place of the commonly-used price variable, while Z is a vector of other non-yield maize variety attributes. The non-yield traits included time to maturity, shelf-life (storability), grain size, tip cover, grain weight, top-dressing requirements, drought tolerance, lodging resistance, and Striga resistance. A positive coefficient for γ and α implies a positive influence of yield and nonyield variety attributes on the selection of a particular variety. Estimation of Eq. ( 7) gives the mean of the coefficient and its standard deviation around the mean. Preference heterogeneity is considered to be present if the standard deviation is statistically significant. Therefore, we extend Eqs. ( 7) and ( 8) below by including interaction terms to understand better the role of socioeconomic factors in influencing farmers' preferences:where x is a vector of socioeconomic characteristics including the age and education level of the respondent, size of land under maize crop, and primary occupation of the household head. Estimation of Eqs. ( 7) and ( 8) follow the simulated maximum likelihood method as described by Hole (2007).The estimates obtained from the two equations are used to compute the willingness to pay for the selected attributes. Given that we use yield as the numeraire for evaluating the selected traits, we calculate the willingness to \"sacrifice\" yield (WTSY) as a measure of value for the other non-yield attributes. We estimate the WTSY (Eq. ( 9)) in a manner analogous to WTP (see Hole and Kolstad, 2012): γ is unitless, measuring the \"rate of trade\" between the traits by a respondent as explained by her preferences.In addition to the WTSY estimates obtained from the MIXL regressions, we also computed the WTSY using data from the BDM experiments. Mean values obtained from the difference between the starting points and the switch points (WTSY) for each attribute are presented in the results sections that follow.Table 5 presents results for the WTSY disaggregated by sex (with interaction terms to take care of taste heterogeneity, the essence of the MIXL model), location, age, education, and the income source of the respondent (without interactions). The patterns being that any trait related to pre or post-harvest loss such as drought tolerance, Striga tolerance, and storability have the largest WTSY. Among women, the WTSY for drought tolerance, Striga tolerance, and storability respectively were nominally 1.7, 1.9 and 3.6 times that of male participants. The disaggregated model shows that the WTSY estimates changed when Table 6. Comparison of WTSY for between male and female respondents-BDM data. The asterixes ***, ** and * means that the differences are (respectively) significant at: p < 0.01, p < 0.05, and p < 0.1.demographic controls are accounted for in the MIXL model 2 . The largest increase in WTSY was for the closed tip and low top-dressing requirement in the male subsample-from 7.6 and 3.1 in the sex-disaggregated models with no interaction terms, increasing to about 61 in both cases 3 .The BDM results (Table 6) show that the WTSY estimates among female and male participants were statistically indistinguishable. This is unsurprising because the basic notions of a good variety such as drought tolerance, high yield and good grain qualities should be universally desirable among men and women. The CE results (having accounted for heterogeneity from the MIXL model) show noticeable differences between men and women (Table 7). Therefore, while both men and women want the same things in their maize varieties, women seem to be willing to make slightly larger yield sacrifices in favor of tolerance to drought and Striga as well as for good storability 4 .We carried out pairwise tests for the WTSY differences from the CE results. This was to test if the implied relative WTSY between traits were significant (Table 7). The pairwise comparisons show that the differences in WTSY between men and women were nearly all significant at the 5% confidence level. The only exception was the difference in WTSY for large grain sizes, where the difference between men and women was not significant. While these within-trait comparisons can only be made within experimental groups, they show that farmers placed a higher value on storability when compared to grain size or early maturity. The closed tip had a significantly higher WTSY than heavy grain or high nitrogen use efficiency (as perceived by low top-dressing requirement). The preference for heavy grains was slightly higher than that for nitrogen use efficiency. When compared with lodging resistance, Striga tolerance had a higher WTSY. Drought tolerance had a higher WTSY than lodging or Striga resistance.In summary, taken together, the WTSY results in Tables 5, 6, and 7 show that among both men and women, WTSY for storability was nominally higher than that of drought tolerance. We say nominal because no pairwise comparison is possible, having included the two traits in two different experiments. Compared to men, women's willingness to sacrifice yield for storability was three times higher. Women also valued storability-about six times more than 90-day maturity. Men seemed to place a higher value on the closed tip (seven times) than women. On the contrary, women valued drought tolerance and Striga resistance twice more than male farmers.This study used an innovative measure of willingness to pay for maize traits-willingness to sacrifice yield (WTSY). By using demographic and choice experiment data from 1,288 respondents in mid-altitude maize growing areas of western Kenya and applying a mixed logit model to these data, the findings show that stress tolerance traits (against drought and Striga weed) have large WTSY and that characteristics related to storability also had comparable (and sometimes higher) WTSY. The results suggest that maize varieties with good storability (which is related to the flint type of gain) are highly valued. The WTSY for storability was nominally higher than that of drought tolerance, suggesting that grain characteristics that impart storability are prioritized by farmers. However, female farmers placed a higher value on storability (3.6 times) than males. Female farmers also valued storability about five times more than 90-day maturity. Male farmers, however, placed a much higher value on the closed tip-10 times more than female farmers. On the contrary, female farmers valued drought tolerance and Striga resistance twice more than male farmers. Among male farmers, closed tip and low top-dressing requirements were evaluated nearly equally. Low-top dressing requirement was valued about 20 times higher among male farmers than females.For breeding research programs, these results suggest that maize genetic improvement programs should continue to focus on breeding for drought and Striga tolerance and, by implication, other biotic and abiotic stressors. Additionally, traits that relate to grain characteristics that impart better storability should be key in breeding research programs. These results imply that unless the risks of storage or pre-harvest losses are reduced or eliminated, the value of high yielding varieties can be diminished if they are susceptible to production stresses or the grain characteristics make them susceptible to storage pests. Therefore, for value chains development, the high value placed on storability suggests that investing in post-harvest technologies is an important development aspect. In future, stress tolerant and high yielding but somewhat lowstorabilty varieties can still contribute to food security because they could still be acceptable to farmers if adavanced grain storage technologies are readily available. For policy departments responsible for maize breeding, we suggest that multi-criteria evaluations of new varieties be used to ensure that complementary stress tolerant traits and storability concerns are given optimal weighting in variety release criteria. Additionally, this information should be fed back to breeding programs in national institutes responsible for maize genetic improvement.the model without interactions) to 2.5 in the model with interaction terms. The impact of interaction terms is also visible for WTSY for drought tolerance and Striga resistance traits where the WTSY increased in the female subsample when interaction terms are included (see Table S3 in the Supplementary material for WTSY between men and women when demographic interactions are not accounted for).3 This large WTSY is an artefact of the very low MIXL coefficient estimates for experiment B (disaggregated by sex and with interaction terms) where the two traits were featured. We take the low yield coefficient in this model with caution as we are not able to explain the exact interaction effects that produced it. In the final analysis we judge that the lower WTSY as estimated in the other models are more conservative and therefore reliable. 4 These results are in line with the above literature to capture the preferences of women since the notion of a single preference (utility function) within the household is not defensible (Alderman et al., 1995;Browning and Chiappori 1998;Udry 1996). "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d8272eade02bbd4ea7965f40c13b130","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4221d021-a1ec-4ddc-adca-d195323e75e3/retrieve","id":"1168862961"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ad383a6e-9dd2-4859-a2f7-a0c93a2af5f7","content":"Article 4.19 as read with Article 2.1(c), Article 4.1 and 4.4 of the Paris Agreement and decision 1/CP.21 paragraph 35, invites countries to formulate and communicate to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Secretariat their respective \"Mid-century long-term low GHG emissions climate resilient development strategies (Economy-wide LTS) by 2020\". Such a long-term strategywill set out a visionary agenda -providing political certainty for bold, concrete actions while helping to inform near-and long-term investments that spur sustainable economic and social transformation. A country's LTS has a great potential to guide it on a path to a climate resilient development pathway. This also contributes to the collective global response of limiting warming to 1.5 -2 ºC by the end of the century through low-carbon green growth in critical sectors. The COP26 through its Glasgow Climate Pact recognized the importance of developing and aligning NDCs with the long term low emissions and climate resilient development strategies (LTS) and reaching net zero emissions by around mid-century.The right data at the right timeGood data are key to good long-term strategy Ghana embarked on a journey of developing its Agriculture Sector Low Term Low Emissions and Climate Resilient Development Pathways (Agriculture LTS) aimed at facilitating the country's transformation to a green economy by prioritising adaptation and mitigation actions that increase agricultural productivity and build climate resilience of the agricultural and food systems while reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity in the agriculture sector. The development of the Agriculture LTS that shows when emissions will be peaking is a proactive step in setting the country on a trajectory that transform her agriculture sector in a way that increases agricultural productivity and builds climate resilience while reducing emissions intensity in the sector. The Agriculture LTS provides the enabling framework for local and national stakeholders to identify development strategies and actions suitable for growth in a changing climate.The analysis contained in the Agriculture LTS was made possible by a wealth of data maintained by Ghana's Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) and other agencies. A team of experts downscaled regional climate models (RCMs), used historical weather data from the Ghana Meteorological Agency and ran crop models using the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) program. MoFA provided crops and livestock data (collected annually by the Statistics Directorate within MoFA) that were available for a 30-year period . Information such as growth periods, soil moisture and variety names ensured that the DSSAT program returned accurate results.The success of the Agriculture LTS preparation and its soundness was a result of available data shared between agencies. Within MoFA, different offices coordinated and provided necessary information. More broadly, the Ghana Meteorological Agency and the Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute supported data collection and analysis. There were some challenges faced, including a lack of meta-data that required a time-consuming process of going back to the source of the data to gather key information needed for its use.Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank.Explore our work at aiccra.cgiar.org.Ghana's investment in agricultural data collection over several decades has resulted in evidence-informed policies and strategies.For those countries who do not currently have that level of evidence available, three lessons emerge:1. Data may be available from agencies and institutions outside one's own ministry. Forging collaborations with appropriate university departments and other agencies in the country to seek out relevant sources of data-and the willingness to share such datacan aid in good policy formulation.Investments in good statistical data collection pay off. MoFA's available information on sowing dates, fertilizer application and more allowed for more accurate crop modelling and therefore better strategy development.census and in collecting the relevant agriculture sector information is critical."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fa5aef0df68682aca272f0338d5b7934","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ddaa7b4-ce48-446c-8535-c5d45fa5ac90/retrieve","id":"-1781079161"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5c41b76e-37f5-4307-a4f2-f4f5c39abd1e","content":"Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) remains one of the most important livestock diseases of the world, given its highly infectious nature, its broad economic impacts on animal wellbeing and productivity, and its implications for successful access to domestic and export markets for livestock and products. The impacts of the disease vary markedly between developed and developing countries, and also within many developing countries. These differences in impact shape some markedly heterogeneous incentives for FMD control and eradication, which become of particular importance when setting priorities for poverty reduction in developing countries. Some consider that the benefits from FMD control accrue only to the better off in such societies and, as such, may not be a priority for investments targeted at poverty reduction. But is that view justified? Others see the control of FMD as a major development opportunity in a globalised environment. In this paper, Brian Perry and Karl Rich summarise the differential impacts of FMD and its control, and link these findings with the growing understanding of how the control of this globally important disease may contribute to the processes of pro-poor growth in certain countries of the developing world.B. D. Perry, K. M. Rich THE mention of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) provokes different reactions in different people (see, for example, Kitching and others 2006). Despite differences in opinion on control strategies, the actual and estimated economic impact on developed markets such as the UK (£3•1 billion to agriculture and food products during the 2001 outbreak) and USA (projected losses of US $40 billion), respectively, provide incentives to eradicate the disease as quickly and efficiently as possible (Ekboir 1999, Thompson andothers 2002, USDA-APHIS, unpublished data).However, the impacts of FMD in different countries vary, and although the disease was ranked within the top 10 diseases constraining poverty alleviation in developing countries in a study by Perry and others (2002b), attitudes towards the disease depend on the perceptions of the incentives and priorities for its control and eradication, which may differ significantly even to people in the same country. While FMD affects the clinical wellbeing of most susceptible livestock and the food-producing performance of higher-producing animals, it is not a killer disease, and there is a wide variation in the morbidity that it causes. Indeed, the direct impacts of the disease on some indigenous livestock production systems in the developing world are low. As a result, the demands for its control or eradication are complicated by the presence of other competing animal disease constraints with a higher direct impact on livestock enterprises, and by competition for the financial resources and infrastructure necessary to control the disease.These factors have contributed to a perception that FMD may not be a priority when it comes to investing in poverty reduction. Is that view justified? In the authors' opinion, FMD control can be an important component of poverty reduction strategies for livestock enterprises of many -but not all -developing countries, depending on the competitive advantage held by the country in livestock resources, on the potential for engagement in export markets for livestock products, on the role of livestock in livelihoods, and on the importance of FMD relative to other diseases. This view is driven by an interpretation of how freedom from FMD in certain settings can contribute to 'pro-poor growth' (see, for example, Ravallion 2004, Fuentes 2005). Some have questioned the direct benefits of FMD control to poorer sectors of society (see, for example, Scoones and Woolmer 2006), and thus the investment this requires. This Viewpoint article reviews the direct and indirect impacts of FMD and its con-trol in the different regions and production systems of the developing world, and links these findings with the growing understanding of how its control may, or may not, contribute to processes of poverty reduction.FMD is widely distributed in the developing world, in particular Africa, South America, south Asia, south-east Asia and east Asia, regions of the world that support 75 per cent of the world's poor (Thornton and others 2002). The lack of infrastructure, human resources and movement controls in many developing countries render them particularly vulnerable to the spread and poor control of the disease. Livestock form an integral component of the livelihoods of the poor (Livestock In Development 1999, Perry andothers 2002b). Many poor livestock keepers in affected regions traditionally try to reduce their vulnerability to shocks by keeping several livestock species, most of which are susceptible to FMD infection. The disease thus provides a continuous burden to the livestock enterprises of the developing world and a continuing risk to the livestock industries of the developed world. This represents both a challenge and an opportunity for developing countries, as the standards required to gain access to these developed livestock commodity markets are extremely high, costly to achieve, and difficult to accomplish. On the other hand, the rewards, in terms of the much higher prices attainable for their products, are exceptional. In Asia, particularly, the growing demand for livestock products provides an opportunity for small-scale producers to access new markets for their livestock commodities (Delgado andothers 1999, Gulati andothers 2005).The impacts of FMD are illustrated in Fig 1 . These impacts vary considerably in the different production systems of the developing world, depending on the species involved, the genotype of animal, the level of productivity, the significance of livestock to livelihoods, and the effectiveness of indigenous coping mechanisms for controlling the effects of FMD (see, for example, Anon 1984, Catley andothers 2004, Barasa andothers 2005). In many African and Asian smallholder subsistence settings, impacts are more related to livelihoods and vulnerability than kilograms of weight gained or milk produced. Perry and others (2002a), for example, reported the multiple impacts on smallholder communities in southern Laos of an epidemic of FMD, which affected several species kept by them, including buffaloes, cattle, pigs and small rumin ants. Even if no outbreaks occur, the risk of FMD has an impact on livestock keepers and the wider society, through the requirement for preventive measures and the way that confidence in the success of these measures determines access to markets. From a current global perspective, the risk of FMD has a much greater impact than the disease itself (Perry and Randolph 2003).Achieving the first goal of the Millennium Development Goals -to reduce poverty by half by the year 2015 -will require sustained growth by developing countries, and much emphasis has been placed on the importance of economic growth in the processes of poverty reduction. However, it is increasingly acknowledged that growth by itself is not sufficient, and effective distribution of the benefits of growth is also critical. Bourguignon (2004) ascertained that a 1 per cent decrease in poverty can be achieved via a certain growth rate, or by a certain decrease in inequality. This has led to the much-used phrase of 'pro-poor growth', defined simply as 'growth that is good for the poor' . At the same time, poverty reduction is a complex process, with no single 'silver bullet' solution. The complexities include the need for action at many levels, ranging from national-level policies that pro-mote economic growth and equity, down to infrastructure development and technological innovations targeted at the priorities of the rural farmer.The policy division of the Department for International Development (DFID) in the UK has developed a very useful framework for evaluating how 'in tune' strategies for poverty reduction might be (DFID 2004). Here, this has been used as a tool to assess the poverty reduction implications of FMD control, given the differential importance of livestock in the livelihoods of the poor in developing countries. DFID (2004) sets out four broad conditions ('pillars') for accelerating propoor growth:• creating strong incentives for investment;• fostering international economic links; • providing broad access to assets and markets;• reducing risk and vulnerability.Table 1 highlights the relationships between these broad conditions for pro-poor growth and FMD control. As noted in the table, FMD control can contribute in many, but not all, settings to the process of pro-poor growth. For exportoriented producers, these benefits are clear in terms of better access to foreign markets and higher prices, but less obvious impacts include the economic growth created in downstream industries and additional employment for the poor in manufacturing and service industries. In more traditional settings, there are potential impacts on livelihood and market access from improved FMD control that could reduce the vulnerability of producers, although the magnitude of such impacts The Veterinary Record, February 17, 2007 will depend on the type of production system and level of market integration of such producers. Combined, the table demonstrates the different dimensions by which FMD control could contribute to pro-poor growth, although the magnitude and importance of certain conditions will differ widely by country and production system.Based on these concepts, Fig 2 presents both the conditions for pro-poor growth and the different elements of FMD control as a hierarchy. Certain conditions and control strategies are a precondition for more complex elements of propoor growth. For instance, linkages to international markets require the reduction of risk and vulnerability in a population, and then greater access to domestic markets. Likewise, complex certification programmes require a fundamental grounding in more basic veterinary services to be effective.The framework in Fig 2 also illustrates the dynamics of the process of pro-poor growth itself and the role played by FMD control. Policies that reduce risk and vulnerability not only generate pro-poor growth but also initiate a process by which the benefits to conditions further up the hierarchy also rise, further stimulating economic growth. Thus, due to the pro-poor growth created by reducing risk in a production system, the perceived benefits of policies that improve access to markets increase as well. If these benefits exceed the higher costs of new, more complex FMD control strategies necessary for market access, this will create a second vehicle for propoor growth as a result of FMD control.A few examples are useful to illustrate this framework. Take, for example, a pastoral system (or region) in which veterinary services are weak or non-existent, but where livestock play a key role in livelihoods. The chief benefit from FMD control would be at a basic level in terms of reducing risk and vulnerability. Could FMD control play a role in generating propoor growth in such a system? This would depend on whether the costs of the control strategies were lower than the benefits induced by them through a reduction in producer vulnerability. This is unlikely to be the case in some settings, particularly if livestock keepers perceive other diseases to be a higher priority and/or have developed coping strategies in the wake of their past experiences of the morbidity created by FMD. On the other hand, for pastoralists who are more integrated with markets (or have the potential to be so), FMD control may open up new opportunities that diversify income sources and improve market access. Thus, in the Horn of Africa, for instance, while FMD control may not necessarily broadly accelerate pro-poor growth, for a subset of producers it has the potential to place them on the path towards reduced vulnerability and increased market access.A second case is drawn from the example of FMD in southern Laos described by Perry and others (2002a), where farmers were not integrated with markets but relied on livestock as a source of traction and nutrition (in the form of meat and milk). Are there benefits to FMD control in contributing to pro-poor growth in this situation? In this case, FMD control has a number of positive market and non-market benefits for producers: healthier animals provide a stable source of draught power, and also possible additional income through the renting of animals to other farmers; increased household milk production allows producers to spend scarce resources on other necessities; and reduced vulnerability induces greater adoption of more efficient production practices based on sound agroecological and economic principles rather than less efficient coping strategies designed to mitigate the risk of animal disease. Moreover, it is possible that, over time, the Pillar/conditions for pro-poor growth General overview of pillar Relevance of pillar to FMD control and poverty reduction Reduce risk and vulnerability Reduced risk and vulnerability helps the poorest FMD control can provide certain producers with livelihood segments of society capitalise on economic activities benefits, given the multidimensional role of livestock in poor and enhance their human capital through education, households. These benefits could include better access to for example domestic markets when cash is required or improved crop productivity facilitated by animal traction that is less likely to fall ill due to FMD Provide broad access to assets and markets Pro-poor growth is enhanced by greater access to Access to input and output markets based on FMD control physical assets and access to education, health and can provide a strong basis for producers to invest in assets financial services that raise productivity and incomes. Vertically integrated systems can play an important role in providing such access Foster international economic links Greater access to international markets provides new Segmentation of international markets by FMD status provides knowledge and the impetus for innovation to raise strong price incentives for exports among countries with a pro-poor growth competitive advantage in livestock products. Increased export revenue further generates multiplier effects in employment and support services that raise incomes for the poor and generate additional economic growth Create strong incentives for investment Private sector investment is crucial to drive pro-poor Strong private sectors provide incentives for strengthened growth, requiring an enabling policy environment that and diversified veterinary services and improved FMD respects property rights, enforces the rule of law and control, stimulating growth through better market access and provides support through sufficient physical improved livestock productivity infrastructure (roads, power, etc) Sources: DFID (2004), Perry and others (2002bPerry and others ( , 2003Perry and others ( , 2005Perry and others ( , 2006)), Rich and Winter-Nelson ( 2007)  growth induced by reducing risk and vulnerability in this context will increase the benefits from FMD control in other areas, such as improving access to markets. This could subsequently induce a second means by which FMD control could contribute to pro-poor growth. Of course, FMD control must be weighed in the context of other animal diseases, which may have higher priority in terms of animal mortality or frequency of exposure, and in the actions of neighbouring countries, or production systems, in which the incentives for FMD control may differ, thus influencing the cost-benefit calculation.Finally, looking at more commercialised livestock systems, there are clear multidimensional benefits to FMD control. In countries such as Botswana and Namibia, the benefits resulting from FMD control are thought to exceed their costs on each of the DFID's pillars, although the benefits are not the same for all producers. For export-oriented producers, while the costs of FMD control are high, so are the benefits, in terms of international and domestic market access. At the same time, the growth created by this process provides new opportunities within the livestock sector: for smallholders in terms of growing domestic markets; for rural labourers in the form of jobs in downstream industries in packing, services, and retail; and for consumers in the form of greater choice and potentially higher food safety and quality. Combined, such growth effects have numerous pro-poor effects downstream that reduce the risk and vulnerability of various stakeholders and create new markets for smallholder livestock producers.Despite the potential for FMD control as a vehicle for poverty reduction, an important consideration is the mechanism for achieving the benefits. Past economic impact assessments have shown that the public sector often bears an excessive proportion of the costs of FMD control, while a large proportion of the direct benefits pass to the private sector (Perry and others 1999, 2003, Randolph and others 2002). Indeed, the conclusions of many of these studies advocate a much more active engagement of, and partnership with, the private sector, to help redress the imbalances in the funding of FMD control activities. Such partnerships can provide opportunities for the diversion of public sector investment to build on the veterinary infrastructures developed for FMD control. This may facilitate diversification into animal health services that have greater direct benefits to the livestock species and constraints of more concern to the poor. This is potentially a win-win opportunity. However, successful partnerships need to create benefits and linkages throughout the supply chain that integrate all partners, both public and private. Publicprivate partnerships have been utilised as a means to control FMD in Brazil (Dubois and Moura 2004), but have recently been compromised by a reduction in public support and a failure to integrate smallholders, both internal and external, to the beef supply chain (K. M. Rich, C. A. Narrod, unpublished observations). As a result, the design of partnerships needs to incorporate mechanisms that ensure sustainability, while remaining sensitive to smallholder constraints and interaction throughout the supply chain."}

main/part_2/0059876057.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cab4694d22e401943c3a5cfc00cce206","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/de78cd68-d049-4fc6-b303-38de1f885317/retrieve","id":"1019769787"},"keywords":["Food Systems","Climate Smart Agriculture","Vietnam"],"sieverID":"63fad624-ce22-4e51-82e4-478789a225fb","content":"This work was implemented as part of the International Potato Center (CIP) and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is carried out with support from CGIAR Fund Donors and through bilateral funding agreements. For details please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these organisations.To achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to poverty, climate change and food and nutrition security by the year 2030, we need to change the way food is produced, processed and consumed. This is a very ambitious goal and will have to be met in the context of climate change impacts in all aspects of food and nutrition security: increasing resource constraints and trade-offs, massive urbanization, an ageing farming population, a need to rapidly reduce emissions from food systems, and dietary shifts (Dinesh, et al., 2018).Perhaps it is in food systems, more than anywhere else, that we have the perfect illustrations of the noticeable certainties of climate change. If evidence were needed that the challenges of a changing climate are not just those of the future, but of today, recent food price shocks, crop failures, disease and damage caused by natural disasters should suffice. These events are not, of course, determined by weather alone, but are the manifestation of complex and crossscale social, political, economic, and ecological processes, and should serve as a warning against simple interpretations of contemporary food systems. Dealing with these complex issues is essential, if we are to understand how climate change contributes toward risks to the food system, thereby enabling targeted coordination of policies within and across governments. The impacts of global climate change on food systems are expected to be widespread, complex, geographically and temporally variable, and profoundly influenced by socioeconomic conditions. Historical statistical studies provide evidence that climate change will affect agricultural yields and earnings, food prices, reliability of delivery, food quality, and, notably, food safety.If we study the global food system for past few years, we will find that the global agricultural productivity has increased, as has the requirement for labor-intensive production, but chemical inputs have created water pollution problems; topsoil depletion has reduced soil fertility; and biodiversity has been challenged through dependence on a lesser number of seed varieties. Industrial food processing has provided the high consumption classes of the world with ready-made foods of a reliable standard, but the waste produced from food packaging have created major problems. Moreover, the energy required to process and transport food has also risen steeply (Pirog et al., 2001).Vietnam is considered as one of the countries to be severely affected by climate change, particularly in the coastal areas. Rises in average temperatures have been observed over the last decades, as well as substantial changes to precipitation patters. The average temperatures have been rising and the total precipitation has increased, especially during the rainy seasons, which is important for flood water management. In northern Vietnam, the precipitation during the dry seasons has decreased, which poses important challenges to water management.Agriculture is a key economic pillar in Vietnam, contributing to approximately 15 % of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) (Word Bank, 2017). Population has also been rapidly growing reaching approximately 100 million people by the year 2017. More than half of the population live in rural areas and are highly dependent on agriculture and agriculturerelated industries (World Bank, 2017). Along with the growing population, dietary preferences are also changing. Cereals represent the largest share of food consumed with 80% per capita annual calorie intake (Hoang, 2017). Land for food production in Vietnam is limited, while demand is growing due to the combined effects of population growth and dietary change. Therefore, the solution seems to be directed towards intensification of agriculture. However, the continued intensification of agriculture production with unregulated chemical inputs, may eventually increase the toxic and hazardous chemicals in the soil, air, and ground water. Also, many farmers lack access to quality technical information regarding production options, weather patterns and risks.As countries pass through agrarian transitions that reshape the livelihoods and landscapes of the countryside, they tend to experience a parallel transition in diet and nutrition. Vietnam is undergoing such transformation in recent years because of strong economic and rapid growth in urbanization. It used to be one of the poorest country in the world three decades ago, but is now considered as one of the most dynamic emerging economy in the world (Davis 2016;Vanham 2018). The main contributors of this economic development have been international integration through trade liberalization, domestic reforms through deregulation, and enormous investment in human and physical capital though public investment (McCaig and Pavcnik 2013). According to Hoang (2018), newly-growing rich and high-income households in Vietnam are putting also huge pressure on the country's food supply chain due to changing consumption patterns away from rice to high-protein foods (e.g., meat, seafood, and eggs). Therefore, substantial attention needs to be shifted towards understanding:• What will it take to increase the agricultural productivity, enhance food and nutritional security and raise farmer incomes to get rural communities out of poverty in a world where climate is changing?• How could we build resilience to climate change and climate change related stresses affecting agriculture? Thus, in the above context, this study examines various elements of food production, consumption, processing and distribution in addition to infrastructure, institutions and markets in Vietnam to identify the challenges and opportunities for propagating a sustainable and climate-smart food system. This includes how the products are grown, how it is managed and harvested, how value is added, how it is transported, and how the food is purchased and other relevant consumer behaviors. Thus, through this study we try to understand the following key issues for Vietnam: i. What are the changes in the consumption patterns that will drive the food system transformation?ii. What are the producer/farmer practices, which enables leapfrogging of traditional learning curves through application of technology and adoption of best practices? (Adapted from Frameworks for Food Systems Analysis Promoted by the Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition) In view of the above context, the objective of this study is to explore what are the constraints and opportunities for creating climate-smart food systems along the value chains for (1) cereals, (2) roots and tubers (3), and livestock in Vietnam. Thus, the study aims:• To understand how the urban and rural diets have changed in climate change/variability affected areas;• To assess the current production systems and its contribution (positive/negative) to environmental effects; and• To explore the channels, processes and supporting institutions where CSA related changes needs to be introduced.This is a mixed methods research (MMR) which include both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. Under mixed method approach, both inductive and deductive perspectives are assessed since the mixed method approach involves back and forth movement in order to combine the knowledge from both methods (Newman & Benz 1998).The study adopts a convergent parallel design of MMR. A convergent parallel design entails that the researcher concurrently conducts the quantitative and qualitative elements in the same phase of the research process, weighs the methods equally, analyzes the two components independently, and interprets the results together (Creswell & Pablo-Clark, 2011). With its quantitative strand of data collection and analysis, the study tries to understand the supply transformations and consumer demands -or in other words -why the producers or the farmers grow, what they grow. And with its qualitative strand of data collection and analysis, the study tries to explore and understand how food is grown, managed, harvested, how value was added, and how it was transported -in other words -how people grow what they choose to grow.Sea level rise presents a major threat to Vietnamese agriculture by increasing the risk of salinity of limited arable land. Agricultural lands are concentrated along the coast in the two major deltas in Vietnam viz. Mekong River Delta and the Red River Delta. These two regions are also the major food producing pockets of the country. Mekong River Delta region can be called the rice granary of the country. Hence, for this study we chose both these river delta regions of Vietnam to gather our primary data. The selected provinces in the Red River Delta region were Thai Binh and Bac Ninh. The selected provinces in Mekong River Delta region were Tra vinh and Bac Lieu.The survey districts in Thai Binh were: Vu Thu, Kien Xuong and Dong Hung.The survey districts in Bac Ninh were: Que Vo, Gia Binh and Luong Tai.The survey districts in Tra Vinh were: Cau Ke, Tieu Can and Cang Long.The survey districts in Bac Lieu were: Hong Van, Hoa Binh and Bac Lieu City. Primary data gathering was done using Focus Groups (FGDs) and Key Informant Interview (KIIs), techniques. These techniques were chosen to gather contextual details of various food production process and to add the perspective of local food growers and suppliers. Both the techniques used purposive sampling strategy, as the study participants were recruited according to pre-selected criterion relevant to the study, such as specific study locations and practicing specific chosen crops like rice, maize, potato and shrimps. A total of 14 FGDs (7 FGD in Red River Delta region and 7 FGD in Mekong River Delta region) were conducted with farmers. Each FGD comprised of 8 to 12, mixed male and female participants. The KIIs were planed across the supply chain actors for each crop selected in the study. We conducted a total of 76 KIIs (40 KIIs in Red River Delta region and 36 KIIs in the Mekong River Delta region) across the four selected provinces and for three different crops in each region.1.3.2.1.Multiple years of (2012, 2014, and 2016) Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey (VHLSS) data were used for estimating the demand system. The General Statistics Office (GSO) of Vietnam conducts these Surveys. 1 Each of these surveys contains information on more than 9,000 households. These households were appropriately sampled, selected from more than 60 provinces, 680 districts, and 3,000 communes. Two-thirds of the total samples were from rural areas, which is proportional to the rural-urban population in Vietnam. The collected information covers a wide range of areas, including education, health, employment, income and expenditures, and sociodemographic profiles. The main variables of interests for this study are food consumption and expenditures, and demographic variables.The VHLSS contains information on food consumption and expenditures for 54 different food and drink items. Since not all the households consume these entire food items, for simplicity of demand estimation, we categorized these items into eight broad groups: rice, other cereals (e.g., maize, wheat and cereals products), fish and aquatic products, meat and eggs, fruits and vegetables, edible oil, beverages (alcoholic and non-alcoholic), and miscellaneous food items (details sub-commodity groups are in Table 3). 2 In the survey, the sampled respondent was asked \"how much was your household consumed a food item over the past 30 days and how much was the cost\"? So, we derived unit price of a food item 1 Detailed data collection protocols and methods can be found at: http://www.gso.gov.vn.2 Household consumed food away from home was excluded because of absence of consumption data.dividing the expenditure by the respective physical quantity consumed by a sampled household. Consumption of food items were measured in kilogram (kg), and drinks were in liter, whereas food expenditures were measured in thousand dong (VND). Therefore, prices are in thousand VND/kg.Since, in many cases, physical quantity of consumption of the specific food item was missing, but expenditure data were available, we extracted those values using mean district level consumption. However, if expenditure data were missing, we excluded those samples from the analysis, assuming households do not consume that specific commodities.Moreover, observations featured outliers (extreme values) were excluded from the demand analysis. Therefore, our demand analysis includes over 22,000 observations, covering three periods, 2012, 2014, and 2016, which is the largest dataset ever used for food demand analysis in Vietnam. Early work on modeling consumer demand was grounded on the following system of demand relationships:where \uD835\uDC91 and \uD835\uDC92 denote a price and a quantity vector, \uD835\uDC9B is a vector of exogenous variables, and \uD835\uDF00 is a vector of random shocks. The Linear Expenditure model (Stone 1954), the Rotterdam model (Theil 1965;Barten 1964), the Translog model (Christensen, Jorgenson, and Lau 1975), and the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) (Deaton and Muellbauer 1980) are examples of this demand system. The main concern of equation ( 1), however, was to specify \uD835\uDC37(. ) such that it is both flexible and consistent with economic theory. Otherwise, various estimation problems might arise, including the important one, dimensionality problem due to large number of parameters to be estimated (Nevo 2010). This problem can be tackled imposing aggregation (Gorman 1959) and symmetry (Spence 1976;Dixit and Stiglitz 1977) restrictions. Additionally, the utility function is required to be separable and additive to guarantee consistent estimates.Because of tremendous development of programming software and gradual improvement of computing capacity during last decades, a complete demand system with imposing these restrictions can easily be estimated now. For example, quadratic extension of AIDS (QUAIDS) introduced by (Banks, Blundell, and Lewbel 1997) can be estimated using \"quaids\" STATA command developed by (Poi 2012). The application of this model in food demand analysis becomes increasingly popular recently, such as food demand analysis by (Mottaleb et al., 2018) for Bangladesh and for Vietnam by (Hoang 2018). Importantly, there is a more recent development in modeling complete demand system with endogenous regressors, using \"aidsills\" STATA command by (Lecocq 2015), which is much more faster and efficient than \"quaids\". Moreover, demographic as well as instrumental variables can be included in the model to control endogeneity problem. The present study utilized this model to estimate a complete demand system for food items for rural and urban households in Vietnam.Suppose, budget (expenditure) share equation for good \uD835\uDC56 (= 1, … . , \uD835\uDC41) for household ℎ (= 1, … . . , \uD835\uDC3B), \uD835\uDC64 \uD835\uDC56 ℎ , can be expressed, following QUAIDS form by Banks, Blundell, and Lewbel (1997), as:with the price (non-linear) aggregatorswhere \uD835\uDC65 ℎ is the log total-expenditure; \uD835\uDC91 ℎ is the vector of prices of N goods; \uD835\uDEFC = (\uD835\uDEFC 1 , … … , \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC41 ) ′ , \uD835\uDEFD = (\uD835\uDEFD 1 , … . , \uD835\uDEFD \uD835\uDC41 ) ′ , \uD835\uDEE4 = (\uD835\uDEFE 1 , … . . , \uD835\uDEFE \uD835\uDC41 ) ′ , and \uD835\uDF03 are the set of all parameters to be estimated; \uD835\uDC62 \uD835\uDC56 ℎ is an error term.These parameters must satisfy the following three sets of theoretical restrictions: (i) additivity: all must sum to zero over all equations except the constant term, (b) homogeneity: log price-parameters must sum to zero within each equation, and (c) symmetry: the effect of log price \uD835\uDC56 on budget share \uD835\uDC57 must equal the effect of log price \uD835\uDC57 on budget share \uD835\uDC56.Differentiating equation (2) with respect to \uD835\uDC65 and \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC57 , omitting ℎ superscripts, we get the following equations:From these above equations, three sects of elasticities can be computed: (i) Expenditure Demographic variables in the demand system Since demographic profiles of households are heterogeneous, it is important to include in the demand system. Household heterogeneity can be included in the system through the constant term as:where \uD835\uDC34 = \uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC56 ′ , a linear combination of a set of demographic variables \uD835\uDC60 ℎ . This approach is called translating approach and introduced by (Pollak and Wales 1981), which allows the level of demand to depend upon demographic variables. 3Prices and total expenditure variables in equation ( 2) are likely to be endogenous, therefore, ordinary least squares (OLS) or seemingly unrelated regressions (SUR) (linear or nonlinear)do not provide consistent estimators. This implies that the error term, \uD835\uDC62 \uD835\uDC56 ℎ , may be correlated with the total expenditure, \uD835\uDC65 ℎ . It may also be correlated with prices, \uD835\uDC91 ℎ . This is because unit prices of goods, in most of the cases, are computed as the ratio of expenditures and quantifies. The rationale is since a given good may differ in quality by household, its computed unit values may reflect these quality differences, and therefore, may depend on tastes and preferences (Deaton 1988). However, potential biases can arise because of these correlations, which can be accounted with IV and augmented regression techniques (Hausman 1978).Suppose that a set of IVs are available, such as for budget alone or for prices alone or for both. Then equation ( 1) can be augmented with the error vector \uD835\uDC2F � \uD835\uDC89 predicted from estimating reduced forms of \uD835\uDC65 ℎ and\uD835\uDC91 ℎ . The error term can be written via the orthogonal decomposition, \uD835\uDC62 \uD835\uDC56 ℎ = \uD835\uDF46 \uD835\uDC8A \uD835\uDC2F � \uD835\uDC89 + \uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56 ℎ , along with assuming \uD835\uDC38�\uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56 ℎ �\uD835\uDC65 ℎ , \uD835\uDC91 ℎ � = 0 for all \uD835\uDC56 and ℎ.The present study used STATA 15 to estimate QUAIDS with income as an instrument for expenditure, setting\uD835\uDEFC 0 = 5, which is little less than the mean log of expenditure.The report is organized as follows. The first chapter focuses on objectives of the study and describes methodology and approaches including data requirements. Next, the macro picture on understanding the drivers and the trends of food system in the Vietnam is described. displacement. The relative impact of each driver will depend on the type of food system in question, the type of actors involved, and the type of actions and policies that are decided upon (Nesheim et al., 2015).This study dwells into the three core constituent elements of food system in Vietnam (food supply chains, food environments, and consumer behavior), in context of a specific biophysical and environmental driver which includes climate change and its impacts.   (Dao et al., 2013). The combined impact of war-time disturbances and incentive problems associated with \"collective\" agriculture resulted in stagnant rice production during the 1960s and 1970s. To address a growing food shortage, Vietnam, both before and after the 1975 unification, needed to import rice, totaling more than one million tons per year (Bui Ba Bong and all, 2010). To address the severe disincentives from the \"collective agricultural system\", farmers were permitted, after 1981, to sell their surplus production once they fulfilled their supply quota. Modest gains were made, although per capita production still did not recover to the level of 1960. More radical reforms were brought in with the launch of the Doi Moi policy in 1986, recognizing agricultural households as the basic unit of production and introducing a freer market for agricultural inputs and products.These reforms, together with subsequent advances in the development and spread of improved rice varieties, and investments in irrigation and water resources management, helped incur a dramatic growth of rice productivity and commercialization (Dao et al., 2013).The growth rate of rice production between 1990 and 1999 was an average of 5.6% per year, The food supply chain comprises of the actors and activities that takes food from production to consumption and to the disposal of its waste (Hawkes and Ruel, 2012). The steps of the food supply chain include production; storage and distribution; processing and packaging; retail and markets.Vietnam has organized, effectively working and vertically integrated food supply chains for most of its food items but not without challenges. The challenges remain in ensuring supply chain resilience which can cope with the event of disruptions brought on by the changing agriculture landscape, increasing population, volatile markets and weather variability.The supply chains that we investigated in this study are :1. Rice 2. Potato 3. Shrimps 4. MangoWe conducted KIIs for each supply chain actor operating in the study locations for rice, potato, shrimps, mango and vegetables. These interactions revealed that in Vietnam farmers' practice two ways of seeking buyers for their produce; one in which they independently sell to collectors or the local traders and the other in which they engage in contract farming. The supply chains for rice, potato, shrimps, mango and vegetables cater to both the domestic market and the export market. There is coexistence of both the traditional channel catering to local wet markets and the modern channel catering to supermarkets. Some of the farmers believed that in some cases, it has been possible to increase the bargaining power of producers who sell to supermarkets or companies through organizing into associations or cooperativesWe studied the existing rice supply chains in the Red River Delta region and the Mekong River Delta Region (Figure 5). In both the regions farmers decide which rice variety to grow either on the advice of the provincial agriculture office or under a system of contract with a commercial company, where they prescribe which variety of rice to grow and promise a buy back of the entire produce. Certain companies like 'Bayer', also provide the farmers with seeds and chemiclas. Bayer provides input suppplies to farmer on credit, the price for which is deducted during buy back of harvest. If the farmers do not use the company provided seeds, they at least need to use certified seeds from other source. The farmers sign contract with a company either as a farmer group or as a member of farmer cooperatives.In Thai Binh province we found the following actors active in the rice supply chain  Paddy gets picked up at farm gate either by small collectors or big collector/processors. The small collectors also eventually sell to the big collector/processor companies. The big collector/ processor sells it to several actors: wholesalers, commercial rice companies and exporters.Lien Hanh Company is one the biggest rice exporter in North Vietnam (Figure 6). They supply paddy both to domestic market and to the export market. They procure paddy from many provinces from North, Central, and South Vietnam. They either buy from the collector companies in various province or they sign contracts with farmers groups in the provinces.They buy fresh paddy from north and central Vietnam but procure single time processed rice from South Vietnam. They have well-equipped storage facility where they store paddy and milled rice for 6 to 8 months before selling at suitable price.In the Bac Lieu Province, we found the following actors active in the rice supply chain  The constraints observed in the rice supply chain are:• Rice collectors are in general small private enterprises operating on small margins.Constraints felt by collectors include deficit of credit, capital and information.Collectors suffer from the negative effects of spatial distribution of rice producers and are unable to take advantage of the economies of scale in collecting activities.• The current system of \"double milling\" causes a large number of small private dehuskers to participate in the marketing chain, who mill paddy that is then sold as brown rice to larger private millers and provincial food companies for final milling.This multiple milling practice substantially affects the quality and standardization of rice, which in turn affects value and the opportunities to export higher-quality and higher value rice. The large number of small private millers makes it extremely difficult to ensure rice quality and standards.• Storage is also a constraint to millers, especially small millers because it limits their ability to purchase and store paddy and wait for higher prices. High moisture content, due to poor and inadequate drying facilities and storage, also results in substantial losses during milling. We studied the Potato supply chain only in the Red River Delta region (Thai Binh and Bac Ninh provinces). The potato collector or the local trader collects the harvested potato directly from the farmers' field. They then pack it in 25 kg bags to transport to the wholesale market (Figure 8). The collectors or the farmers in Red River Delta region do not have access to any cold storage facility, so they do not practice storage. Both collector and farmers negotiate the selling price based on the current market price. Collectors/ traders check the quality of the potatoes (shape, size, free from insect bite and disease) when deciding on the price before buying. Collectors can freely decide how much amount that they want to buy. Potato collectors or traders do not operate under any predefined or signed contract system in this region. They assess the market demand through feedback from their retailer networks and decide on the quantity they would prefer to collect in a particular potato harvest season.Wholesaler mostly collect the potatoes from the collectors using their own transport. Also, they have a better bargaining power as the collectors have no storage or cold storage facility and therefore are always in a hurry to sell off their collection before any decay or damage occur. The wholesalers pack the potatoes in plastic bags for selling to the retailers.Constraints in the potato supply chain:• The biggest constraint in the potato supply chain is at the production stage itself.Vietnam does not yet have a viable system of seed potato production and supply.Consequently, the lack of good quality seed has been considered the most important constraint to improving both the productivity of potato crops and the area of potato.• The second constraint is that of cold storage facility. Cold stores are still too expensive for most farmers in Vietnam.We studied the shrimp supply chain in the Bac Liu Province of Mekong River Delta region.We found three types of shrimp farming in Bac Liu province. The first type is intensive commercial farming of shrimps, which is a monoculture using high level of inputs and equipment, the second type is alternating agriculture-aquaculture system with rice-shrimp farming and the third type is brackish water polyculture of rice and shrimp.At present, the shrimp supply chain has too many middlemen, particularly traders. Traders are a barrier between farmers and businesses because they suggest low prices while buying from farmers whereas they sell it at a higher price to exporters or wholesalers. The wholesaler usually places a verbal order to the traders/collectors, specifying the amount they would buy.The most important requirement of the shrimp supply chain is to keep the shrimps alive as they travel from the farmers to the consumers. Consumers prefer to buy live and fresh shrimps and so all the actors of the in the supply chain try to keep the shrimps alive by using oxygenating machines. Hence, the supply route of fresh shrimps are also relatively short.The vast majority of shrimps from Bac Lieu province are sold at Bac Lieu City Market and nearby Ho Chi Minh city. The bulk of globally traded shrimp is exported in whole or with minor processing. This further processing refers to peeling, beheading, deveining and cutting, which are labor-intensive manual activities. The major disadvantages in the shrimp supply chain include over 70% of farming households cultivating on an area of less than 0.5 ha and not adopting modern farming practices, legislature constraints in terms of production development on a large scale and lack of working capital We studied the vegetable supply chain in both Red River Delta Region and the Mekong River Delta region. Vegetable plays very important role in Vietnamese's diet. It is the second most important foodstuff after rice. Currently, national production is mainly for domestic consumption. The major actors in general circulation and distribution of fresh vegetables in Vietnam are producers, collectors, wholesalers and retailers (Figure 11). Each marketing actor can take over one or more functions such as transportation and distribution. Sometimes the collectors are even vegetable producers. At harvest time, the producers may sell their own products or they engage in marketing activities to increase their families' income. They can collect vegetables from producers who often live in the same villages or communes to retail on market places or directly to the final consumers. Wholesalers can be divided into 3 types: wholesale traders, wholesale producers and wholesale collectors. Wholesale traders (big wholesalers) serve as intermediaries between collectors and retailers. At present, these actors are still small and un/under specialized. They mainly trade on fruits and vegetables. Trading is still a subsidiary activity that mainly focuses on luxury vegetables. There are two groups of retailers; fixed retailer in markets and the other is the moving retailer on street.The challenges or constraints in vegetable production and marketing are:• Vegetable production is scattered and small-scaled• Farmers complain of poor quality of vegetable seeds.• The greatest challenges in the production and marketing of vegetables is ensuring food safety measures in application of chemicals and fertilizers -which is a contradiction between immediate economic benefit of producers and food safety.• Lack of post-harvest facilities• Lack of formal wholesale market systemIn Vietnam, the gross domestic product (GDP) is projected to reach around US$500 billion in 2030 as compared to US$200 billion in 2018, more than double in the next ten years (Henry and Pomeroy 2018). Similarly, the proportion of population living in urban setting is also expected to increase from 37 percent in 2020 to 45 percent in 2030 and by 2050, more than half of the country's population is expected to live in urban areas (Jiang and O'Neill, 2017).The income growth, urbanization, and changes in population demographics such as more educated people, more working age people are in the labor market (Minh 2009), and women in the labor force (Banerji et al., 2018) are likely to accelerate the changes in food consumption patterns in Vietnam. In this study, we estimate a complete food demand system for rural and urban Vietnam using multiyear Vietnam Living Standard Survey (VLSS) data.For Vietnam Hoang (2018) recently estimated rural and urban food demand for Vietnam using cross-section data, which does not capture changing consumption pattern over time. Mottaleb et al. (2018) estimated a food demand system for rural and urban households in Bangladesh, using multiyear household income and expenditure survey data. However, they estimated only five major food items, which is not a complete demand system, so substitution effects of the remaining food items are unknown. They used time as dummy variables to capture rural-urban migration and the evaluation of food consumptions over rural and urban households in Bangladesh. For China, Zheng et al. ( 2018) projected changing food consumption pattern for rural and urban households in 2030 using a complete food demand system.Since Vietnam is going through rapid structural transformation such as due to high-income growth, rural outmigration and greater integration with the world economy, the findings from our study will be useful for policy-makers and researchers in reforming the food system to meet the upcoming challenges including changing consumer preference and climate change.This will inform policymakers and researchers about how consumer food demand is going to evolve in the future and thus help policymakers design effective food and nutrition security policy.Table 1 presents patterns of income, expenditure, and demographic profiles of the rural and urban households in Vietnam. Findings indicate that per capita income and expenditure in both rural and urban households increased during 2012-2016, almost at the same rate (1.5 times). In contrast, expenditure share on food decreased, which is consistent with the economic theory y, Engle law, as household income increases the share of expenditure spent on food decreases. Findings also indicate that education level of the household heads increased, especially college and higher levels, for both rural and urban residents in Vietnam during the sampled period. Finally, the urban population increased due to outmigration of rural people in search of better economic opportunities.Figure 1 and Table 2 show the structure of the food demand during 2012-2016. Vietnamese food basket (food at home) contains eight major categories such as rice, other cereals, fish, meat and eggs, fruits and vegetables, edible oil, beverages, and miscellaneous items. Findings indicate that a Vietnamese spend an average of two-third of the total food budget on three food items, rice, fish, and meat & eggs. However, in terms of quantity, rice is the primary staple. For rice consumption, urban residents spend around 8 percentage points less than rural households (20% vs 28%) (Figure 1). Conversely, urban residents spend more on fish and meat & eggs consumption compared to their rural counterparts. Over the past years, share of food expenditure spent on rice declined for both rural and urban households. In contrast, the budget share for meat and eggs increased. For instance, in 2012, the expenditure share on rice consumption foe rural household declined from 34 percent in 2012 to 28% in 2016. Similar decline was also witnessed for urban households where the expenditure share on rice consumption declined from 25 to 20 percent during the same period. In contrast, the expenditure share on fish increased by 6 percent and 8 percent, respectively, for rural and urban households. Most importantly, from 2012 to 2016, the expenditure shares on meat and eggs increased remarkably at the household level by 14% for rural households and 7 percent for urban households. Finally, significant increase is observed in miscellaneous food items, which may be because of strong consumption growth of dairy products, as it is included in this category.In order to avoid biased parameters due to endogeneity of expenditure variable, we estimated expenditure equation using income as an instrument. Price and other demographic variables are also used in the expenditure equation. The parameter estimates are presented in Tables 3-6. As shown in the table 3, commodity prices are positively and significantly correlated with food expenditure. This indicates that consumers respond when commodity prices increase, and thus adjust their choices. Education is negatively correlated with expenditure, implying that education is expensive. A time index variable was included in the demand equations, as a proxy for changing taste and preferences. Positive value of time index coefficient indicates preferences toward the food item, and vice versa. As shown in tables 4-6 (rows 18), coefficients related to rice are negative and statistically significant for both rural and urban households (-0.015 vs. -0.025). This implies that preferences towards rice are decreasing in Vietnam. On the other hand, time coefficients related to meats and eggs are positive and highly significant (+0.016 vs. +0.009), indicating more preferences toward these products.The role of demographic variables such as on household head's age, sex, education, and household size differences on food consumption by urban and urban households are presented in Tables 5 and 6. The estimated coefficients related to age (in years) variable suggest that older people spend more on rice and less on beverages and miscellaneous items in both urban and rural areas. However, in rural areas, households spend significantly less for fish, meats and eggs. It is also found that male-headed households spend more on rice consumption compared to the female headed households who spend more on high value nutritious food produce such as fish, meat and eggs, and fruits and vegetables. Education also plays an important role in food consumption of Vietnamese households. We included education as two dummy variables, diving education into three groups, no education (base), primary and secondary levels of education, and college and above levels of education. The results suggest that household heads who are more educated spend more on animal protein (fish, meats and eggs), and less on cereal consumption (rice and other cereals) and beverages compared to non-educated household heads. These results are consistent with the fact that educated households are likely to have more income and awareness concerning their requirements for animal protein, and thus spend more on nutritious food.Table 7 presents the expenditure (income) elasticities across time and rural-urban landscape.Results show that the estimated expenditure elasticities for all food items are positive and statistically significant, except for rice in urban households. In general, rice and other cereals are considered to be inferior goods whereas food items such as fish, meat and eggs, fruits and vegetables are considered to be normal goods. Results also show that the magnitude of the expenditure elasticity of demand for rice is the smallest among the entire food items, 0.21 for rural vs -0.06 for urban residents. This implies that rice is still a normal good for rural population but becoming an inferior good for urban residents. Rice expenditure elasticity for urban consumers has been negative since 2014.We also estimated expenditure elasticities across income groups over time (Table 8). The main finding is that rice is becoming an inferior good for all the income groups in urban areas, except poor. It means that as income increases in the future, rice consumption in urban households will decline. On the other hand, consumption of other food items such as fish, meat, vegetable, beverages and other food items will rise. This trend is also observed across all income groups in rural households where expenditure elasticities for rice over time is declining. Even for the rural poor households, expenditure elasticity for rice declined from 0.381 in 2012 to 0.257 in 2016. The largest decline was witnessed in the upper middle-class households where expenditure elasticity declined from 0.197 to 0.006 over the same time.Mottaleb (2018) also observed similar trend among Bangladeshi households where rice, the staple food, is becoming an inferior good over time across income groups. Finally, overall the expenditure elasticities reveal that demand for foods are likely to be less elastic at higher levels of income and for urban households, which is similar to the findings of (Hoang 2018) for Vietnam.The compensated (Hicksian) and uncompensated (Marshallian) own-and cross price elasticities for Vietnam and separately for urban and rural households are presented in Tables 9a to 9c. Note that compensated price elasticity assumes that consumers are compensated for price changes through expenditure (income) changes, so compensated elasticities will be smaller than uncompensated elasticities. The own-price elasticities of all food items are found to be negative, which is consistent with the economic theory that the demand for a commodity is reduced in general with the increase in price. The results of uncompensated price elasticities indicate how much demand for the sampled food items will be reduced by a 1% increase in prices. For example, a 1% increase in rice price will reduce the demand for rice by 0.18% for the rural households. Although it is to be positive but insignificant for urban households, indicating a likely transformation within rice commodity, such as normal vs. quality rice. Further results reveal the own-price elasticity to be the lowest for rice among the food items, smaller than the estimates by (Gibson and Kim 2013;Hoang 2018), which confirms that rice is the most basic and necessary food item for Vietnamese and its consumption does not change with price fluctuations.Similarly, Cross-price elasticity reflects changes in demand for a particular commodity when prices of other products change. These elasticities are very important tool for designing policies in that relative shifts in prices due to various policy reforms that can affect demand for other products that are not regulated (Andreyeva, Long, and Brownell 2010). Moreover, higher the cross-price elasticity, the greater shift in purchase as prices change. Our resultsshow that rice and other cereals are substitute for both rural and urban residents, but other commodities are complements.Expenditure elasticity estimates indicate that rice is already an inferior good for middle class and rich urban populations. These households are consuming more high value food products such as meat, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables. The positive and declining expenditure elasticities of rural population suggest that as income grows rural households will eventually start consuming less rice and more other food products. Since the Vietnam's economy continues to grow with doubling of GDP in the next decade, per capita rice consumption both in urban and rural and across different income will continue to decline. The demand for other high value products will rise, on the other hand. This changing consumption pattern will have significant impact on the current food system. In addition, climate change further complicates the situation because Vietnam is one of the most vulnerable to climate change and will be severely affected in coming years due to its consequences.Finally, education, aging, urbanization, and taste and preferences are found to be the important drivers of food demand, which could reshape the future food demand structure in Vietnam. Therefore, findings from our study will inform policy makers and researchers about how consumer food demand is evolving in the future and thus help policymakers design effective food security and nutrition policy for the Country.     Notes: Income levels for poor, lower-middle-, middle-, upper-middle-income, and rich are defined as: VND 10,000 and below, VND 10,001-17,999, VND 18,000-27,000, VND 27001-50,000, and VND 50,000 and above, respectively.All elasticities are statistically significant, except the elasticities are labeled with a . Opportunities and Challenges in the Existing Food SystemsThe food items we studied for the Red River Delta (RRD) region were rice, potato, maize and vegetables. According to the data gathered through the 7 FGDs conducted in Thai Binh and Bac Ninh provinces, three main crops of the region are rice, potato and maize (table 10). Farmers shared that they usually follow the prescription provided by the Department of Agriculture's office at district level for the list of crops suitable to grow in each district. They cannot freely shift to a new crop without the suggestion of the Department of Agriculture. Farmers can change or choose a new variety for better production more easily then changing to a new crop. There is a people's committee 6 appointed by the government for every province, which takes the decisions on all the schemes of crop production for a particular season.The FGD results in the region, showed that the farmers have been receiving low price for rice and potato and hence are not interested to increase the area under these crops. They want to increase the area under vegetable production, but the challenge is about selling the vegetables in the shortest possible time from the farm gate, as they do not have access to any cold storage or preserving facility. Irrigated rice is the dominant crop in the RRD region with two main seasons: a winter crop typically planted during January-February, and a spring crop planted in late-June or July (Figure 13, Seasonal Calendar). Other than rice they practice three seasons of maize, two seasons of potato and four seasons of vegetables. A small number of farmers also grow one season of sweet potatoes and bananas.  This region has sufficient water resources, with an irrigation system connected to the Red River and the Thai Binh River. The farmers here use pumps to irrigate their fields through concrete canal system connected to the river. The communes (villages) have common electric pumps to irrigate water from rivers. Farmers also use rainwater for paddy cultivation. Farmers have built both concrete canal lining and soil canal lining in this region. The cooperatives in the region also own electric hydraulic pumps that provide sufficient water for the member farmer, also each commune (village) have two electric pump stations. 30% household in the communes have small gas pumps, used for irrigation of their fields. Overall water accessibility is well planned for the farmers of RRD region and it is not difficult for the farmers to assess water.The FGD data reveals that climate is getting warmer and hence it is getting difficult for farmers to grow crops like Potatoe in winter. In the recent years on-setting of winter has been delayed compared with previous years. Farmers also feel that because of changing climate the incidence of pest and disease in potato and rice, has increased and hence farmers need to buy more pesticides and spent more time on spraying. They said, they do not like to put pesticide in their crops but when in a particular year the rains are heavy and more than normal, there is always outbreak of disease and that is when farmers apply a lot of pesticides. Also, they shared that the incidence of drought has increased in the dry season (November-February, Figure 13). This affects the production of maize, potato and vegetable. In order to avoid the climate induced challenges such as drought and storm, with suggestion from the agriculture office, farmers have changed the varieties of rice from long duration to short duration. The months June and July are warmer than before (in comparison to what it used to be 10/15 years before) which is followed by heavy storms in August and September (Figure 13).  Plant height is about 110 -115 cm; well adaption to pest such as brown plant hopper, average productivity is about 7 to 7.5 ton/ha, maximum 9 to 10 ton/ha.High yield, high quality of rice, good taste and good market demand for sale T 10It is a 130 to 135 days variety. The average productivity is about 5.5 to 6 ton/ha, maximum to 7 -7.5 ton/ha.The variety adapts very well to drought and cold temperature.HIGH QUALITY OF RICE, GOOD TASTE, GOOD SMELL, NOT TOO SOFT WHEN COOKED.The height of Bac Thom Rice is from 90 -95 cm. The rice grain is small and yellow color. The length of grain is about 5.86 mm.The productivity is in-between 4 to 4.5 ton/ha. The maximum 5 ton/ha. The Department of Agriculture recommends planting high-quality rice varieties for the region: Bac Thom 7, T10, RVT, N97, sticky rice varieties, Japanese rice, BC15, TBR1, TBR225, Thien uu 8. Out of this entire list, the most popular variety in the region is BC15, due to its high yields (Table 12). Farmers follow the suggestion of the district agriculture officer in choosing which variety to grow and they buy the seeds from private seed company or from the cooperative. The most popular and known seed company in the RRD region is \"Thai Binh Seed\". Cooperatives usually organize a meeting with farmers to tell farmers about the price and help the farmer to decide, if they want to buy from the cooperative. The cooperative then approaches the seed companies to buy seeds, which they then resell to farmers.Transplanting in the region is mainly done by method of sowing and hand transplanting. A very small number of farmers practice mechanical transplanting using machines. Farmers use machines mainly for soil preparation and harvesting (Table 13). Farmers buy input supplies from the shops in commune (village) or from the cooperative (Table14). shifting to vegetable production and the area under maize cultivation is slowly under decline as the income from vegetables is higher. Maize can be grown all-round the year over three seasons.But farmers mainly do maize over two seasons. The first season is from beginning of January to end of May and the second season is from beginning of June to end of August. Farmers buy maize seeds from commune input supply shops. The Department of Agriculture prefers that the farmers use high yield F1 hybrid maize varieties and expand the cultivation area under food corn and fresh corn varieties: sticky corn, high-yield sugar corn. The two most popular maize varieties amongst the farmers are HN88 and NK 4300. Both the varieties are hybrids and are input intensive. HN 88 requires seven to ten times of pesticide application and NK 4300 requires three to four times of pesticide application (Table 20). Farmers sell a good quality production of HN88 at about 15,000 vnd/kg and a low quality production with pest affect at about 5,000 vnd/kg.Farmers sell HN88 maize variety, immediately after harvesting at the farm gate. But the NK4300 variety is brought back home for drying, shelling and then selling.    Farmers of MRD region shared that the price of raw shrimp is not reasonable compared with the export price due to high production cost in Vietnam.3.3. Challenges for a climate smart food system 3.3.1. Highly intensive cropping system As seen in the seasonal calendar in the above section (Figure 13 and 14), farmers in both Red River Delta (RRD) and Mekong River Delta (MRD) practice a very intensive cropping system or pattern. For example, farmers in the MRD region practice three seasons of paddy, four seasons of vegetables and three to four seasons of shrimps. The Vietnamese government has promoted crop intensification to increase rice exports. However, this practice comes at a price, Vietnam has the highest fertilizer use density among countries in the region. This explains the relatively high rice yield in Vietnam. Planting rice two to three times per year on the same parcel of land increases the likelihood of pest disease.This kind of cropping system gives no break to the soil to replenish its nutrients naturally. This kind of intensive cropping system with goals of high productivity uses high level of inputs in the form of chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators. Farmers do not have much alertness or interest towards soil conservation practices.Most of the farmers we met in our field visits are busy growing a single crop season after season without gap. The practice and promotion of an intensive cropping system leaves very small room for crop rotation, inter-cropping or diversification by individual farmers.The rice farmer is continuously growing rice for three season and the vegetable farmer is continuously growing vegetable for four seasons round the year. Certain farmers do practice multiple crop production but in different designated plots. The area allotted for growing rice is exclusively used only for rice. Economic pressure on smallholders has them increasingly choosing to forego crop rotation in order to maximize annual production. Also government restrictions on land use prevent smallholder farmers from profiting by using the land for other agricultural uses. According to  Access to regular, reliable and timely information is the key to manage increasing climate risks to agricultural production. There are various information nodes already existing in the communes (village), which farmers are habituated to access and which act as a part of the core support system of the commune level production processes (Table 25). These nodes need to be strengthened by supplying with regular, updated and reliable information and training.  available to them. It also serves as an important climate risk management strategy. For example, in the Eastern Visayas region of Philippines farmers grow sweet potato along with their primary rice crop as a risk mitigation strategy to typhoons and storms. Farmers have witnessed that sweet potatoes are resilient crops that can survive flood and typhoons. Climate change-induced rainfall variability and drought are two most common climate change-related challenges that the farmers face in both Red River Delta and Mekong River Delta region (as reported in the 14 FGDs).Hence, farmers need to be trained in resilience building crop diversification practices, as a climate-risk reduction strategy. Also soil management to build resilience to climate variability by enhancing soil fertility and biodiversity, improving soil structure, and limiting soil erosion. As the Department of Agriculture is a key stakeholder in deciding what farmers practice in Vietnam, the Department needs to include -shifting to more resilient crops or crop varieties, intercropping and crop diversification, and iterative methods for improvement of water and soil management based on local conditions and climate projections -in its prescription.Plants need nutrients (nitrogen, potassium, calcium, zinc, magnesium, iron, manganese, etc.) to grow well, which normally can be found in the soil. Sometimes fertilizers are needed to achieve a preferred plant growth, but they are not always used correctly. When over-applied, fertilizers can increase insect and disease problems. Fertilizer-induced rapid growth in plants may lead to weak plants without an adequate root system. The excess application also increases run-off from plots and can contaminate waterways. In Vietnam, as reported in the FGDs and the KIIs farmers apply fertilizer with their own experience or by seeing what fellow farmers in their farmer groups are doing. Farmers also shared that the highly intensive cropping system requires them to apply multiple rounds of fertilizer to their soil season after season. Also, under the vertically integrated contract system, the companies that sign the contract, most often, have fixed prescriptions (for both amount and type) for input application, for the varieties they promise a buy back. Similar is the case of pesticide usage. Unregulated use of pesticide can result in pest resistance to pesticides, and the destruction of beneficial organisms. Pesticides contain chemicals, which can migrate through the ground and be toxic to a number or organisms, including fish and invertebrates. Most pesticides do kill their target pests but they also kill beneficial organisms living in the soil, such as pollinators and pest predators, and pose health risks to wildlife. To minimize the migration of these toxic chemicals into the natural environment, Vietnamese farmers need to use pesticides with appropriate prescription.This study examines various elements of food production, consumption, processing and distribution in addition to infrastructure, institutions and markets in Vietnam to identify the challenges and opportunities for propagating a sustainable and climate-smart food system. Both primary and secondary data are used for identifying constraints and opportunities for creating climate-smart food systems along the value chains for (1) cereals, (2) roots and tubers (3) and livestock. The secondary data includes multiple years of (2012, 2014, and 2016) Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey (VHLSS) data collected by the General Statistics Office (GSO) of Vietnam. The primary date included Focus Groups (FGDs) and Key Informant Interview (KIIs) of value chain actors of key commodities in two major food producing pockets of the country, i.e., Mekong River Delta and Red River Delta. The selected provinces in the Red River Delta region were Thai Binh and Bac Ninh and the selected provinces in Mekong River Delta region were Tra vinh and Bac Lieu. Primary data gathering was done using A total of 14 FGDs (7 FGD in Red River Delta region and 7 FGD in Mekong River Delta region) were conducted with farmers. Each FGD comprised of 8 to 12, mixed male and female participants.The KIIs were conducted across the supply chain actors for each crop selected in the study. We conducted a total of 76 KIIs (40 KIIs in Red River Delta region and 36 KIIs in the Mekong River Delta region) across the four selected provinces and for three different crops in each region.Expenditure elasticity estimated using the VHLSS survey data suggest that rice is already an inferior good for middle class and rich urban populations. These households are consuming more high value food products such as meat, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables. The positive and declining expenditure elasticities of rural population suggest that as income grows rural households will eventually start consuming less rice and more other food products. Since the Vietnam's economy continues to grow with doubling of GDP in the next decade, per capita rice consumption both in urban and rural and across different income will continue to decline. The demand for other high value products will rise, on the other hand. This changing consumption pattern will have significant impact on the current food system which is already faced with several constraints including climate change. As concluded from the primary data, one of the most significant constraints is that Vietnam has a highly intensive cropping with very low farm level diversification. Farmers in the MRD region practice three seasons of paddy, four seasons of vegetables and three to four seasons of shrimps. This kind of intensive cropping system with goals of high productivity uses high level of inputs in the form of chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators and does not provide any break to the soil to replenish. FGDs conducted with the farmers reveled that farmers do not follow any regulated prescription for fertilizer and pesticide application provided by the department of crop protection or department of agriculture and don't have much alertness or interest towards soil conservation practices.Most of our surveyed farmers specialize in one crop and grow them season after season without much gap. Because of high degree of vertical integration where farmers find an easy access to the market to sell their products, farmers prefer to specialize only on the crop that has strong buy back program market demand. This system restricts farmers to introduce a non-rice crop in between two rice crops. Instead in many instances, farmers move away from rice and specialize in another crop if there is strong buy back program. At the macro level, this will show up as if farmers are diversifying but there is more specialization in single crop at the farm level. This system also does not allow farmers to switch variety as it might jeopardize their buy back contract with the company. In these contract farming scenarios, farmers also seek input application suggestions and prescriptions from the company assigned extension specialists working in the commune. Sometimes the companies also act as input dealer/provider, using the same contract farmers to sell their own fertilizers and pest control chemicals.The practice and promotion of an intensive cropping system leaves very small room for crop rotation, inter-cropping or diversification by individual farmers. The rice farmer is continuously growing rice for three season and the vegetable farmer is continuously growing vegetable for four seasons round the year. Certain farmers do practice multiple crop production but in different designated plots. The area allotted for growing rice is exclusively used only for rice. Vegetable would be done in some other plot near homestead. This type of mono intensive cropping on a particular plot may eliminate the natural checks and balances that a diverse ecosystem provides.This inevitably means the use of large quantities of synthetic herbicides, insecticides, bactericides and fertilizers. In attempting to prevent damage to crops by weeds, insects and bacteria; and to provide sufficient nutrients in the soil for the plants to grow, farmers use synthetic chemicals. Not only do these chemicals leave traces on plants that are intended for human consumption and so can enter the food chain, they are also routinely over-used so that a large proportion of the synthetic material remains in the soil, even after the crop has been harvested. Vietnamese agriculture's potential vulnerability to climate change risks such as shifting rainfall patterns and temperature, and sea level rise, together with the fundamental uncertainty that is intrinsic to climate change, suggest that it is very important to create awareness towards climate smart agriculture practices. The agriculture sector needs to cultivate resilience by strengthening capacity for innovation at every level of society. Improved water resources management and land use will be critical. The FGD and the KI results of this study shows that awareness and conviction to adopt CSA practices by farmers found to be almost non-existing under the pressure of production goals and contract farming schedule.Several measures can be taken to improve the sustainability of the farming system and make it climate resilient. First of all, access to regular, reliable and timely information is critical for managing climate risks to agricultural production. There are various information nodes already existing in the communes (village), which farmers are habituated to access and which act as core support system to the commune level production process. These nodes need to be strengthened by supplying with regular, updated and reliable information and training. For example, in Mekong River Delta region, there is regular availability of weather forecast, seasonal forecast, and shifting planting time but there is information gap when it comes to certain other climate risk mitigation strategies like: information on improved crop management practices, information on integrated pest management, soil health management, and crop insurance and agriculture credit.With access to climate information, including weather forecasting, and training, farmers can understand climate risks and their agroecosystem vulnerabilities, identify and implement mitigating crop, soil and water management measures, and carry out climate-informed planning and decision-making to sustain climate-resilient agricultural production over time. Secondly, farm level crop diversification should be promoted as a strategy to improve sustainability and climate resilience. Crop diversification refers to the addition of new crops or cropping systems to agricultural production on a farm."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a9d356ecb52ce15b8cb3f17715561db8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c80d0e9d-91f0-4c24-9052-11dfb87b988c/retrieve","id":"187279854"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9964aca5-3082-4933-9288-dcfc957ee0db","content":"GnpIS is a data repository for plant phenomics that stores whole field and greenhouse experimental data including environment measures. It allows long-term access to datasets following the FAIR principles: Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable, by using a flexible and original approach. It is based on a generic and ontology driven data model and an innovative software architecture that uncouples data integration, storage, and querying. It takes advantage of international standards including the Crop Ontology, MIAPPE, and the Breeding API. GnpIS allows handling data for a wide range of species and experiment types, including multiannual perennial plants experimental network or annual plant trials with either raw data, i.e., direct measures, or computed traits. It also ensures the integration and the interoperability among phenotyping datasets and with genotyping data. This is achieved through a careful curation and annotation of the key resources conducted in close collaboration with the communities providing data. Our repository follows the Open Science data publication principles by ensuring citability of each dataset. Finally, GnpIS compliance with international standards enables its interoperability with other data repositories hence allowing data links between phenotype and other data types. GnpIS can therefore contribute to emerging international federations of information systems.Plant phenotyping regroups all the observations and measures that can be made on a precisely identified plant material in a characterized environment. This very general definition of phenomics [1] includes diverse types of properties and variables measured at different physical [2] and temporal scales, ranging from field observation of plant populations to molecular cell characterizations, including for some research community metabolomics or gene expression. The acquisition of these data is conducted in various experimental facilities like greenhouses, fields, phenotyping networks, or natural sites. It can be done using many different devices from hand measurements to high throughput means. The resulting complex and heterogeneous datasets include all the environment and phenotypic variable values at each relevant scale (plant, micro plot, . . .) and very importantly the identification of the phenotyped germplasm, i.e., the plant material being experimented. In addition, there are often relationships between levels, i.e., physical scales, inside datasets and between different datasets. The resulting rich wealth of data is usually formatted in a very heterogeneous manner and is difficult to integrate automatically.Phenotyping experiments are expensive and are not exactly reproducible since the environmental conditions are difficult if not impossible to completely control. Furthermore, most traits are highly dependent on genotype by environment interactions, which increases again the uniqueness and the value of the data collected to describe environmental conditions and resources available to the plants during their lifecycle. Hence, being able to reuse phenotyping data to carry out large meta-analysis would allow better deciphering the genetic architecture of traits across environments. It could help the prediction of genotype performances in the context of the climate change adaptations. An example is the use of data series collected over centuries that have demonstrated or supported the modelling of the impact of climate change on crops [3,4]. In this context, long-term data management following the Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR) principles [5] is among the main challenges of modern phenomics. There are two answers to this challenge: data standardization and data integration.Several initiatives are developing tools for standardizing phenotyping data description. The Minimal Information About Plant Phenotyping Experiment (MIAPPE, www.miappe.org) [6,7] defines the set of information necessary to enable data reuse. This includes the objective of the experiment, the authors, location, and timing, as well as the minimal description of the observation units, i.e., the objects being measured and assayed, including the plant material identification and the traits with their measurement protocols. The latter are formalized through the Crop Ontology (CO, www.cropontology.org) [8] which states that all observations and measurements are done through an observation variable which is defined by three components: (i) the targeted trait (phenotypic or environmental), (ii) the method of measurement or observation, and (iii) its scale or unit. A trait can be formalized as the association of an observed entity like a part of the plant (e.g., leaf, grain, and stem) and an attribute or quality to be measured or observed (colour, weight, and height) [9]. The method can be a phenotyping protocol or a statistical computation and can include cross references to method books or software. A new variable is created each time a new method or a new scale or unit is added to an existing trait. The Crop Ontology provides a collaborative platform to a growing number of crop communities to develop a series of species-specific ontologies. The Planteome project (http://planteome.org/) links through a semantic mapping these species-specific ontologies to a set of reference plant species-neutral ontologies including the reference Trait Ontology (TO) and the Plant Ontology (PO) [10]. This annotation process adds a generic trait above the crop-specific traits [11]. This helps to connect crop phenotyping data to genomic data across species. Besides, through the mapping, CO inherits the ontological structure of TO and can be used for building an ontology optimized for data sharing and integration between crop research communities. Finally, the Breeding API (BrAPI, www.brapi.org) [12] is building a specification of web services to enable standard data exchange between information systems and tools. All these tools are facilitating data standardization and are now widely adopted by the international plant community [13][14][15].Data integration relies on datasets and data repositories interoperability and links different datasets together [16] in order to avoid data silos. It is achieved by following the Linked Data principles [17] and in particular by defining and identifying the key resources, i.e., the key \"things\" in the Web Ontology Language (OWL) sense, that acts as interoperability pivot by linking one dataset to another. These interoperability pivots, shared between datasets, enable the construction of datalinks and must be unambiguously identified and curated in each data repository. Pivot identifiers must be shared among repositories to enable data interoperability and build a working information system federation. Indeed, phenotyping experiments can be carried out for a wide range of scientific objectives (e.g., study of the impact of climate change, study of the genetic architecture of traits) with different types of underlying analyses that impact the nature of datasets. The consistency of the datasets is ensured through the integration of the data collected from the different experiments, which is achieved by building links between some clearly described and identified pivots. A common example is the integration of genotyping and phenotyping datasets obtained with the same panel of individuals in distinct experiments in order to search for marker-trait associations. In this case, individuals of the panel in each dataset provide the pivot required to enable interdataset integration. Other examples of interoperability pivot are the Global Positioning System (GPS) localization of plants (e.g., integration of climatic and phenotyping datasets) or the observation variables (e.g., integration of several phenotyping datasets).When managing and therefore integrating research data in any Phenotype Information System, the objectives of the data services to be provided must be considered. For instance, the MaizeGDB [18] database gives access to phenotypic data in the context of functional genomics studies by offering very elaborated phenotype without experimentation environment data. Genomes To Fields (https://www.genomes2fields.org [19]) and the Triticeae Toolbox [20] offer more trial centric portals for, respectively, the US maize and the US Triticeae communities. All these repositories allow sharing and publishing curated datasets but neither data discovery nor multitrial data integration. There are also a number of trial-centric databases whose objectives are to capture all the steps of the data production of platforms, like PhenopsisDB [21], the Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP, https://www.integratedbreeding.net), Phenomics Ontology Driven Database (PODD) [22], or the Phenomic Hybrid Information System of the Phenome-Emphasis (https://www.phenome-emphasis.fr/) infrastructure (PHIS, http://www.phis.inra.fr) [23]. This latter database, PHIS, is specifically designed for addressing the challenges of data acquisition in high throughput phenotyping platforms.GnpIS [24] (http://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/gnpis) is an international information system that links phenomic, genetic, and genomic data (see examples in [25,26]) for plant and their pathogens. It is the French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) phenotyping archive which has been designed to publish and integrate standardized data from phenotyping trials carried out in natural sites, field, or controlled environments, with observations at different physical scales like groups of plants, single plants, single organs, or tissues. It gives access to standardized data and enables the development of federations of repositories.The GnpIS software component dedicated to phenotyping, named GnpIS-Ephesis, is based on a four layers' architecture, Plant Phenomics 3 described in the result section: storage, data discovery, query, and web interface.The storage layer of GnpIS-Ephesis is implemented in PostgreSQL 9.6 running in a 2-core 4 Gb Virtual Machine plus file-system access through simple HTTP GET requests for direct file download.The query layer is based on Elasticsearch 2.3 running on Java 7 in two 8-core 16Gb RAM Virtual Machines. It allows precise, field-by-field, data querying and processing. Its native Representational State Transfer (REST) API is hidden behind a service business layer for security and ease of querying. Its API is queried either by Google Web Toolkit Remote Procedure Call (GWT RPC) or by a REST Web Service API. This Web service layer is written in Java/JEE using Jersey 1.18+ and Spring 2.5. The Extract Transform Load (ETL) tools allowing for feeding the query layer from the storage layer are written in scripted PostgreSQL specific JSON-SQL queries orchestrated by a Shell tool suite.The data integration and insertion toolbox is developed with the Talend Open Studio (http://www.talend.com/) Extract Transform Load (ETL) tool version 6, plus some Shell and Python scripts.The ontology repository is based on a public Gitlab project running on the INRA forge (https://forgemia.inra.fr/ urgi-is/ontologies) which allows versioning of the ontologies plus a graphical widget giving access to their last versions. The Ontology Widget (https://github.com/gnpis/trait-ontologywidget) is written in JavaScript and uses the JQuery (https:// jquery.com/) and JStree (https://www.jstree.com/) libraries.The Web interfaces are running on a Tomcat 7 instance using Java 7 in a dedicated Virtual Machine with 2 cores and 16Gb of RAM. They are developed in Java 7 using the GWT framework. The geographic map overview is powered by Leaflet (https://leafletjs.com/) with OpenStreetMap (https://www.openstreetmap.org/) as map backend.The web user interfaces are open source under BSD3 license and available upon request. The database model of the storage layer is under a proprietary license and is protected by deposits in at the European program deposit agency (Agence de Protection des Programmes).GnpIS is a repository for phenotyping experiments, i.e., Trials, at various physical and temporal scales. It has been developed within the GnpIS-Ephesis project which gave its name to the software modules of GnpIS dedicated to phenotyping. The experimental data may be associated with measurement time, hence creating time series. Data can be raw or computed, organized in textual data matrices of physical measures possibly derived from sensors, phenological observations, or concentrations for a few dozens of biochemical components. Those data matrices are inserted in the storage database together with additional information like factors, cofactors, timing, location, and other trial parameters description. In some cases, such as dense time series with up to hundreds of measures, multispectral images, or Near Infrared Spectrometry (NIRS) spectra, the data can be stored as files (with a size limit of few Gb by Trial) or can be cross-referenced to specialized platform information systems. It is designed to allow data access either by full experiment or by aggregating data across several experiments. It also allows the linking of phenotypic data with genetic and genomic data for Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs), Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS), and gene annotations published in GnpIS.GnpIS currently stores data for the French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) and its national and international partners. It is the official repository of the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium [25] and it is included in emerging international federations of information systems in the frame of the Elixir plant community (https://www.elixir-europe.org/ communities/plant-sciences), the French node of the Emphasis European infrastructure for plant phenotyping (https:// www.phenome-emphasis.fr/), and the global WheatIS of the Wheat Initiative (www.wheatis.org). Public and private data from phenotyping experiments are currently available for wheat, grape, maize, tomato, rapeseed, pea, and forest and fruit trees (Table 1).This high level of integration and interoperability relies on the proper identification of interoperability pivots: mainly the plant material or germplasm and the observation variables (mandatory) and to a lesser extent the location and timing.Phenotyping data is handled in GnpIS through the GnpIS-Ephesis conceptual data model (Figure 1). It has been designed in close collaboration with field scientists, experts in plant phenomics, geneticists, and breeders, many of them being particularly interested in deciphering genotype by environment interactions. It has been designed for flexibility, to allow both the retrieval of individual datasets and the combination of different subsets for meta-analysis. It relies on three main components: (i) the main dataset containing the description of the trial and the observation units (Figure 1) as well as the observation values, (ii) the observation variables, and (iii) the identification of plant material assayed. Those three components act as independent but linked subdatasets. This structure allows to update the description of the plant material or of the variables without affecting the main phenotyping dataset. The GnpIS-Ephesis data model is continuously improved to remain compliant with the MIAPPE [6] standard evolutions. Datasets can be published along with a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) [27] which provides authorship, reuse license, and citability.Figure 2 shows a typical phenotyping dataset and how it is integrated in GnpIS through four main concepts: Trial Set, Trial, Observation Unit, and Observation.The Trial and Trial Set handle most of the experiment metadata. A trial is an experiment under field or controlled conditions (greenhouse, culture chamber. . .), in a single location and possibly on multiple years. This allows for handling series of yearly observations for perennial plants, possibly over several decades. Note that, in this case, the plant material list is stable from one year to another. The Observation Unit in GnpIS and MIAPPE v1.1 is the object, i.e., the scale or level, on which the measurements or observations are done (Figure 1; example in Figure 2(B)). It is possible to describe different scales in the same experiment. The scale name is ontology driven, but there is no recommended level ontology at the time of writing. Therefore, we have our own controlled vocabulary (e.g., micro plot, plant, and pot) which can grow upon requests from our data submitters. Some details of the scientific design are stored as Observation Unit fields, alongside the unit position and all the experimental factors. The Observation Unit stores the combination of the mandatory genotype factor (Plant Material below) with optional treatment factors (e.g., Cultural practices, Irrigation, Nitrogen, . . .). Each treatment factor has a list of two or more possible values or modalities, (e.g., high input and low input for the factor Nitrogen on Figure 2(B)). Each Observation Unit is associated with only one modality of a given factor. For instance, a Trial can combine a factor Nitrogen, with modalities low input and high input, plus a factor Water with no watering and watering modalities. Each observation unit allows for observing the behavior of a single genotype under a combination of one modality from each of the two factors.The Observation is ontology driven, with all metadata stored following the Crop Ontology framework [8]. It allows for storing Phenotype or Environment measures. The Observations consists in triplets formed by an Observation Variable described below (e.g., yield in q/ha, plant height in cm, rust score, . . .), a value (the measure), and an optional date (Figures 1 and 2). Additional metadata can be stored either as linked files, for cultural practice or soil analysis reports, for instance, or as events and observation like lodging scores or hail date. The Observation Unit and Observation data model have been inspired by approaches like The Extensible Observation Ontology (OBOE) [28,29] and the GMOD Chado Genomic Feature [30]. In MIAPPE, the observations are stored in the data file.The phenotyped plant material, or germplasm, is the main interoperability pivot in GnpIS. Its correct identification varies depending on the context, but this problem has been discussed for several decades now and is addressed by an internationally recognized data standard, the Multi Crop Passport Descriptors (MCPD) [31]. Its importance and possible related issues are described in the study by Adam-Blondon et al. [13]. GnpIS is MCPD compliant and slightly extends it to fit the needs of its communities of users. In particular, our system handles experimental material that is not conserved in Genbanks as well as the concept of Lot which is a group of seeds or plant derived from a single accession. The identification of accessions in the MCPD relies on a triplet of information: the accession number, the holding institution, and the genus plus optional species. The Accession Number is the actual identifier of the plant material and must be unique in the holding institution and genus namespace. This triplet is now completed in GnpIS by a permanent unique identifier through a DOI or an URI (Unified Resource Identifier), as recommended by the FAO (International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources citation). Those permanent unique identifiers are unique at the scale of the World Wide Web.This allows for storing a comprehensive description of the plant material at different levels: identification of the accession of a germplasm collection and of a derived seed lot used in an experiment and the corresponding variety name.For instance, in a Zea maize trial, the variety B73 would have been provided by the INRA maize collection under the accession identifier B73 inra and the B73 inra SMH08 seed lot was experimented.The second important interoperability pivot is the Observation Variable, formalized by the Crop Ontology as three terms that describe (i) the phenotypic or environmental trait, (ii) the method used for the observation or measurement, and (iii) the unit or scale used for this observation [32]. The variable annotates the actual measurement, i.e., Observation, made during the trial. To support FAIR data, the Observation Variable must be fully described and the three terms must be agreed and shared within the relevant crop communities.Architecture. An overview of the software architecture of GnpIS-Ephesis is given in Figure 3. Its originality is to isolate the long-term storage of the data from the query Plant Phenomics layer, which is specific to the current web services and user interfaces. Furthermore, the user interface and the query layer are connected through web services and inspired by the microservice architecture. The storage layer consists of (i) a relational database which implements the conceptual data model and stores the two-dimensional data matrices and (ii) a file repository that stores data files such as images, global description of cultural practices, soil characteristics, NIRS results, and ontologies. The storage layer uncouples components of the phenotyping datasets to ease data curation and update. This is fully implemented for observation variables where datasets are stored in the database and ontologies in the file repository as seen in Figure 3. This allows for updating the ontologies without interfering with the Trials storage.The storage layer relational model is almost fully normalized (in the third normal form) which makes it efficient for storing consistent data on the long term but difficult to optimize for fast querying. Indeed, filtering the data or rebuilding the data matrix for export involves SQL joins between the Observation Unit table (more than 360 000 rows in 2018) and the Phenotype table (near 4 million rows in 2018), plus most of the other tables of the model. This join is costly even with fine-tuned indices such as composite indices or programmatic optimizations, i.e., using several light queries rather than one expensive query. To address this problem, we have explored data denormalization with a pure SQL approach. This proved to be efficient for the expected volumes but was not flexible enough to handle heterogeneous phenotyping data, in particular with respect to the varying width of the data matrices. Furthermore, NoSQL systems allow much easier horizontal scaling to cope with data volume increases.The phenotype query layer was therefore introduced as a document-oriented NoSQL system based on Elasticsearch. Trial and Observation Unit documents are aggregating all the data necessary for querying, filtering, displaying, and exporting whole datasets. This document structure is based on the denormalization of the first normal form [33] by aggregating several objects in a single document. For instance, the trial document includes all the information about locations (coordinates, names, . . .), plant material, and authorship. This simple aggregation is completed by a nesting of data graphs in the documents which can be seen in the Observation Unit document where all observations are listed as objects including value, variable, time, and metadata (Figure 2). Thus, no costly joins are needed between Observation Unit and Observation, well known problems like the select n+1 are avoided and the response time is below one second. GnpIS JSON Documents have been modeled in collaboration with the Breeding API (BrAPI) consortium [12]. GnpIS has contributed to BrAPI with the Observation Unit model and we have adopted the BrAPI Study, Observation Variable, and Germplasm documents which are based on shared standards.Interface. GnpIS provides phenotyping data discovery capabilities and data aggregation among several datasets. The dedicated query form, available in the phenotyping section of GnpIS (https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/ gnpis/), is based on three tabs: (i) \"Genotype\" for filtering the plant material by species, genetic panel, and collections, (ii) \"Observation variables\" that allows variables selection using a Breeding API compliant open source widget (https://github.com/gnpis/trait-ontology-widget), and (iii) \"Trial\" that contains filters for general metadata like the Phenotyping Campaign, i.e., Year, the location, the datasets list, or project filtering. The trait-ontology-widget (Figure 3) provides a biologist friendly tree navigation and keyword search in the ontologies and displays the full details of each variable. It is specific to the Crop Ontology model and therefore relies on the BrAPI observation variables Web Services rather than a generic ontology server like the Ontology Lookup Service. The selected variables are used to filter the phenotypic data search. It can easily be integrated in any system and is available in the BrAPI Application Showcase (BrAPPs, https://www.brapi.org/brapps.php). Note that the search filters apply not only to the Trials but also to the actual data. In other words, when filtering with a specific variety, we will preview only the trials using this variety, but also only the measurement made on this particular variety. This cross-tab filtering is useful to guide users in the search criterion selection steps.The result page (Figure 4) provides an overview of trials location through an interactive map. The list of selected trials is displayed in the \"Trial list\" tab. On the \"Phenotypic data\" tab, the data from several trials can be previewed with one data matrix by level. Each line of a matrix corresponds to one observation unit. It includes most of the metadata necessary for traceability and reliable data analysis.From the result page, several cards can be accessed to give synthetic overview of key objects, the main one being the Trial and the Accession. The trial card displays all the MIAPPE metadata, plus a free list of key value pairs for additional trial information. The accession card displays all MCPD metadata, the genealogy, primary descriptors (trial independent phenotypic values like the shape of the fruit), pictures, panels, and collections.GnpIS allows data access through Open API (https://www.openapis.org/) compliant web services implementing in particular the Phenotype related sections of the Breeding API, including Germplasm, Study, Location, Observation Variables, and Phenotypes. GnpIS includes BrAPI clients and a publicly available serverside implementation on top of the query layer. A swagger interface provides documentation and a test bench (https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/Tools/Web-services).GnpIS data publication and integration process includes both a data review step by data managers and an automated validation step to ensure a good balance between data submission ease and data quality. It starts by filling a tabular exchange format available through the web application. This format is the result of several years of collaboration with biology experts including geneticists, agronomists, genotype by environment specialists, researchers, and experimentation managers all working on annual or perennial plant, including forest trees. This exchange format has been designed to be both human and machine readable. This allows data validation and curation by data producers as well as efficient and reliable parsing before database insertion. When submitting a dataset, the users must first consolidate their interoperability pivots. The plant material list must be submitted with minimal information necessary for its identification and GnpIS data managers work in close collaboration with the curators of the INRA genebank collections.The observation variables are handled through the workflow developed with the Crop Ontology Trait Dictionary exchange format v5 (TDv5), with the assistance of GnpIS data managers. They can be either chosen within an existing ontology, added to an existing ontology, or listed in a new dedicated one. Indeed, whole comprehensive new ontologies have been created, like for grapes (Vitis Ontology) or Forest trees (Woody Plants Ontology) (Table 2). As seen in Figure 3, the ontologies are managed and versioned in the INRA GitLab in Crop Ontology TDv5 format, before being integrated within the data layer. Some of them are also being published on the Agroportal [34] and on the Crop Ontology portal which is synchronized with the EBI Ontology Lookup Service [35]. It has sometimes been necessary to create some new parallel ontologies for species which were already present on the Crop Ontology portal. It indeed facilitates the capture of the information about their phenotyping variables in large consortia with a history of data sharing practices. This is the case for the Wheat INRA Phenotype Ontology (WIPO) that shares many traits with the CIMMYT Wheat Crop Ontology (published on the Crop Ontology portal) but lists measurement methods specific of their respective user communities. The merging of those two ontologies is in progress. More than ten ontologies are currently used in GnpIS (Table 2).A data stewardship service to support users in their submission and curation work is offered allowing so far the publication of more than a thousand trials (Table 2).Fully formatted GnpIS exchange format files are submitted, validated, and inserted using the GnpIS toolbox. Dedicated workflows can also be developed collaboratively.The phenotyping data life cycle main steps are data collection, quality control including curation and cleaning, analysis, publication, sharing, and finally reuse. GnpIS mainly supports the three last steps while, for instance, the recently published PHIS [23] supports mainly the first three. Experimentation datasets usually include three types of data: (i) raw untransformed data (images, multispectral images, NIRS, frequencies, etc. . .) which are transformed into (ii) raw transformed data (in International System units, including dates) and finally (iii) elaborated or derived data (stress resistance, biomass, leaf area index, etc.). Depending on the needs, data of the second and third types can be directly managed in GnpIS whose data model has been designed to handle both field and greenhouse experimental data.GnpIS focuses on interoperability and integration capabilities through the usage of MIAPPE, the Breeding API, and the Crop Ontology standards. The system is therefore very versatile and can be used to integrate and consolidate datasets suitable for genetics studies, trait diversity studies in genetic resources, or modeling approaches in physiology.Currently, phenotyping data in GnpIS implements mainly the \"FAIR for the human\" as described in the study by Wilkinson et al. [36]. It is well advanced and allows a good traceability of the data acquisition methods, of its transformation, and experimentation factors. But that information still needs to be expressed with more advanced formalisms to enable FAIR machine readability and to improve the quality of the metadata. Indeed, enabling FAIRness for machines would in particular imply the use of semantic formats, i.e., Resource Description Framework (RDF) and JSON-LD. It is a complex objective that is not only technical but would require an evaluation of the FAIRness of each of the datasets integrated in GnpIS, which is not yet done. In addition, the linked data principles [17] state that every resource must be correctly identified with an HTTP URI, described in RDF, and linked to other resources. This has been partially implemented in GnpIS: the interoperability pivots (Variables, Accessions, and Datasets) are linked to other resources with permanent unique IDs but only the accessions and some datasets have DOIs or URIs. Nonetheless, with the right namespace, GnpIS IDs are unique at the scale of the World Wide Web and therefore provide a strong basis for future full enabling of linked data in GnpIS. The interoperability of GnpIS with other databases is ensured by REST Open APIs, and especially the increasingly adopted Breeding API. REST is well integrated with the current web application development ecosystem. As a consequence, RDF is not planned to be used directly as the main medium for linked data in GnpIS, which will rather be enabled through extension of those APIs using the JSON-LD semantic format, hence enabling the conversion to RDF. A proof of concept has been realized with a Wheat dataset available in a dedicated triple store and as a downloadable RDF file (see link to data in the DOI of [37]).Findability of the datasets by users is enabled through indexing rich metadata and fast querying mechanisms. Accessibility is guaranteed by long-term storage associated with open technologies (HTTP REST) and format (CSV, JSON, and ISATab). The license is by default Creative Commons (CC-BY 4) and can be modified through a DOI associated with specific datasets.Interoperability in GnpIS also relies on data curation and integration aiming at the unambiguous identification of the pivot data and the use of standard formats for metadata descriptions and vocabularies, which is a costly effort [38]. In our experience, the most difficult points are the correct identification of the plant material and the development of the appropriate Crop Ontology variable list when it does not exist yet. This curation process is greatly eased by the uncoupling of the datasets and the ontologies which allow seamless updates of the variable ontologies. Indeed, upgrading an ontology version, or switching back to a previous version in case of problems, can be done in less than an hour by a data manager. The Crop Ontology community is also working on easing the process of building and enriching ontologies from information systems like Cassavabase [39] which provides a web form for creating or requesting new variables.The use of the CO approach and trait dictionary format to submit Observation Variables in GnpIS has two objectives. The first one is to guide and capture agreements within a research network on measurement methods which allows consistent data collection and analysis. The originality of the Crop Ontology approach [40] is to build a set of species specific, or clade-specific, variable ontologies, rather than building a global variable ontology, which would be difficult if not irrelevant. Therefore, the second objective is to focus on a better standardized list of traits and to let communities freely create methods and variables adapted to their research. This work has begun within the Planteome initiative, and could be extended by publishing common Trait lists. To ease this process, we are considering maintaining two sets of ontologies for some species, one to address the specific needs of GnpIS communities and to act as a clearing house for variable curation and validation and the other which is much broader and therefore published on references portals. With this pragmatic approach, the FAIRness of the datasets is ensured either by annotating with existing ontologies, published in Crop Ontology, or by creating ad hoc ontologies following the proven CO model.Particular Observation Variables use cases needed some adaptations of the recommendations of the Crop Ontology while keeping semantic interoperability. A good example are complex variables, elaborated by combining several variables like, for instance, measurement of plant height at flowering (combination of flowering time and plant height time series) or green Berry pH and mature Berry pH (combination of berry composition with phenology). In those examples, we are dealing with classical trait/method/scale variables combined with a development stage or a treatment duration. Creating the variables covering all the needed combinations would lead to ontologies with several thousands of variables. GnpIS proposes to create complex variables specific of the trial and which are not listed as such in the Crop Ontology. Each of those specific variables are annotated by a crop ontology variable, hence linking them to reference variables. For instance, the variable Canker lesion length (CO 357:0000088) annotates two local variables, Bacterial canker lesion length 1 or 2 years after inoculation (Canker length.2 and Canker length.1). This example can be found with the Trial Code \"POP2-Orleans-chancre\". This way, any variable necessary for a given experiment can be freely created as long as it is linked to a variable existing in a crop ontology. In the future, those specific variables could be simple text description annotated with IDs taken from several reference ontologies (e.g., Plant Environmental Condition Ontology for the treatment part, Plant Ontology for the growth stage part, . . .).Curation of the plant material identifiers is more difficult to achieve. Indeed, while the MCPD standard provides identification principles, their application is community-based and cannot be automated for the moment. Currently, the plant material ID curation is a prerequisite for each dataset integration and publication in collaboration with the data providers. Once achieved, GnpIS associates with each accession a DOI generated by INRA to ensure a good traceability of the plant material and an unambiguous identification across any federation of information systems. This curation process, however, can introduce a delay in data publication.Reusability in GnpIS varies from one phenotype dataset to the other. Data is generally available in easily parsable standard open formats: OpenAPI (BrAPI), JSON, and MIAPPE compliant Isa Tab or csv. They are currently being improved to better handle traceability of environment parameters and field practices. This type of data can currently be handled in GnpIS through variables like lodging or hail storm dates, comments on each variable or files describing field practices attached to the Trial. There is, however, no clear standard way yet proposed in GnpIS for this type of data. Since they are very important on the long term for meta-analysis, their submission should be facilitated in the future through a full upgrade of GnpIS to MIAPPE v1.1. Finally, the documentation of the provenance of the dataset, including measurement methods and data processing, is only partial and varies too much. The use of dedicated systems like the Phenotyping Hybrid Information System (PHIS) by the data producers would certainly facilitate the capture of all the metadata and their MIAPPE compliant publication in GnpIS.Plant Science. Making data FAIR is necessary to enhance knowledge development and innovation but has an important cost as it requires time of different types of experts to standardize the data (experts in standards maintaining registries and often tools facilitating their use, experts in the specific type of data considered, and computer engineers maintaining the repositories). It is therefore important to build international communities of practice around suites of tools that facilitate the generation of linked data and ensure a better sustainability of these tools. MIAPPE, BrAPI, and the Crop Ontology are good examples of such suites that are the products of a close collaboration between computer scientists and biologists from various communities at the global level. The importance of the implication of end users is well demonstrated in the collaboration with the Crop Ontology. Indeed, the biologist friendly framework built within this initiative and based on the CGIAR experience has been easily adopted by GnpIS and Elixir Plant communities. This greatly helped to improve the quality of our datasets and in turn will open collaborations with large initiatives in the domain of plant ontologies like Planteome or Agroportal.The implementation of these standards in GnpIS together with data curation efforts in collaboration with the data producers have been instrumental to ensure GnpIS interoperability at a larger scale. Indeed, GnpIS is included in international data repositories federations including Elixir plant community, Emphasis (https://emphasis.plantphenotyping.eu/), and the WheatIS. The use of common global standards focused on interoperability allows independent updates of the members of a federation and should enhance the sustainability of the tools built at the global level to support the federation and in the end of the whole federation.GnpIS provides an archive for phenotyping experimental data compliant to FAIR principles in terms of data access, traceability of the metadata, and citability of the datasets. It applies open data recommendations promoted by several national and international infrastructures, scientific societies, and funding agencies. It also allows for integrating different sets of data to support different types of researches in the field of the adaptation to environment or to the impact of climate change. As there is no global archive for phenotyping data, GnpIS has been built to be integrated in several federations of information systems accessible through common data portals, the oldest one being the WheatIS portal. This has been possible thanks to the continuous implementation of the current standards recommended by the international community, hence facilitating interoperability between information systems and data integration and providing strong foundations for new federations.Findable "}

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+{"metadata":null,"keywords":null,"sieverID":"1e7dbcb5-9525-4662-a0f9-e001a1905239","content":"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"23a24807c66e1d1f02fffd9175d5b8dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/iwmi-tata/PDFs/2012_Highlight-41.pdf","id":"757704319"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2845ae0e-6612-494d-8b67-c75056af9bc3","content":"Debilitating Juvenile Skeletal Fluorosis is a recent phenomenon in India. Why could it be happening? In this Highlight, the author unveils this problem and attributes its main cause to mother and child malnutrition apart from unsafe water. The answer to this problem lies in addressing malnutrition problem of the mother and child along with provision of safe fluoride-free water. Since traditional dietary patterns are not satisfying nutritional needs and therefore leading to this problem; suggestions ask for changes to such dietary patterns. Also, there is a call for external interventions such as fortification and supplementation to enhance nutritional intake in fluoride affected areas. Problems such as juvenile fluorosis are symptomatic of deeper problems that are hidden beneath the surface. Before generational changes occur, the suggestions prescribed need to be urgently acted upon.Historically, nutrition has been 'everyone's problem' but 'no-one's responsibility'. The prevalence of child undernutrition in India is among the highest in the world, and nearly double that of Sub-Saharan Africa, where the food insecurity is much higher in comparison with India. From the last few decades, we are fighting to eliminate nutritional deficiency disorders. In addition, since inadequate dietary intake by pregnant women results in lesser nutrient supply to fetus, a higher prevalence of adult non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and coronary heart disease is expected according to the theory of 'fetal origin of adult disease'. The World Bank has predicted that coronary heart disease will become the leading cause of premature death in India by 2015 and that the maximum number of diabetic patients in the world will be in India. Clearly, there is a need for examining several issues of nutritional significance for effective planning of interventions. Apart from nutritional deficiencies and risk for noncommunicable diseases, in endemic areas of fluoride, flourosis will continue to be a public health problem as the fluorine content of the soil has been increasing over the time and at present fluorosis is prevalent in 20 states out of the 35 states and Union Territories of the Indian Republic. The fluoride can be present in foods, water, plants, rocks, soil and even air. The main contribution of fluoride to human beings is from water and to a certain extent from food especially in endemic areas. Significant work has been done to reduce fluoride concentration of water by developing defluoridation plants, but very less emphasis has been played on the role of nutrition. This Highlight tries to address the role of nutrients and few strategies for effective implementation of nutritional programs to mitigate fluorosis especially to avoid skeletal fluorosis in children which is causing severe crippling and deformities of bone which cannot be corrected or treated.Nutrition appears to play a crucial role to reduce the toxicity of fluoride. Diet rich in calories, calcium, magnesium and vitamin C has been found to be effective in this regard especially beneficial to children in endemic areas which should prevent deformities and crippling. Research has shown that magnesium helps in elimination of fluoride from the body by competing with calcium and also it was observed that the fluorosis incidence is less in villages whose water content of magnesium is high compared to those with lower levels with similar fluoride in drinking waters (Reddy and Deme 2010). It has been proved that fluorosis incidence was high in individuals whose diet was poor in vitamin C intake.Apart from the need for extra amount of these nutrients, malnourished individuals appear to be more prone to develop dental and skeletal fluorosis (Littleton 1999). The role of under-nutrition and fluoride toxicity has been established as early as in 1973 by Krishnamachari and Krishnaswamy (1973) who concluded that the occurrence of bone deformities among the poorer segments of the populations is suggestive of a detrimental role of undernutrition on fluoride-induced toxicity. Mithal et al. (1993) also observed that the bone deformities due to fluorine toxicity are more commonly found in the poorer and undernourished population. Over 90 percent of the persons affected with severe skeletal fluorosis, bone disease and deformities belong to the poorer socioeconomic group of the farming community and they had generalized nutritional deficiencies according to Teotia et al. (1984). Lower limb deformities that are seen in individuals in endemic areas of Nalgonda are not seen in fluorotic regions of Punjab with same levels of fluoride in drinking water supplies. This may be because the people's nutrition is better in Punjab especially as per their calcium intake. Epidemiological studies in endemic regions in India and Japan suggested that the role of protein, calcium and vitamin C and its relation to severity of fluorosis. There is a great need to reduce fluorosis in much broader way considering various factors like reducing the fluorine content in food and drinking water, providing boneseeking nutrients like calcium, magnesium, and vitamin C and most importantly the underlying cause that is Malnutrition need to be considered to mitigate fluorosis. 1 This IWMI-Tata Highlight is not externally peer-reviewed and the views expressed are of the author alone and not of IWMI or its funding partners.Loss of habitat due to environmental changes leads to lack of known resources and availability of traditional food sources for those habitats and leading to malnutrition in children. The hunter gatherer of Bhil tribe from Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh is the live example to observe loss of habitat and their access to traditional food and its consequence on the present generation who are stunted, malnourished, crippled and with severe bone deformities at quite a young age (Figure 1). Hunter-gatherers occasionally consumed cereal grains; however these foods were apparently not major dietary components for most of the year (Eaton and Nelson 1991). These hunter gatherers' change in the habitat and environment, lead to forced It was observed that whenever cereal-based diets were first adopted as a staple food replacing the primarily animal-based diets of hunter-gatherers, there was a characteristic reduction in stature, an increase in infant mortality (Cohen 1987), a reduction in lifespan, an increased incidence of infectious diseases (Lallo et al. 1977), an increase in iron deficiency anemia, an increased incidence of osteomalacia, and other bone mineral disorders. To tackle malnutrition or fluorosis the strategies need to be much broader. jowar, ragi along with rice, wheat etc. would make various food grains available with required amount of essential nutrients at the local level. These cereals such as bajra and ragi can also be included in PDS and Midday meal program in ICDS and higher priority should be given to the local food crops than to the cash crops to ensure food security and to enhance the nutritional status. Calcium supplementation needs to be mandatory in fluorosis.In spite of various nutritional interventional programs, the levels of child malnutrition in India are exceptionally high and little progress has been made over the past few years, the prevalence of under nutrition in India was 53.4 percent in 1998, it was reduced to 47 percent and 46 percent in 2005; the trend of change is discouragingly slow. We still house highest number of children with Vitamin A deficiency and anemia. In fact the level of anemia and stunting has gone up in NFHS-3 survey in comparison to NFHS-2. Government provides nutritional supplementation, but in endemic areas of Fluorosis regular ICDS supplementation may not be of much help as the requirement for certain nutrients are much higher in quantity and quality than the general supplementation provided to the population. All the food based nutritional supplements are based on cereal and pulses. Cereal grains lack a number of nutrients which are essential for human health and well-being; additionally they contain numerous vitamins and minerals with low biological availability. As more and more cereal grains are included in the diet, they tend to displace the calories and nutrients that would be provided by other foods (meats, dairy products, fruits and vegetables), and can consequently disrupt adequate nutritional balance Loren (1999). So there is a need to relook at the supplements under nutrition programs, considering including non-vegetarian food source wherever it is possible.The origin of gender inequalities can be traced to Manu in 200 BC who mentions about the ideal behavior of a woman as \"By a young girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independent, even in her own house\". According to United Nations Development Programme, on the gender development index (GDI), India's rank is 98 in a universe of 140 countries. A study on women's autonomy carried out by NFHS-2 (1998NFHS-2 ( -1999) ) indicated that 85 percent of women participated in decisions about what to cook, but only 41 percent could decide independently on how they spend the money they earn. Women in South Asia tend to have lower status and less decision-making power than women in Sub-Saharan Africa. This limits women's ability to access the resources needed for their own and their children's health and nutrition. Excessive fluoride ingestion in pregnant women may possibly poison and alter enzyme and hormonal systems in the fetus causing disturbances in osteoid formation and mineralization Christie (1980). Ensuring appropriate weight gain during pregnancy is one of the important ways to ensure right intake of all nutrients to avoid fluorine toxicity. There are no intense programs in place to improve the overall weight gain during pregnancy which can influence the birth weight of the baby. Monitoring weight gain each month (something similar to child growth chart) and ensuring the weight gain during pregnancy along with calcium supplementation will help the child to be healthier. The nutritional intervention need to be initiated at the time of pregnancy itself, followed by colostrum feeding, exclusive of breast feeding for first 6 months of new born and healthy weaning food are the most important strategies which need to be implemented to avoid fluorine toxicity. These strategies are in place from more than a decade but due to the defined set of culture norms, less decision making power and loss of traditional feeding practices and lack of present nutritional guideline, the implementation of these strategies are not successful. Woman empowerment also include to sensitize the male member/spouse of the family about the special nutritional needs during pregnancy and the importance of good diet and nutrition for the child in the first 1000 days of the new born and consequences due to improper need, to be educated. In Bhil tribe the Dayya's (the male Mid-wife or Traditional Birth Attendant) are the one who conducts deliveries, and usually the father-in law takes the role of phenomena -degrading environmental changes bringing upon contamination of water and food along with change in food habits causing under-nutrition. Over generations, communities propagate severe nutrition deficiencies and previously healthy communities now produce children with stunted growth and fluorosis. Addressing fluorosis therefore, needs action not only from water, but also to address this severe malnutrition of the child and the mother. A few nutrients such as Calcium, Magnesium and Vitamin C have been identified as important for fluorosis, but overall nutritional deficiency also matters in general.However, looking at current experiences combating malnutrition, addressing such specific deficiencies is going to be even more difficult. Though larger government policies are going to be important in this through fortification and supplementation, there is urgent need for increased awareness not only of mothers, but also of fathers who could be important decision makers. That child health will be affected by mother's nutrition during pregnancy. Lactation is something that needs to be understood by the father too. Even after such realization, continuation of existing cultural food habits will not solve this problem. In many places, cultural beliefs pose barriers -such as predominantly vegetarian diet. Lack of dairy products among the poor also creates a larger nutrition deficit. Fluorosis is just one disease arising out of nutritional deficiency exacerbated by high fluoride in water. Such severe mother and child malnutrition are causing many such problems which have a longer gestation period and pass away unnoticed. We are at the cusp of time requiring urgent action on this front. An entire generation stands to gain from such effort of proper nutritional program.Daaya. Providing appropriate training to Dayya's about mother and child care and need to be taken up seriously.In relation to maternal and child health, all the education being conducted for the women in the society have made woman more responsible, however without any power to implement; in contrast there is no responsibility or the awareness/education programs to the male member/spouse of the family to be part and ensure safe healthy pregnancy and child care. The fluorine toxicity needs to be reduced during the pregnancy and in the first few years of new born. Fluoride toxicity afflicts children more severely and over a shorter period of exposure (about 6 months) as compared to adults. This is because the rapidly growing bones of children are metabolically active and more vascular and thus absorb and accumulate fluoride faster and in greater amounts than older bones (Teotia et al. 1998).The nationwide intervention programs are in operation over decades, still the situation has not changed greatly. The commonly-held assumption is that food insecurity is the primary or even sole cause of malnutrition. "}

main/part_2/0079524255.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"75de8d818b32f7b1f32367a010a6041d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4bb85c6f-5cda-4116-b889-cb296ab53ed6/retrieve","id":"-1601505835"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"17d63aa9-127c-4ec2-90ff-27ced78bd85f","content":"• Develop a reverse genetics tool for common bean that can be used to discover genes that are important determinants of agronomic traits for the crop.• Analyze candidate genes for drought tolerance and other traits (N-fixation or Al tolerance) as a proof of concept study to show the value of the TILLING populations.• Objective for year 1 is to perfect the mutagenesis protocols and develop the mutant stocks.• Objective for year 2 are to multiply the mutant stocks and carry out the proof of concept study with drought responsive genes.• Ethyl methane sulphonate (EMS) was used at CIAT (Davis et al., 1988) and elsewhere (Gautam et al., 1998) in the 80s and 90s and shown to be efficient and reliable.• Chemical mutagenesis was applied to common bean principally to develop a number of nodulation mutants for a limited number of genotypes:(eg Davis et al., 1988 used EMS (80 mM for 4 hrs) to mutate RIZ 30 and RIZ 36, finding 112 non-nodulating mutants in the M2 generation following inoculation with Rhizobium strains, CIAT632 and CIAT899)• Appropriate concentrations of EMS to use for large-scale common bean seed mutagenesis were worked out at the Univ. of Geneva (Pankhurst et al., 2003).• A collection of aproximately 1000 fertile M1 mutant plants has been generated.• We have grown four to eight seeds from each of 350 M1 plant to begin phenotypic screening and DNA extraction of mutants.• Plant architecture, Leaf variegation and Seed quality (size and color) have been observed to vary in the mutants.• Simultaneously M2 plants are being tested for nodulation defects at the University of Geneva.Leaf mutants observed so far:Architecture mutants observed so far:Plant architecture -severe stunting, dwarf and semi-dwarf phenotypes found along with some spindly (elongated shoot) mutants.N-fixation mutants observed so far:Pv 366Pv 354Pv 341 Pv 418Non-nodulation mutants observed so far:Reduced nodulation mutant:• A mutant collection of common bean amenable for forward and reverse genetics.• Demonstrated capability to apply reverse genetics using mutant population.• Demonstrated trait evaluation using mutant stocks.• Training of researchers in common bean mutagenesis and mutant screening procedures.• Systems in place to produce and distribute mutant seeds.  We plan to map three DREB genes that have been identified for common bean.Full length seq. PvDREB2 / PvDREB3 and partial PvDREB1 having high sequence identity with other DREB genes were isolated. All have AP2/EREBP domains with 3 beta chains / 1 alpha helix that are necessary for specific binding to DNA. DREB specific boxes found in the flanking regions of the AP2/EREBP domain. Putative nuclear localization signal (NLS) and Protein Kinase binding sites also found.Sequence obtained for alleles of G19833, DOR364, BAT477, BAT881 and G21212.Next step is to design markers for these genes and amplify them in the central and drought mapping populations.We have analyzed a set of 19 cross legume markers from Univ. California -Davis that amplify for common bean and plan to analyze a further set of 25 of these same markers to link the central and drought maps to genetic maps made for other legumes inlcuding Medicago truncatula and soybean.Cross Legume Markers HRIP"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"827759bfeadd6a295cd333a3b90d2174","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/768e0bd1-bd9f-4470-9bbc-bee05fcbdda6/retrieve","id":"-2049054559"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2e19adb8-0b72-45ba-a0df-2a617a119539","content":"Nile -Goblet is an open source so2ware that creates suitability maps for any given technology, and has been programed for rainwater management prac<ces in the Nile Basin 1. Defini<on of suitability is fully expert driven, i.e. expert define themselves which maps have to be used and their relevant suitability range. (Step A & B below) 2. it includes the most accurate bio--physical map available for the Nile Basin to represent the bio--physical context, allowing for accurate bio--physical suitability maps 3. it contains \"adop<on maps\" : these maps show the probability of adop<on based on micro--economic data for classes of rainwater management prac<ces to account for the socio--economic context 4. It has a module to show combina<on of rainwater management prac<ces referred to as strategies that enable synergies at landscape scale"}

main/part_2/0128133978.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"19b829f407dcd88ba3f01152dd93e3df","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/71cc21d5-aeaa-44df-b222-decb000b7b66/retrieve","id":"426721002"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"417307af-ea5e-424e-ac82-330e2fa9ec05","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-The CGIAR Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihoods, Nutrition and Gender Inclusion (SAPLING) is an initiative that focuses on sustainable animal productivity. This initiative aims to contribute to transforming livestock sectors in target countries to make them more productive, resilient, equitable and sustainable (see Box 1 on how this objective will be achieved).The initiative is based in seven countries located in East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda), West Africa (Mali), Southeast Asia (Vietnam) and South Asia (Nepal), and works on 15 livestock value chains in total (see Figure 1).Within CGIAR, SAPLING is mapped to the action area Resilient Agrifood Systems.Figure 1. SAPLING focal livestock value chains, which number 15 in total, across seven countries (Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mali, Nepal and Vietnam) and six livestock types (beef cattle, chicken, dairy buffalo, dairy cattle, pigs and small ruminants).Box 1. SAPLING's objectives will be achieved through five work packages:Technologies and practices for sustainable livestock productivity: developing, adapting and testing new and existing productivity-and resilience-enhancing, low-emission, scalable technologies and practices across the three main pillars of livestock productivity: improved feeds, animal health products and genetics (Work Package 1).Innovations and practices for safe consumption of livestock-derived foods as part of diverse diets: co-creating innovative models and approaches for social and behaviour change communication (SBCC), and testing and evaluating approaches for incentivizing market actors to enhance the supply of safe, nutritious and affordable livestock-derived foods (Work Package 2).Sustainable livestock productivity for gender equity and social inclusion: understanding constraints and opportunities, identifying best-bet entry points, addressing constraints and developing tools to measure progress (Work Package 3).Competitive and inclusive livestock value chains: generating evidence on institutional arrangements and technical interventions to transition towards more profitable, inclusive and sustainable livestock value chains (Work Package 4).Evidence, decisions and scaling: generating and consolidating evidence, models and tools to support public and private decision-making for a sustainable and inclusive livestock sector (Work Package 5).From: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/1281502 Dairy value chain in TanzaniaCommercialization of dairying in Tanzania is considered a key mechanism for improving productivity and livelihoods; however, there are questions on an enabling environment, investments that private sector can leverage and the role of research to generate new knowledge that may be required. Previous efforts to establish market linkages targeting farmer groups as entry points to overcome market barriers and increase participation of farmers in input and output markets were found to be slow and requiring substantial preliminary investment in capacity building for collective action compared to linkages involving agripreneurs as an alternative to achieving the same objectives (Dizyee et al. 2019;Omore et al. 2019).Participation by smallholder producers in input and service markets is limited, and is even declining in some cases.Recent evidence shows an ongoing decline in access and use of inputs and services by livestock keepers in Tanzania, from 55% to only 9% of livestock keepers accessing extension services over the last decade (NBS 2021). Yet, some related analyses have demonstrated that users of livestock extension services earn three times more income than non-users due to higher productivity from utilization of appropriate inputs and services (Covarrubias et al. 2012;FAO 2015). Targeted innovations to improve productivity that also address environmental effects associated with livestock are urgently needed, given the climate crisis, especially in contexts where demand for livestock products is rapidly increasing just like in Tanzania, and sub-Saharan Africa in general.The growing demand is making agribusinesses more viable and attractive for employment (Tschirley et al. 2015) especially for youth who comprise 60% of the unemployed population (UNDP/AfDB/OECD, 2015).Agribusinesses provide important linkages within value chains -linking farmers to product buyers and suppliers of productivity-enhancing technologies, inputs and services. Improving their performance, especially with respect to services offered to farmers, therefore presents significant opportunities. This is more so in a country like Tanzania where private sector involvement in key commodity value chains remains weak despite the enormous potential of the value chains to improve smallholder incomes, food and nutrition security and to create jobs. One of the major limitations to private sector growth includes lack of knowledge. Successful business training has been shown to significantly increase the probability of success for both start-ups and established businesses (e.g., Klinger and Schündeln 2011). In addition, teaching that emphasizes \"personal initiative\" has been shown in a randomized trial to be even more effective than traditional training in boosting small businesses (Campos et al. 2017).Three sites in northeast and coastal Tanzania, namely, Kilimanjaro and Tanga regions and two districts within each region were selected through stakeholder consultation using criteria such as the need to align with ongoing development projects that could facilitate the uptake of technology packages, district commodity value chain priority, conducive agro-ecology, accessibility and growth potential. The SAPLING target districts within each region comprise: Hai and Siha in Kilimanjaro region and Korogwe and Muheza in Tanga region (Figure 2). The choice of these sites also builds on legacy research for development projects mainly, Maziwa Zaidi implemented under the Livestock CRP and ADGG. Key dairy value chain research questions 1. Under which conditions can empowered agribusinesses enhance uptake of technology packages as compared to direct project implementation?2. How does agribusiness incubation/acceleration/ mentorship crowd in competitive and efficient agribusinesses and lead to more competitive smallholder dairy farmers?3. Which bundles or technology packages deliver more impact on productivity and incomes, how and why?Note: The \"conditions\" in question 1 include use of a digital platform, skills training, incentives, policy, and institutional enablers for uptake of technologies and innovations.Key partners comprise Kuza Biashara (https:// www.kuza.one/about/), a social enterprise that uses business as a force for good and is reputed for revolutionizing advisory service delivery to smallholders by championing a digital platform for engaging private sector frontline extension networks; the Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI) and local government agencies in respective sites.Since past research has shown that successful livestock development requires integrated packages of productivity enhancing technologies and innovations along the value chain and in the enabling environment, SAPLING organizes its outputs not as individual \"silver bullets\" but rather in innovation packages-\"combinations of interrelated innovations and enabling conditions that, together, can lead to transformation and impact at scale in a specific context 1 \"-that target specific sets of inter-related, context-specific opportunities and constraints. Innovation Packages to contribute to outcomes on the ground. ToCs were initially developed in participatory workshops with stakeholders and later updated to reflect changes in programming, to clarify and firm up the underlying logic-via specification of sub-pathwaysand to increase consistency across value chains. Click here for information on the stakeholder workshop that initiated the development of the ToC for the dairy value chain in Tanzania (Omore, A.O. 2022). The ToC was partially based on a previous one for Maziwa Zaidi (Dhamankar et al. 2021). Going forward, regular review and updating is planned as part of program management and monitoring, evaluation, learning and impact assessment (MELIA). For more information on how the value chain ToCs fit into the overall SAPLING monitoring, evaluation and learning plan, refer to the SAPLING MEL Brief.Annex 1 provides additional information on the elements included in the ToC.A dairy cow in Tanga Tanzania (photo credit: ILRIPaul KaraimuTheory of change for the dairy value chain in Tanzania Figure 3 presents the ToC of the dairy value chain in Tanzania with target values determined as given here.It contains two sub-pathways. The first focuses on the local scale and targets value chain actors, especially service providers and, ultimately, men and women dairy producers. The second pathway focuses on policy influence at the national scale. While the two pathways are mutually reinforcing, especially in the long run, it is useful to describe them separately to clarify for how SAPLING expects early interactions and outcomes to occur. Further details about innovations and enabling elements within each innovation package are presented in the boxed text.The first sub-pathway rests on the recognition that sustainable improvements in farm-level productivity will not only be realized through better technologies and technology packages, but also through strengthened capacity and innovations along the value chain that ensure profitability and equity for all actors. The first Innovation Package (IP1) consists of technology packages and approaches for strengthening capacity and the enabling environment, all of which are developed with attention to gender and inclusion (see box 2). The gender and social inclusion aspects entail strategies and approaches to empower women and men service providers to deliver bundled inputs and services to men and women dairy producers, including approaches to transform restrictive gender norms. IP1 is expected to improve knowledge and technical, business and entrepreneurial skills of service providers (IO1); to enhance networking to strengthen linkages among actors all along the VC (IO2), and to inculcate business acumen and discipline among fledgling agrientrepreneurs to enable them to develop bankable ideas and business plans that can attract financing (IO3). As a result, women and youth are expected to increase their ability to access opportunities in dairy value chains (IO4) leading to private and public sector partners investment in co-creation and delivery of integrated technologies and practices, thus guiding progress towards gender equality and inclusion. In addition, through the channels of IO1, IO2 and IO3, service providers will use their new skills, tools and approaches to deliver integrated technology packages to producers (IO5). The increased participation of women and youth in dairy VC (IO4) and service providers' ability to use new skills, tools and approaches to deliver integrated technology packages to producers (IO5) will result in investment by the private and public sector partners worth at least USD 3M in co-creation and delivery of novel, low-emission, demand-driven, gender and youth inclusive, and productivity-enhancing technologies (EOI2). SAPLINGrelated technologies and the institutional arrangements (including markets) necessary for their adoption are expected to be taken up by 60,000 people (male and female). In addition, at least 30,000 people will use SAPLING-promoted improved forage and food-feed crops, resulting in a 50% increase in productivity (EOI1).Several assumptions underlie the logic of the first sub-pathway. First, service providers, including women and youth, hold aspirations and self-drive to engage in delivery of bundled inputs and services. Second, incubation and/or mentorship contribute to improved business performance. Within this pathway, the next assumption is that inclusive agribusinesses enhance uptake of technology packages by producers, and lastly, that integrated packages contribute to increased productivity, income and consumption among producers. Impact evaluations are planned to test these assumptions.The second sub-pathway recognizes the important role that policy often plays in achieving and maintaining sustainable, equitable improvements in productivity, profitability and transformation along the value chain. IP2 (see Box 3) inform advocacy efforts for more inclusive and gender transformative investments, an enabling business environment, and for supportive/appropriate regulatory frameworks for service providers including formalization/certification of agribusinesses and inputs. This IP will also develop and implement media campaigns to promote uptake of technologies at the national level, along with campaigns targeted towards gender transformative change aimed at structural gender-based disadvantages.Key to achieving outcomes along this pathway is working with select scaling partners. Therefore, it is essential that these partners engage actively with SAPLING (IO6).While this engagement can result in scaling partners promoting the innovation packages themselves (see link to IO5 in the first pathway) it is also expected that they will be powerful advocates for policy change (IO7), ultimately contributing to the use of innovation packages to inform policy and investment (EOI4). Over time, these changes are expected to improve the business environment for dairy development, thus encouraging investment by service providers and other VC actors.A key assumption underlying this pathway is that SAPLING advocacy channels are effective in communicating opportunities for a stronger private sector and more investments. Knowledge, attitude and practice surveys will be conducted to identify the contributions of SAPLING's communications and advocacy to influencing change.Key innovations in this IP come from WPs 3, 4 and 5:* Evidence-based recommendations for policy makers and investors for a supportive/appropriate regulatory framework for service providers including formalization/certification of forage seed supplies. * Advocacy to policy makers and investors on the recommendations for a supportive/appropriate regulatory framework for service providers, including formalization/certification of agribusinesses/inputs.ToCs are living documents that should be developed and updated in response to concrete programmatic needs. Detailed ToCs were originally developed in participatory workshops with partners as part of co-designing SAPLING. The revisions presented here were intended to clarify that logic enhance consistency across ToCs, and make more explicit the links to program-level MELIA. Future revisions, which are expected to occur annually, will depend on what is most useful Tanzania. They could focus in more detail on specific sub-pathways, especially where there are still questions in the logic. They could also focus on identifying indicators and plans for tracking these at VC level to complement Initiative-level monitoring. As results emerge and experiences are gained in VCs, the ToC will be updated, and appropriate changes made in overall program planning. "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b7e89a826a56f2989ca7007d1a06202e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d51e5e71-3732-43f1-8fd0-969ab3d468f6/content","id":"1612553813"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d2662776-d5e5-429e-bec5-2696ac676fef","content":"Bread wheat covers over 240 million hectares globally and is considered a staple food of around 40% of the global population and contributes one-third of total world grain production. It is projected that world wheat production must increase by at least 60% to meet the estimated wheat grain demand in 2050. Among biotic factors, plant parasitic nematodes, diseases and insects are important constraints leading to substantial reductions in per unit area production. Cereal cyst nematodes (CCN), root lesion nematodes and seed gall nematodes are significant species on wheat in most regions of the world and are present in the Central Western Asia and North Africa (CWANA) (Dababat and Fourie, 2018;Seid et al., 2021). In the CWANA regions, wheat yield is negatively affected by a complex group of Heterodera species. Heterodera avenae, H. filipjevi and H. latipons are the most important CCN. The damage caused by CCN is not well known to those working in these countries.This chapter emphasizes the economic importance, distribution, biology, symptoms of CCN in addition to recommended integrated nematode management (INM) tools to control CCN in wheat.Wheat produced in the rainy winter season in the semi-arid regions of CWANA is highly vulnerable to CCN and considerable yield losses of up to 50% can occur (Dababat and Fourie, 2018). H. avenae is also the most destructive plant parasitic nematode of wheat in the climatic conditions of Northern Europe where it causes an estimated 10% loss in grain yield. Wheat in CWANA is a monoculture in most countries and CCN are serious problems with wheat grown in the cool rainy winter seasons across North Africa all the way to Northern Europe.Although the true level of losses across all of CWANA is poorly worked out, the average yields in the region are very low when compared to the world average. This could be due to the lack of INM. Yield losses can exceed 50% under the harsh climatic condition characterized by low precipitation and high temperature in the region. Nevertheless, the reports regarding wheat grain yield losses do not accurately portray the magnitude of economic losses at the regional or national level because documentation has been mostly based on research plots located in infested areas of fields, i.e. sick plots (Smiley et al., 2017).  (Dababat and Fourie, 2018).Heterodera avenae infects graminaceous crops especially wheat, oats, barley and rye. Other hosts include grasses from the genera Agropyron, Alopecurus, Agrostis, Arrhenatherum, Anisantha, Brachypodium, Avena, Bromus, Dactylis, Echinochola, Festuca, Hordeum, Koeleria, Lolium, Lhalaris, Poa, Polypogon, Phleum, Setaria, Sorghum, Secale, Triticum, Trisetum, Vulpia, Zerna and Zea. Senebiera pinnatifida belonging to the Brassicaceae family is the only non-graminaceous host recorded so far.Major hosts of H. filipjevi include bread wheat, oat, false wheat, barley, rye and quack grass. However, Triticum discocoides, T. durum, T. tauchi, T. monococcum, T. ovatum, T. turgidum, T. umbellatum, and T. ventricosum are well characterized experimental hosts of H. filipjevi. Maize is a weak host of H. filipjevi. The J2 are able to invade maize roots but females fail to reproduce and therefore the crop is used in India as a trap crop.Heterodera avenae is the most widely distributed CCN around the globe (Fig. 3.1). Wheat producing regions with temperate climatic conditions in Asia, Africa, North and South America, Europe and the Mediterranean are typically CCN occurrence zones (Smiley et al., 2017).CCN species establish their feeding sites called syncytia on the roots of wheat plants and this blockage of the vascular system leads to weakening of the root system. The damage caused is primarily characterized by patches of plants showing poor growth and chlorosis, which are unevenly distributed in the field. In a large field cultivated with a susceptible cultivar (monoculture is standard in the CWANA region), these patches merge and can cover the entire field within a few years. Severe infection of CCN in wheat leads to stunting, leaf chlorosis, reduction in leaf area, lower numbers of productive tillers and shorter spikes with fewer grains. Below ground symptoms caused by H. avenae include enhanced production of roots, i.e. root proliferation (Fig. 3.2A), and knot-like formations due to induction of syncytia containing multiple females (Fig. 3.2B). These root symptoms are usually noticeable 1 to 2 months after sowing in the CWANA region.Both H. avenae and H. filipjevi complete one life cycle in a year. In most cases they require a diapause of up to 4 and 2 months, respectively, before the juveniles can emerge. The life cycle is illustrated in Fig. 3.3. Important is the fact that juvenile emergence only takes place when ample amounts of moisture under favourable soil temperatures are prevailing, which triggers the release of specific root exudates by the host plant. However, not all the J2 emerge at the same time, which is an important survival strategy harboured by CCN in the semi-arid regions.Heterodera avenae infection in the root-tip region leads to growth inhibition, induction of typical branching and swelling of roots. Formation of syncytia differs between H. avenae and H. latipons; however, the impact of H. avenae on wheat growth and yield is more pronounced than H. latipons. This is due to different hatching behaviour of these two species and H. latipons juveniles penetrate at sites more distant from the root tip.CCN have considerable intraspecific diversity in the form of its pathotypes or biological races. The race system for CCN has been developed on the basis of the ability of the local populations to reproduce on barley cultivars containing different resistance genes according to ICCNTA (International Cereal Cyst Nematode Test Assortment). This system could be used to identify various races with distinct characteristics present in the CWANA region. The H. filipjevi pathotypes were tested for several populations in Turkey and fortunately were found to be similar. However, the race spectrum in the region for all CCN species needs to be collaboratively studied among the nematologists in the CWANA region so that different pathotypes can be identified and considered in the wheat-breeding programmes. The soil-borne pathogens programme at CIMMYT annually screens thousands of wheat lines and the most resistant lines are shared with the International Winter Wheat Improvement Program (IWWIP) who distribute those materials to more than 150 collaborators representing around 50 countries in the CWANA and beyond.Although interactions among various plant pathogens are well established, such interactions regarding CCN are not well studied. This is the reason why only a few reports concerning complex interactions of CCN with other nematodes and pathogens are available in the literature. Cook in 1970 observed the first interaction of H. avenae with a fungal pathogen, Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, the causal organism of take-all disease in wheat and described severe symptoms of take-all disease that are always associated with low population densities of H. avenae in the field. Smiley et al. (1994) further Similar nematode-fungus interactions were reported for H. filipjevi and Fusarium culmorum pathogens in winter wheat in Iran under rainfed conditions. However, the effects of these two organisms on plant growth were additive rather than synergistic (Hajihassani et al., 2013).Wheat growers in CWANA basically do not recognize nematodes as a problem. In fact, most of them do not know that what nematode species are in their fields affecting yield, which is why the term 'hidden enemy' perfectly applies to the problems in the region. INM is therefore not practiced in the entire region and nematodeinduced yield losses are simply accepted. The yield reduction in wheat due to CCN in CWANA could be lessened by improving and understanding the concept of INM in the region where the practice of winter monoculture of wheat is the norm. Management of cereal nematodes, especially CCN, could involve an integrated approach that includes crop rotation, genetic resistance, crop nutrition and appropriate water supply.The following control measures are being used by some progressive wheat farmers in the CWANA region.Damage from CCN is greatest when monoculture practices exist especially with susceptible crops. Yield losses become very high in 2-year rotations of cereals even with the traditional summer fallow as well as in 3-year rotations such as winter wheat, spring cereal and a non-host broadleaf crop or fallow. Crop rotations that include broadleaf crops (tobacco), corn, fallow and resistant wheat, barley or oat cultivars reduce nematode density. For the most part, farmers in the CWA-NA region still perform summer fallow for two reasons, firstly to help the soil maintain high moisture levels and secondly to reduce diseases. CCN may also persist on a wide range of weed grasses. Grassy weeds such as quack grass, crabgrass, brome grass, foxtail, wild oat, rat-tail fescue and others should not be allowed to grow during any phase of a crop rotation in a field that is infested with CCN. Weed control is a commonly used practice in the CWANA -not to reduce nematode densities, but instead to keep the soil moisture content at higher levels to boost the establishment and growth of the next crop with ultimately better germination.The use of host resistance is an effective method of controlling CCN. Resistance is defined as the ability of the host to inhibit nematode multiplication.In some cases nematodes still penetrate resistant cultivars and cause damage even if not able to multiply. The benefit of resistance is that it reduces the intensity of risk to the next crop of barley, oats or wheat. Ideally, resistance should be combined with tolerance to nematode penetration. The development of cultivars with only tolerance, which is the ability of the host plant to maintain its yield potential in the presence of nematodes could also be used in management where resistance is not known.There are no wheat, barley or oat cultivars currently available that are fully resistant to CCN in CWANA.Tolerance and resistance genes by CIMMYT for CCN were recently identified (Pariyar et al., 2018;Dababat et al., 2016). The most effective wheat resistance gene for controlling CCN and their pathotypes is Cre1 which has been crossed into local varieties. The Cre1 gene appears to suppress but not eliminate production of CCN.Planting winter wheat rather than a spring crop of wheat, barley or oat cultivars can favour strong, deep root development before the majority of J2 emerge from cysts during the spring. In addition, where sufficient water is available, planting a susceptible host as a trap crop during the fall or early spring can reduce CCN densities in soil. The trap crop is invaded when J2 migrates from the cyst into the soil during early spring. The trap crop is then killed during mid-spring before new egg-bearing cysts can be developed. This strategy is particularly useful where growers plan to produce a warm-season crop such as chickpea or bean that can be planted during late spring after the trap crop has been killed in an infested field that will be planted to wheat or barley the following year.Since the greatest crop loss occurs when nutrients or water are scarce at important growth stages, supplying optimal plant nutrition and, where possible, supplemental water during intervals of drought can minimize (mask) crop damage, particularly when the nematode damage is only slight or moderate. However, crops that are severely damaged by CCN usually do not respond well to additional applications of nutrients or water. If severe damage becomes evident early enough in the spring, it may be more profitable to destroy the crop and replace it with a non-host (broadleaf) crop.Non-fumigant, in-crop nematicides especially the use of seed treatments is effective and widely used on other crops and has been used to reduce losses by CCN (Dababat et al., 2014). However, the use of nematicides is not economically feasible on most grain crops.Applications of currently available biological nematicides have not been effective for increasing the productivity of wheat in the region. However, in some locations, naturally occurring fungal or bacterial parasites invade and kill some of the CCN eggs that are still inside the cyst. These 0005182346.INDD 24 9:12:29 PM natural parasites of eggs reduce the density of CCN, but even in fields where they are known to be present and active, reduction in yields of wheat and barley continue to occur. Ways to amplify the benefit of these natural biological agents in commercial agriculture have not been identified.Tillage does not have an appreciable effect on the density of cereal nematode species. Populations are likely to be similar in both cultivated and till verses non-tilled fields.There is a need for more research to develop high-yielding and disease-resistant wheat cultivars adapted to a wide range of environments.In addition, improved technology for sustainable management of plant pathogens including CCN is needed (Ali et al., 2015). The major requirements for the future management of CCN are:1. Create awareness among the farmers in the developing countries especially through educating researchers at the extension services to support growers. The accessibility to genomic resources like genome sequences and high throughput data on genomes and transcriptomes provides a huge array of information that could be used for wheat improvement for grain yield and CCN resistance.For instance, survey of complete genome sequences of different CCN may help to identify novel effector coding genes which could be manipulated through host-induced gene silencing technology. Likewise, recent release of complete wheat genome offers enormous opportunities to study and understand molecular wheat-nematode interactions leading to development of CCNresistant wheat. Similarly, worldwide wheat germplasm collections of wild and cultivated wheat accessions provide unique opportunities for wheat genetic improvement. Furthermore, the availability of several genome-wide association studies could enable the wheat breeders to identify genomic regions associated with CCN resistance in wheat. Ali et al. (2019) recently reviewed and summarized the transgenic opportunities to enhance CCN resistance in wheat, which included employment of R-genes, host-induced gene silencing of vital effector CCN genes through RNAi, anti-feedant proteinase inhibitors, antiinvasion chemodisruptive peptides and manipulation of gene expression specifically in syncytia. One of the potential future directions to develop CCN resistance could be the pyramiding of two 0005182346.INDD 25 9:12:29 PM or more of these strategies which may lead to complete control of CCN in wheat.Targeted mutagenesis through the application of CRISPR/Cas9 system could be deployed for non-transgenic and targeted deletion or addition of sequences in wheat genome for induction of CCN resistance in bread wheat."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"14633a6de7f5f6daa6c8019662f541ea","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/18b12059-5c82-431b-aaff-c4091a0d6dce/retrieve","id":"677779921"},"keywords":["Potato Flour","Date Palm","Cookies","Bean Milk","Physical Color","Sensory Evaluation","Food and Nutrition Security"],"sieverID":"1027169b-be58-4885-b574-500f79d6c31c","content":"This study emphasizes the formulation of three types of cookies viz potato flour with date powder and bean milk (PDBM), potato flour with sugar and bean milk (PSBM), and potato flour, sugar, and eggs as control. After the substitution, the highest protein content was observed in PDBM (1.78 ± 0.12)% followed by PSBM, (1.35 ± 0.01)% and the lowest was in the control (0.91 ± 0.55)%. Moreover, cookies fortified with date palm powder increased the carbohydrate and fat contents compared to the control and significantly increased the calorific value of PDBM. The formulated cookies were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in iron (39.95 ± 3.00) mg/100 g and zinc (13.65 ± 1.61) mg/100 g in PDBM compared to other cookies. The date palm powder incorporated in cookies significantly increases the darkening of biscuits during cooking. The organoleptic characteristics of PDBM and PSBM were rated overall best when specific parameters were tested. With the shortage of wheat and importation constraints, an alternative provides a great market opportunity for local products like potatoes and beans. In addition, fortifying food products as cookies eaten by all will contribute to a more food and nutrition-secured world.Common Bean is one of Cameroon's widely grown and consumed food legumes and a vital source of protein (22.7%), B vitamins, and minerals. Regular consumption of common beans decreases the risk of coronary heart disease, diabetes, colorectal cancer, and aids in weight management [1]. Annually, 402.054 metric tons of beans are produced and consumed in the country, with some exported to Central Africa Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Nigeria [2]. However, the long-term storage of the bean grain is constrained by several endogenous and exogenous factors in general and in particular insufficient storage facilities leading to significant post-harvest losses of more than 30% and consequently, the reduction of their quality leading to shorter shelf life. Solutions have been put in place to reduce post-harvest losses and increase their shelf life through value addition [3]. The use of vegetable proteins derived from beans that can be transformed into various products such as flours [4]  [5], for the development of nutrient-rich cookies as a viable alternative for raising nutritional levels [6].The term cookies, or biscuits as they are called in many parts of the world, refers to a baked product generally containing the three major ingredients flour, sugar and fat [7]. They are popular examples of bakery products or ready-to-eat snacks that possess several attractive features such as long shelf life, nutrient-rich, and convenience making them widely consumed [8]. Cookies are chemically leavened products that, if combined with other nutritious products, transform them into healthier snacks to meet changing diets [9]. Cookies and other bakery products have become preferred fast-food products for every age and group because they are easy to carry around, reasonably cheap, tasty, with some made cholesterol-free, contain digestive and dietary principles of vital importance, and can be made from hard, sweet, or soft dough [10]. In addition, cookies contain high sugar content, shortening, and little water. Unlike other baked foods such as bread and cakes, cookies have low moisture content making them comparatively free from microbial spoilage and thus longer shelf life [8]. Part of the main ingredients of cookies such as wheat flour, fat (margarine), sugar, water, milk, salt, aerating agent, emulsifier, etc. can be enriched or fortified with other ingredients to meet consumers' specific nutritional or therapeutic needs [11]. Unfortunately, most cookies in the market are made from bleached flour, with little or no health benefits. Bleaching of flour leads to loss of minerals and vitamins and causes the production of alloxan which can induce diabetes in humans [12].Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is a seasonal crop grown in most countries and continents except in Antarctica. It is a source of starch in the food industry, it's a manufacturing glue, and a staple food for animals and the human diet [13] [14]. The long-term storage of potatoes for industrial processing often leads to their sprouting. The sprouting of potatoes causes increased weight loss, impedes air movement through the potato pile, and reduces the nutritional value of potatoes by converting starch to sugar [15]. Therefore, it is important to avoid sprouting during storage by transforming potatoes into flour to limit food wastage and increase food security. Dehydrating fresh potatoes by making potato flour is one effective solution to overcome these problems [16]. Potato has a protein of high biological value, and a favorable caloric ratio, and is an important source of vitamins and minerals [17]  [18]. In, addition, potato flour presents great versatility and functions as an enhancer of flavor and color [19]. Thus, many studies have used potato flour to substitute wheat flour [20] [21] [22]. For instance, Joshi et al. [23] and Lingling et al. [24] argue that, flour can be safely stored and incorporated into various bakery products, particularly cookies, bread, and cakes [25]  [26]. Furthermore, Zhu et al. (2019) showed that the glycemic index of potato foods is relatively lower than that of wheat foods [27]. Even though sugar is the second primary ingredient used in cookie production, it causes metabolic issues such as type II diabetes, obesity, etc. due to its high calories with no essential nutrients. In 2016, 13% of the global adult population was classified as obese, with 39% of adults aged 18 and up classified as overweight (WHO, 2017) [26]. As a result, the food industry has become motivated to modify product formulations through sugar and fat reduction in order to aid consumer welfare while maintaining sensory appeal and purchase intent. Therefore, it has become urgent to find natural substitutes for sucrose.Date Palm fruits (Phoenix dactylifera L.) belong to the family of Arecaceae [27]; they are sweet edible fruits containing more than 70% sugar in which glucose and fructose are predominant [28]  [29]. However, date fruits have a great nutritional benefit to diabetics and other metabolic health-related patients because they are rich in fiber, iron, calcium, copper, magnesium, potassium, antioxidant flavonoids such as beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, and vitamins A and B2 [10]  [30]. Cookies enriched with beans milk using date palm fruit will not only reduce post-harvest waste but also add economic, nutritional, and health values. Therefore, this work explores the possibility of using potato flour, bean milk and date palm fruit to replace wheat flour, eggs and sugar respectively in cookies production. This study aims to produce and evaluate the nutritional properties and sensory attributes of formulated cookies recipes at different ratios.The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) tuber of cultivar 9733 Variety and Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) MAC 33, red mottled biofortified (high iron and zinc) bean variety were obtained from the Multipurpose Research Station of the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD-Dschang and IRAD-Foumbot) in the West Region. The date palm fruit (Phoenix dactylifera L.); and other ingredients, such as butter, baking powder, sugar, eggs, salt, and vanilla essence were all bought from a local market in Yaounde, Cameroon.The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) milk production process was mod-Agricultural Sciences ified from the method previously described by Calvince et al. [31] as shown in Figure 1. Briefly, the common bean (1000 g) was throughly cleaned, rinsed, and soaked in 3000 mL of tap water for 18 hours at room temperature (27˚C). The soaked common bean seeds were drained, rinsed, dehulled by hands, and ground in a commercial blender. Water was added to make a common bean slurry with a ratio of 1:3 (mass:volume = m:v). The resulting slurry was passed through two layers of muslin cloth to filter the water-soluble common bean milk material from other insoluble matter. The strained milk was heated in a heavy bottom pan to 100˚C, and this temperature was held for 20 min, frequently stirring to prevent sticking. The heated bean milk was placed at room temperature (≈25˚C) to be cooled for 6 hours and stored at 4˚C before use. 100 g of cooled bean milk were poured into 5 petri dishes, and introduced into an oven (Panasonic MOV-212) for dehydration at 50˚C for 20 -25 minutes. This dried bean milk was cooled and stored in a desiccator at ambient temperature for a day before chemical analyses.Edible potato flour was prepared (Figure 2) from raw potato tubers by selecting, cleaning, washing, peeling, and slicing into 0.5 cm chips, followed by oven drying (55˚C for 24 hours) and later powdering. The flour was sieved (30-mesh size) to obtain a fine grade sample. The flour samples were kept in a sealed and clean plastic and stored at 4˚C for further use.The date palm fruit (Phoenix dactylifera L.) pulp (powder) was produced as shown in Figure 3. The date palm fruits were thoroughly washed with water to   remove adhering dirt, followed by removing the seeds (de-pitting) of the fruit manually and cutting into small pieces with a knife and weighed the dried date palm fruit. The pulp with pericarp was then oven-dried at 80˚C for 2 hours and subsequently milled using a hand milling machine. The flour was sieved (30-mesh size) to obtain a fine grade sample. The flour samples were kept in sealed plastic and stored at 4˚C for further use. cookies were prepared following the method described by Eyenga et al. [32] with little modification. More specifically, butter was put in a clean bowl and creamed throughly with a stainless-steel spatula till it became soft and smooth. Powdered sugar was added and creamed for a homogenous mixture. Potato flour was mixed with salt, this flour-baking powder-salt mixture was added to the butter-sugar or date powder mixture and homogenized with the spatula to form a paste. Depending on the cookie products to be obtained, eggs or bean milk and liquid flavor were then added, and the mixture was stirred to obtain the final cookie dough. The dough was put into the cookies mold, and the desired cookie shapes formed on a tray lightly greased with butter. The cookie-filled trays were put into an oven (Panasonic MOV-212) set at 160˚C and baked for 20 -25 min.The light brown baked cookies (Figure 4) were removed and put in a large tray and allowed to cool at room temperature before packaging. They were packaged in high-density polyethylene, labeled and stored at ambient temperature for various analyses.Chemical analyses were done on bean-derived products and cookies samples. The total nitrogen was measured using the Kjeldahl method. The factor 6.25 was applied to all the values of nitrogen to deduce the total proteins (Equation ( 1)). The total carbohydrates were determined by the anthrone method [33]. The total fat and moisture content was calculated using the standard Association of Official Analytical Chemists methods (AOAC, 2005) [34]. The mineral content (Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn) was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Varian Vista, Victoria, Australia). The caloric value (Equation ( 2)) was determined as suggested by Mendes et al. [35]. The color of the samples was measured after placing the samples in front of the tiniest opening [36]. To obtain data reflecting the color of the samples, different points were taken into consideration for each sample. All data were collected with three replications.The cookies prepared by incorporating potato flour and substituting sugar with dates and eggs with bean milk were evaluated for their sensory characteristics based on the intensity of aroma, basic taste (sweet, salty, acidity, bitterness), texture (granular, fat, crispy, creamy, fondant) by a total of ten (10) trained panelists (6 women and 4 men). The sensory test was carried out in the Food Technology Laboratory of IRAD. The potato cookies were coded and presented to the panelists. The taste quality was evaluated on a 6-point hedonic scale. As shown in Table 2, parameters were scored using a used a six-point rating from (\"0 = absent\" to \"5 = very high\") to evaluate the intensity of basic taste, aroma, and texture. A six-point scale was also used to evaluate the overall quality of the cookies from \"0 = very bad\" to \"5 = excellent.\" Drinking water was prepared for panelists, and they were asked to rinse their mouths after tasting each cookie sample.The sensory analysis was performed three times.For an overview of the significance of the data, all of them were subjected to a one-way ANOVA on the triplicate at p ≤ 0.05 and a 95% confidence limit using XLSTAT version 2020.1.2. Graphs and Radar charts were generated in Excel 2018 software (Office 365, Microsoft Corp) from the color and sensory analysis results to determine differences in L*, a*, and b* color variables and attributes between the formulated biscuits.The physicochemical characteristics of the formulated cookies, date palm fruit powder, and bean milk are represented in Table 3.These results showed that there were no significant (p ≥ 0.05) differences observed between total proteins, total carbohydrate, and moisture content of PDBM and PSBM. The highest protein content was observed in PDBM (1.78 ± 0.12)% followed by PSBM, (1.35 ± 0.01)%, and the lowest was in the control (0.91 ± 0.55)%. The protein content increased as eggs were replaced with bean milk. The highest protein content in the PDBM could come from the association of the beans milk and date palm fruit powder.Regarding the total fat, there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the cookie samples, date powder, and bean milk. The fat content of date powder (0.02 ± 0.006) in the current study was far lower than the results found by Gamal et al. and Ghnimi et al. which were in the range of 0.1% to 0.4% [37] [38]. This difference could be due to the variety and climate as stated by Al-Shahib et al. [39]. Fat contents were significantly higher (43.80 ± 1.40)% in the PDBM than in control (31.00 ± 1.80)% and PSBM (29.20 ± 1.91)%. This shows that the substitution of eggs with bean milk significantly increased the lipid content of cookies. Fat contents of cookies produced with date powder were higher than that of cookies produced with sugar. These results are in the same line with Ikechukwu et al. [40] who state that the percentage of fat contents in cookies increased with the presence of date palm pulp.Date fruits are a rich source of carbohydrates, and their quantity varies in different varieties [41]. In this study, the carbohydrate content of the date powder was (32.92 ± 1.80)%, which was lower than the results previously reported for some date varieties [42]. This difference may be due to genetic differences, time of harvest, fertilizers, soil mineral availability, or climatic and environmental factors. There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in carbohydrate contents of cookie samples compare to the control. The results indicated that there were increases in the carbohydrate content as the sugar was replaced by date powder, as demonstrated by Tawfek et al. [43]. Carbohydrates were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in potato-based cookies fortified with bean milk and date pulp (39.87 ± 0.06)% than that of PSBM (27.25 ± 0.02)% and control cookies (21.25 ± 0.96)%.This was expected as the date is a richer source of carbohydrates than the bean.These results tally with those reported by Ikechukwu et al. who found that the carbohydrate value of cookies increased with an increase in the percentage of date palm pulp [44]. The carbohydrate value of PDBM was lower than the value (64.77 ± 0.24)% obtained by Dimir et al. [45] in the sweet potato flour as a substitute for wheat flour and sugar in cookies production.The moisture contents of the formulated cookies ranged from 3.90% to 4.72%.The lowest moisture content was from the PDBM (2.90 ± 0.06)% followed by PSBM (3.92 ± 0.01)%. On the other hand, the moisture content of the control (4.72 ± 0.01)% is significantly different and the reduction in moisture content in PDBM could be due to the presence of date palm pulp in that sample. This result is in line with the findings reported by other researchers that high incorporation of date palm pulp binds water due to high sugar content, hence lower moisture content [46]. The high calorific value in PDBM could be because date palm fruit contains sugar like fructose and dextrose as stated by Dada et al. [28]. This shows that the fortification of potato flour with date palm powder is a welcome development for the improvement of the nutritional importance of cookies for children and other consumers within other age brackets.The mean values of the mineral of the formulated cookies, date palm fruit powder, and bean milk are represented in Table 4.The results revealed a significant increase (p < 0.05) in the calcium, magnesium, zinc, and iron contents in PDBM compared to others cookie samples. It could be concluded that the addition of date powder improved the mineral quality of cookies. This corroborates Ghnimi et al. [38] who demonstrated that the replacement of sucrose with date paste in bread and cookies improves their nutritional quality by increasing levels of minerals. Iron is the most abundant mineral in bean milk (39.95 ± 3.00) mg/100g, followed by zinc (13.65 ± 1.61) mg/100g, magnesium (0.07 ± 0.05) mg/100g, and calcium (0.05 ± 0.02) mg/100g is the least. These results agreed with those reported by Habib and Ibrahim [47] where Fe was established at the highest levels in date pits. Therefore, the consumption of PDBM cookies could partially serve as a means of meeting the daily iron requirements of children and adults.Table 5 represents the color variables of the formulated cookies which is an important attribute for the acceptability of many foods.Generally, there were significant differences between formulas. L value was significantly lower for PDBM and PSBM compared to control, which shows that the presence of date powder and bean milk led to a significant increase in the darkness of biscuits. The difference in redness (a*) was also statistically significant. An increase in redness was observed in the PDBM sample, this could be due to the substitution of the sugar by the dates as suggested by Shazia et al. [48] and Alsenaien et al. [49]. Moreover, the color of the date powder was brown and may have been a contributory factor.The sensory evaluation results of the formulated potato cookies are presented in Figure 5. They show that for the panelists, cookies made by replacing sugar with dates and eggs with bean milk (PDBM and PSBM respectively) had the highest rating for saltiness (2.3 and 2.6), acidity (1.2 and 1.33), bitterness (2.13 and 2.21).There was no significant difference between PDBM and PSBM for the brittle, fat, fondant, and granular attributes. On the inverse, the control had a higher rating  of sweetness compared to PDBM and PSBM. Crispness is the noise and strength when a cookie breaks or cracks when chewed on the first and second [50]. The sensory evaluation showed that the crispiness and the creaminess of the different cookies are not significant. Fieben et al. [51] reported that, the crispiness of the cookies decreased as bean flour was added. The control was highly acceptable to panelists compared to PDBM and PSBM. The overall acceptability obtained for the control cookies was 3.27, while that for PDBM and PSBM was 2.9. Hence, the addition of date palm pulp and bean milk in cookies formulation affects their quality properties.The work investigated the substitution of both eggs and sugar with bean milk and date palm fruit in cookie production for improving their nutritional values. The bean milk and palm fruit date incorporated in cookies can be used as an alternative source to meet the mineral, protein, and glucose requirements. The outcome of the research showed an increase in protein, carbohydrate, and fat contents of those cookies. The proximate composition of the samples (PDBM and PSBM) increased with the incorporation of date palm pulp. The mean values of the mineral contents of the formulated cookies were significantly increased (p < 0.05) in the calcium, magnesium, zinc, and iron contents in PDBM compared to other cookie samples, therefore, the addition of date powder improved the mineral quality of the cookies. The physical properties of cookies produced from dates as a substitute for sugar and bean milk for eggs compared to the control decreased in redness and lightness but increased in yellowness.For the organoleptic characteristics, the PDBM and PSBM were rated overall best in saltiness, acidity, crispiness, creaminess, and bitterness. Overall acceptability scores of cookies revealed that substitution of sugar with date powder led to developing acceptable cookies. This shows that the fortification of potato flour with the fruit of date palm powder is a welcome development for the improvement of the nutritional importance of cookies for children and other consumers within other age brackets. Further work can be undertaken for rheology assessment purposes."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"35e6ef1d34b9d5ed17f5489febdebe38","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5b83b208-f4a0-48c1-9281-268b97352dd8/content","id":"378563096"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"15997f25-c4ac-4fab-87d3-c35e127d6637","content":"Genomic selection (GS) is a predictive methodology that trains statistical machinelearning models with a reference population that is used to perform genome-enabled predictions of new lines. In plant breeding, it has the potential to increase the speed and reduce the cost of selection. However, to optimize resources, sparse testing methods have been proposed. A common approach is to guarantee a proportion of nonoverlapping and overlapping lines allocated randomly in locations, that is, lines appearing in some locations but not in all. In this study we propose using incomplete block designs (IBD), principally, for the allocation of lines to locations in such a way that not all lines are observed in all locations. We compare this allocation with a random allocation of lines to locations guaranteeing that the lines are allocated to the same number of locations as under the IBD design. We implemented this benchmarking on several crop data sets under the Bayesian genomic best linear unbiased predictor (GBLUP) model, finding that allocation under the principle of IBD outperformed random allocation by between 1.4% and 26.5% across locations, traits, and data sets in terms of mean square error. Although a wide range of performance improvements were observed, our results provide evidence that using IBD for the allocation of lines to locations can help improve predictive performance compared with random allocation. This has the potential to be applied to large-scale plant breeding programs.Abbreviations: Bed5IR, bed planting with five irrigations; BLUE, best linear unbiased estimate; DTHD, days to heading; DTMT, days to maturity; EHT, early heat; EYT, elite wheat yield trial; Flat5IR, flat planting with five irrigations; FlatDrip, flat planting with drip irrigation; G×E, genotype × environment (or location); GBLUP, genomic best linear unbiased predictor; GE, model considers the G×E interaction; GS, genomic selection; GY, grain yield; IBD, incomplete block design; LHT, late heat; MSE, mean square error; MSE_IBD, MSE under IBD allocation; MSE_Random, MSE under random allocation and; NO_GE, model ignores the G×E interaction; NPP, number of pods per plant; PYPP, pod yield per plant; RE, relative efficiency; SNP, single-nucleotide polymorphism; SYPP, seed yield per plant; YPH, yield per hectare.This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.Genomic selection (GS) was proposed by Meuwissen et al. (2001) to exploit dense genome-wide markers for predicting complex traits. It is a predictive methodology that trains a statistical machine-learning model using a reference population (with phenotypic and genotypic information) to calculate predicted breeding or phenotypic values for new lines that were only genotyped. For this reason, GS allows candidate lines to be selected early in the selection process, and under a careful and efficient implementation, offers tremendous opportunities to improve rates of genetic gain in plant and animal breeding (Bhat et al., 2016;Crossa et al., 2017;Heffner et al., 2010;Zhong et al., 2009). The objective of plant breeding is genetic improvement by producing new genotypes (lines) with improved productivity and quality. In many plant breeding programs at preliminary breeding stages, a majority of hybrids are generated by crossing doubled-haploids lines (or lines developed using a pedigree scheme) to a tester from a complementary heterotic group. The test-cross hybrids are evaluated in some locations (3-5), and subsequently, the best 10-15% of the lines within or across locations are selected to advance to further yield trials (Beyene et al., 2019). Effective selection decisions at the initial stage of yield testing (typically denoted Stage 1) are critical for the advancement of lines with the greatest potential to perform in the resource-intensive multilocation, multitester testing stages (typically denoted Stage 2; Atanda, et al., 2021). However, phenotypic selection in Stage 1 material is not completely effective because of the presence of only one tester for test-cross hybrid evaluation in a few locations, which do not guarantee a representative sample of the target population of locations (Endelman et al., 2014).Multilocation trials are key elements in successful breeding programs, permitting the evaluation of promising candidate genotypes under different locational conditions. As such, it is possible to identify stable genotypes or genotypes with specific adaptation by modeling the genotype × environment (or location) (G×E) interaction. However, the ideal implementation where all genotypes are observed in each location requires extensive field testing and considerable resource allocation (Smith et al., 2015a(Smith et al., , 2015b)).Experimental designs are powerful tools that have historically been used in breeding programs to increase the precision or reduce the cost of generating parameter estimates in field trials. Popular experimental designs in plant breeding include randomized block designs, incomplete blocks designs (IBD), row-column designs, or α designs (see Bailey [2008], John and Williams [1995], and Patterson and Williams [1976], for examples). For early gener-• Incomplete block design (IBD) principle is applied in sparse field testing. • Genome-based sparse testing from IBD concept is proposed. • Sparse testing across environments for genomebased prediction is optimized. • Genome-based prediction sparse testing with IBD includes G×E interaction.ation testing, both the p-rep design developed by Cullis et al. (2006) and p-rep with augmented designs (where only checks are repeated developed by Williams et al. [2011]) are popular.Sparse testing is a technique where not all lines are observed in all locations, with lines allocated to locations using a sparse testing design. For example, cross-validation CV2 evaluates the prediction accuracy of models when some genotypes have been evaluated in some locations but not in others and can be used for building sparse testing designs. However, it is also possible to use many traditional experimental designs to allocate treatment to plots or blocks and thus build a sparse testing design. This reshapes the original multilocation breeding trial system into one where all lines are not replicated in all locations, as high costs and factors like seed, land, and water availability might impede the implementation of replicated trials.In this study we investigate the use of IBDs to more efficiently allocate lines to locations in order to enable sparse genomic prediction. We also compare predictive performance from the allocation of lines to locations using IBD against the conventional random allocation using three crop specieswheat (Triticum aestivum L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), and maize (Zea mays L.)-each including different traits data. This comparison of prediction accuracy uses mean squared error (MSE) of prediction of the IBD and random allocation implemented under the popular Bayesian genomic best linear unbiased predictor (GBLUP) model, which was used for comparison, as it is the most widely used model in genome-enabled prediction. The resulting predictions under the two methods were also compared in the absence (NO_GE) and presence (GE) of G×E interactions.Data sets used for the benchmarking of the two allocation methods are described below. The Plant GenomeData Sets 1 and 2. Elite wheat yield trial years 2013-2014 and 2016-2017 Two data sets from the Global Wheat Program at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) were used. They consisted of performance data from elite wheat yield trials (EYTs) established in four different cropping seasons with four locations in each. The lines involved in this study correspond to years 2013-2014 (Data Set 1) and to 2016-2017 (Data Set 2). The EYT Data Set 1 and Data Set 2 contain 766 lines and 980 lines, respectively. In both data sets, an experimental alpha-lattice design was used where the lines were sown in 39 trials, each covering 28 lines and two checks in six blocks with three replications. In these data sets, several traits were available for the selection of locations and lines. In this study, we included four traits that were measured for each line in each location: days to heading (DTHD, number of days from germination to 50% spike emergence); days to maturity (DTMT, number of days from germination to 50% physiological maturity or the loss of the green color in 50% of the spikes); plant height in cm; and grain yield (GY in tons by hectare). Full details of the experimental design and computation of best linear unbiased estimates (BLUEs) can be found in Juliana et al. (2018). For EYT Data Set 1, the selected locations were bed planting with five irrigations (Bed5IR), flat planting with five irrigations (Flat5IR), early heat (EHT), and late heat (LHT). For EYT Data Set 2, the locations were Bed5IR, EHT, Flat5IR, and flat planting with drip irrigation (FlatDrip).Genome-wide markers for the 1,746 (766 + 980) lines in the two data sets were obtained using genotyping-bysequencing (Elshire et al., 2011;Poland et al., 2012) at Kansas State University using an Illumina HiSeq2500. After filtering, 2,038 markers remained from an initial set of 34,900 markers. The imputation of missing marker data was carried out using LinkImpute (Money et al., 2015) and implemented in TAS-SEL v5 (Bradbury et al., 2007). Lines that had >50% missing data were removed, thus providing a total of 1,506 lines for this study (766 lines in the first data set and 980 lines in the second data set). A high level of relatedness by pedigree or kinship between lines is expected within a year of testing and across years of testing because of the nature of the lines under study.The phenotypic data set reported by Pandey et al. (2020) includes information on the phenotypic performance of 318 groundnut lines for various traits in four locations. This data set was first used by Crossa et al. (2010) and Cuevas et al. (2016Cuevas et al. ( , 2017Cuevas et al. ( , 2019) ) and is comprised of 599 wheat lines from the CIMMYT Global Wheat Program evaluated in four international locations representing four basic agroclimatic regions (mega-locations). Here, we considered GY data available for the lines evaluated in each of the four mega-locations.The 599 wheat lines were genotyped using 1,447 diversity array technology markers generated by Triticarte Pty. Ltd. The Bayesian GBLUP model is represented by the following equation:where L i is the fixed effect of locations; g j , where j = 1,. . . ,J, is the random effect of lines; gL ij is the random effect of location−line interaction; and ε ij is random error components in the model assumed to be independent normal random variables with mean 0 and variance σ 2 . Furthermore, it is assumed that \uD835\uDC20 = (\uD835\uDC54 1 , … , \uD835\uDC54 \uD835\uDC3D ) \uD835\uDC47 ∼ \uD835\uDC41 \uD835\uDC3D (0, σ 2 g \uD835\uDC06)and \uD835\uDC20\uD835\uDC0B = (\uD835\uDC54\uD835\uDC3F 11 , … , \uD835\uDC54\uD835\uDC3F 1\uD835\uDC3D , … , \uD835\uDC54\uD835\uDC3F \uD835\uDC3C\uD835\uDC3D ) \uD835\uDC47 ∼ \uD835\uDC41 \uD835\uDC3C\uD835\uDC3D [0, σ 2 gL (\uD835\uDC08 ⊗ \uD835\uDC06)], where G is the genomic relationship matrix as computed by Van-Raden (2008), ⊗ denotes the Kronecker product, and I is the identity matrix of size I. The implementation of this model was carried out in the BGLR library of Pérez and de los Campos (2014). It is important to point out that this model (Equation 1) contains G×E interaction but was also implemented without G×E interaction (NO_GE), that is, the model without the fourth component on the right side of Equation 1.Under both types of allocation methods, IBD and random allocation, we use the notation J as the number of lines, k as the number of lines per location, I as the number of locations, and r as the number of replications of each line j in the entire design. It should be noted that in IBDs, k will be less than J, since not all of the lines in each location can be assigned. An equal number of entry replication is the best way to ensure minimum variance when making all possible pairwise comparisons. Therefore, since r i = r for all lines, the total number of observations in the experiment is N, where N = J(r) = I(k).A balanced IBD design is where all pairs of lines occur together within a location an equal number of times (λ). In general, we will specify λ jj as the number of times line j occurs with j′′ in a location. To generate this sparse allocation of lines to locations, we can use the function find.BIB() using the R package crossdes. For example, suppose there were J = 12 lines and I = 4 locations, this means that we need 48 plots to allocate the 12 lines to the four locations. However, assume that we will use an IBD and a training set equal in size to N_TRN = 36 (75%) of the total plots required under a randomize complete block design. Therefore, the number of lines by locations can be obtained by solving (kI = N_TRN) for k, which results in k = N_TRN/I. This means that k = 36/4 = 9 lines per location. Then, the corresponding elements for the training set can be obtained with the function find.BIB (12,4,9) using the package crossdes. The numbers used in the function find.BIB() denote the lines, the locations, and the lines per locations, respectively. Finally, the lines tested in each location that correspond to the training set are shown in Table 1.Based on Table 1, each line is present in three locations and missing in one. All the lines shown in Table 1 correspond to the training set, while those not allocated in each location form the testing set. For example, in Location 1, the test set includes T A B L E 1 Allocation of J = 12 lines to I = 4 locations under the incomplete block design method. This information allocated represents the training set (75%) and the size of the location, which is equal to nine, and each line is repeated r = b(k)/J = 36/12 = 3 timeslines G2, G8, and G10; in Location 2, the test set is comprised of lines G4, G6, and G12; in Location 3, the test set has lines G1, G7, and G9; and in Location 4, the test set is comprised of lines G3, G5, and G11. It is important to highlight that the function does not always guarantee a balanced IBD, and for this reason, we generally use the IBD method to guarantee a balanced or a partially balanced IBD (Sailer, 2013).Starting from a balanced data set with J lines and I locations, the conformation of the random allocation of lines to locations was done in such a way that approximately each line will be repeated in r out of I locations, and all locations will be of the same size (k). The algorithm of this random allocation is as follows:1. First, we compute \uD835\uDC58 = \uD835\uDC3D \uD835\uDC5F \uD835\uDC3C (least integer greater than or equal to \uD835\uDC3D \uD835\uDC5F \uD835\uDC3C ). Then k lines out of J lines are randomly allocated to the first location. 2. Then for the second location, k out of the J lines were again randomly allocated. 3. This process is repeated until the Ith location is completed, with the caveat that the lines allocated to a particular location are only present in less than or equal to r locations, ideally in exactly r locations. The lines that do not satisfy this restriction are not candidates for allocation to a particular location.To evaluate and compare the predictive performance of the IBD and random allocations, we used cross-validation with 10 random partitions and 50% of the data for training and 50% for testing. The average MSE was computed with the 10 random partitions and this metric was used to assess the predictive performance in each data set. For each location in each data set, the predictive performance in terms of MSE was computed as the average of the 10 MSEs in the 10 The Plant Genome random partitions. Across locations, the MSE in each partition was computed between averages of true and predicted phenotypic values over locations; subsequently, the average of the MSEs of the 10 partitions was reported as prediction performance in each data set. It must be highlighted that 50% of the data was used for training-testing in each partition since each of the five data sets under study included four locations. Therefore, under both types of allocations, we guaranteed that each line was replicated exactly two times (in two locations).Those lines allocated under the IBD and random allocations were used as training and the remaining were used as testing sets. To compare the predictive performance between the IBD and random allocation, we computed the relative efficiency (RE) as follows:where MSE_Random is the MSE under random allocation and MSE_IBD is the MSE under IBD allocation. The RE indicates how much more efficient (in percentage terms if the RE is multiplied by 100) the IBD allocation is in comparison with the random allocation; if the value of RE is >1 then the IBD allocation results in a smaller prediction error; however, if the RE is <1, the IBD allocation is less efficient (with more prediction error) than the random allocation. Relative efficiency is commonly used to make comparisons between randomized complete block designs and IBDs (Kuehl, 2001).First, we provide a summary of the phenotypic values and variance components of each trait for each data set. The summary of each trait for all data sets is given in Table 2, where we can see that each trait has a different scale and varies significantly, as exemplified by its minimum and maximum values of each trait. We can also see that that the GY traits of the wheat and maize data sets are scaled for this reason, as they yielded values between −3.58 and 4.88. Likewise, we can appreciate that the mean and median are different for most of the traits except for YPH, PYPP, and NPP in the groundnut data set and height in Data Set 1 (EYT) and Data Set 2 (EYT).The difference between the mean and median was stronger, and for this reason, the data are more asymmetric for these traits.In Table 3, we can see the variance components of locations (L), genotypes (G), genotype × location (G×E) interaction, residual, R, and total (and its corresponding proportion of total variability) explained for each component in each trait of all the data sets. We can see (Table 3) that in Data Set 1 (EYT), the largest proportion of total variability was explained by the locations, while the second largest was for lines in traits DTHD, DTMT and Height. In the GY trait, the second largest was in the G×E and residual. In Data Set 2 (EYT), the largest proportion of variability was explained by locations in three out of the four traits, whereas in the DTHD trait, the largest proportion of variability was explained by the genotypes. However, in the groundnut data set, the largest proportion of variability was explained by the G×E and residual variance components. Conversely, in the wheat data set, the largest proportion of variability was explained by the residual and the second largest by the G×E variance component. Finally, in the maize data set, the largest proportion of variability was also explained by the G×E and residual terms (Table 3). In Appendix A, biplots for each trait of each data set show how similar and different the locations and cultivar under study are based on the site regression model (Crossa & Cornelius, 1997).First, we present the results including the G×E interaction of the prediction performance for each location. In Table 4 we can observe that the best predictions in terms of MSE were observed under the IBD allocation since REs in most cases were >1 for each of the traits. For trait DTHD, the REs observed were 1.013 (Bed5IR), 1.026 (EHT), 1.132 (Flat5IR), and 1.264 (LHT), which means that the IBD was more efficient than the random allocation by 1.3, 2.6, 13.2, and 26.4% in locations Bed5IR, EHT, Flat5IR, and LHT, respectively (Table 4). For trait DTMT, the REs were 1.030 (Bed5IR), 0.984 (EHT), 1.078 (Flat5IR), and 1.131 (LHT), which means that the IBD was more efficient than the random allocation by 3.0, 7.8, and 13.1% in locations Bed5IR, Flat5IR, and LHT, respectively (Table 4). For trait GY, the IBD was more efficient than the random allocation by only 2.0, 1.9, 0.1, and 1.1% in locations Bed5IR, EHT, Flat5IR, and LHT, respectively. While for trait height, the IBD outperformed the random allocation by only 2.1, 1.3, 2.3, and 4.1% in locations Bed5IR, EHT, Flat5IR, and LHT, respectively (Table 4).Ignoring the G×E interaction (NO_GE), in Table 4 we can also observe that the IBD allocation outperformed the random allocation in each location since, in most cases, the REs were >1 for the four traits. For DTHD trait, the REs observed were 1.035, 1.031, 1.087, and 1.201 in locations Bed5IR, EHT, Flat5IR, and LHT, respectively. Therefore, in this trait, the IBD allocation outperformed the random allocation by 3.5 (Bed5IR), 3.1 (EHT), 8.7 (Flat5IR), and 20.1% (LHT) (Table 4). For the DTMT trait, the REs were 1.077 (Bed5IR), 0.999 (EHT), 1.039 (Flat5IR), and 1.145 (LHT), which means that the IBD outperformed the random allocation by 7.7 (Bed5IR), 3.9 (Flat5IR), and 14.5% (LHT). For the GY trait, the IBD outperformed the random allocation by 1.8, 0.6, and 0.1% in locations Bed5IR, EHT, and Flat5IR, respectively. While for height, the IBD was superior to the random allocation by only 3.4, 0.8, 6.0, and 6.1% in locations Bed5IR, EHT, Flat5IR, and LHT, respectively (Table 4). Next, we provide the results across locations including the G×E interaction for the four traits of Data Set 1. Across locations, we can observe that the best prediction performance (lower MSE) was obtained under the IBD allocation for the four traits DTHD, DTMT, GY, and height, where REs were 1.156 (15.6%), 1.098 (9.8%), 1.203 (20.3%), and 1.061(6.1%), respectively. These results indicate that the increase in prediction performance for IBD over the random allocation for traits DTHD, DTMT, GY, and height was 15.6, 9.8, 20.3, and 6.1% respectively (Figure 1, Table 5). When the G×E interaction was not considered (NO_GE), the best predictions were also observed under the IBD allocation with the following REs: 1.175 (DTHD), 1.140 (DTMT), 1.18 (GY), and 1.087 (height). This implies that the prediction performance of using the IBD over the random allocation for traits DTHD, DTMT, GY, and height increased by 17.5, 14.0, 18.0, and 8.07%, respectively (Figure 1, Table 5).First, the prediction performance for each location is given including the G×E interaction. In Table 6 we can observe that the IBD allocation outperformed the random allocation in terms of MSE since for each of the traits, the relative efficiencies in most locations were >1. For trait DTHD, the REs observed were 1.107 (Bed5IR), 1.069 (EHT), 1.190 (Flat5IR),  FlatDrip), which means that the IBD outperformed the random allocation by 10.7, 6.9, 19.0, and 23.1%, respectively. For the DTMT trait, the IBD was more efficient than the random allocation by 15.8, 9.9, 15.4, and 6.2% in locations Bed5IR, EHT, Flat5IR, and FlatDrip, respectively, since the REs were 1.158, 1.099, 1.154, and 1.062, respectively (Table 6). For the GY trait, the IBD outperformed the random allocation by only 2.1, 1.6, and 0.7% in locations Bed5IR, EHT, and FlatDrip, respectively. Whereas for the height trait, the IBD was superior to the random allocation by 5.0% only in location Flat5IR. Also, in Table 6, when ignoring the G×E interaction (NO_GE), we can observe in each location that the IBD allocation was better than the random allocation since for most of the traits, the RE in locations were >1. For the DTHD trait, the REs observed were 1.104 (Bed5IR), 1.052 (EHT), 1.148 (Flat5IR), and 1.209 (FlatDrip). Therefore, in this trait, the IBD allocation outperformed the random allocation by 10.4 (Bed5IR), 5.2 (EHT), 14.8 (Flat5IR), and 20.9% (FlatDrip) (Table 6). For the DTMT trait, the IBD outperformed the random allocation by 11.5 (Bed5IR, with RE = 1.115), 6.2 (EHT, with RE = 1.062), 10.7 (Flat5IR, with RE = 1.107), and 6.5% (FlatDrip, with RE = 1.065). For the GY trait, the IBD was better than the random allocation by 1.6, 1.9, and 0.7% in locations Bed5IR, EHT, and FlatDrip, respectively (Table 3). While in the height trait, the IBD outperformed the random allocation by only 4.0% only in location Flat5IR (with RE = 1.040) (Table 6).Across locations, including G×E interaction for the four traits of Data Set 2, we can observe that the best prediction performance (lower MSE) was obtained under the IBD allocation with the following REs in each trait: 1.184 (DTHD), 1.101 (DTMT), 1.253 (GY), and 1.014 (height). This means that the IBD increased prediction performance in terms of MSE over the random allocation by 18.4, 10.1, 25.3, and 1.4% in traits DTHD, DTMT, GY, and height, respectively (Figure 2, Table 5).When ignoring the G×E interaction (NO_GE) across locations, the best predictions were also observed under the IBD allocation (Figure 2, Table 5) with the following relative efficiencies: 1.172 (DTHD), 1.060 (DTMT), 1.265 (GY), and 0.995 (height). This implies that the prediction performance of using the IBD over the random allocation increased in three out of the four traits DTHD, DTMT and GY by 17.2 (DTHD), 6.0 (DTMT), and 26.5% (GY) (Figure 2, Table 5). For this data set (groundnut), which also contained four traits (NPP, PYPP, SYPP, and YPH), we first provide the results including G×E interaction. Across locations, the IBD allocation outperformed the random allocation in terms of MSE since the REs obtained in the four traits are all >1:1.090 (NPP), 1.126 (PYPP), 1.099 (SYPP), and 1.114 (YPH). This means that the increase in terms of prediction performance (lower MSE) of the IBD over the random allocation was of 9.0, 12.6, 9.9, and 11.4%, respectively (Figure 3, Table 5).When the G×E interaction was not considered (NO_GE), the IBD allocation (Figure 3, Table 5) also outperformed the random allocation with the following relative efficiencies: 1.076 (NPP), 1.124 (PYPP), 1.094 (SYPP), and 1.108 (YPH). This implies that the prediction performance of using the IBD over the random allocation increased in the four traits by 7.6, 12.4, 9.4, and 10.8%, respectively (Figure 3, Table 5). Details of the prediction performance for each location for this data set can be found in Appendix Table B1.The wheat data set (Data Set 4) only contains the GY trait, and initial results include G×E interaction. Across locations, the IBD allocation outperformed the random allocation, in terms of MSE, by 16.4% (RE = 1.164) (Figure 4a, Table 5). When G×E interaction was ignored (NO_GE), the IBD allocation (Figure 4a) outperformed (RE = 1.188) the random allocation by 18.8% (Figure 4a, Table 5).Similarly, the maize data set (Data Set 5) only contains the GY trait, and when considering the G×E interaction, we observed that the IBD allocation was superior to the random allocation by only 0.8% (RE = 1.008) in terms of MSE (Figure 4b, Table 5). When the G×E interaction was ignored (NO_GE), the IBD allocation (Figure 4b, Table 5) only had a 0.7% (RE = 1.007) gain over the random allocation (Figure 4b, Table 5). Details of the prediction performance for each location for these two data sets can be found in the Appendix Table B2 (Appendix).Genomic selection can help optimize resources for the early selection of candidate genotypes. This is because only a sample of candidates need to be phenotyped and genotyped, while the remaining individuals must only be genotyped and use genome-enabled prediction models to compute their genomic estimated breeding values. The accuracy of GS is linked to the quality of the predictions, and therefore, better predictions lead to more accurate GS methodology. For this reason, research to improve the efficiency of the GS methodology continues and our study aimed to test the use of IBDs for improving the efficiency of sparse testing. This has the aim of saving significant resources without a loss of prediction power compared with the standard practice of random allocation. We found that the allocation of lines to locations (or environments) using IBD is superior to the random allocation across the data sets analyzed. In Data Set 1, IBD outperformed random allocation across locations and traits by between 6.1 and 20.3% (for GE) and between 8.07 and 18.0% for NO_GE. In Data Set 2 the IBD method outperformed the random method across locations and traits by between 1.4 and 18.4% (for GE) and by between 6 and 26.5% for NO_GE. In Data Set 3 across locations and traits, the IBD gain over the random method was between 9 and 12.6% for GE and between 7.6 and 12.4% for NO_GE. In Data Set 4, the IBD was superior to the random allocation method by 16.4% for GE and by 18.8% for NO_GE. These results also show that the superiority of the proposed IBD allocation is not significantly affected in its per-formance for the degree of G×E interaction, as exemplified by the five data sets studied. (Table 3). These results show empirical evidence that the allocation of lines to locations under the random allocation, which is common practice in plant breeding programs to design sparse testing in the context of genomic selection, is less efficient than the IBD allocation, which allocates the lines to locations under a classical experimental design called balanced IBD or partially balanced IBD.However, the gain in predictive performance when using IBD over random allocation requires additional considerations. Specifically, the allocation of lines to locations using the IBD method is computationally more demanding than random allocation because the IBD allocation is built under a combinatorial process, which is considerably more time consuming. As the number of lines increases, so too does the time requirement for the allocation process. However, in real applications, this allocation process is only required once.Additionally, the IBD allocation does not always guarantee that each line is allocated exactly to r out of I locations, meaning that the allocation is not always balanced. Even under these circumstances, the IBD allocation it expected to perform better overall than the random allocation. In this sense, it is of paramount importance to continue studying strategies for efficient sparse allocation of lines to locations to increase the efficiency of the GS. Our study presents new areas of opportunity to evaluate numerous IBDs. In addition to helping the optimization of parameter estimates, they can also be helpful for the construction of sparse testing allocation of lines to locations to increase prediction accuracy.Experimental designs play an important role in plant breeding since appropriate experimental designs guarantee accurate data collection, proper data analysis, precise parameter estimates, and the right interpretation of the data (Masood et al., 2008). Additionally, breeders are aware that a properly planned experiment is necessary to ensure that the right type of data and a sufficient sample size and power are available to answer the research questions of interest as clearly and efficiently as possible.In general, experimental designs are important in guaranteeing the quality of parameter estimates that provide more precision to the research questions at hand. Nevertheless, in the current study, we illustrated the use of experimental designs (partially balanced IBDs) for the sparse allocation of lines to locations, thus improving the accuracy of predictions. Therefore, from our results, we observe that the improvement of parameter estimates by using partially balanced IBDs for the sparse allocation of lines to locations also is translated to an increase of prediction performance.The proposed allocation of lines to locations under partially balanced IBD (IBD allocation) is primarily of interest to breeders when their goal is to evaluate some lines (J denotes all lines available) in some locations such as evaluating each line in r out of I locations and making predictions of the untested (observed) lines in those locations. This allocation of lines to locations is done only with the goal of prediction, and the allocation of those lines in each location should be allocated to plots, blocks, and trials under a different and specific experimental design. From this local (inner experimental design) allocation of lines to plots, blocks, and trials, we can obtain the BLUEs using the specific experimental designs in each location. This means that it is possible within each location to allocate the lines under different experimental designs. Then with BLUEs of each line in each location, the model will be trained with the training set resulting from the allocation of lines to locations under the partially balanced IBD to predict the lines not observed in those locations.Therefore, this process involves the use of two experimental designs: (a) one for the allocation of those lines to plots, blocks, and trials within each location (that can use a different experimental design in each location) and (b) another experimental design for building the training set with the BLUEs of the lines tested in each location. This second experimental design should be a partially balanced IBD that uses lines allocated for each location as the training set so that those unallocated lines to each location as the testing set will be predicted with the trained model. Our proposed approach coincides with what is called two-phase experimental design, where a ran-domization in each phase is performed to be able to obtain robust phenotypic data (McIntyre, 1955). This approach has been proposed in the context of plant breeding for improving parameter estimates in horseshoe pelargonium [Pelargonium zonale (L.) LʼHér.] (Brien et al., 2011;Molenaar et al., 2017Molenaar et al., , 2018)); however, to the best of our knowledge this is the first time that this two-phase experimental design is proposed for the context of genome-based selection.In this study, we do not evaluate the role of population structure on the proposed method. This ceased to be a concern when de los Campos et al. (2015) pointed out that population structure does not play the role of a confounding factor, rather a modified factor. However, for a complete understanding of these issues, future studies should be conducted to be able to quantify how the population structure of the genomic relationship matrix or kinship matrix affects the prediction performance of the incomplete blocks created to implement the sparse testing method proposed here.Furthermore, more evaluations are necessary since even though the five data sets are from three different crops and with different levels of explained total variability of each of its variance components, they are not representative of all crops and variability of data generated in plant breeding programs. Finally, as pointed out above, it is possible that other forms of experimental IBDs can be used to design sparse testing methods for allocating lines to locations. This will further support the goal of increasing the prediction performance in the context of GS. However, specific additional designs still need to be evaluated to ensure that they help increase the prediction performance.In this study, we proposed the use of IBDs for sparse testing allocation of lines to locations for genomic prediction. We found that the proposed IBD allocation helps to significantly improve predictions compared with the standard random allocation of lines to locations. However, we also found that when the data set is larger, the allocation of lines using IBDs are more time consuming and computationally intensive. However, this component is unlikely to be a major barrier, as the allocation is only required once in a breeding application. The proposed IBD method contributes to increasing the availability of sparse testing methods for plant breeding that makes the GS methodology more efficient, as it provides better prediction performance than the random allocation of lines to locations. However, we suggest performing more empirical evaluations to accumulate further evidence of the utility of IBD for an efficient allocation of lines to locations for sparse testing in GS. Other experimental designs can be evaluated for their use in sparse testing genomic prediction, supporting an increase in the power of the GS methodology. The site regression model (SREG) (Crossa & Cornelius, 1997) provides the multiplicative operators computed from a reduced-rank model matrix of deviations of the parametric cell mean of the genotype (G) in the environment (E) from the mean of the environment (i.e., the effects of the genotypes plus the effect of the G×E).For the SREG biplot [Figures A1-A14, where cultivars are in green color and environments (or sites) are in blue colors], the cosine of the angle between two cultivar (or environment) vectors approximates the correlation between the cultivars (or environments) with respect to the main effect of cultivar plus the G×E. Acute angles indicate positive correlation, with parallel vectors (in exactly the same directions) representing a correlation of 1.0. Obtuse angles represent negative  "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"111b78b64bdfdaf0ee5bac264de9d79b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3b9d1a0-f126-47c3-a55b-e11e60b63bf5/retrieve","id":"-71402484"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b7a78685-476e-4019-9650-0f696b17411e","content":"ELKS -'enhancing livelihoods through livestock knowledge Systems' -is an ambitious initiative to put the accumulated knowledge of advanced livestock research directly to use by disadvantaged livestock rearing communities in rural India. It provides research support to development partners to address technical, institutional and policy gaps in their livestock based livelihood projects. ELKS focuses on improving livestock-based livelihoods (pigs, goats and dairy animals) across four states in India: Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Nagaland, and Mizoram.The overall goal is to enhance livestock-based livelihoods in the hilly and tribal areas of North and East of India by supporting the Sir Ratan Tata Trust and its development partners in order to fill knowledge gaps, strengthen capacities, and facilitate pro-poor policies.The ELKS programme takes a scientific, evidence-based approach, employs consultations and diagnostic/scoping studies, and draws on the rich diversity of livestock research in India and other regions to identify appropriate pro-poor livestock intervention strategies.Facilitating the development of effective swine fever • prevention and control mechanisms.Identifying and rectifying nutrient deficiencies in pig • nutrition.Evaluating, prioritising and promoting suitable feed • technologies.Assessing the feasibility of dual purpose food-feed crops • and its promotion .Training of local youths as Livestock Service Providers. • Formulating and supporting a cattle/buffalo-breeding • program appropriate in the hills.Supporting value chain analysis and the development of • integrated models of goat and pig production in order to further promote the use of goat and pig stocks in poverty reduction.The Tata-ILRI partnership programme aims at effectively reducing poverty among marginal livestock communities in the hilly/tribal areas of Uttarakhand, Jharkhand Nagaland and Mizoram by enhancing their capacities, assets and income.This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License. October 2012The project is funded by Sir Ratan Tata Trust and its Allied Trusts and is coordinated by ILRI; the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) acts as a major partner in the dual-purpose crop trials. Other partners include non-governmental organisations, animal husbandry departments, ICAR research institutes, agricultural and veterinary universities, quasi-government organisations and private agencies. "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"862af5e70f0d7c0490e1a62748b40305","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9cb3479f-ebbb-4d9e-bcc4-90a5826eeeab/content","id":"-240256658"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"eace5eb6-f732-40a4-8814-ad2efc9add7f","content":"Countless development projects have piloted solutions that could make a difference if only applied at scale. The reality is that these pilot projects hardly ever reach the intended scale to contribute significantly to achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In this paper, we argue that two major problems undermine efforts to achieve scale in development projects. First, pilot projects are usually set up and managed in very controlled environments that make it very difficult to transition to the real world at scale. Second, poor conceptual and methodological clarity on what scaling is and how it can be pursued often results in a narrow focus on reaching numbers. Counting household adoption at the end of a grant project is a poor metric of whether these people can and will sustain adoption after the project closes, let alone if adoption will reach others and actually contributes to improved livelihoods. We advocate for a broader view on scaling that more accurately reflects the transformational change agenda of the SDGs: from reaching many to a process aiming to achieve sustainable systems change at scale. Sustainable systems change alters a sufficient number of key drivers (incentives, rules, etc.) such that the system that once perpetuated a \"problem\" now instead perpetuates a \"solution.\" This has implications on the way projects are designed and implemented. Rather than focusing on changing conditions within the project context, projects should serve as vehicles for societal change. This means that projects make most sense if designed as part of a multisector, long-term programmatic approach. Treating scaling as a transformation process helps deal with the necessary coevolution of organizational and institutional arrangements, along with the innovations in a technology or practice. To help address scaling, we present a number of frameworks that guide users to assess the scalability of innovations, design for scale from the onset of projects, and systematically think through key elements, ingredients, or success factors. We conclude that scaling requires different skills, approaches, and ways of collaborating than those required for successful implementation of pilot projects. It calls for development actors to have a mindset that allows them to creatively navigate multiple overlapping systems; likewise, they must develop a clear vision about which elements in the system the actors can and cannot address, and about where they need to collaborate strategically to exert influence. Although it is tempting to hope for the silver bullet solution that changes the world, we argue for an approach that takes scaling serious in its own right and recognizes the complexities involved in facilitating a transition to a new \"normal.\"of which only about 5% is covered by Official Development Assistance (ODA) (Niculescu, 2017). Research and development organizations working on poverty alleviation and food security face growing scrutiny (Easterly and Pfutze, 2008;Hurst et al., 2017;Moyo, 2010) to demonstrate the return on investment of their work.Since a majority of the rural poor depend on agriculture, most solutions are expected to come from innovations within the agricultural sector. Agricultural innovations, such as improved seeds, better farm practices, and new ways of collaborating, are tested in pilot environments and, if deemed successful, are expected to scale to a level matching the size of the problem. Cooley (2018) observes that over the last two decades, while the number of donors and projects has doubled, project durations and budgets have been cut in half. This trend towards a larger number of smaller and shorter projects has increased emphasis on efforts that aspire to \"new technologies,\" \"prototypes,\" and \"pilot projects.\" However, most pilot projects do not scale up to achieve wider impact, cease to exist after a (subsidized) demonstration phase, and fade out after initial funding ends (Billé, 2010;Deiglmeier and Greco, 2018;Monitor Deloitte, 2015;Spicer et al., 2018;van Winden and van den Buuse, 2017;Cooley and Howard, 2019).Despite the central importance of scaling to development outcomes, research on (un)successful transitions from pilot to scale are scarce, and the few existing studies have had little influence on the research agenda and design of development projects. Rather than being seen as a challenge in and of itself, scaling has been treated as something that occurs spontaneously and organically when successful development interventions are identified (Chandy et al., 2013;Wigboldus and Brouwers, 2016). The popularity of the term \"scaling\" is not matched by conceptual clarity on what it actually means, which harbors a major risk for superficial use, disillusionment (Ubels and Jacobs, 2018), and doing more harm than good (Wigboldus, 2018). For example, an internal evaluation of the Gesellschaft fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ) in 2013 (referred to in GIZ, 2016) concluded that \"there is still no consensus on what key strategies we should be using to achieve scaling up and broad impact,\" \"there is little incentive to implement scaling up,\" and \"lessons learned are not being systematically shared.\" Similarly, in the business (Monitor Deloitte, 2015), urban development (van Winden and van den Buuse, 2017), environmental management (Billé, 2010), nutrition (Gillespie et al., 2015), and health sectors (Spicer et al., 2018), there is strong consensus that the ability to transition from pilots to larger scale projects is markedly limited. Hall and Dijkman (2019) call for breaking the path dependencies of development pathways rooted in twentieth century values and priorities, and transitioning to more sustainable and inclusive trajectories to reach the SDGs.In this paper, we argue that two major problems undermine efforts to achieve scale in development projects. First, pilot projects are set up and managed in very controlled environments that do not reflect the reality at scale. Second, poor conceptual clarity on what scaling is often results in a narrow focus on technical replication and reaching numbers of end-user beneficiaries. We begin the paper by describing the origin and nature of these problems, and in the second part of the article, we propose a better way forward.According to Cambridge Dictionary (2018), a project is a \"piece of planned work or activity that is completed over a period of time and intended to achieve a particular aim.\" Turner and Müller (2003) call projects \"a temporary organization.\" Unlike stand-alone projects, which are relatively small scale and not specifically designed for future scaling, pilot projects are implemented to determine whether something is worth supporting over time and/or at a larger scale. In this paper, we argue that most pilot projects do not mature to the intended scale because they are set up and managed as stand-alone projects, rather than as true pilot projects aimed to test performance at scale. For example, while most pilots test if an innovation works in a particular context, they overlook other factors critical for success at scale, such as testing for ways to improve collaboration or implementing alternative methods to access market finance without project support. Transitioning from the very controlled environments of projects to the \"real world\" at scale comes with the following challenges:1. Reliance on external resources: Projects rely mostly on grants from one donor without significant and effective co-financing from other donors and the local financial market (KPMG, 2016;Ton et al., 2015). In addition, budgets are designed to cover the costs required to show that an innovation works in the pilot context, rather than to understand what it would cost to shape an enabling environment, reach large numbers, and sustain outcomes at scale (Spicer et al., 2014;Gillespie et al., 2015). 2. Fixed time horizons: Projects usually start long after they are designed and last for a fixed period of time. These project timelines may or may not coincide with the intrinsic timelines of transformational processes (Olsson et al., 2017;Leland, 2017). In addition, people (e.g. project team members and collaborators) are willing to endure many things for a limited, known duration that they would not do permanently. 3. Reliance on external leadership: Well-paid, highly educated, and motivated project management teams are hired to drive the pilot project to success (Lamers et al., 2017). However, they can be slow, unable, or unwilling to collaborate with existing local systems (Spicer et al., 2014). 4. Biased collaboration: Partnerships are generally based on a collection of transactions to help the project achieve its objective and use its resources, rather than on building strategic collaborations to tackle a social problem (Jeevan, 2017;KPMG, 2016). Billé (2010) states that stakeholders often have to be persuaded to participate because the ones calling for change are rarely those able to implement it. He further states that it helps to classify a project as lowstake and \"just an experiment\" and to provide financial resources (e.g. travel expenses and per diem) to support participation of those implementers. Pilot projects also tend to work with the most progressive farmers/beneficiaries who may not be representative of the entire target population (Rogers, 2003). Furthermore, project beneficiaries can suffer from the \"Hawthorne effect\" where \"people react positively to the fact that they are being taken care of in order to improve their situation, particularly when they are in a position of weakness\" (Bernoux, 1990). This effect can severely bias the conclusions from a project intervention. 5. Limited incentives to scale: For project implementers, the reward for a successful project is often another project (Cooley, 2018). As a result, their incentives emphasize direct and attributable benefits (Leeuwis et al., 2017) rather than systemic changes, reductions in unit cost, or transfer of responsibility to permanent players or platforms. 6. Shielding from the \"real\" world: Pilot projects are shielded from politics, regulations, market forces, and finance in various ways. This can be due to the experimental/small character of pilot projects, or the strong desire of donors and implementers to make pilots successful (Billé, 2010). Billé (2010) finds that pilot experiments that promote cultural change, change of practices, and innovative organization modes tend to be tolerated by stakeholders who are the bearers of the \"traditional\" and dominant modus operandi as long as they remain pilot ventures. Therefore, they do not have to face the opposition that usually appears in the latter stages, at least not at its full strength or diversity. Or, as Deaton (2010) describes, corrupt officials may be more likely to steal from programs once they reach a certain size. 7. Excessively narrow scope: The lack of cross-sectoral collaboration up to the highest administrative levels influences project design and activities and feeds the misconception that the solution for the adoption of agricultural innovations lies in the agriculture sector alone and comes from your \"own\" organization. Interviews by Spicer et al. (2014) reveal an important challenge to scaling to be the poor harmonization among development agencies and implementers, fueled by competing interests and priorities, competition for donor funding, and pressure to attribute outcomes to programmatic efforts. Project steering committees, teams, and partnerships stay within their disciplinary silos, thus ignoring the complexity of adoption and scaling processes (Olsson et al., 2017;Schut et al., 2016). In addition, \"western\" values such as profit maximization, gender, and equity govern project objectives with little regard for local values such as \"least-regret,\" risk reduction, and the cultural value of agriculture (FAO, WFP, IFAD, and UNSO, 1995).It is as if the first thing a project does is build a glasshouse (controlled environment) in a landscape (real environment), and the above pitfalls represent the foundation, the walls, and roof of that glasshouse. Once the project team \"finishes\" the innovation and ensures it is adopted by direct beneficiaries, the project is regarded as a success and ready to scale. There are two common ways that pilots can scale that are convincing in the eyes of many decision makers and which are often winning arguments in grant applications:-First, by making a bigger glasshouse, or expanding the controlled environment and doing more of the same with more money. The underlying assumption here is that \"best practices\" from one area can be simply transferred to another area. While project implementers and (sometimes) donors like this approach because it keeps funds flowing, this is a very expensive (Spicer et al., 2014) and probably unsustainable strategy, especially if the scale of the solution is expected to match with the scale of the problem. -Second, by removing the glasshouse altogether. The underlying assumption here is that the innovation is so good that it will scale itself. This yields an analogy to a tomato plant that will not survive in the \"real\" conditions after the glasshouse is removed.Nevertheless, this has been a very common strategy, especially in international agricultural research where a \"proof of concept\" is delivered and the funding, shielding, and experts disappear. National extension services or the private sector are left to take over scaling regardless of whether they are actually interested in, fit to, and enabled to scale the project results.Scaling is complex; simply transferring \"best practices\" from one context to another is overly simplistic. Both approaches are very technology-and product-focused, neglecting the softer elements (people, [power] relationships, history, incentives, etc.) that create the (dis) enabling environment surrounding that technology. Scaling an innovation requires attention to the organizational and institutional processes intertwined with that particular technology or practice. Supply chains, markets, financing mechanisms, policies and regulations, professional knowledge, and so forth need to scale in a sufficiently coherent and interrelated way to make the scaling of a technology possible (Jacobs et al., 2018;Koh et al., 2017;Sartas et al., 2017). They cannot just be extrapolated linearly into another context. Hence, irrespective of the technology, practice, or process that is to be scaled, the likelihood of reaching that scale is strongly influenced by the way it is piloted (Hartmann and Linn, 2008;Spicer et al., 2014).There is no single or agreed upon definition of scaling (Frake and Messina, 2018). But, in agricultural development projects, it is often interpreted as reaching maximum adoption of a particular technology or practice by as many smallholder farmers as possible (Gonsalves, 2000). In their literature review of 36 sources, Gillespie et al. (2015) found that most scaling frameworks focus on the quantitative dimension of scaling, or expansion of coverage. A key metric for \"successful\" or \"scaled\" development efforts is the number of end-user households adopting a particular innovation by the closing date of the project. Despite the adoption itself being poorly defined in time and space (Andersson and D'Souza, 2014), it is often directly linked to impact on global development indicators through linear cause-effect chains in project Theories of Change (Abercrombie et al., 2018;Hall and Dijkman, 2019). Buntaine et al. (2013) state that donor impatience to see on-ground results that directly link adoption to impact has negative effects on projects, leading to a focus on what is simple and visible (inputs and outputs), on direct rather than indirect beneficiaries, and on form rather than function (Spicer et al., 2014;Maru et al., 2018). With funding justification tied so tightly to the number of \"direct\" beneficiaries attributable to the project, project implementation teams tend to chase the numbers of end users to please donors. Ubels and Jacobs (2018) found from interviews with 24 project implementers that in many instances the use of scarce resources to reach large numbers of people within limited timeframes was to the detriment of meaningful \"systems work\" (people and relationships). They observed that although strong numbers may be gained through temporary project efforts and outside support, these quantitative outputs do not necessarily build sustainability and ownership (and in the worst cases undermine them). Hall and Dijkman (2019) state that the current narrative is stuck in a productionist and technology-centric perspective determined by linear and component change logics, leading to piecemeal innovation. They call for a new scaling narrative that more accurately reflects the system innovation nature of the transformational change agenda of the SDGs.ODA-funded projects should work towards sustainable solutions for global challenges (poverty, food insecurity, climate change, etc.) at large scale and should always support host-country activities, involving a handover sooner or later. These societal outcomes require considerable shifts in social, political, technical, institutional, and policy configurations. In practice, however, scaling efforts often involve a group of external experts improving the efficiency of a particular, mostly technical, innovation so that it can be \"pushed\" to a maximum number of beneficiaries until the last day of the project. In this paper, we propose a perspective that brings the theory and practice closer together, thus creating the conditions for continued achievement of large numbers and sustainability of a solution or practice beyond the project through a shift in system conditions. We therefore propose to engage with scaling as a process that aims to achieve sustainable systems change at scale. Below, we describe three important dimensions: * reaching many people (\"the scale\"), * sustainability, and * system change and how they relate to each other.Despite the challenges associated with too narrow a focus on numbers, ultimately an enormous amount of people is to be lifted out of poverty or hunger. However, they will not be reached through an ODAfunded project, but through initiatives by the public and/or private sector. ODA funds are only a fraction of the finance available from private capital and remittances, government, and market finance, which are more suitable for financing scaling programs capable of achieving transformative impact (KPMG, 2016;Niculescu, 2017). Cooley and Howard (2019) state that governments and the private sector are the only platforms predicated on operating at scale-that is, delivering services at \"population level\" and sustaining delivery of services over time. Projects can, at best, expose a limited number of direct beneficiaries to an innovation for a short period of time. Enabling intermediaries to (continue to) provide services to the poor increases the number of ultimate beneficiaries reached within and beyond the project context, as for example in projects where service providers for agricultural mechanization are targeted (Baudron et al., 2015;Mottaleb et al., 2016). Although adoption by indirect beneficiaries is more difficult to measure and attribute, it serves as a much better indicator for successful scaling because adoption takes place beyond the project context, in the \"real world.\"Scale can be reached, for example, by giving free handouts of seeds or other inputs to a large number of people. But in the absence of local delivery mechanisms with self-generating and/or perpetual financing, this is not sustainable. The International Development Innovation Alliance (IDIA, 2017) defines sustainable scaling as \"the wide-scale adoption or operation of an innovation at the desired level of scale (exponential growth), sustained by an ecosystem of actors.\" Spicer et al. (2018) frame scaling up as \"the adoption of donor-funded innovations beyond their original project settings and time periods.\" Hence, in the scaling discourse, sustainability refers to a change that perpetuates itself as the \"new normal\" sustained by local actors beyond the project. The scale could then refer to the number of clients required to incentivize suppliers to invest in businesses to respond to long term-demand. Assigning such meaning to the numbers requires a good understanding of the context of the target group, and to appreciate farmers as clients and businesses rather than as beneficiaries (Cooley and Howard, 2019). This calls for projects to use tools for targeting, client segmentation, and demand creation, and to have a solid understanding of actor incentives along the value chains. Management Systems International (MSI) (Cooley and Kohl, 2016) estimates that the average time for scaling a successful pilot to national application is 15 years. With average project durations of two to four years, it is imperative that the development industry shift from seeing projects as complete efforts to framing them as building blocks to achieve long-term change (Linn and Cooley, 2014). To achieve this, projects should be much more explicit about exit strategies and better clarify the gradual transition from externally run efforts to locally adopted ones. This means catalyzing engagement of local stakeholders from the onset, sourcing local financing, facilitating collaborations between actors, and institutionalizing change into routine systems.We define a system as a set of practices, relationships, values, and rules of the game interconnected in such a way that they produce their own patterns of behavior over time (adapted from Meadows, 1999). Systems change aims to bring about lasting change by altering underlying structures and supporting mechanisms that make the system operate in a particular way (Abercrombie et al., 2015). Many of today's food security and development challenges, like those reflected in the SDGs, are systemic in their causes; so too must be their solutions. Introducing a new practice or technology at the individual farmer or household level requires the surrounding system to operate differently. For example, if certain products and services need to be available and accessible, this requires producers, supply chains, demand functions, data and information mechanisms, and enabling policies and regulation that support or accommodate adoption by individual households. Addressing such systemic elements entails a different mindset, one that can creatively navigate multiple overlapping systems-economic, social, ecological, and political (Mang and Haggard, 2016). As challenged earlier in this paper, it is not advisable to use a project to \"push an innovation through the throat of a system\" such that the system is the necessary evil to deliver at scale and where the success of the intervention/project matters most (Jeevan et al., 2019). When taking system success as a starting point-for example, overcoming the root causes of food security in a particular region-one tries to invoke change that stimulates the emergence of innovations that can make the system work better. Change occurs when different developments from distinct sources \"meet\" to gradually shape a new configuration that brings the innovation a step forward. These changes are hardly captured by monitoring things like \"adoption by x farm households.\" Rather, they involve a range of stakeholders across different disciplines (political, financial, sector governance, etc.) willing to change the way they work to shift the status quo keeping the \"bad\" system in place. Muehlenbein (2018) finds that ambitious system change goals (e.g. end poverty, food security) instill a sense of purpose, but that these goals need to be broken down into strategies for targeted system change around a set of innovations (e.g. access to mechanization) to make that vision actionable and provide a sense of focus. In most cases, projects take the promotion of an innovation as a starting point (push) and address the enabling environment for uptake of appropriate innovations (pull) at the same time. This may be a stepwise progression where innovations are adjusted in response to changing system dynamics, scale further, and respond to new system dynamics at a different scale. Many scaling initiatives fail to understand that system sufficiently well, which limits the effectiveness of their efforts (Ubels and Jacobs, 2018). Scaling implies a sufficient number of key drivers and relations such that the system that once perpetuated a \"problem\" now instead perpetuates a solution. Interventions designed to do so need to pay attention to the following:A. Common understanding of the scaling ambition: Project teams and collaborators will have to negotiate where the boundaries of the system lie to come up with a clear and common understanding of the context and boundaries of the scaling ambition. What should be scaled, where, when, how much, for whom, by whom, and why? What is the \"new normal\" that we aim for? It is also important to clarify what lies within the project's sphere of control, influence, and interest.B. Transformation: While Nicolai et al. (2015) suggest that a revolution is required to achieve the SDG goals, one can also speak somewhat more modestly of the need to transform the current \"normal\" to a new, more desirable one. Implied is an approach significantly less linear than the staged approach (discovery, proof of concept, piloting, and scaling) used by most research organizations (CGIAR, 2018). Sector transformation frameworks, as applied by Ubels and Jacobs (2018) and NewForesight (2016), for example, that move from incubation of the proof of concept, demonstration of viability by first movers, crowding in of a critical mass, and finally, to institutionalization help to establish the improved solution/ practice as the \"new normal.\" Each stage requires some form of piloting and maturation towards tipping points to move forward. Furthermore, each of these four stages requires different skills, different financing (from subsidies and grants to market finance), and also a different type of leadership (Deiglmeier and Greco, 2018).C. Scaling is an art as well as a science: Doing scaling is complex because one intervenes into a range of systems (social, economic, etc.) that interact with each other. Only to a certain extent can these interactions be captured by linear cause-effects between tangibles in technical dimensions, as most of the interaction is determined by more concrete relational factors such as motivation, norms, and (power) relations, though such factors may appear to be less tangible to technical professionals (Spicer et al., 2014). The roles and relationships, rules and norms, flows of information, system borders, and mindsets that led to the social problem in the first place have to be dealt with (Muehlenbein, 2018). Addressing these requires insights from social, economic, organizational, and applied technical disciplines to understand and/or influence drivers of change of farm households, local leaders, businesses, researchers, and policymakers. Understanding dynamics of how behaviors and relationships between people can change is thus essential.D. Responsible scaling: Scaling calls for large changes that may have unintended consequences for the population, geography/landscape, value chain, or society concerned, both positive and negative. For example, while an irrigation project may benefit specific farmers, others in the community might suffer from lower water availability or higher pollution levels in the long term. Successful scaling is not necessarily quantitative, and bigger is not always better. Qualitative indicators such as sustainability, satisfaction, and quality of life are also key metrics for success (IDRC, 2018). We need to shift from \"maximum potential scale\" for a few to \"optimal, or responsible scale\" for many (Gargani and McLean, 2017;IDRC, 2018;Wigboldus, 2018). It is therefore important to anticipate the impact of reaching the scaling ambition and the associated risks beyond the geographic, social, and time boundaries set by the project. With these considerations in mind, Jacobs et al. (2018) propose a \"responsibility check\" of scaling's potentially negative side effects on social (gender and age equality, inclusiveness, power equity, resilience) and environmental (use and quality of natural resources and climate change) indicators.As illustrated above, a successful pilot project is no guarantee for success at scale. Given that sustainability and system change are integral parts of scaling, true progress towards food security and poverty may be too complex for any one project to achieve. ODA-supported projects should not try to \"make\" things go to scale, but they can \"help\" things go to scale (Wigboldus and Brouwers, 2016). That is, they can \"help\" the private sector and/or government position themselves to intervene at a large scale. For example, ODA projects can absorb the initial costs associated with awareness building, creating a critical mass of demand, providing training and technical support to early adopters, and introducing financial innovations to improve producers' ability to pay (Kohl and Foy, 2018). A donor project may also work to improve the scalability of the innovation package itself, such as through simplification, bundling it with other products or services, or converting it to a service (Kohl and Foy, 2018).One of the first lessons for successful scaling is to design for scale from the beginning (Cooley and Kohl, 2016;ExpandNet, 2011;GIZ, 2016;Gonsalves, 2000). In practice, this means that key factors necessary for a scaling up decision-with what dimensions, using which approach, along which paths, etc.-should be explored during the pilot phase (Hartmann and Linn, 2008). Based on an analysis of successful scaling cases, frameworks to plan scaling (Gonsalves, 2000) and identify strategies (Gündel et al., 2001), as well as key elements for effective scaling (Menter et al., 2004), have been developed. However, only in 2006 (Cooley and Kohl, 2016) was the first toolkit for practitioners made available; called the Scaling Up Management (SUM) Framework, it was subsequently refined and expanded in Editions 2 and 3, both of which include the MSI Scalability Assessment Tool. USAID adapted the latter in 2018 to the Agricultural Scalability Assessment Tool (ASAT) (Kohl and Foy, 2018). Other donors such as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the World Health Organization (WHO) (ExpandNet, 2011), andGIZ (2016) have also developed toolkits. Most recently, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the PPPLab 1 developed the Scaling Scan (Jacobs et al., 2018). All these frameworks assign the difficulty of scaling innovations to a lack of clarity about what is required to achieve sustained results beyond smaller pilot programs. The tools help simplify and explain the complexities of scaling and guide users to systematically think through key elements, ingredients, or success factors. Or, as McHugh, team leader of the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) program, described his teams' experience with the Scaling Scan (personal communication, 2019): \"Breaking down scaling in ingredients helped each member of the project team see aspects affecting reaching our scaling ambition from different perspectives which helped to bring in ideas from many backgrounds and disciplines from the grassroots rather than a top-down, know-it-all perspective.\" The frameworks also rely on management principles, such as clarity of the vision, or scaling ambition, and whether it is matched by available resources, both now and in the future; and they draw attention to the need for the organizations driving the scaling process to be \"fit for scale.\" Table 1 shows the structure and key scalability factors of the MSI, ASAT, IFAD, GIZ, and PPPLab/CIMMYT tools. The SUM, ASAT, and Scaling Scan ask users to address and score scaling elements in terms of a series of questions intended to highlight likely scaling challenges, bottlenecks, and operational priorities. This allows for comparing the views of different stakeholders and for richer and more deliberate choices on what needs to be addressed and done to realize scaling.According to Linn and Cooley (2014), the IFAD Framework is intended primarily for policy and institutional analysis, while the SUM Framework mainly serves as guidance for the design and implementation of specific scaling up strategies and pathways. Following the technology adoption paradigm of Rogers (2003), the SUM Framework and the ASAT tool place strong emphasis on how a technology can be adapted to fit better in an environment. The USAID Bureau for Food Security (BFS) has used the SUM Framework (Kohl et al., 2017) to assess and compare the scaling pathways of five different innovations, each in a different country. In 2018 Kohl, 2018, the BFS tested the ASAT tool as a method to inform decisions on the most \"scalable\" innovations that USAID should invest in. The GIZ and ASAT tools were designed for GIZ and USAID staff but have applicability for a wider range of users. The Scaling Scan can be applied in distinct settings by development practitioners and with stakeholders from different professional backgrounds and levels. It deliberately asks simple but important questions and offers a method to weigh different elements and develop a rich and balanced approach. By testing an early version of the Scaling Scan with 328 extension agents in Mexico, Camacho et al. (forthcoming) were able to identify the lack of knowledge and awareness of innovations as the major bottleneck impeding the scaling of sustainable intensification practices in the Mexican context, which led them to recommend a shift in resources from technology fine-tuning to better communication.The term \"scaling\" is heartily welcomed by development organizations as a new terminology and ambition that reflects the need to address the massive problems of poverty and food insecurity. However, expanding pilot projects to reach more beneficiaries is often unsuccessful, expensive, and unsustainable. Counting households thatOverview of selected tools that help frame scaling. have changed a practice at the end of a project while they get project support is a poor metric or predictor of whether these people can and will sustain adoption after the project closes, let alone whether others will also adopt the practice.In this paper, we show that the more projects try to control the environment they operate in, the harder it is to transition to scale. Shielded from reality and relying on over-proportional external resources, projects often indulge in the changes they provoked within the project context, rather than what the project changed in the real world. Furthermore, we advocate for a broader view and approach towards scaling: from reaching many to a process aimed at achieving sustainable systems change at scale. A systems perspective of scaling requires projects to understand the actor dynamics that determine the present situation, including social norms and technical regulations, market dynamics and the role of service providers, financing mechanisms and conditions, public policy, and the gains with keeping the status quo.Understanding key drivers and rules of the game and finding levers to influence these then becomes essential for pursuing successful scaling.However, scaling in projects is dominated by a \"technology transfer mindset\" that is product, end-user and number focused. This mindset is anchored in processes where donors request project implementers to deliver a certain number of outputs at a particular time, and hold the implementing organizations accountable for their distinct contribution. Project implementers present solutions as relatively straightforward fixes that their organization can provide in a few years. Keeping things clear and simple feeds the systematic resistance to embracing scaling as something more complex and upholds a preference to implement projects in \"glasshouses\" and as stand-alone interventions. In reality, change occurs when different developments from a range of distinct sources and interventions \"meet\" to gradually shape a new configuration that brings the innovation a step forward. Such developments are hardly ever within the scope of one project. Although beyond the scope of this paper, we suspect that projects tend to focus at output level because sustainability and system change are much more difficult to measure, monitor, and attribute. Hence, we question whether \"scaling projects\" really exist and if instead we should refer to projects that pilot certain dimensions required for scaling.We conclude that scaling requires different skills, approaches, and ways of collaborating than those required for successful implementation of a pilot project. Dealing with the complexities of scaling has implications for individuals and institutions. First of all, project designers and implementers need to adopt a mindset that allows them to simultaneously navigate multiple overlapping systems-economic, social, technical, and political. Second, that different mindset goes beyond asking, \"Does the (pilot) project work?\" to asking, \"What happens beyond the (pilot) project, if it works?\" Hence, projects should be designed with clear entry and exit strategies that focus on the use of timebounded, external funding to leverage non-ODA financing and leadership that support scaling beyond the project context. Third, implementing institutions need to be realistic about which parts of the system they can influence and strategic about collaborating with others in ways that take advantage of these organizations' comparative advantages. Finally, the project should be conceived as a building block within an ecology of other initiatives and a bigger (more multisectoral) program, such as sector-or country-development strategies. This involves complementing and reinforcing existing initiatives in the same domain and stimulating supportive interventions that help build a bigger dynamic towards systems change. Although we strongly believe that scaling ambitions can only be achieved if a systems change approach is strongly embedded in the intervention, there is yet little evidence to back this up. As the interconnected nature of poverty and hunger becomes more evident, we have witnessed a growing attention for system thinking approaches in international development cooperation. However, systems thinking remains a young discipline, and such approaches are still the exception rather than the rule (Senge et al., 2015). There is a strong need to find practical application of system thinking approaches in research and development interventions. Scaling frameworks and tools, like the ones described in this paper, can help projects and professionals systematically navigate the multiple dimensions involved in tackling scale. They offer a multidimensional view and allow us to be more deliberate about defining key systemic constraints, identifying possible levers and partners to address these, and allocating attention and resources to the (often nontechnical) issues that really matter for broad adoption and a sustainable systems change.None."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac8ee1908317019b0c71c84ace998c2b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8cff692d-7e5d-4aa2-a730-bebe714810b8/retrieve","id":"-365889320"},"keywords":["Climate change","multilevel governance","REDD+"],"sieverID":"c5d2a6a6-8c0e-42b9-9e7f-df814562306c","content":"REDD+ is a multilevel endeavour. Global demands, national and subnational structures and local people's needs and aspirations must all be linked in efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. We use Brockhaus and Angelsen's (2012) framework of Institutions, Interests, Information and Ideas (4Is) to analyse the multilevel governance of REDD+ Multiple challenges for measurement, reporting and verification of REDD+ 345 through one of its core elements: measurement, reporting and verification. We present the multilevel dimensions of REDD+ and the risks if they are disregarded. We analyse the flow and interplay of information, institutions and interests across levels in REDD+ measurement, reporting and verification and examine which multilevel governance mechanisms enable this flow. To support our analysis, we provide anecdotal evidence of challenges and opportunities from three countries: Brazil, Vietnam and Indonesia. Our analysis shows that it is essential to enhance and harmonize information flows between local and national levels for measurement, reporting and verification to be accountable. Furthermore, sound information flows between levels can increase the negotiation power of disadvantaged groups and ensure a more effective, efficient and equitable REDD+. To reduce the risk of conflict, REDD+ multilevel governance systems should match incentives and interests with transparent institutions. Effective multilevel governance mechanisms, such as novel cross-scale institutional arrangements, uniform regulations on the rights, responsibilities and procedures for monitoring information flows, and participation across levels, will provide tools for both information flow and greater matching of different interests across levels.The objective of reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation and enhancing carbon stocks (REDD+) presents a multilevel puzzle. Local communities are called upon to respond to a global demand for climate change mitigation that must be met through existing and emerging national and subnational institutions and structures. REDD+ thus requires an integrated approach that involves international and local governance levels. Both external and national organizations and structures are needed to guarantee accountability and ensure independent and credible measurement, reporting and verification (MRV).REDD+ initially emphasized a national approach to help manage emissions leakage, encourage permanence and provide consistent national MRV as part of an international market-based system (Phelps et al. 2010). However, national governments struggle with multilevel challenges and have had problems with enforcement in the land use sector for decades (Corbera and Schroeder 2011). It is often claimed that a clear regulatory framework, effective law enforcement, transparency and participatory decision-making are essential for the success of REDD+ (Saunders et al. 2008;Forsyth 2009), yet a method for translating the principles of 'good governance' into forest management outcomes remains elusive (Agrawal et al. 2008;Miles and Kapos 2008), largely because of the complexity of the forest governance context. This issue is exacerbated in the case of REDD+, because its progress is fragmented between and within international, national and subnational levels of governance.There have been various theoretical reflections about multilevel governance and natural resource management in general (e.g. Armitage 2008;Pahl-Wostl 2009) and about multilevel governance and REDD+ in particular (e.g. Skutsch and van Laake 2008;Forsyth 2009). Additionally, multilevel governance has triggered the attention of commons scholars for a long time (see Larson and Lewis-Mendoza 2012;Mwangi and Wardell 2012;Ostrom 2012;Poteete 2012). This paper contributes to this body of literature by providing examples from countries in which emerging multilevel governance mechanisms are being used to respond to REDD+ implementation challenges. Based on our analysis, we find that while multilevel challenges are unavoidable in any REDD+ context, multilevel governance mechanisms can enhance the effectiveness, efficiency and equitability of REDD+ through bridging gaps across decision-making levels. We base our study on Brockhaus and Angelsen's (2012) framework of Institutions, Interests, Information and Ideas (4Is) and ask the following questions: (i) What are the multilevel dimensions of REDD+ and why are they important? (ii) Using the example of MRV as one core element of REDD+ architecture, how do information, institutions and interests flow and interplay across levels, and what kinds of multilevel governance mechanisms enable this interplay? To support our analysis, we provide anecdotal evidence of challenges and opportunities of MRV implementation for REDD+ from three countries: Brazil, Vietnam and Indonesia. 1  In this paper, we first introduce the concept of multilevel governance and the theoretical framework used in the study. We then briefly present the multilevel dimensions of core REDD+ elements. Finally, we concentrate our analysis on the multilevel governance mechanisms for one of these core elements, MRV, through the framework of institutions, interests and information flows.Multilevel governance mechanisms provide a means of bridging the gaps between the international, national and subnational spheres of decision-making. Larson and Petkova (2011, 6-9) define governance as follows: 'Governance refers to who makes decisions and how decisions are made, from national to local scales, including formal and informal institutions and rules, power relations and practices of decision making. ' Peters and Pierre (2004, 71) characterize multilevel governance as involving: (i) governance, as opposed to government; (ii) a 'complex and contextually defined relationship' between multiple institutional levels, which is not necessarily hierarchical; (iii) 'a negotiated order rather than an order defined by formalized legal frameworks'; and (iv)'a political game'. In this paper, we apply Forsyth's (2009, 114) broad definition of multilevel governance as 'the implementation of public policy across diverse spatial scales and by actors who have dissimilar influence and values'.Multilevel governance is generally understood as operating in two directions: vertical (in a hierarchy of jurisdictions or central bodies with co-ordination of actors) and horizontal (a sideways 'dispersion of power' or cross-sector integration across departments or industries). Actors with distinct aims and degrees of political influence may be connected by horizontal links; these horizontally linked actors may then be linked vertically with other actors up or down the hierarchy in a multilevel fashion. Decision-making processes take place at multiple levels and scales, 2 leading to nested governance, and these processes need to interrelate vertically. Cross-scale relationships enable stakeholders from various levels and positions to interact and be heard at scales beyond the one they are most associated with. In this way, multilevel governance relies on notions of jurisdictional levels, namely national, regional and local.The vertical direction of multilevel governance in REDD+ implies that central governments are implementing national climate strategies through regional and local governments. In this context, a multilevel governance approach recognizes that local governments' authority to act in areas related to climate change is often 'nested' in legal and institutional frameworks at higher scales (Pahl-Wostl 2009). A two-way relationship exists between local and national action on climate change because each can enable or constrain the other.The implications of vertical and horizontal interplay constitute a central variable in understanding the future effectiveness of REDD+ (Corbera and Schroeder 2011). A multilevel governance perspective on REDD+ can reveal institutional gaps and provide a starting point for improving connectivity across scales (Doherty and Schroeder 2011). For example, Cronkleton et al. (2011) argue that the success of REDD+depends on the existence of secure rights to forest resources, and the development of multi-scale governance institutions, because these elements allow local people to establish control over forest resources and develop local-level governance mechanisms that are appropriate given the emerging management demands. These local governance institutions will develop further when they are given the necessary support to form alliances with networks of national and international governmental bodies and civil society organizations.Furthermore, REDD+ requires flows of information and incentives in both vertical and horizontal directions. Such flows can be achieved by employing existing and newly created institutions and by responding to actors' interests at all levels. The framework of the 4Is (Institutions, Information, Ideas and Interests), which Brockhaus and Angelsen (2012) introduced for the REDD+ policy arena, helps explain these flows. Institutions are created, at least in part, to serve the interests of actors in the REDD+ policy domain. These actors adhere to specific ideas 3 about how to manage national forests. Discourses then unfold across levels and scales with diverse and often conflicting information. Three of these 4Is (institutions, interests and information) comprise the core of our analysis because of the ways they overlap and interplay across the levels and scales of governance.In our analysis, we also draw on the work of Pahl-Wostl (2009), who considers three processes that enable integration across levels. First, actors from one level can participate in processes at another level. Second, institutions created at one level can influence processes or institutions at other levels. Third, knowledge produced at one level can influence processes at other levels.To sum up, while the work of Peters and Pierre (2004) drafts the structures for the multilevel governance, the frameworks of 4Is and Pahl-Wostl (2009) emphasise to the functioning of a multilevel governance system. A multilevel governance system is about integrating various processes at all institutional levels of government, which will ultimately strengthen the system. Multilevel governance mechanisms are tools (such as policies and measures) for these integration processes. Taken together, these concepts provide a useful overall analytical framework for this study.Key issues in REDD+ implementation include the challenges of MRV system implementation, leakage control, permanence, financial mechanisms and benefit sharing, as well as the participation and rights of indigenous people and local communities (Angelsen et al. 2009;Kanninen et al. 2010). To address our first question, in Table 1, we describe the explicit multilevel dimensions of each of these core REDD+ elements, and outline the risks if these dimensions are disregarded.As seen in Table 1, REDD+ faces a host of multilevel challenges, which mechanisms of multilevel governance may help overcome. Many of these challenges relate to the need to connect activities at local, subnational and national levels to ensure the flow and consistency of information and the management of interests across levels. For example, benefit-sharing systems are often national but affect local rights; failure to take these aspects into account creates a serious risk of elite capture of benefits at all levels.To answer our second question, we use MRV as a key element in the REDD+ architecture. Due to its explicit multilevel dimensions, and the fact that the implementation of MRV systems is more advanced than many of the other REDD+ elements, it provides a concrete context for analysing the flow of information and the interplay of various institutions and interests across levels. While other key elements of REDD+ also offer a laboratory for studying multilevel governance, there is comparatively less analysis of the governance aspects of MRV compared to these elements. Our study addresses this gap through highlighting how multilevel governance mechanisms provide opportunities to solve MRV problems, while addressing how challenging it can be to design an MRV system that can respond to the multilevel complexities and resulting requirements. 4  MRV is a system for providing quantitative estimates of greenhouse gas fluxes (emission reductions and removals). Results-based mechanisms, such as REDD+ require reliable MRV systems to measure performance. The primary focus is on measuring changes in forest carbon stocks and/or flows, reporting those changes in a transparent and timely manner and verifying estimates through an independent third party (Herold and Skutsch 2009). MRV builds on the long history of forest monitoring efforts (see e.g. Grainger and Matthews 2002;Grainger 2008) and has to face various challenges for getting the reliable information on forest carbon (see e.g. Swart et al. 2007). For instance, one of the reasons why the Clean Development Mechanism excluded deforestation was the concern that existing MRV methodologies were not sufficiently reliable to measure emissions it reduces (Gupta et al. 2013). While MRV systems have advanced in many countries, it still faces challenges in integrating different types of information across levels (global monitoring systems, establishment of national systems, and techniques used by subnational REDD+ projects) (see also Boyd 2012). Our case studies from Brazil, Vietnam and Indonesia illustrate these multilevel challenges and the mechanisms being adopted to address them (Table 2).Most countries are still finalizing their national REDD+ frameworks and policies, while some countries like Vietnam have their national strategies in place. In the meantime, many REDD+ pilot projects have been initiated and decisions on REDD+ strategies made at subnational levels. As a result, the proponents of subnational REDD+ initiatives are setting reference levels for their project sites and/or jurisdictions 5 and developing their own MRV systems. However, communication and co-operation between levels are essential to determine how emission reductions from these subnational initiatives will be accounted for at the national level. Furthermore, third-party organizations are needed to ensure accountability and independent and credible reporting and verification. Most countries do not have a national MRV institution that could serve this function. To fill this gap, many subnational initiatives are seeking certification through the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), one of the primary independent third-party verification bodies (Estrada 2011), which recently created a Jurisdictional and Nested REDD+ framework for REDD+ programs designed to account and credit government-led REDD+ programs at national and sub-national scales. Nagendra and Ostrom (2012) note that, in addition to carbon monitoring, REDD+ should incorporate social impact assessments of the benefits and costs to local communities. The Climate, Community and Biodiversity standards for REDD+ projects and the REDD+ Social and Environmental Safeguards (SES) Initiative for government-led programs have been developed to address the social (and biodiversity) components of monitoring. Many REDD+ initiatives are seeking these certifications as a complement to VCS certification. Social impact assessments could involve a collaborative effort between scientists and local communities to develop approaches that enable comparisons of findings at regional and national scales (Richards and Panfil 2011). One way of formalizing the role of local people in Measurement (the \"M\" in MRV) is merging the requirements specified by international carbon standards for MRV and the social safeguards guidelines developed by governmental authorities. REDD+ subnational initiatives (e.g. REDD+ projects) could provide valuable lessons on whether combining the two sources of guidelines is feasible and could lead to more participatory emissions measurements and social impact monitoring. In some countries, such as Vietnam, however, ministries relevant to social impact assessments have been absent from national-level REDD+ discussions.5 REDD+ projects are generally small in scope with non-governmental organization or private sector proponents (although governmental agencies can also be involved). Jurisdictional REDD+ initiatives are government-led and designed to regulate REDD+ within a jurisdictional unit (e.g. state or province). Evidence from the case study countries shows that not only are there numerous challenges for multilevel governance with regard to MRV systems for REDD+, but there are also promising opportunities. Improving communication and flows of information between subnational REDD+ initiatives and national authorities is an important step in creating a multilevel governance system. Brazil is a global leader in large-scale deforestation monitoring through its National Institute for Space Research (INPE). Since 1988, INPE has monitored annual deforestation rates in the Brazilian Amazon through its forest monitoring program (PRODES), and in 2004, created a system for nearly real time detection of deforestation (DETER); these data are freely available. Additionally, Brazilian researchers have developed advanced techniques to detect and monitor deforestation and degradation (Martins et al. 2013) and simulate future deforestation in the Amazon (Soares et al. 2006), which have been widely disseminated. Despite the high technical and institutional capacity for MRV in Brazil, several issues related to REDD+ MRV systems remain unresolved, such as the most appropriate method for setting baselines and the ideal combination of advanced remote sensing techniques and ground-based methods.Differences between national and subnational methods for setting reference levels for use in deforestation monitoring could have critical implications for carbon accounting. For instance, the state of Acre's deforestation monitoring programme shows historical deforestation at 20% higher than the nationallevel system (based on PRODES); this would translate into higher emissions reductions and potential carbon revenues for Acre's System of Incentives for Environmental Services (Alencar et al. 2012). Also, forward-looking baselines (based on simulation models) that are used by some REDD+ projects are considered questionable due to their high volatility and the difficulty of separating the localized effects of projects from the overall trajectory of deforestation in an area (Soares-Filho et al. 2012). Harmonization of information across levels is still needed to build accountable MRV systems for REDD+.In Vietnam and Indonesia, conflicts of interest and the use of different land classification systems by different ministries (and even within ministries) exacerbate difficulties in obtaining accurate data on forest lands and resources. Data are scattered across departments and units and are neither shared between institutions nor made available to the public. This failure to share data and resources results in overlapping and duplicated activities, and has partly hampered the efforts by donor agencies to assist these governments in developing or improving their MRV systems. However, on the other hand, in Indonesia, the data sharing difficulties motivated donors to assist the governments.Enabling the flow of information requires building capacity to deal with information of various types (e.g. local and spatial data) and quality. In Indonesia and Vietnam, the main problem in establishing a national MRV system is the lack of reliable, harmonized and centralized spatial data on land uses, such as forestry/ Multiple challenges for measurement, reporting and verification of REDD+ 355 mining/agriculture concessions, conservation areas and economic development zones. However, there are attempts towards harmonization in Vietnam, where the ministry has developed the Management Information System for Forestry Sector (FORMIS), which collects and synthesizes all information related to the sector. It also aims to encourage information sharing between relevant ministries, identify needs for information sharing, harmonize technical information and improve reporting systems. In addition, most forest inventory data in Vietnam are located and controlled by central level government and research institutes. Local authorities want to access and use these data but they do not know how to interpret the result. Central level ministries and institutes also complained that they cannot pass on the information when there is no technology to do so.In Indonesia, efforts have been made to increase data transparency and to harmonize land use maps across provinces and sectors. The REDD+ Task Force under the President's Unit for Development Control and Monitoring (UKP4) has posted spatial data on the Internet and invited public analysis and input. This process revealed the state of discordance in Indonesia's land use mapping system. Backing from the Indonesian President was critical in legitimizing the mapping process. At the same time, a multi-agency initiative -the Indonesian National Carbon Accounting System -is establishing methods for national carbon accounting. The system complies with IPCC requirements, thus contributing to the provision of reliable and standardized data. Efforts to centralize data scattered between agencies remain limited, but the draft national MRV strategy makes data harmonization a key priority. But the series of laws and institutions related to land use mapping were supported by other sectors of the government, who realized the importance of a synchronized land use map in development planning. Together with the REDD+ agenda, they generated interest at the district level to build their own capacity in mapping and geospatial information management. For example, in 2011, the district planning agency (Bappeda) of Kapuas District (Central Kalimantan) held geographic information system (GIS) training, attended by almost all subdistrict heads.In the REDD+ context, information related to baseline setting, carbon measurements and MRV is a source of power; the institutions that hold this knowledge, and hence have control over and capacity for its dissemination at project and national levels, wield considerable influence in national REDD+ politics. For this reason, it is important to include local people in MRV systems both as a source of knowledge and as recipients of other actors' knowledge, so that they can participate equally in REDD+; recent initiatives in Brazil and Vietnam are attempting to achieve this. Armitage (2008) argues that one expected benefit of multilevel governance is the linking of formal science with local or indigenous knowledge systems. For example, a study by Nagendra and Ostrom (2012) provides evidence that local users can provide extremely accurate predictions of changes in tree density in forest. However, the difficulty is to systematically include them into a national MRV system. Differences in the language used to measure emissions, difficulties in meeting data quality standards, and lack of clear incentives to provide monitoring services are some of the challenges in integrating local measurements into a national MRV system. Another issue is the complexity of international verification standards and methods for measuring unplanned deforestation, which makes them less accessible to REDD+ proponents. These processes need to be simplified, preferably before national MRV frameworks are fixed into place.The distribution of REDD+ benefits and responsibilities is of great concern to stakeholders at every level, as all want to be fairly represented and receive their fair share of benefits. An equitable national MRV framework will be based both on comprehensive multi-sectoral and historical data to ensure local deforestation trends are accurately captured. Methods are transparent and communicated across levels and sectors. Key issues in the discussion on benefit sharing are the relationship between national and local governments and the need for local governments to be given the flexibility to implement broader REDD+ interventions (Luttrell et al. 2012).Corruption and fraud also affect the distribution of incentives at all levels of government. In Indonesia and Vietnam, there have been delays in disbursing and spending shared revenues from forestry across government levels, and funds for national reforestation programmes were misused in several places (Barr et al. 2010;Pham et al. 2012). Recent studies in Vietnam (Pham et al. 2009(Pham et al. , 2012) ) highlighted that corruption in relation to national reforestation/afforestation and payments for environmental services (PES) programmes either delayed or halted PES payments for local communities. In Indonesia, the fiscal balancing law prohibits money from being distributed directly between government levels and communities. In the absence of a transparent benefit-sharing mechanism based on an official national MRV system, the approval of future REDD+ revenue levels and the allocation of these revenues might involve protracted negotiations between districts, provinces and central agencies, thereby increasing transaction costs and creating opportunities for corruption. Evidence from Indonesia indicates that, after each level of government receives its share of forest revenues, factors such as poor financial management, elites who act outside the law with impunity and the absence of accountability mechanisms have led to corruption and misuse of forest funds. This suggests that there are significant risks for corruption in climate finance in Indonesia (Dermawan et al. 2011). Poteete and Ostrom (2004) point out that one of the factors that need to be considered in fostering collaboration across scales is institutional environment: We need to understand what institutions are already in place, and how they can serve as the basis for new systems that foster collaboration across scales. To establish an accountable MRV system, new institutional arrangements are needed that create or build on existing bodies, with a particular focus on tools for overcoming the obstacles to information flow across levels.Efforts to establish such institutions in the case study countries, however, are hampered by political and economic obstacles. Vietnam, for example, is experiencing problems in arranging additional and independent bodies for MRV because of high transaction costs, conflicts with existing government policy (e.g. with regard to national security), disagreement between central and local authorities and among donors, and lack of support from local agencies. Local governments have challenged the central government and donors regarding the practicality and feasibility of these independent bodies, calling for a more realistic and cost-effective approach. If the potential for REDD+ payment is small, local governments may prefer to use existing mechanisms and institutional arrangements with additional functions.Subnational governments and institutions will be pivotal in REDD+ implementation, especially in countries such as Indonesia and Brazil, where decentralization has given subnational governments the authority over land and natural resource management. In such countries, it is essential that subnational governments establish coherent regulations on the rights, responsibilities and procedures for MRV and set up funds and transparent mechanisms for allocating resources to subnational REDD+ actors.A promising example of an institution focused on the subnational level is the Governors' Climate and Forests Task Force (GCF), which recognizes the key role of state and provincial governments in building REDD+ programs. The GCF began in 2008 through agreements between select subnational governments in the United States, Brazil and Indonesia, and has since expanded to include a total of 19 states and provinces in the collaboration (adding representatives from Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, and Spain as well). In Brazil, assuming leadership for REDD+ at the subnational level has been an important strategy for decreasing the risks of leakage and establishing a reliable MRV system. Since 2008, seven of the nine Amazonian states have initiated plans to control deforestation within the framework of the National Plan for the Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Amazon (May et al. 2011). The state of Amazonas passed climate change legislation in 2007 with its Climate and Conservation Law (3135/2007). The states of Acre and Mato Grosso have passed laws designed to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation: namely the 2010 State System of Incentives for Environmental Services (SISA) Law (Government of Acre 2010; Law 2308/2010), and the 2013 State System of REDD+ (Government of Mato Grosso 2013; Law 9878/2013), respectively. The SISA law transformed state institutions, and its carbon programme provides an important model for subnational jurisdictional REDD+. The Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas are pilots for the VCS Jurisdictional and Nested REDD+ framework.In Indonesia, voluntary working groups, which are helping to address the lack of institutional links between sectors and scales, provide an example of institutional integration across levels. Ad hoc REDD+ working groups in the provinces of Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and Aceh, in collaboration with the National REDD+ Task Force, are working to improve stakeholder participation and dialogue between ministries, the private sector, civil society and academia. They also provide a forum for communication between actors at different levels: provincial and district officials, REDD+ project proponents and community representatives. Such temporary working groups are -at least in Indonesia -familiar mechanisms for addressing emerging issues. In both Indonesia and Vietnam, voluntary subtechnical REDD+ working groups have been established with the aim of supporting the respective governments in developing their national REDD+ programmes. Voluntary working groups can be formed through various networks and can be effective in bridging gaps between levels. However, as they are voluntary, they tend to have limited impact and influence, and higher levels may ignore their input, meaning that their effectiveness depends on vertical support from government agencies.Organizations that are active across scales provide insights for ways to create novel pathways that enable diverse actor groups to exchange experiences, with the aim of nurturing arenas of innovation and thus facilitating a greater range of purposeful collective actions. These organizations serve as bridges between subnational and national governments, and work to combine local REDD+ initiatives into a subnational-scale strategy -a challenging task given the broad local powers granted under decentralization (Gallemore and Dini 2012).In sum, integration between levels for REDD+ implementation and the establishment of an MRV system may take several forms. The multilevel dimensions of REDD+ create institutional challenges, but these could be overcome by the establishment of new institutions (e.g. those needed for MRV), the strengthening of existing institutions (at all levels) or the use of informal and/ or voluntary networks. The solution or response to the complexity inherent in REDD+ might involve a blend of different types of institutional arrangement. Poteete (2012) notes that policy failures are often attributed to poorly aligned institutions, and that the design of multilevel institutions (e.g. those for MRV) based on functional boundaries could facilitate management. As Pahl-Wostl (2009) proposes, integration means that institutions at one level can influence the processes of institutions at other levels -an essential feature for dealing with many of the challenges and risks related to REDD+, outlined in Table 1.An important issue for REDD+ is identifying who is participating at each level of governance and how these actors exercise their agency (Corbera and Schroeder 2011). Participation engenders trust and reduces the risks of conflict and failure (Forsyth 2009). As noted by Ostrom (2012), building trust and commitment, particularly at local levels, contributes to addressing problems at larger scales. Participation can be achieved by multi-actor governance systems that allow all stakeholder groups to collaborate in achieving public policy objectives. REDD+ in countries like Vietnam is implemented through top-down approaches. In Indonesia, national and local level initiatives are progressing simultaneously.In Brazil, state governments have shown particular leadership in REDD+. In all cases, a multilevel governance approach that prioritizes the flow of information and the matching of interests across levels can result in more effective outcomes. In MRV, for example, such flows of information are the main component of emissions data collection and dissemination. Aligning interests can help support the acceptance of benefit sharing decisions that arises from the resulting database.When actors at one level participate in processes at other levels, vertical coordination (Pahl-Wostl 2009) and communication of interests across levels is improved. In the context of MRV, participation encompasses the processes of (i) giving information; (ii) receiving information; (iii) providing input or regulating how information is received or taken; and (iv) converting MRV information into plans of action to reduce emissions while balancing pre-existing goals. However, evidence from REDD+ countries shows that there is much room for improvement in relation to participation in both REDD+ and MRV (Indrarto et al. 2012;Pham et al. 2012).MRV systems can be designed to take into account input from local stakeholders, and provide back information on emissions from land use change as a way of encouraging more sustainable land use practices. Monitoring and reporting standards can be developed for communities, being simple, scientifically valid, and can be adjusted to meet local social and environmental conditions as seen fit by local people (Van Laake and Skutsch 2008). Also, since the methods by which baselines are established determine how and to whom carbon revenues will be allocated, public consultation about baseline setting can help enhance equity. Local knowledge can be integrated in methodologies for monitoring and reporting. It is possible to develop effective social/development MRV systems that not only ensure the compliance of procedural rights like to consultation but the more substantive rights e.g. rights to land; rights of access to forest resources (Bird and Schreckenberg 2006).In Brazil, indigenous groups and forest-based communities have mobilized to promote local participation in the REDD+ process. These groups, recognizing the potential benefits and risks associated with REDD+ as well as the potential challenges associated with fair engagement, have taken action to promote the inclusion of social and environmental safeguards (Gomes et al. 2010). Most NGO and government REDD+ project proponents have held, or plan to hold, public consultations with target actors at the project sites as a means of presenting information and eliciting feedback, including on the design and implementation of MRV systems at project and jurisdictional levels. Brazil now has several examples of local-level integration in REDD+ projects' MRV systems, in which community-based monitoring is linked to spatial analyses.Although participatory MRV remains a controversial issue in Vietnam, many projects there have piloted participatory carbon monitoring. In particular, the World Agroforestry Centre, in collaboration with national partners in BacKan, Thai Nguyen and ThuaThien Hue Provinces, tested a new method, known as RaCSA (rapid carbon stock appraisal), for its potential to help communities become involved in reporting and monitoring for PES contracts (Kurniatun et al. 2001). The aim of this study was to explore local knowledge and investigate activities that can improve local livelihoods (Van Noordwijk 2007). The findings indicate that RaCSA can indeed facilitate local people's active participation in measurement and monitoring and thus provide insights that could prove valuable in relevant discussions and the design of an MRV system in Vietnam. However, the findings have not been widely shared among stakeholders nor fed into current policy debates, highlighting the disconnection between project-level activities and the national REDD+ programme.Limited participation in REDD+ is a recurring problem in many countries. In Vietnam, it can be explained by a political process characterized by ineffective consultation mechanisms and weak representation of certain groups. Furthermore, as Pham et al. (2010) highlight, donors often hire intermediaries to carry out consultations but various pressures (time, the donor's priorities, costs) render these consultations inadequate.Limited participation also comes in the form of flagging interest in REDD+. In Indonesia, there is participation fatigue, stemming from lack of proof of REDD+'s feasibility, lack of clarity in regulations and policies, and strong vested interests in other (potentially high-emission) land uses. Even where voluntary working groups were successfully established to enhance stakeholder participation, an excess of REDD+ workshops and stakeholder discussions and seminars that were not followed by realizations of REDD+ funds and actions, which led to 'REDD+ fatigue'. Despite efforts implementers of local REDD+ initiatives to engage local policymakers in understanding their objectives, interest remains limited, mainly because the REDD+ incentive mechanisms are still unclear.Actors negotiate support for their own interests in REDD+ policies and MRV processes, horizontally, vertically and at all stages of the policymaking process. Horizontal negotiations take place, for example, among relevant ministriesforestry, agriculture, mining, planning and finance. Vertically, negotiations can take place, for example, among project implementers, civil society actors and negotiators. Coalition building between actor groups serves to leverage political power and help realize interests; which interest wins is often the result of a combination of economic and political power. Information, Brockhaus and Angelsen (2012) argue, is an important source of power in the REDD+ arena. MRV information and baselines are shaped by politics and the influence of certain interests (Espeland and Stevens 2008).This can result in situations where the information flow across levels is impeded by conflicts or lack of interest in sharing information with other actors, as seen in the cases of Vietnam and Indonesia. In addition, institutional stickiness and established power structures hinder the flow and match of different types of information across levels. It is important to recognize the effectiveness of informal relationships and networks in bridging gaps between agencies at different levels. In Vietnam, most stakeholders share information through informal channels, e.g. based on personal relationships or informal networks. However, these informal networks are not widely known or recognized; they lack transparency and are absolutely exclusive. Furthermore, the production and dissemination of knowledge depend on power relations and social concerns, and it is equally important to ask what knowledge is not being produced and disseminated. Therefore, the design of an MRV system and the knowledge upon which it is based are not only technical but also political issues.It has been claimed that the high economic value of forest resources could create strong incentives for central policymakers and governing elites to retain control over resources and subvert local rights and claims (Ribot 2004). This is known as the REDD+ paradox -that REDD+ may increase the political incentives to retain or recentralize control over forests (Griffiths 2007;Phelps et al. 2010). Others argue that REDD+ will not lead to recentralization. For example, Wunder (2010) suggests that REDD+ might reinforce decentralization, as states come to realize that they cannot reduce deforestation in a centralized system. Nevertheless, decentralization has not been completely effective in linking governance across levels or managing power asymmetries; rather, there is considerable evidence that decentralization leads to elite capture and even negative resource outcomes. In terms of multilevel governance, Mwangi and Wardell (2012) identify two approaches to forging links between levels: top-down (decentralization) and bottom-up (community participation). Both approaches have advantages and drawbacks, and they share some common problems, particularly elite capture, which ultimately hinders healthy cross-scale linkages. Nagendra and Ostrom (2012) propose that polycentric forest governance may alleviate concerns about distribution of financial incentives through REDD+. Therefore, polycentricism and the development of multilevel, integrated social-ecological assessments hold significant potential as ways of addressing some of the major future challenges for REDD+ (Nagendra and Ostrom 2012).Multilevel governance mechanisms, including the establishment of legal procedures and reliable data for MRV, can settle disputes in implementation, adjust the mismatch of incentives and address problems in the distribution of benefits. Design elements for REDD+ should complement existing forest-related policies and be informed by lessons learned during decades of local and global initiatives; this would make them consistent with proposals for 'nested' climate governance regimes (Forsyth 2009).The lessons from the case study countries show that there are numerous challenges and opportunities for improving multilevel governance with regard to MRV systems for REDD+. Improving flows of information between subnational REDD+ initiatives and national authorities is an important step in improving multilevel governance. As our analysis shows, for the MRV system that works across the levels and scales, it is essential to have a national framework in place, clear channels of communication and cooperation as well as verification of the accountability, independence and credibility of the system. Furthermore, multilevel governance for MRV, entails harmonizing information and incentives across all levels. This is, in part, a practical and technical problem: information and data for monitoring REDD+ are formed through a range of processes and according to different standards, making it difficult to aggregate the data at the national level.The MRV decisions made about setting reference levels and accounting for carbon stocks have clear implications for the distribution of REDD+ benefits. Information and incentives are the two main currencies in the complex REDD+ arena -with difficulties traceable to the power relations among the actors who control them. Poor flows of information and the mismatch of incentives can lead to conflicts between subnational and national actors, because of conflicting interests between levels. A multilevel governance system would entail a shift towards accepting the reality that disagreements will arise in all aspects of environmental governance and that actors must reconcile others' objectives or accept their difference.Therefore, multilevel governance mechanisms in REDD+ should be designed to achieve two simultaneous aims: 1) to seek ways to help actors at different levels to better match their interests; and 2) to adapt REDD+ to make it flexible enough to work with a range of (often conflicting) interests. Effective mechanisms of multilevel governance for MRV, such as a blend of novel cross-scale institutional arrangements and uniform regulations on rights, responsibilities and procedures for monitoring information flows and participation across levels, provide tools not only for information flow across levels but also for better matching of interests. However, the further research on the commons and the multilevel governance for the MRV could concentrate on the relative importance and contribution of formal institutions and informal networks in addressing horizontal and vertical coordination in the various steps of MRV.In summary, policy and institutional reforms aimed at redefining existing information, incentive and power structures are needed to ensure the success of REDD+ implementation. REDD+ can serve as a catalyst for wider transformational change, and mechanisms for multilevel governance will play a pivotal role in this process. The sound flow of information and alignment of incentives across levels, in conjunction with transparent institutions, will be a key element in achieving efficient, effective and equitable MRV needed for REDD+ implementation. "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0297f3dcceeaccfdb010a69b9f98d785","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/192642f1-a90f-452e-9bb3-4489f8f65c30/retrieve","id":"635474896"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"eaef061d-a916-49c2-b2a5-af06d76bf7f7","content":"This study was commissioned by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT to assess the viability of enhancing forage selection and dissemination and targeting breeding and selection efforts focusing on the specific needs of South-East Asian farming systems. The opportunity to be assessed is to strengthen the Alliance's collaboration with the Thai government in the framework of improved Tropical Forages. The study aims to address bottlenecks for forage seed supply systems for: a) the internal Thai market; b) for export in the SEA region, specifically to Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.This study thus aims at providing a good understanding of the forage seed systems in Thailand, its links with the wider SEA region, and reviews high-level stakeholder engagements with government authorities and the private sector. It provides an overview of forage seed certification options available in-country to ensure seed quality (e.g., purity and germination), requirements for varietal registration, and regulations for import/export of seeds.The numbers of beef cattle decreased by about 30% between 2005 and 2015 as a result of land use changes related to intensifying food-feed-bio energy crop production. This development has limited livestock grazing areas as well as household labor availability. During the same time, the growth of the dairy cattle population and milk production had witnessed an opposite trend, with the largest number of dairy cattle in the central region (an average of 30 cattle per farm on 3.2-hectare land holdings, milk production totaling ca. 967,844 tons per year) (AMIS, 2014). Since then, these trends have reverted though and now, both beef cattle and dairy numbers, have increased strongly again, having risen from 509,524 for dairy and 4,407,108 heads for beef in 2015 to 812,235 dairy cattle and 9,394,111 heads of beef in 2022 (Department of Livestock Development data). While in the beef sector, more than 1.3 million farmers own 1-20 cattle, only 367 own more than 200, indicating a strong dominance of smallholder production. Dairy producers tend to be larger but large producers still produce only an estimated 25-30% of the total volume, with producers up to 100 heads producing the lion's share. Ruminant feeding systems are traditionally largely based on local agro-industrial by-products and the native/naturalized grasses found in mixed farming systems. For dual purpose cattle, a shortage of feed, both in terms of quantity and quality, has become a major constraint. Where high quality roughage is of short supply, dairy farmers are forced to supplement rice straw, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts and/or low-quality roughage with concentrates, which leads to underperformance of the animals (AMIS, 2014). Recently, smallholder farmers have started to use concentrates and/or total mixed ration (TMR) bought through dairy cooperatives to feed their dairy cattle. Whilst the main roughage remains rice straw, an increasing number of farmers are also producing forages such as Napier and Ruzi grass, and buy corn silage, by-products, cassava pulp, etc. (Department of Livestock Development data).The costs incurred by such supplementation are unclear. Feed prices had a slight tendency to increase in 2022 (Error! Reference source not found.), ranging between 8 and 16 THB per kg depending on feed, and above 23 THB for soybean meal. Nevertheless, feed imports have been increasing strongly before COVID-19 started to strangle economic activities in 2021 (Table 2). In dairy production ration include 5-15 kg of concentrate per day, while fresh grasses are supplied at 30-40 kg/d (Guinea, Ruzi, Napier, or Para). During the dry season fresh feed is replaced with silage, hay, rice straw, and other residues and by-products (personal communication). By-products suitable as feed come from paddy, field crops, orchards and plantation, and vegetable gardens. Cassava, sugar cane, pineapple, oil palm, and corn are produced in upland areas while land of low fertility is used for ruminant grazing. For non-ruminants, (broilers, layers, meat ducks and pigs) commercial compound feed from corn, soybean, fishmeal, cassava, and rice bran are used with some of the ingredients being imported in large quantities (Table 2). The availability of feed and roughages for ruminants often remains restricted in the dry season.Interest in quality forages in the region has therefore significantly increased over the past decade.Whereas for example in 2012 of the 130t of forage seeds produced by Ubon Seeds Co. Thailand, 95% were exported overseas and only 5% were sold locally and regionally, this proportion is reversed now, with most produce sold regionally. The production volume for 2023 is estimated to be about 100t. Forage seeds in Thailand and the SEA regionThe Asia and Pacific Seed Association (APSA, https://web.apsaseed.org/), of which the CGIAR (esp. CIMMYT and IRRI) is a stakeholder, was established in 1994, with the aim of promoting quality seed production and marketing in the Asia and Pacific Region. Today, it is the largest network of companies, associations and government bodies relating to seeds in the Asia Pacific region, including Thailand (with DOA, DOAE, NSTDA and KU as national stakeholders). It serves as a platform for sharing ideas and knowledge for better understanding, collaboration, and business growth.However, on a national level, Thailand is the only country in continental SE-Asia with a national seed association (http://seed.or.th/english/eng_index.html). Additionally, the Thai Seed Trade Association (THASTA, https://thasta.com/en/home/) has 155 members, from R&D, production, marketing, import/export, wholesale, and retail entities.THASTA promotes good relations between their members and builds links to other related associations who are interested in seed or seed technology. They also disseminate information on related topics and technologies to members and the general public and facilitate the development of the Thai seed industry on governmental and private sector level (e.g., regulations etc.). Furthermore, they provide advice to businesses on regulations and other seed sector related matters.The Forage Seed Production Association of Thailand, based in Khon Kaen, provides a knowledge exchange platform and is linked to the Thailand Pasture Seed Producer Club and its activities (see below). It is a less formal and much smaller arrangement than the previously mentioned associations and is mainly maintained through personal commitment of professionals in the field of livestock development and animal feeds. However, figures on forage seed production or sales as far as available in a compiled form, come from the Department of Livestock Development (Table 3). The Thailand Pasture Seed Producer Club has an office close to DLD and is supported by them. The club started in 2003 with about 3000-4000 farmers, with the idea of linking farmers to buyers acting similar to a cooperative. The club would provide purification and sorting equipment, as well as packaging machines, and farmers would pay a small percentage of their sales to the club. Over the past 3-4 years, Panicum maximum has become very popular, with demand outstripping supply and driving prices up.Traders often approach farmers directly and offer high prices, so farmers now often sell straight to middlemen, which has led to a decrease in club members. Most of the Panicum is resold in Thailand.Currently, about 2000 farmers remain and produce 31t of Ruzi, 9t of Simuang (P. maximum), 1.5t Mombasa, 2.5t Paspalum, and 13t of Stylo. DLD Mahasarakham checks the seed quality, but the sales price is still lower than from private sector companies.Many farmers produce and sell forage seed by themselves, some even export to Myanmar and Vietnam. The Bureau of Animal Nutrition started a project in 2022 that aims at expanding farmer forage seed production area to a total of 4,800 ha. Farmers joining the project will plant Napier, Pangola, or Ruzi grass, or maize.Ubon Forage Seeds, a private operation, has in 2022 harvested 71 tons of Mun River and 25 tons of Mombasa, a smaller amount of Purple Guinea, 7 tons of Ubon Paspalum, 6 tons of Mulato II, and 5 tons of Ruzi (the latter three bought from producers in Laos).Other companies focus exclusively on one species, such as Arachis pintoi or Crotalaria juncea which they produce for niche markets or in large quantities with low margins. However, while Arachis finds some use as cover plant and crop, the Crotalaria market in SEA lies barren still. Producers rather take advantage of the diverse climatic conditions Thailand has to offer and produce for overseas buyers in Europe, the USA, Australia and more recently Africa. To satisfy future demands of these buyers, some producers (such as Isaan Seeds) venture into exploring other species, such as Lablab purpureus, Clitoria ternatea, Canavalia ensiformis or Centrosema pubescens, some of which could, in the wake of climate change, offer new options for farmers in more temperate parts of the globe.Some dedicated forage seed producers in the country are:1. A major problem in Thailand, as reported by actors in seed value chains working with smallholder farmers as seed producers, is disloyalty in the form of breaches of contract. As in other countries in the region too, law enforcement in the agricultural sector is weak, which gives both farmers and investors little legal security. Complaints about breaches of contract are therefore very common and a major constraint to contract farming. Dishonest and opportunistic traders try to capitalize on this setup by actively luring farmers into selling contracted produce to them, paying a better price and then trying to sell the produce online at high prices, but without the necessary expertise to provide a high-quality product. In consequence, grass seed that was snatched away from contractors in this manner, got offered uncleaned and unscarified at the open market, leading to low uptake and potential reputational problems for the crop, especially among farmers who venture into forages for the first time.Similarly, high prices of alternative cropping options such as cassava can lead to many farmers shifting from forage seed production to higher profit crops, leaving buyers and processors scrambling for produce.The building of strong long-term relationships is thus essential to a healthy cooperation, but still does not provide guarantees for compliance.About 15-20 years ago, forage species selection and evaluation were carried out by few Thai individuals from universities or government departments, but they would only assess biomass yield and seed yield.During the Forage for Smallholders Project (Werner Stür and Peter Horne (CIAT) funded by ACIAR, 1995ACIAR, -99 & 2000-02)-02), Brachiaria (now Urochloa) seed from CIAT was evaluated for drought tolerance in Thailand. Werner Stür brought the seed into the country and Mulato was found to perform well. However, Mulato had not been registered at this time and once IPRs had been established and the hybrid was released, work was not continued. A new plant variety can be registered by a Thai plant breeder. A juristic person which has its head office in Thailand is treated as a Thai entity. A non-Thai plant breeder or a foreign entity may seek protection under the Act if they are a national of a country that is a party to the World Trade Organization's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, which currently stands as the only international convention or treaty on plant varieties to which Thailand adheres (Siriwat, 2016). Thailand is currently, though, preparing to join UPOV (International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants).In the words of the Plant Protection Act 2542 (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Thailand, 1999) an applicant for registration of a new plant variety shall be a breeder with the following qualities:(1) being of Thai nationality or being a juristic person having a head office in Thailand;(2) being of the nationality of a country allowing Thai nationals or juristic persons having head offices in Thailand to apply for protection in that country;(3) being of the nationality of a country which is a party to an international convention or agreement on the protection of plant varieties to which Thailand is also a party;(4) having a domicile or carrying out real and effective industry or business in Thailand or in a country which is a party to an international convention or agreement on the protection of plant varieties to which Thailand is also a party.The conditions for protection of new plant varieties are similar to those included in the UPOV Convention.In addition to the requirements of DUS (Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability Testing), new plant varieties must not have been distributed in or outside the Kingdom by the breeder or with the breeder's consent for more than one year prior to the date of application. This condition is roughly equivalent to the concept of commercial novelty included in the UPOV Conventions and many countries' plant variety protection laws. The rights conferred with respect to new plant varieties are also roughly equivalent to those provided under UPOV 1991, although the protection periods are shorter than those established by UPOV 1991, lasting for 12 years for plants giving fruits within a period of not over two years of the cultivation, 17 years for plants giving fruits after more than two years of cultivation, and 27 years for treebased plants giving fruits after two years or more of cultivation.Going beyond the UPOV Conventions, the Thai law requires applications for new plant variety protection to include details about the origin of the genetic material used for breeding, as well as a proof of a profitsharing agreement when general domestic or wild plant varieties have been used for breeding of the variety. Varieties for which Plant Breeder Rights (PBRs) were granted are written into the national register of protected varieties (Gagné and Ratanasatien, 2016).In practice, experiences vary, probably depending on crop and expectations. Registration was reported to be a complicated and lengthy process that requires a lot of expert knowledge, often more than private sector players can offer or are willing to afford. Even large companies of cash crops, such as oil palm, reportedly abstain from going through the process of registration to obtain PBRs, being considered too lengthy and difficult. Other companies have produced the data necessary to apply for PBRs in other countries (e.g., Australia) through partner companies who would use them for the Plant Variety Rights application. The application in Thailand requires an in-depth description of botanical differences of the new variety, including very detailed leaf, stem and flower measurements.Given the differences in plant material, the application process is not uniform, but specific for each species. For material of species that have previously been registered, existing guidelines can be used (right process in Figure 1). This would now be the case for Pennisetum or Brachiaria materials. Other species that have not previously been registered will require the full process (both sides in Figure 1), starting with requesting to enter the genus in the plant protection list and then developing guidelines suitable for the actual testing. While this is not a difficult process, it is time-consuming and should be started early on, maybe already during the selection and evaluation phase for new varieties, several years ahead of an expected registration.The registration of a newly developed Brachiaria hybrid as a result of the collaboration between DLD and JIRCAS is currently in progress. The Department of Agriculture is responsible for the registration of the new plant material but has little experience with forage, as mostly cash crops get registered. This makes the process more difficult now, but it is expected that the second registration of a forage species would already benefit from this first. However, the regulations seem to be developed for each genus and currently exist for Napier grass and Brachiaria (it is not clear if the renaming to Urochloa will cause complications) and other species might face slower processes than these two. For other crops, upon submission, DOA will carry out a DUS test (Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability Testing) by itself, but for forage species, it delegates this task to the Bureau of Animal Nutrition Development. For the two species mentioned above, the plot tests take two years, and data will be assessed by a committee from DOA and selected specialists, deciding the eligibility of the material, which will lead to approval or rejection. Since the Act also sets out specific rules on access and benefit sharing, a person who collects or gathers wild plant varieties for commercial research must obtain permission from the Ministry and sign a profitsharing agreement. The income accrued from the varieties gathered under the agreement will go into the Plant Varieties Protection Fund for plant conservation purposes (Siriwat, 2016). Though this is unlikely to be the case for CIAT's activities, it might still be an option, and thus should be considered.Plant species for which protection under the Breeder Rights Law was granted by the year 2016 are listed in the Annex. They include Pennisetum and an application for Brachiaria (see above) as forage grass species.Officially, all seeds entering Thailand must be accompanied by phytosanitary and GM-free certificates, both of which must be issued by an approved authority. Seeds not accompanied by such certification are subject to analysis to confirm their phytosanitary and GM-free status by government quarantine laboratories. Their import is also liable to tax. However, small quantities of seed (less than 100g) for research purposes are tax free. While bringing small amounts of seeds into the country bypassing the official channels is against regulations, it is effectively very common with the assumption being that small quantities from a reliable source for research in a controlled environment are unlike to cause harm. However, political motives may lead to delays or constraints, as was experienced in some sectors (see below under Difficulties and Risks).Export is unhampered from the Thai side but import conditions of the destination country need to be observed. Most countries in SEA seem to follow similar policies as Thailand, though, and require seed quality certification and fumigation (phytosanitary certification) which will be done by the Department of Agriculture. Some logistics companies act as facilitators for import and export procedures. However, importing countries have different procedures, all of which can be complied with very quickly or in a couple of weeks. The exception is if a PRA (Plant Risk Analysis) is demanded for the introduction of new materials, in which case the process can be very slow from the Thai side. Even though the process is only moderately complex, not requiring more than a few days of a government agent to be completed, it can take years before action is taken.An independent issue is shipping costs, which rose due to COVID more than 5-fold from 3500 to 19000 USD per container. Whilst this presented less of a problem for short-distance exports, such as to Cambodia or Laos, overseas transportation has become a concern, especially for bulk producers, whose margins are entirely consumed by shipping costs, forcing them to double their prices and reducing their potential competitiveness. However, this situation may be of a temporary nature.While in the past farmers did not choose forages actively but rather tried out what was cheapest and most available, many are now choosing more carefully. Seed availability still shapes decisions, as do social media, especially Facebook and WhatsApp groups. Farmers who are new to forages often ask in such groups for advice on forage species, yields, crude protein content etc. The answers are, however, not always adequate since they do not consider the differences in environment, including soils, temperature, rainfall, etc., and are based on individual experiences.Advertising, either by the private sector or governments, is also targeting this segment of farmers, and often distorts reality. Words like hybrid and super have been added to common varieties (e.g., Super Mombasa F1) by private firms, proclaiming them to be far superior to their commonly named twins.Similarly, new materials such as Cayman, Cobra, Camello, or Mestizo, have been introduced in the market with high promises, few of which so far were found to be significant for farmers (e.g., waterlogging tolerance in Cayman, or more upright growth in Cobra). Cobra in fact was often disliked by farmers because similar to Mulato II, it itches when harvested. Camello was not yet seen as competitive to other grasses by many farmers due to its shorter growth and was additionally disliked by seed producers because it seeds throughout the wet season, making production very difficult.Sweet grass (also Israel Sweet grass), a type of dwarf Napier grass, has found its way into farming systems by cuttings. It was and is, like many other Napier grasses, promoted by local government agencies in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Although it has fairly good protein levels, it only grows well on fertile soils, as other Napier materials too, and no good research comparing it to other materials has been done. While it certainly does have its space in farming systems, guinea grasses and Mulato II are seen as superior materials by local experts.While this does not do direct harm, it apparently increases the number of options, making it harder for farmers to distinguish between real and imagined progress.Panicum maximum cultivars, such as Simuang, TD 58 (Tanzania), and Mombasa, are cherished especially as cut-and-carry forages and are widely planted in the region. While Ruzi used to be the entry level forage, it has been largely supplanted by these Guinea grasses now. Mulato II is now entering increasingly the market, with farmers realizing its value, despite the high cost of seeds. The forage quality Mulato II produces, its drought tolerance and its grazing tolerance, convinces farmers that it is worth the premium. Still, Mulato II is hairy and many smallholder farmers who focus on cut-and-carry complain about itchy arms when cutting the plants.The criteria farmers in the region generally consider in forages are high yield, good quality, and easy establishment. Specific criteria may depend on local conditions and farming/livestock system; they include issues such as the hairiness of Mulato II, already mentioned, and sharp leaves especially in older Paspalum, as well as its perceived inferior performance in the uplands.Thailand's neighbouring countries (especially Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam) rely to some degree on forage seed production and imports from Thailand. Farmers in the Philippines are already further progressed in their diversification from Guinea grasses and buy equal quantities of Mulato II and Mombasa each year. In Vietnam, Cambodia and Malaysia, Mombasa is still the preferred material, whereas Indonesian and Burmese farmers prefer Mulato II. Laos imports Mombasa, Mulato II and Ubon stylo.Demand for legumes can be divided into regional and global demand. On a regional level, the demand for existing materials is currently rather low, though potential demand is high if materials suitable for local needs were on offer. Stylo, Desmodium, Centrosema, Pueraria, and to a lesser extent Crotalaria and Arachis are all being sold across the region but in comparatively small quantities, though exact figures do not seem to exist. Large seed companies such as East-West Seeds are encouraging growers to grow Crotalaria as nematode control. One major limitation of current legumes on offer is their inability to compete with forage grasses in mixtures, depriving tropical systems of an equivalent to a ryegrass-clover pasture in temperate climates. Professionals in the livestock and seed sector in Thailand see this as a huge potential market, but admit that making it work, could be challenging.International demand for legumes, especially in subtropical and temperate areas outside the region, is high. Production of Crotalaria juncea can currently not meet demand, and production output is doubling on a yearly basis. However, to supply markets in developed countries, high quality standards need to be met and weed contamination needs to be eliminated as far as can be expected. It is likely that other materials will become interesting in the future as a consequence of climate change, including Stylo, though creating interest for new materials is often challenging. Experience with Canavalia ensiformis shows that the few farmers who did try it, found it excellent material, and Lablab and Canavalia were very successfully introduced in Spain. Also, new pathways are being explored by some enterprises in Europe and the US, where for example Crotalaria is sometimes used for biodiesel (Italy), as intercrop in sugarcane (US, EU), or replaces hemp for some applications. Its ability to fix N while otherwise having many similarities to hemp makes it for some farmers preferable.Generally, especially winding legumes such as Clitoria, Canavalia, or Centrosema require not only the development or suitable material but also the presentation of a functioning system, since they cannot simply replace prostrate species. Hence, producers find it often challenging, in addition to material selection and production, to also find ways of integrating such materials into existing farming systems.The number of systems and potential uses also makes it difficult to define the properties of an ideal material. Some materials also depend on specific pollinators, such as carpenter bees in order to produce seed, which can limit their production in some areas. However, some properties specific to an ideal forage legume would be:• Easy to establish and maintain;• Perennial;• Endures regular cutting or grazing;• Combines with forage grasses into a reasonably stable community;• Produces seed easily and during the dry season;• Produces small seeds, as they are more efficiently transported.The DLD Laboratory in Mahasarakham province has ambitions to become a forage seed hub. They already have machinery for purification etc. but have for now no collaboration with other companies. They are planning to offer quality checks and certification services in the future.The Bureau of Animal Nutrition Development has 33 centers in every region of Thailand. They also have several sections of interest, including a Forage Seed Development section, which is responsible for research and development of seed technology, conditioning, storage and quality testing. The forage seed quality testing laboratory provides seed quality testing and certification for forage seed following ISTA rules. Seed quality reports include seed moisture content, seed purity, 1,000-seed weight, and germination rate.Experience from the cassava program, working on cassava and waxy cassava germplasm in Thailand was from an institutional collaboration point of view quite positive. Formal collaborations with Kasetsart University (KU) and the Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI) were very reliable, fruitful and honest, including thorough crediting of contributions, even in publications that were not authored by and had no contribution from CIAT. The work relationship was generally described as cordial and supportive.Communication in Asian countries generally works different from the west, being less based on email and more relying on face-to-face interaction and fast communication tools such as messaging apps and teleconferences. However, collaborators were found to be generally reliable in producing results, even if they did not report back on current progress.However, expert resources for most tasks need to be imported from outside the country.The private sector is generally very open to potential collaboration as long as such does not deviate too far from their business model. Due to the lack of public private partnerships in Thailand, private firms are currently undertaking research and plant selection themselves as far as possible within their means. Support for these endeavors would be welcome.Seed production in Thailand is generally performed by smallholder farmers in a contract farming agreement. Due to the very limited farm sizes in Thailand of only about 4 ha, producing substantial amounts of seed requires a large number of farmers, creating high transaction costs. Since in such large groups some people always try to cheat, trying to sell low quality seed or mixing seed with foreign material, control mechanisms through sampling need to be set up, which is complex and costly. Other places such as Brazil, or Australia can produce at a much larger scale, with one farm being able to produce the entire amount of what a seed producer would export in a year.It is common in many Asian societies, and the same is true for Thailand, that even though IPRs may be protected by law, business approaches will be copied, and market share stolen through unfair and dishonest practices. Company staff are known to use, for example, farmer networks built by the company, to which they gained access during their work, in order to buy the commodities produced for the company at a slightly higher price from farmers and then attempting direct sales to the company's clients. Such attempts are mostly unsuccessful in the long run, but do cause economic damage and create friction in the relationship between the company and its network. Equally the theft of know-how, for example on seed processing for a specific species, is a constant threat.The strong uptake of Panicum maximum varieties in recent years might mean that market penetration for a new forage grass could be difficult at present. If Panicum results for most farmers in satisfying results, it is unlikely that they will make the investment to switch to another grass though there may be new varieties, unless it provides significant advantages, or new pressures require system change.Thailand as location seems a reasonably good choice in the region, providing relative stability and security, good physical infrastructure, a wide range of services, reasonable human resources, and a cultural attitude of commitment and the honoring of agreements. The legal system gives a fair degree of leverage compared to its neighbors, though the bureaucratic apparatus tends to be rather cumbersome and can present occasional obstacles. Corruption, though not uncommon in the country and according to official statistics getting worse since the change in government, is still at a level that can be dealt with.Provided that potential problems have been identified beforehand and addressed in an MoU with partners and the government, Thailand seems a safe choice. Such issues include the facilitation of germplasm imports, an agreement on the procedures for research products, their ownership and the policies related to them, as well as potential profit sharing, if applicable. This will have to be discussed especially in the light of international and national funding sources, or, more complicated, a combination of both.Assuming that the research focus will be on livelihood improvement for smallholder farmers, new grasses are less in demand, with the current materials satisfying most needs already. Good legume materials that tolerate frequent cutting and grazing, comparable to white clover in the temperate zone, however, are still needed, to overcome the clear limitations of Stylo. The ideal would be a legume that combines well with Mulato II or one of the Panicum materials, either as a supplementary feed or, in the best case, as part of a mixed pasture. However, this is for now a remote goal and more immediately, legumes just present an interesting opportunity for improved protein supply.As to potential markets, Vietnam seems the most promising market for improved forages, with its large number of farmers and a thriving cattle production sector. While there may be opportunities in Cambodia, Myanmar, and to a much lesser degree in Laos, Thailand itself also offers a maturing forage market. However, the development of this sector in SE-Asia is hard to predict given the fast-paced political, economic, and social development in the region. Since many of these improved forage-based systems are only emerging, it might be the right time to start the development of more advanced systems now, to be deployable in 10-15 years.Thailand, Additional information as referred to above Ruzi grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis) with high crude protein and digestibility is one of the most promising forage grasses in tropical regions including the Indochinese peninsula nations. Therefore, for not only tropical beef cattle but also dairy cattle in these countries, improving the productivity of Ruzi grass is important. Furthermore, in order to make a new variety which is suitable for their countries, it is also important to create the hybrid of Ruzi grass and Brachiaria spp. and to extend adaptability. JIRCAS made tetraploid variety of Ruzi grass (referred to as Ruzi grass (x4)) by the joint research of Miyazaki University and Okinawa Prefecture. We think that this is a promising variety because of its high productivity more than original variety (diploid). Therefore, we want to release the new variety using the Ruzi grass (x4) as mother material plant.In order to make a new variety of Ruzi grass which suited the climate of the Indochinese peninsula nations, JIRCAS will conduct the research as follows:We will carry into Thailand the F1 seeds made by crossing within the F0 population of Ruzi grass (x4).Then the promising lines with high productivity are selected from the F1 population which germinated from seedsSelection of promising lines of hybrid Brachiaria spp.We will carry into Thailand the hybrid Brachiaria sp. seeds made by crossing Ruzi grass (x4) and B. brizantha cv. Mulato I, and the hybrid Brachiaria sp. seeds made by crossing Ruzi grass (x4) and B. decumbens cv. Basilisk. Then the promising lines with traits suited climate and soil of the Indochinese peninsula nations are selected from the hybrid individuals which germinated from the seeds.Development of Feed Resources and Forage Crops for the Domestic Livestock in the Rural Areas of IndochinaWe will carry into the Thailand the F1 seeds made by crossing within the F0 population (6 plants) of Ruzi grass (x4). Each seed will be sown in each plastic pot with a number label (Photo. 1). After one month from the germination, each seedling will .be transplanted from the pot to the experimental field.Each seedling with a number label will be arranged with 1.5m intervals, then, we will support its growth with spraying water. We will conduct the evaluation test which measured characteristics, such as at flowering date, productivity, seed productivity, and a ratio of the leaf. Then we will choose the superior individuals with the highest productivity in the population (Photo. 2).These superior individuals will be isolated, the seed produced within isolated population is sown into the experimental field, and a growing test will be conducted. In the growing test, the traits of the superior individual population will be checked by comparing with other superior Brachiaria spp. and the application for variety registration of the population as superior line of Ruzi grass (x4). Simultaneously, the evaluation of nutritive value will be conducted by analysis of a protein content or digestibility.We will carry into the Thailand the hybrid Brachiaria sp. seeds made by crossing Ruzi grass (x4) and B. brizantha cv. Mulato I, and the hybrid Brachiaria sp. seeds made by crossing Ruzi grass (x4) and B. decumbens cv. Basilisk. Each seed will be sown to plastic pot with a number for each mother plant (about fifty plants). When each seed germinates and grows well, three superior seedlings will be selected out of the same mother's seedling population, respectively. Then, these seedlings will be transplanted to the experimental field. We will conduct the evaluation test by the same method of 1), and chose the superior individual with traits suited climate and soil of the Indochinese peninsula nations.Hereafter, the superior individual will be evaluated by the same method as 1), and applied for variety registration as superior line of the hybrid Brachiaria sp.In addition, we will check them apomixis or not by embryo sac analysis because apomixes is important character for agriculture. Furthermore, since the convenience of DNA marker selection method is high to the judgment of apomixis, we are going to transfer the technology to Thailand.The project will cover a period of five years (2011-2016)Climate and soil conditions in the Thailand are very different from those in Japan which is the temperate zone. Therefore, it is necessary for this project to be carried out in the tropical zone. In addition, we want to make new cultivar of tetraploid Ruzi grass and hybrid Brachiaria which suited the climate of Thailand. Traditionally, cattle is raised on rice straw and grazing natural areas. Forages have been successfully introduced to smallholders (especially for cattle), mainly for improved animal nutrition and to reduce labor requirements. The country is currently home to about 3 million heads of cattle and buffaloes, but no data exists to estimate the current demand for forages. Over the past years the demand has been steadily increasing though, hand in hand with the use of improved animal breeds increasing too, and more and more farmers grow forages for their own livestock, particularly in Takeo, Kampong Cham and Kandal provinces.Most seed companies in the country are smaller local companies who produce or import seed. The main seed production is for rice, vegetables, maize, soybean, and mung bean. Export of seed is rare.SmartAgro Sustainable Innovations Company Limited, a local company, is engaging in forages. The company was registered in January 2018 to commercialize cover crops and is the first to do so in Cambodia. From 2018 to mid-2019, the Mekong Inclusive Growth and Innovation Program (MIGIP) led by Swisscontact, supported SmartAgro to scale-up cover crop seed production and to test its products on the market. From 2019 onward, SmartAgro's production kept increasing year by year from 5 tons to 20 tons in 2020 to nearly 80 tons in 2022. The company has imported small quantities of seed of 15 forage species to start their production as part of MIGIP without certification but is currently in the process of trying to get certification for their production output. There are official seed certification schemes for all kinds of crops in Cambodia, which are all issued by the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). These schemes certify variety identity and purity of agricultural seed moving from or into Cambodia and are generally not very expensive.Whereas certification of food legumes is possible, there is currently no certification scheme for forages (grasses or legumes) in place. Though some forages have been introduced to Cambodia, these entered without certification as part of projects and include Panicum maximum cv. Simuang, Brachiaria hybrid cv. Mulato II, Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu and Paspalum atratum cv. Terenos, as well as Stylosanthes guianensis cv. Stylo184.Same as for import procedures, to get certified, one has to apply with the Department of Crop Seed after getting the Phytosanitary certification from the Crop Protection, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Department.Cambodia has a Quality Declared Seed System (QDSS) 1 , which FAO supports for seed production and quality control for cassava, maize, mung bean, and soybean.The A gene bank of cover crops holding about 45 species and more than 200 cultivars is managed by GDA/DALRM and located at the Bos Khnor CA research station with the main objectives to provide high quality genetic materials to farmer communities and the private sector.While CARDI for example has breeding programs on banana and cassava for which it has imported seeds for research purposes, they have no experience with forages.The Law on Seed Management and Plant Breeder's Right which was adopted by the National Assembly on April 8th of 2008 covers all plant seeds and vegetative planting materials. Whilst the purpose of the law is to manage and control the plant breeding, release for use, production, processing, registration, distribution, import and export of seeds, and to protect new plant varieties in Cambodia, it is not fully implemented.Seed importers have to get a phytosanitary certificate from the Crop Protection, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Department and need to register with the Department of Crop Seed and get the material inspected before being allowed to import seed.Imports can be processed as batch, so that even if large numbers of varieties are imported at once the importer only needs to apply for one import permit. For research purposes, one permit will only grant an import volume of 100 kg of seed or planting material without additional fees, while larger quantities will be considered as for business purposes and incur fees. The import process takes 1-2 months depending on each case, whilst the export process is much faster.Intellectual property rights are granted by the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy (MIME) for the protection of new plant varieties. MAFF, however, manages and controls new plant varieties as well as seeds. So far only two crop varieties have been registered in the country: Fragrant Rice (Sen Kra Ob 01) and Hybrid Maize (CHM 01). The process to secure intellectual property rights has been described as easy, also for international organizations. However, Cambodia is still not a member of the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), and therefore granted breeder's rights are legally recognized only in Cambodia. The Cambodian government, though, recognizes rights from neighboring countries as well as other ASEAN countries.On a wider social level, the idea of Intellectual Property Rights is rather new to Cambodians, even though they formally existed since the 1960-1970 in Cambodia which joined in 1995 the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). IPR infringement can be easily controlled in Cambodia.The Law on Seed Management and Plant Breeder's Rights from 2009 sets the regulatory framework for plant breeding and selection criteria in Cambodia, if those are intended to be leading to variety registration and intellectual property rights.Article 6 states:To be eligible for protection, new varieties of plants shall satisfy the following criteria:Varieties are considered to be new as long as they have not been sold or circulated in the market. However, with the agreement of the breeder, new varieties may be sold or circulated in the market in the Kingdom of Cambodia, for a period not exceeding one year, or for varieties which come from outside the Kingdom of Cambodia, a period of six years for vines and trees, and a period of four years for all other crops, in all cases starting from the day of applying for the right of protection (Article 7).Varieties are considered to be distinct if they are clearly distinguishable from any other varieties which are generally known and recognized on the date of applying for the right or the priority right (Article 8).A natural person or legal person who has bred or discovered and developed a new variety and has the intention to protect the intellectual property of that variety shall file an application in the MIME. All documents of application shall be submitted to the MAFF to evaluate the technical outcomes in compliance with the provision of this law. The owner of a new plant variety shall have the right to sell or transfer its ownership. Selling or transfer made to a natural person or legal person shall be made in writing and signed by the party concerned and recorded at the MIME and also giving notice to the MAFF (Article 14).Acts in respect of propagating material of a protected variety for the production or multiplication, conditioning for the purpose of propagation, offering for sale, selling or other marketing, exporting, importing and stocking for any the purposes shall require the authorization of the breeder. The breeder may make this authorization subject to conditions and limitations. Making a business as stipulated in paragraph 1 of this article, or using harvested products arising from the unauthorized use of a protected variety, shall require the authorization of the breeder. The owner has proper opportunities to exercise his rights. If the owner knows of the unauthorized use or business in the harvested products of a protected variety but did not exercise his right, then he will lose the file a complaint to the court.The plant breeder's right also covers the varieties listed below:• Varieties which are essentially-derived from a protected variety, where the protected variety is not itself an essentially-derived variety • Varieties which are not clearly distinguishable from a protected variety • Varieties whose production requires the repeated use of a protected variety (Article 15). The Breeder's Right shall not extend to:1. Acts done for experimental purposes 2. Acts done privately and for non-commercial purposes 3. Acts done for the purpose of breeding other varieties, except where paragraph 4 of article 15 of this law applies.Based on the legal protection of interest and limitation of the owner's right of the new plant variety, the MIME shall cooperate with the MAFF to issue regulations that limit the rights of owners of protected varieties in order to permit farmers to use those varieties for propagating purposes, on their own holding (Article 16).As stated in paragraph 4 of article 15, the owner of a protected variety shall lose the right of protection, if the owner or person authorized by the breeder sells or circulates them in the market in the Kingdom of Cambodia. The right shall not be lost if the protected variety is used for further propagation or for an export of materials of the variety, which enables the propagation of the variety in a country which does not protect varieties of the plant genus or species to which the variety belongs, unless the exported materials is exclusively for final consumption purposes (Article 17).While using the right, the owner of a protected variety has a responsibility to provide seed samples which can be grown and which show the characteristics as stated in the application form for the grant of protection as required by the competent authority In order to retain protection of the variety, the owner is also obliged to give information on the protected variety and make it easy for the competent authority to inspect material of the variety (Article 18).The validity of the breeder's right is twenty years from the date of the grant of breeder's right or twentyfive years for trees and vines (Article 19). Demand for forage seed in Laos persists, particularly in the north, though figures are not available. Farmers get exposed to forages mostly though government agencies or projects and then may contact seed traders directly. Most of the forage seed market is informal and self-organizing, with few traders using Facebook pages to allow seed orders online via chat. The provision of detailed information on forage characteristics and use is very limited and generally no specific advice is provided or available. Farmer choice is almost exclusively determined by price, with Ruzi being the by far cheapest option since seed is being produced in-country and sold by many people in the northern provinces. In recent years the forage seed landscape in Laos has narrowed further due to a number of factors, all related to a strong reduction in seed imports. The first is a significant drop in demand due to COVID-19 and its economic implications. One major importer of forage seeds now only sells about 2-3 tons of forage seed per year in total, whereas pre-COVID, Ruzi was the top selling grass, with about 5-6 tons per year, followed by 1-2 tons of Stylo. All other materials had little to no demand, except for Pennisetum, which is not propagated by seed. Furthermore, with the strong decline of purchasing power of the LAK over the past 12 months, buying seed from Thailand is not an option for most smallholders anymore. Thus, smallholder forage seed demand is now even more than before fed locally, almost exclusively with Ruzi. A change to this situation is not expected to happen within the next 10 years at least, since local production systems cannot compete with neighboring countries.While Stylo is requested also by smallholders directly, it is not clear for which exact purpose they buy it. Since goat meat is popular in Laos and the confinement of goats to prevent crop damage is increasingly demanded, Stylo might find use as goat feed for fully confined goat production systems. The demand for Stylo by projects, however, is often so high that supply cannot keep up with it. In the past, large projects such as impact mitigation components of hydropower projects, but also major development agencies such as CARE International bought large quantities of forage seeds, but this is not the case anymore. This posed problems for seed traders, since farmers often waited for projects to come and provide seed, rather than undertaking the investment themselves.The opening of the Laos-China railway has led to the establishment of commercial cattle farms in several northern provinces, especially Bokeo and Luangnamtha, aiming at the Chinese market. One of these farms is 1000ha large and hosts a 500-cattle grazing system, with planned extension. However, no detailed information on these developments could be obtained.Many private individuals are buying and selling seed in Laos at the moment, but no international company is working in this sector, nor are there official government engagements yet. The activity is mainly driven by the prohibitive exchange rate with other currencies, the LAK having lost about 50% of its value over the past 12 months, putting other seed sources effectively out of reach for smallholders.Local seed producers are mostly farmers, government officials from the livestock sector, or traders, any of whom now harvest seed of forage crops they have already established and that are easy to process. This puts Ruzi at the forefront of local seed production, mainly in Luang Prabang, Xiengkhouang and Huaphan, with about 500 tons of Ruzi seed being produced annually. This limits farmer choices mainly to this species and Pennisetum cuttings which are popular too. Mulato 2 seed is produced in Oudomxai, mainly for export to Thailand, where it can be processed. The vegetative proliferation of other materials does not seem to play a major role.Forage material testing is currently funded in Laos through Chinese and Australian projects, testing a range of materials; legumes such as Stylo, Arachis, Centrosema etc., and forage grasses such as Nile grass, Pangola grass, Star grass etc., but also Brachiaria, Pennisetum, Paspalum and Panicum materials. These trials are ultimately aiming at developing forage production systems for feed export to China (i.e., hay bales, bricks, or pellets), developing seed production systems, and finding new forage options for local smallholders.No official seed certification is available or generally requested by buyers. Seed testing is possible and test results will be provided on request, but they cannot be seen as equivalent to official certification schemes, providing no guarantees to buyers.Since CIAT is already established in the country, operation would be formally simple. However, not having land at its own disposal, CIAT would require MoUs with national research centers to use their facilities and conduct selection in collaboration with them.Import of seed into the country by traders is mainly done informally, requiring no procedures such as phytosanitary certification or the likes. While official procedures for the importation of seeds in general do exist, they are not observed in daily cross-border trade.Registration of materials can be done through the Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF) and has been granted for local forage materials three years ago, namely Ruzi c.v. Namsuang, Guinea c.v. Namsuang and Stylo c.v. Namsuang. The process is not difficult, involving a request to be sent to DLF, the presentation of research findings and a justification, after which, if found adequate, registration will be granted. It is, however, questionable in how far this registration is recognized beyond the country borders. IV.The story of forage adoption in Vietnam is tied more closely to the development of the livestock sector than in most other countries in the region. Improved forages were introduced to Vietnam several decades ago, with the earliest projects related to CIAT going back to at least the early 1990s. Until recently, livestock production in the country was almost exclusively smallholder based, and mostly a typical asset-based farm element, rather than a commodity focused production approach. Animals were kept as living bank accounts in free-grazing systems, without major inputs on animal health or care, leading to slow growth rates, seasonal weight and herd size fluctuations, and stagnant productivity.Local Yellow Cattle made up the overwhelming majority of the cattle herd in the country, due to their robustness and adaptation to local conditions. The adoption of improved forages in these systems seemed a ludicrous proposition to smallholders, who argued with project implementers that they did not need to waste time on planting grass, it was growing naturally all around them, and feeding animals higher quality feed would still not prevent disease and death, which was the biggest factor of loss to farmers. With project interventions, adoption of forage grasses and animal production systems based on a commodity approach was seen locally, but the management of such systems was still far below their potential. A market environment marked by belief-led consumer preferences such as beef from local breeds being tastier, frozen meat being tasteless and unhealthy etc., prevented more fundamental system change.In the early 2010s large companies started to invest in cattle production in Vietnam. Now, Vinamilk, Campina, TH milk, and Ba Vi milk are the large names in the dairy sector, which is entirely industrialized. While Vinamilk adopted a complete package approach, all other companies chose a cooperative business model in which farmers contribute feed (mainly Napier and maize) based on oral agreements, rather than true contract farming. This model is especially developed in the Mekong delta. Some of the companies investing in beef rather than dairy are importing large numbers of live beef cattle for fattening. These companies require big amounts of forages, but also complement with agricultural by-products such as rice straw. This demand for good quality feed has led many farmers within reach of production sites to grow forages for direct sale, with some of them specializing on forage production for large livestock producers. Forage sells for 1400-2000 VND per kg of fresh matter, depending on location.The smallholder beef sector started changing dramatically in 2016, when the deterioration of pork prices drove many farmers away from pig production and to venture into cattle production. This led to an intensification in 2017 that got turbocharged when ASF hit Vietnam in 2020, and a large number of farmers who had remained in pig production changed to beef cattle. In parallel, a new generation of affluent urban consumers making up a significant market share, made higher quality, safe beef in supermarkets (rather than wet markets) a demanded commodity, opening the door to more productive cattle breeds. From being virtually absent 15 years ago, now 60-90% of all cattle are crossbreeds in the majority of regions, with higher body weight and growth rates. This change demands high quality feed sources, which has been leading to a fundamental change in smallholder production, livestock management and land use allocation to produce forages. No accurate data on actual forage areas exist though, since forage production does not figure as a separate item in national statistics and is recorded under \"other land uses\". Recent estimates put the average forage area in Vietnam at 0.28 ha (Leyte et al., 2021), but farmer numbers are significant, ranging in the several thousands per district, though large differences exist between provinces (Huyen et al., 2022). In the Northern Coast provinces, concentrated production areas and large commercial farms have been established. Supplying to these operations, almost 8,000 ha of forages are grown in Thanh Hóa and more than 2,500 ha in Quang Binh provinces (Huyen, 2019). Local yellow cattle still dominate mountainous areas where natural grazing land is available, while crossbred cattle are now dominant in the lowlands and hilly uplands, areas where forage cultivation is more widespread. Cattle management changes from grazing, to semi-grazing and pen feeding. Inefficient rice land is converted to alternative crops such as maize or forages, assisting with the intensification of beef cattle production. In the Central Highlands, beef cattle production has been traditionally of importance. Local yellow cattle is the dominant breed, but the number of crossbred cattle is increasing and so do forage areas, though production is still moderate: 1140 ha in Dak Lak, 780 ha in Gia Lai, 350 ha in Dak Nong, and 1210 ha in La Dong. Detailed cattle statistics are provided in Table 4 (Huyen et al., 2022). While these data are not extensive, together with the change in herd composition they suggest massive expansion of dedicated forage production areas. The main forage materials used are In addition to Pennisetum hybrid 'VA06', Pennisetum purpureum 'Napier', Panicum maximum 'Simuang' and 'Mombasa', forage maize, which is grown widely for commercial dairy and beef farms. Some commercial farms also use forages such as 'Mulato II' and forages mixtures for grazing. The susceptibility of Pennisetum species to prolonged drought poses problems for farmers during the dry season, and in addition many have also started to pay more attention to forage quality rather than only quantity. The dry season feed gap has spurned the adoption of silage from forages and feed maize. Currently, about 20% of beef producers in the country make silage, using small choppers and manual compression in 500 kg silage bags. Some farmers are also starting to experiment with other by-products, such as cassava leaf silage. This has led to less pronounced seasonal fluctuation in herd sizes over the past 5 years, since farmers manage their feed resources more actively and therefore can maintain a more continuous production level. Also, due to traditional beef dishes during the Tet holiday in February, the demand and price of beef increases, incentivizing farmers to keep production going despite the dry season. The adoption of other grass varieties might currently be on-going, but no data exists. Legumes are not used, except where they were introduced in pilots. Even though many projects tried to introduce them they never found much uptake. It can be expected that their adoption may become of interest when production systems evolve further. Poor seed supply systems seem to have severely restricted the expansion of forage species that were adopted locally, but some supply chains have developed over the past 10 years (Yadav, 2022).Since COVID prevented export of beef to China over the past years, the pace of the beef value chain development slowed somewhat, shifting to serve domestic demand. This has become possible, due to the change in consumer preferences, which leads to higher beef consumption relative to pork, compared to 10 years ago. The beef sector is predicted to still grow at least 2-3% per annum for the next 10 years.Overall, the farmers' attitude toward cattle production has changed profoundly, who now see cattle as a production value which they try to protect and take care of.Goats are still seen are specialty meat, only consumed in restaurants or on special holidays. Their herd size has been stable and no particular market opportunities seem to exist, including little export. In some parts of the country, where salinity increases, goats are promoted as a climate change adaptation strategy to move away from beef, but the market does not have the absorption capacity to expand this on a larger scale.Similarly, buffaloes are consumed as dry meat specialty (jerky), which has recently led to a slight increase in numbers again after the majority of the national herd collapsed due to the shift from draft animals to mechanized solutions. However, little expansion opportunities exist for this value chain.Seed production by farmers does, unlike in Thailand and Laos, currently not happen in Vietnam.Farmers do here and there harvest seed to share it with others, but no organized seed value chain exists, and no equivalent to Ubon Seed in Thailand operates in the country. There is some contracted production by companies but mostly, private sector businesses of all sizes are importing and distributing forage seed without processing or quality control. Between 2019 and 2021, Vietnam imported about 2-3 million USD worth of grass seeds per year. Major importers are listed in Table 5. In general, seed quality must follow basic standards according to the law on standards and regulations.Organizations and individuals self-certify in accordance with these standards and can be held responsible for their actions. However. No official quality control or enforcement mechanism is applied. Some private companies issue official quality certificates in accordance with the law for their own products. These issuers need to follow certification standards and procedures, and certification criteria need to be transparent. However, such certification is normally only done within a business and certification is not provided as a service.There are no engagements between government authorities and the private seed sector.For common materials that are already in official circulation, seed can be imported like crops, following the same customs and phyto-sanitary procedures. For these materials a valid PRA will be available. Materials which are new and for which no PRA has been completed yet, such a procedure needs to be undertaken first and material is put under quarantine meanwhile. New materials that are only imported for research and testing, additional import permits and usage reports are required. This applies if the material to be imported is not on the list of agricultural plant varieties permitted to be produced and traded in Vietnam issued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, or if the importing agency is not licensed by the Department of Crop Production to work with the respective material. The application for such an import license has to be submitted to the Department of Crop Production, usually takes 10-30 days if the documentation is in order, and the procedure is not difficult and follows a clear process including sample documents. The importation of seeds is handled in batches, making the procedure easier for the importation of larger numbers of materials for testing purposes.Before import, it is required to register for plant quarantine online on the Vietnam National single window, https://vnsw.gov.vn. You will have to submit a phytosanitary certificate from the exporting country, a plant quarantine license, and a registration certificate. Then a plant quarantine sample will be taken at the import border gate. If the results are favorable, procedural and customs fees will have to be settled. Those include the customs service fee, the fee for applying for an import plant quarantine license, phytosanitary fees, storage costs (if incurred) and eventual other costs.The validity period of a plant variety import license is 12 months from the date of issuance.Plant variety testing must be carried out by a plant variety testing organization carrying out 3 tests:1. Experiments to confirm variety (growth, yield, quality, tolerance to external conditions) 2. Technical test experiments 3. Advertising production experiments Finally, the administrative procedures for granting a decision on recognition of circulation of plant the variety follow.Regarding IPRs, the securing of ownership for new materials in Vietnam is currently easy and reliable, but limited to commercial rights. The process is clear and public but not easy to follow, requiring a lot of preparation and taking a minimum of 2 years, based on the UPOV approach. Nevertheless, very large numbers of materials have been granted protection certificates for large numbers of plant species. The rights protection follows international conventions to which Vietnam is a signatory and thus applies beyond the borders of the country.IPRs are well respected in the seed sector, and in the rare cases in which violations occur they are normally low-level. The biggest problem is to identify violations, which is made especially difficult due to the ease with which pirated products can be sold online. Once identified, perpetrators are normally quickly persecuted.Regulations A plant variety to be protected by IP rights must satisfy the conditions of novelty, distinctiveness, stability, and appropriate name. Specifically, in Article 158 and Article 163 of the 2019 Intellectual Property Law, accordingly, the IP conditions for plant varieties are:• Protected plant variety means a variety that has been selected, created or developed on the list of plants protected by the State promulgated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.• Novelty: If the propagating material or the harvested product of the plant variety has not been sold or distributed by the right holder or its licensee by other means for the purpose of exploiting the variety in the territory of Vietnam one year before the date of application for registration, or outside the territory of Vietnam 6 months before the date of application for registration of woody and vine species, and four years for other plants.• Distinctiveness: If it is clearly distinguishable from other plant varieties that are widely known at the time of application, or on the first date if the application enjoys priority. A plant variety is widely known when it is one of the following: a plant variety whose propagating or harvesting material is widely used on the market in any country at the time of filing the application for protection; or plant varieties that have been protected or included in the List of plant varieties in any country; or the plant variety is the subject of an application for protection or an application to the List of plant varieties in any country, provided these applications are not refused. • Homogeneity: if there is the same expression of the related traits except for deviations within the allowable range for some specific traits in the breeding process. • Stability: If the relevant traits of the cultivar remain in the original description, unchanged after the propagation medium or after each propagation cycle in the case of cycle propagation. • Relevancy: The name of the plant variety is also very important when considering the conditions of IPR protection for the plant variety. The registrant must propose a suitable name for the plant variety to the state management agency in charge of the rights to the plant variety, which must be the same as the name already registered for protection in any of the contracting countries. • The name of a plant variety is considered appropriate if it is capable of easily distinguishing the names of other widely known cultivars of the same or similar species. • The name of the plant variety is not considered appropriate in the following cases: Only include numbers, except where the number relates to the characteristic or formation of the variety; violate social ethics; It is easy to cause misunderstanding about the characteristics and characteristics of that variety; easily misleading the author's identity; identical or confusingly similar to a protected trademark or trade name before the date of publication of a plant variety protection registration application; Affects the prior rights of other organizations and individuals. • When the name of a plant variety is combined with a trademark, trade name or indication similar to the name of a plant variety that has been registered for sale or put on the market, the name must still be able to identify a particular variety in an easy way.Pursuant to Article 169 of the 2019 Intellectual Property Law stipulates:• The plant variety protection certificate is valid throughout the territory of Vietnam.• Plant variety protection certificates are valid from the date of grant to the end of 20 years for woody plants and vine trees; up to the end of 12 years for other crops. • Plant variety protection certificates may be suspended or canceled in accordance with the provisions of Articles 170 and 171 of this Law. Thus, the IPR protection certification for plant varieties is protected throughout the territory of Vietnam. The effective date is from the date of grant to the end of 25 years (for woody plants, grapes) and 20 years for other plants. However, in some cases, this protection license may be suspended or invalidated in the following cases: • The protected plant variety no longer meets the conditions of uniformity and stability as at the time of grant of the license. • The owner of the protection certificate does not pay the fee to maintain the validity as prescribed.• The protection certificate holder fails to provide necessary documents and propagation materials to maintain and store the plant variety according to regulations. • The protection certificate holder does not change the name of the plant variety at the request of the state management agency in charge of the rights to the plant variety.A plant variety protection certificate is invalidated in the following cases:• The application for registration of plant variety protection is in the name of a person who does not have the right to registration, unless the right to a plant variety is transferred to the person having the right to registration. • The protected plant variety does not meet the requirements for novelty or distinctiveness at the time of granting the plant variety protection certificate. • The plant variety does not meet the conditions of uniformity or stability in the case where a plant variety protection certificate is granted based on the results of technical testing conducted by the registrant.In order to have their rights to plant varieties protected, organizations and individuals must submit a protection registration application to the state management agency in charge of plant variety rights.Organizations and individuals that have the right to register for plant variety protection include:• The author directly chooses to create or discover and develop plant varieties with his own efforts and expenses."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"deb851e5a4100df1557caf031c752ae7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dda56a99-7d35-4d2e-be0b-b45d98540a91/content","id":"-426385113"},"keywords":["molecular markers","leaf rust","yellow rust","genetic engineering"],"sieverID":"77eaf9fe-14a5-4611-9ffd-70914cc14821","content":"Despite the tremendous advances made by plant breeders in increasing the global food production, there is still a significant need for increased quantity and quality of food items in various regions of the world. Although this can be partially solved by upgrading the storage and distribution networks, crop performance and yield potentials are constantly challenged by various biotic and abiotic stress factors. As additional tools to facilitate the global wheat breeding efforts at CIMMYT, we have used molecular markers for characterizing loci that confer adult plant resistance to leaf rust and yellow (stripe) rust, which are globally important diseases in wheat. We have also established a biotechnology laboratory that is charged with acquiring, validating and applying markers for certain traits that are important to CIMMYT wheat breeders. Use of PCR based markers coupled with rapid DNA extraction procedures have enabled application of markers on a wide range of material. Genetic engineering procedures have also been used to establish procedures as well as for experimenting with genes that confer resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses in wheat.Traditional plant breeding activities have resulted in tremendous yield gains in most cultivated crop species. Global wheat breeding efforts over the past 40 years have made significant contributions in enhancing the yield potential and stability, as well as developing cultivars with more durable levels of resistances to a diverse array of biotic and abiotic stresses. Average developing country yields for most crop species have more than doubled in this time span, avoiding major famines. However, efforts of wheat breeders are constantly challenged by various biotic and abiotic stress factors that threaten yield stability in many wheat growing regions. In biotic stresses, this is due to the ability of the pathogens to evolve and mutate to more virulent forms. Among the biotic stress factors, diseases such as leaf (brown) rust, stripe (yellow) rust, and head scab are considered as globally important diseases in wheat. The challenges due to abiotic stress factors such as limited availability of water, soil acidity and alkalinity continue to pose significant challenges for the wheat breeding community. It is estimated that by 2020, the global wheat demand would be about 40% greater than its current levels of 552 million tons (Rosegrant et al. 1997).While plant breeders have made significant contributions, the last few decades also have seen major advances in science, specifically in the area of molecular biology and biotechnology. Recent advances in biotechnology have resulted in understanding the genetic basis of living organisms as well as products and processes useful for the well being of humanity. These scientific advances have resulted in increased understanding and characterization of various genes at the molecular level that are associated with traits important to plant breeders. Tools based on DNA markers that have been made available by countless researchers around the world have begun to significantly contribute to further increase in effectiveness of crop breeding.In wheat, where alien transfers in the form of chromosomal translocations are common, many genes of race specific nature for a wide range of biotic stresses have been introgressed into wheat from wild relatives and markers have been used for tagging such genes (Ayala et al. 2001). A large number of publicly available microsetellites (Roder et al. 1999) as well as techniques such as amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) (Vos et al. 1995) have also enabled identification of markers associated with genes that confer durable resistance for diseases such as leaf and yellow rust (Messmer et al. 2000;Suenaga et al. 2003;), powdery mildew (Liu et al. 2001) and fusarium head blight (Anderson et al. 2001).This paper reports the activities underway at CIMMYT's Applied Biotechnology Center to utilize biotechnology applications to facilitate the efforts of wheat breeders in meeting the challenges by using tools of biotechnology to complement the plant improvement efforts.Biotechnology research efforts are based on applied research activities that would benefit the two mainstream crop improvement activities at CIMMYT as well as providing training for personnel in the national programs in biotechnology applications. Specific to wheat related activities, current research efforts are focused on the development of molecular markers for traits of importance in the wheat improvement activities, adoption and application of markers that have resulted from other global research efforts, genetic diversity studies aimed at characterization of wheat germplasm collections to identify useful alleles for genes of interest and genetic engineering activities aimed at developing genetically modified spring wheats with value added traits.CIMMYT's breeding strategy to develop wheats with improved levels of resistance to a range of biotic stresses encompasses the utilization of genes conferring \"durable resistance\". Among the diseases that are of global significance, rusts diseases, mainly leaf rust and yellow rust are more prominent. More than 40 leaf rust resistance genes (Lr) and 30 yellow rust resistance genes (Yr) have been identified in wheat and related species. Most of these confer a hypersensitive reaction at the seedling stage and have been overcome by new races of Puccinia recondita or Puccinia striiformis for leaf rust and yellow rust respectively. Cultivars containing \"slow rusting\" genes or \"adult plant resistance\" (Caldwell, 1968), that confer durable resistance (Johnson, 1978) or race non-specific resistance, have maintained their levels of resistance in wide range of agro-climatic conditions and over long durations. The components that cause slow rusting response include, longer latency period, smaller uredial size, and low infection frequency. It is well known that the wide adaptation of semi-dwarf CIMMYT wheats is partially due to the presence of durable stem rust resistance that was incorporated into early CIMMYT wheat germplasm from the wheat cultivar 'Hope' which still remains effective in many wheat growing regions of the world.Breeding wheat cultivars with durable rust resistance based on genes conferring race non-specific form of resistance has proven to be an effective strategy. However, this strategy poses significant challenges to the wheat breeders compared to incorporating single genes with race specific form of resistance. In order to obtain acceptable levels of resistance under high disease pressure, cultivars have to be developed which contain 4/5 of the slow rusting genes. Using the classical breeding approaches, it is not possible to reliably estimate the number or the effects of such genes that are present in breeding material. CIMMYT's breeding strategy for durable resistance to biotic stresses, more specifically rust diseases includes three parameters; a) identification and combine diverse sources of resistance/tolerance, b) epidemiology evaluations by monitoring the pathogen distribution and evolution, and c) utilization of molecular markers to characterize the genes conferring slow rusting resistance and tag such genes with molecular markers to enable breeders to manipulate them in breeding material using marker assisted selection strategies.Table 1 lists the populations and strategies currently being used with the objective of identification, characterization and marker development for genes that confer durable leaf and yellow rust resistance in CIMMYT spring wheats. As opposed to developing full linkage maps to achieve the above objectives, which can be time consuming and resource intensive in wheat, we have combined bulked segregant analysis and partial linkage mapping to meet the objectives mentioned above. Bulked segregant analysis (BSA), which involves pooling of entries at the two extremes for a segregating trait (Michelmore et al. 1991), has been effectively used for identifying molecular markers associated with disease resistance genes in a number of species (Eastwood et al. 1994;Williams et al. 2001). In Avocet x Pavon76 population (Table 1), we have been able to identify three loci that have significant effects on leaf rust resistance and five loci that have effects on yellow rust resistance. Bulked segregant analysis enabled identification of markers associated with Lr46 (Sing et al. 1998) as well as to establish the association of Lr46 with Yr29 (William et al. 2003). Linkage mapping of the markers associated with Lr46/Yr29 using the International Triticeae Mapping Initiative (ITMI) population established the precise genomic location of these genes on the long arm of chromosome 1B (William et al. 2003). In Avocet x Pavon76 and other populations listed in Table 1, some of the loci identified have common effects on both leaf rust and yellow rust whereas some other loci have individual effects on only one of the two diseases (Table 2 a). In Avocet x Parula and Avocet x Tonichi populations also we have been able to characterize several loci associated with resistance to the two rust diseases (Table 2b & 2c). Molecular markers have proven to be advantageous and rapid in the identification of these slow rusting loci as well as establishing their genomic locations. In some cases, the loci characterized with molecular markers have enabled identification of gene designations for several slow rusting loci (Table 2).In addition to using BSA for the characterization of loci that confer slow rusting resistance, we have developed a full linkage map of Frontana X Inia66 using a recombinant inbred line population. The linkage map of Frontana x Inia 66 currently has approximately 600 markers although only about 330 markers were used for the linkage map construction due to various reasons such as clustering. Frontana is a Brazilian cultivar with proven durable leaf and yellow rust resistance. The linkage map contains 33 linkage groups and the D-genome does not yet have a full coverage with markers. More markers are being used to complete the map. The genotyping of the population was done using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), simple sequence repeats (SSRs), sequence-tagged sites (STSs) and amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). The characterized loci conferring resistance to leaf rust and yellow rust are presented in Table 3. In addition to the QTLs detected in Frontana, the susceptible parent Inia66, contributed one QTL of resistance to each disease. The locus identified on chromosome 3BS for yellow rust resistance, derived from Inia66 corresponds to Yr30 (Singh et al. unpublished), which is also linked to the Sr2 complex (Table 3). This population has the advantage of segregating for other characters including resistance to Fusarium head scab, Septoria tritici, barley yellow dwarf virus (tolerance), and sprouting, allowing us to map these traits as well in future.When a molecular marker is considered for use in the breeding program, several criteria are taken in to account. Among the important criteria are: a). linkage between the marker and the gene of interest, in-order to avoid false positives. b). repeatability and reliability of the marker/s and c). cost and reliability of field screening. If the marker is located within the gene of interest, such markers can be used as perfect markers since there is no recombination between the marker and the gene of interest. When markers with some recombination with the genes of interest are used, such markers may be used to increase allele frequency for the gene of interest in breeding populations based on the recombination frequency. Repeatability and reliability of markers ensure the robustness of the assays. Markers should ideally be used in scenarios where field screening is expensive and / or when such screening is laborious or unreliable due to environmental influences. A laboratory that is capable of providing these tools for the benefit of plant breeders should have the capacity to conduct high throughput, high quality DNA extractions and high throughput marker assays. At the Applied Biotechnology Center, we are using a set of PCR based markers for key traits that are difficult to screen reliably in the field.Following markers are currently being used on a routine basis in wheat improvement activities at CIMMYT. identified in an Australian cultivar and is located on chromosome 2BL. The marker is diagnostic for Cre1.2. Cereal cyst nematode resistance gene, designated as Cre3 -Developed by CSIRO -Plant Industry group in Canberra, Australia. The gene was identified in Triticum tauschii, is located on chromosome 2DL (Lagudah et al. 1997).3. A marker for barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) resistance, derived from an introgressed chromosome segment from Thinopyrum intermedium, is located on chromosme 7DL. The marker was developed at CIMMYT (Ayala et al. 2001).4. Marker for Chinese Spring ph1b mutant -Developed at John Innes Center and is diagnostic for the deletion that involves the Ph1 gene on chromosome 5BL, a suppressor of homoeologous chromosome pairing (Qu et al. 1998).5. Marker for Aegilops ventricosa derived resistance to stripe rust (Yr17 ), Leaf rust (Lr37) and stem rust (Sr38 ) (Oliver Robert, pers. comm.). The translocation from Ae. ventricosa is present on chromosome 2AS.The sources containing Cre1 and Cre3 genes have been extensively used in crosses with improved CIMMYT wheats with the aim of introgressing these genes into CIMMYT wheats targeted mainly for marginal environments but also being used in wheats targeted for high rainfall and irrigated areas. Better root health is critical in marginal environments where poor water uptake is often related to poor root health. In addition, these sources also have been used in durum x bread wheat crosses. We are routinely applying these markers in order to identify material in segregating populations to enable the breeders to selectively advance the lines containing the genes of interest. Crosses have also been made with the aim of combining Cre1 and Cre3 genes utilizing markers in high yielding backgrounds.The microsatellite marker derived from Thinopyrum intermedium (gwm 37) is being effectively used to transfer the alien chromosome segment from donor line carrying the introgression into different bread wheats with the ultimate aim of combining the alien derived resistance with tolerance available in wheat for BYDV. The STS marker derived from Ae. ventricosa is used in a limited capacity, mainly in bread wheat x durum wheat crosses, to identify the durum derivatives carrying the translocation.The Applied Biotechnology Center has been successful in developing techniques for mass production of fertile transgenic wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) through biolistic methods using immature embryos (Pellegrineschi et al. 2002). CIMMYT's elite cultivars are co-bombarded with marker gene and a gene of interest with cotransformation efficiencies of around 25-30%. The reliability of this method opens the possibility for the routine introduction of novel genes that may induce resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses as well as have applications in various quality and nutritional parameters. We are conscious about the public perception of genetically modified organisms and are of the opinion that through means of education and communication, the general public opinion will favor the eventual deployment H. M. WILLIAM, R. P. SINGH, R. TRETHOWAN, M. van GINKEL, A. PELLEGRINSHI, J. HUERTA-ESPINO, D. HOISINGTON 117 of transgenics in a broad scale. CIMMYT would continue to work on establishing stable transgenics with genes of economic importance in both wheat and maize.The first group of genes being evaluated are the pathogenesis related (PR) proteins, such as the thaumatin-like protein (TLP) from barley, chitinase, and 1-3 b-glucanase. Stable integration of the genes in the genome and inheritance in the progeny were determined by phenotypic analyses that challenged the plants against a wide range of pathogens. The anti-fungal activity of the endogenous thaumatin-like proteins were analyzed in T 1 and T 2 progeny plants. The transgenic wheats were challenged by a host of pathogens including Alternaria, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Pitium and Rhizoctonia.The preliminary results from the in-vitro and in-vivo assays have indicated that for Alternaria, the plants containing tahumatin-like constructs had shown positive responses in the form of disease reaction including immunity in some cases. Current efforts of wheat transformation activities include use of constructs with receptor-like kinase protein isolated from rice, antisecalins, low molecular weight glutenins and certain constructs containing genes of interest in tolerance to drought and other abiotic streses (DREB genes). We have not been able to conduct field experiments with wheat transformed with various gene constructs in Mexico to ascertain their effectiveness under field conditions."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"221ec8494e71eb7f0946667146f0d212","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9dd70c29-1eb8-48a1-a07f-de355ca4df34/retrieve","id":"1105906900"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cbef79e7-45a3-4368-9158-e6e6b22242ee","content":"gricultural research in the South has not been spared the general cutback in public research spending that has hit most countries, including those in the North. According to the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), average spending per researcher fell by half between 1971 and 2000 in Africa's agricultural public research sector. Donor contributions have also dropped sharply. In 2000, they accounted for only 35% of budgets, compared with 50% 5 years earlier.To bolster their resources, national research centres are looking for alliances with the private sector for joint projects. That is the idea behind Public Private Partnerships (PPP) -pooling the knowhow of both sides, as well as sharing funding and physical research facilities (e.g. laboratories, field for trials) to achieve mutually beneficial results. One party must come from the public sector (research laboratory, university, regional or international research centre, NGO) while the other must be from the private sector (company, private research centre, producers' organisation).The stakes are high for ACP countries, keen to increase their agricultural output and to improve living standards for farmers, as well as for private firms, which are primarily concerned with their profitability. The major international agro-industrial groups have been working closely with the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) for some time now, but to date they have investedIn this issue ACP countries don't lack resources, but the means -that is the message that filters through the pages of much of this issue. Take the research sector, there is no shortage of ideas and talent, but the problem lies in developing these without money and in safeguarding objectives while relying on funding from outside private sources. Our feature on fisheries surveillance highlights the difficulties faced by countries of the South to protect their halieutic resources effectively without properly equipped patrol vessels or well trained staff. As for the flowers, which flourish so well in tropical climates and brighten up the lives of customers in the North, they continue to bloom, despite limited investment in their cultivation. But money is not everything. Our Viewpoint defines the qualities of a good farmers' leader, capable of getting things done by sheer will power. A lesson in courage and hope!little in the public research institutes of the South. In 2000, they contributed a mere 2% to agricultural research budgets in Africa.Even so, PPPs have mainly developed in recent years due to pressure from international companies anxious to test their seeds and genetically modified crops. Thus, in an effort to promote its transgenic cotton -Bt cotton -Monsanto invested heavily in agricultural research in Burkina Faso and Mali.The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) is, together with the Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), trying to develop a variety of genetically modified maize that is resistant to the stalk-borer. The programme is financed by the private company Syngenta, a world leader in crop protection.The desire to develop new products is another factor driving firms to invest in research in the South. In Ghana, the Novella partnership has brought together the agro-alimentary colossus Unilever, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Switzerland's State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO), the Forestry Research Institute of Ghana and several NGOs. The goal of the partnership is to set up a production chain, from cultivation to sustainable use for oil from Allanblackia, a tree which grows in the tropical forests of Central and West Africa, whose nuts produce an oil which has beneficial properties and holds considerable commercial promise.Other types of partnership are supported by foundations whose main objective is to have an impact on local development. A case in point is an African project funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to produce bio-fortified sorghum. It aims to produce a nutritionally enhanced variety of sorghum for African countries. The consortium, made up of African research centres, universities and a private company, has already developed a prototype variety.In all cases, it is important that the roles of participants -who should all be involved in contributing to the planning, resources and activities needed to achieve the chosen goal -be clearly defined from the outset. Generally, PPPs are covered by a contract which stipulates the object of the research, methods to be used, the duration, costs, contractors, equipment and the allocation of any financial benefits which might ensue.In the Fiji islands, one project is combining environmental conservation with drug research and economic development.Villagers immerse artificial corals into the sea. The artificial corals are quickly colonised by plants and other living organisms, and are then sold to specialist suppliers for aquariums. In this way, the villagers secure a source of revenue and are also able to conserve their natural corals and their tourism industry, while scientists at the Georgia Institute of Technology in the USA can continue with research into new medicines that may be derived from species colonising the coral reefs. If they find any, the villagers will be entitled to a share of profits from sales.Access to genetic resources and benefit sharing (ABS) are generally regulated by international agreements such as the Bonn Guidelines. When disputes arise, it sometimes falls to the courts to resolve the matter. One judgement recognised the rights of the San community in Southern Africa to hoodia, a hunger-suppressing cactus (see Spore 99). The company which marketed the product will have to pay the San 6% of its after sale profits, which are estimated at between US$3 and 40 billion.To avoid such measures, it is advisable to draw up prior informed consent agreements, even though these may take from several months to 2 years to prepare. Guyana, Malawi, South Africa and Vanuatu are the front-runners when it comes to closely regulating ABS. Many communities rich in traditional knowledge, interested in developing PPPs to earn revenue from their natural assets, are increasingly turning to monitoring committees, which represent their interests when it comes to examining partnership proposals, and ensure they get a fair deal.When the initiative to form a partnership comes from private firms, national agricultural institutes in the South should be careful to preserve their independence. Indeed, research and funds tend to focus on crops destined for export or on products that are most interesting to the North. Crops that are less profitable but nonetheless crucial to local populations therefore risk being sidelined.Other types of partnership involving local enterprises or producers' organisations allow research to be better adapted to the needs of the country. For example, research linked to specific financially profitable sectors, generally commodity sectors (e.g. cotton and palm oil) are largely financed by the stakeholders.In Côte d'Ivoire, the Inter-professional Agricultural Research and Advisory Fund (FIRCA), which acts on behalf of federations of producers, is represented on the board of the country's national research council, le Centre national de recherche agronomique (CNRA) as well as on that of the national rural development agency, l'Agence nationale d'appui au développement rural (ANADER). It is therefore in a position to target research activities to the specific needs of farmers and to ensure that the results are disseminated.In this case, the link between research and national agricultural production is both strong and lasting.The same is true in Madagascar, where the national agricultural research institute, Institut national de recherche agricole (FOFIFA), works with exporters of organic vanilla. In the Dominican Republic, a PPP has paired off the national agricultural research body the Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarios y Forestales (IDIAF), with a farmers' organisation, the Cooperativa Francisco del Rosario Sanchez (CFRS), to develop a technique for processing bananas produced by the cooperative that would enable them to earn its \"organic\" label.In cases where research in ACP countries, especially in Africa, lack resources and depend increasingly on private funding, the expectations of small-scale farmers who produce for their own consumption and for local markets, are often ignored. With this challenge in mind, the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) is trying to involve firms in programmes previously defined as being useful to agricultural development in the countries concerned. This forum, together with the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), urges greater global harmony between research efforts in the various sectors. It also makes efforts to involve local players (such as producers, distributors, extension agents) in decisions about future research.See Links, page 10 The most recent newcomers are producers in the Caribbean and the Pacific. In Jamaica, a fledgling flower industry is supplying local markets and selling anthurium, orchids, ginger lilies, and heliconias to cruise ship passengers and to US customers via the internet. In the Pacific, a floriculture workshop supported by CTA in collaboration with the Institute for Research, Extension and Training in Agriculture (IRETA) has enabled one smallholder from the Solomon Islands to set up a blooming business.A number of ACP countries have comparative advantages for producing cut flowers, for reasons of land, labour, climate and preferential tariffs with the EU. But studies show that transport, storage, and distribution account for much of the value added, with production only netting 10% of the sale price. Though rewarding, the future may not be as bright as the past.The growth of cut flower production now outstrips that of demand, and ACP countries face tough competition from Colombia and China. Prices of bulk cut flowers, such as carnations, alstroemeria and roses, are falling due to over-supply; those of exotic flowers are holding up better. Tropical flowers constitute a growing niche market and popular sellers include orchids, anthuriums, gingers, strelitzia (birds of paradise), heliconias and proteas.Although it was only established in 1972, Kenya's horticulture industry now ranks fourth in terms of export revenues -behind tea, coffee and tourism. But such rapid growth has hidden costs. Kenya has come under fire for poor labour conditions and high use of agrochemicals. Growing pressure from consumers in key importing countries such as Germany has forced the Kenya Flower Council to set up codes of conduct. FAO has sent integrated pest management experts to Nyeri, in central Kenya, to train the 5,500 women's groups growing flowers there.Producers in the South face a number of hurdles. Flower growing is highly capital intensive and the stringent regulations in the international market such as minimum residue levels (MRLs) and other sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) regulations are often difficult to negotiate. With such a perishable product, packaging, cold storage and efficient transport links are crucial but costly pre-requisites, and Southern producers start from a disadvantage for reasons of distance. Dutch and German companies have moved into several ACP countries so they can have direct control over quality, distribution and marketing (see Spore 85). Most cut flower producers in the South are dependent on breeders in the North for their planting material, and have to pay royalties.Given these constraints, it is not surprising that much of the flower industry is dominated by large concerns. According to Kenya's Horticultural Crops Development Authority, smallholder production has declined in the past 5 years. But in spite of the obstacles, some ACP producers are forging ahead to show there can be a future in floriculture. Uganda is using hydroponics, a technique which limits pests and disease, to grow flowers. In Zambia, small-scale farmer Peter Mtumbe has switched from maize to roses and is planning to double his operation. In Ethiopia, a family firm has become a major international supplier, while in Fiji women have been helped to market flowers for export to Hawaii and New Zealand (see Spore 117). South Africa has found a profitable market producing chrysanthemums.An export guide published by the Centre for the Promotion of Imports from Developing Countries (CBI) identifies summer flowers -blooms produced during Europe's winter -as a promising sector. Sales to supermarkets are also increasing, a trend which opens up opportunities for ACP producers, but also poses challenges.To take advantage of what most agree is still a flourishing market, more agricultural research is needed to develop local planting material and tackle pest and disease problems. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) is working to help Fiji flower growers deal with a fungus that is attacking red ginger (Alpinia purpurata). According to a recent CTA-supported study, producers need help with import requirements, distribution and marketing. One ingenious responses is a Flower Business Park, set up by a rose grower in Naivasha, Kenya, where flower growers pay rental fees for services ranging from land and water to on-site clearance for export documents.une 11, 2005, saw a confrontation in Senegal between fishermen from Kayar and Guet-Ndar. The toll: one dead and several wounded. The cause of the dispute: rivalry over access to an increasingly scarce resource -fish. Incidents of this kind are symptomatic of a serious problem. In August 2003, Spore sounded a cautionary note, urging the introduction of extensive political and economic changes if fish stocks were to be maintained. In March 2005, FAO confirmed that 75% of fishery resources had been fished to their maximum yield, over-exploited or exhausted.Encouragingly, there is growing awareness of the need to move towards sustainable fisheries management, which combines longterm viability with a strategy that satisfies the needs of fishers and ensures the economic development of resources. This has translated into a growing understanding, shared by all those involved, and in a range of measures, binding or otherwise, developed to regulate fishing. But there is still a long way to go before responsible and voluntary management of marine resources is adopted by all players in the fisheries sector. As long as stocks are over-exploited, and their profits diminished, fishers will continue to break the law. That was the clear message from several participants in an internet debate organised by CTA in 2004.The problem of fisheries surveillance is gradually being perceived as a major issue. Experts are coming up with acronyms such as IUU (illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing), MCS (monitoring, control and surveillance) and VMS (vessel monitoring system). In June 2005, a conference on the impact of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing on developing countries was held in London. These developing nations are particularly badly affected, the meeting heard, because of a lack of funds, technical capacity, manpower, cooperation between states and, occasionally, of political will.The countries of the South are not alone. Published last May, the European Commission's annual report on serious breaches to the rules of the Common Fisheries Policy revealed that the number of infringements recorded rose from 6,756 in 2002 to 9,502 in 2003. Five EU member states detected nearly 90% of all breaches. Unauthorised fishing accounted for 22% of the cases, while the figure for unlicensed fishing was 17%. A fine was imposed in 84% of cases. In 4,720 cases, fishing gear was seized. The June 2005 bulletin of the Fisheries News Update section on CTA's Agritrade website concluded that the report offered interesting lessons for ACP countries, noting that greater transparency over infringements and sanctions will increase confidence in the fair and equitable enforcement of regulations.Fisheries infringements come in many guises, they include: fishing with unlicensed boats; and failing to land catches in local ports, in spite of the obligations of fisheries agreements and falsely reporting tonnage caught. Whatever the measures taken, whether they are aimed at getting fishing zones respected, at better regulating fishing gear, at limiting the size of catches, at guaranteeing a biological rest period or at developing the economic activity of ports by making it mandatory to land all or part of catches locally, the notion of self-regulation appears to be an illusory one, and control measures are certainly needed. Some of theseIn an effort to reduce the number of conflicts between industrial and small-scale fishers, sparked by the incursion of trawlers into the zone reserved for smallscale fishing, a community surveillance project was set up in Guinea in 2002 (see Spore 110). It aimed to lower the number of trawlers by teaming up the institutions charged with coastal surveillance with the fishing communities themselves. According to Hassimiou Tall, technical advisor to the Ministry for Fisheries and Aquaculture in Guinea, the results have been very encouraging. The programme has succeeded in reducing illegal incursions by industrial trawlers by 60% as crews now know that some small-scale fishers are working for the authorities. Relatively inexpensive (US$20,000 -less than €16,500) and holding considerable promise, the Guinean experiment is due to be extended to Congo, Gabon and Mauritania. But in Guinea itself, the pilot project has been (provisionally?) suspended, due to lack of funds. More proof, if it were needed, that good ideas are not enough, unless they are backed up by adequate resources.are already in place, and fall into two groups -so-called hardware and software measures.Hardware measures consist of advanced and often costly and cumbersome techniques, such as radar, onboard systems and satellite.To monitor an economic zone of 200 square miles, it takes several rapid intervention boats, surveillance vessels, radar stations and even airplanes. And, of course, a computer system capable of cross checking data, with permanent internet access. For ACP countries, it is hard to reconcile such demands with budgetary constraints. These systems are essential, but they are also inadequate unless they are backed by human resources.The software techniques refer to onboard observers or the participation of fishing communities. Officially, any such observers go onboard to collect scientific data. But since they are equipped with communication tools, their information is \"by default\" used for surveillance. They run the risk therefore, if this aspect of their work were to be known, of no longer being allowed on board.The presence of onboard observers is crucial for providing independent information on fishing activities, both on a daily and a case-by-case basis, the CTA online debate concluded. But to be effective, such methods depend on the inspectors receiving adequate training and payment, as Ms Janet Uronu, joint president for fisheries at the Ministry for Natural Resources and Tourism in Tanzania pointed out, \"The high levels of technology (and the principles on which it is based) to be found on modern fishing vessels were well beyond the comprehension of those fishery officers sent to inspect the vessels.\" The job of these inspectors also carries risks: vulnerability to corruption, especially if they are poorly paid, violence and the risk of being taken hostage, to prevent them from reporting what they have seen.A number of experiments closely linking fishing communities with surveillance operations have been carried out in West Africa.After all, the fishermen know the fishing grounds better than anyone. However, while these initiatives have produced positive results, they also raise the question of motivation -the fishers are simultaneously acting as inspectors and stakeholders. This approach effectively establishes that smallscale fishers are also responsible for the overexploitation of resources.None of these methods will work unless at least two conditions are met. First, there must be clear rules about what is and is not allowed, accompanied by sanctions which are properly enforced. Secondly, there needs to be regional cooperation between countries facing the same problem. That is true for the North: on March 14, 2005, the EU Fisheries Council finally agreed to establish a Community Fisheries Control Agency, based in Vigo, Spain which should coordinate fishing control systems within community waters, but also -an important point for ACP countries -within the framework of bilateral fisheries agreements.It is also true for the South, where one of the most successful initiatives in this respect has been the MCS Programme set up by the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC). Financed by the EU, it has, since 2003, allowed bilateral and trilateral surveillance operations to be carried out between the countries concerned, and strengthened the equipment, human resources and capacity to exchange information of member countries which needed support in these areas. Tanzania, for example, now has more than 30 trained observers. According to Ms Uronu, the first change needed to achieve such results involves overcoming inertia and bureaucracy. A culture of change is essential.The Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, which numbers seven mainland or island East African countries among its members, is another example of regional cooperation. According to Mark Pearson, at the Secretariat of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), this cooperation has already enabled the number of refrigerated fishing vessels practising IUU fishing to be cut from 140 to 40. One method used is the exchange, between member countries and others, of lists of authorised vessels, together with their tonnage (known as the \"positive list\").Other regional groupings in the fisheries sector may lead to similar initiatives. That has already happened in the case of the Programme pêche, commerce et environnement en Afrique de l'Ouest (PCEAO), a programme set up to promote sustainable fishing in six West African states, which met in Dakar in early June 2005. The question of surveillance was not specifically on the agenda, but the West African sub-regional commission on West African fisheries, la Commission sous-régionale des pêches d'Afrique de l'Ouest (CSRP), does have a project to address this issue, supported by the Luxembourg Development Agency among others. In the Caribbean, the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism lists the development of a monitoring, control and surveillance system as a priority. Finally, the Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Unit of the Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA), based in the Solomon Islands, has, since 1999, installed a satellite surveillance system to monitor fishing vessels on behalf of its member states. It has proved to be highly effective -the number of cases of illicit fishing recorded by the authorities is, and continues to be, very small.Fisheries surveillance requires considerable means. How should available resources be best used, and what kind of support is needed? That is what future fisheries agreements being drawn up between ACP countries and the EU should try to clarify. Equally, they should encourage greater harmony between national fisheries legislation, as well as regional cooperation in various forms: data exchange, joint patrols, exchange of personnel and experiences between crews, and of surveillance systems in the EU and the ACP regions concerned. In the long run, it makes sense all round.See Links page 10By limiting their catches and adopting good practices, the fishers of Kayar, in Senegal, have enabled fish stocks to be replenished. A local initiative, surveillance committees see to it that this \"Kayar code\" is respected.Fishing zones have been defined and a limit imposed of 45 kg of fish per canoe per day.Highly destructive techniques such as the use of explosives or drag nets have been banned. These days, catches are smaller, but they fetch a better price.Not surprisingly, this initiative has quickly spread throughout Senegal's main fishing zones -since 2001, around 50 local committees have been created. But the incidents of June 11 show that not all fishers are ready to take the idea on board.Photo: © SADC-EU MCS programme Photo: Y Paris © IRD Photo: F Lhomme © IRD■ Grain amaranth (Amaranthus hybridus) offers the prospect of substantially increasing food output in dryland areas of Kenya, according to a local NGO, Strategic Poverty Alleviation Systems (SPAS). Until recently, amaranth was regarded as a vegetable for the poor, but increasingly, the grain is being planted by Kenyan farmers. The Nairobibased SPAS is promoting grain amaranth cultivation in partnership with churches and village committees. Grain amaranth produces higher yields than other grains; it grows in poor soil and is drought, pest and disease resistant, making it less time consuming, less costly and more environment-friendly than other grains which require pesticides.Amaranth also has medicinal properties. It is exceptionally high in lysine, a critical amino acid and has proved beneficial in the management of HIV/AIDs and other debilitating diseases, helping patients to regain their energy. Grain amaranth has a gestation period of only 45 to 75 days and requires, on average, only one-third of the water used by other grains in similar growing conditions. Amaranth flour has a pleasant nutty taste, and has the advantage of being non-glutinous.\"Grain amaranth is a nutritional powerhouse\", says Linus Ndonga of SPAS. He believes that amaranth could \"sustainably and efficiently\" improve nutrition in dryland areas. SPAS has supplied certified seeds for planting to groups of women trained in grain amaranth production. In one drought-hit area, Maragwa, where other grains failed, amaranth yielded between 800-1,000 kg per acre. Ndonga claims grain amaranth could feed twice as many people from the same area of land. \"It has proved to be a breakthrough in the fight against food insecurity. The challenge remains to incorporate it in the list of Kenyan staple foods.\"  In response to the challenge, TDAU engineers have developed a portable hammer mill, which was originally used to mill grain and has now been modified to mill minerals, in this case agricultural lime. To date, more than a dozen Zambian farmers and entrepreneurs have bought portable hammer mills and set up mobile production units of lime for their own use or for sale to local communities. Business owners wanting to manufacture portable hammer mills can enter into an agreement with the TDAU. The market price is about €1,860 per unit. ■ Using fertiliser in countries of the South is often fraught with problems. The high cost of these industrial products is often crippling for farmers, who are reluctant to make such an investment, given the uncertain climate. To overcome these obstacles, experiments have been made using small doses (known as microdoses) of fertiliser, and placing them directly into the soil at the time of sowing.An FAO fertiliser project showed an increase in yields of both millet and sorghum from using this technique. For example, the application of 20 kg/ha of Di-ammonium phosphate 18-46-0 (DAP) into the hole, together with the seed, produces an increase in yield of around 70%. A secondary advantage of this method is the small amount of fertiliser used overall, with the obvious benefits to the environment.The  They were chosen for their potential to advance sustainable development in their communities and contribute to the UN's Millennium Development Goals. The Seed Awards are not financial, but consist of a flexible package of individually targeted support, including help with gaining access to funders, to give winning partnerships every chance of success.One winning project being piloted in Ibadan, Nigeria, is turning effluents and waste products from abattoirs into energy to generate income for poor urban communities and reduce the gases linked with climate change. The project treats the abattoir wastes and turns them into a biogas suitable for cooking and other uses. A further by-product is agricultural-grade fertiliser. The biogas is significantly cheaper than current, commercially available liquefied gases.Another winner is a joint effort between Cornell University in the US, together with several NGOs and local communities in Cambodia, Madagascar and Sri Lanka, who are partners in an initiative to boost rural incomes through the marketing of indigenous rice varieties grown under environment-friendly conditions. The project involves a production method known as the 'System of Rice Intensification' (SRI), which works without flooding rice paddies and results in stronger plants that need less chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Small rural producers who are taking part are achieving water savings of up to 50% and increased yields of up to 100%.Still in Madagascar, an experimental, community-led scheme aims to show how partnerships between local people, research institutes and NGOs can deliver marine conservation and sustainable livelihoods by creating the country's first Marine Protected Area (MPA). The project, revolving around the 1,200-strong community of Andavadoaka, is balancing the needs of local fishermen and protection of the area's important coral reefs. Ecotourism is being promoted as a way of generating income for conservation work, diversifying the local economy and reducing pressure on fish stocks. An eco-label for fish ■ A new eco-labelling scheme has been launched in a bid to ensure the sustainability of the world's marine fisheries. FAO has issued a set of guidelines to help governments and organisations wanting to use the labelling scheme for fish and fishery products. The distinctive logo certifies that the fish has been harvested in compliance with conservation and sustainability standards such as those that guard against overfishing or adverse impacts on protected, endangered or threatened species, as well as on sensitive habitats. Acknowledging the hurdles poorer countries face due to lack of financial and technical resources, the guidelines call for financial and technical support to help them implement and benefit from eco-labelling. ■ The French association PROPAGE has produced a series of fact sheets for use by projects aiming to increase the cultivation and consumption of Moringa leaves (Moringa oleifera) to improve nutritional levels. Downloadable from its website, these documents explain both the nutritional content of this tropical oleaginous tree (see Spore 106) as well as techniques for leaf drying and grinding.The bilingual site also offers on-line posters and illustrated brochures on themes including production, processing and health benefits. ) and comes in the form of pellets made by grinding the waste and mixing it with clay and water. The pellets are then granulated before being left to dry in the sun and packaged. This process enables the fuel to be adapted to both domestic and small-scale industrial usage, by modifying the composition or size of the pellets.According to project organisers, the use of 1,000 t of rice pellets can save up to 400 ha of forest. What is more, in Senegal, where a production unit has been installed, the fuel sells at CFAF60/kg (€0.10), while charcoal costs CFAF212/kg (€0.32).A survey carried out in some 30 Senegalese households revealed that 90% of them are willing to use Bioterre instead of charcoal. Before they can make the change, however, families must first invest in a specially converted kiln at a cost of CFAF7,000 (€11). If the system is to become more widely used, production costs will first need to come down, both for fuel and the kiln.■ A London brewery has started beer brewed from Rwandan coffee beans. The beer, which has a 4% alcohol content, is targeted at adult drinkers as a cappuccino drink or digestif. Meantime the Brewery uses fair trade Arabica coffee beans grown by the Abuhuzamugambi Cooperative in Butare Province. Brewery owner Alastair Hook also tried beans from other coffee-producing countries before settling on Rwandan coffee for his unusual brew. The brewer blind-tested coffee from Brazil and Colombia, but was not convinced that their taste was right for his coffee beer. It was not until he tried the chocolate and vanilla flavour of the Rwandan coffee that he found the \"silky, velvety character\" that he wanted.Coffee is one of Rwanda's major exports, but the brewer was anxious to buy from a fair trade source, so his next task was to track down a suitable supplier in Rwanda. \"We are the only producer of coffee beer in the British Isles... We are the only producer of fair trade beer that I know of,\" he said. Mr Hook's hunch that the marriage of beer and coffee would be a winner appears to have paid off. The British company is already selling healthy volumes through UK supermarket chain Sainsbury's. The beer is also selling well in pubs, bars and restaurants.Pho to: © Me ime Bre we ry Photos : M. Malengrez © InfoSud■ Getting a widespread understanding of the agricultural and economic value of nitrogen-fixing plants is still a struggle in most countries of the South. In November 2004, during the 11 th conference of l'Association africaine pour la fixation biologique de l'azote (AABNF), an African association dedicated to promoting nitrogen-fixing plants, a dance troupe staged a show to demonstrate how a plant that captures nitrogen from the air can use it to benefit neighbouring plants, which only draw nitrogen from the soil.Haricot beans, cowpeas, soya beans and acacias all belong to this group of leguminous plants which can harness nitrogen present in the atmosphere thanks to bacteria living in their root nodules. Increasing their cultivation would help boost vegetable production on poor soils and contribute to the regeneration of degraded environments. A further plus is the high nutritional content of nitrogen-fixing plants, which are extremely rich in protein.The airwaves are buzzzing ■ In Cameroon, the radio station Voice of Oku is broadcasting programmes about bees and trees. The radio station recommends sustainable strategies which encompass active planting and the conservation of trees such as Calliandra spp. and Acacia spp. The broadcasts encourage the planting of trees, whose flowers help increase honey production. Bees, by carrying pollen from one flower to another, act as highly efficient pollinating agents for a number of food crops. By combining honeyproducing bees with agroforestry systems, farmers can significantly improve their agricultural output. Children and youth account for more than 50% of the population of Africa, a proportion which is rising fast, partly due to HIV/AIDS. Other factors including high unemployment rates and lack of educational opportunities combine to make Africa's youth a particularly vulnerable sector of society. Yet Winnie Alum is convinced that Africa's young people represent the best hope for the continent's future. For this reason, it makes sense to invest in African youth, she says. In her prize-winning essay, Winnie speaks convincingly of the need for more projects geared towards improving the living conditions of young rural people, through the promotion of science, technology and innovation which target this sector. \"These can be initiated and sustained by the youth themselves,\" she writes.Muthoka Christine Ndunge reminds us that technical progress is \"the single most important determining factor for achieving sustained economic growth of a country or region.\" She remains convinced that agriculture -invigorated by science and technological innovationsis the best hope for the future of Africa. Moreover, she describes how the development of tissue culture bananas and the introduction of water harvesting and soil conservation technologies in Kenya have improved yields and incomes for small-scale farmers, showing young people that there is indeed a future in farming.Phillip Mutuma Munyua looks at two practical examples of how new crops -in this case passion fruit and grain amaranth -can increase farmers' incomes and help convince young rural dwellers that farming is a rewarding and remunerative activity.Website: http://knowledge.cta.int ■ A new variety of millet developed by Burkina Faso's agricultural research institute, l'Institut national pour l'étude et la recherche agronomique (INERA), is proving a big hit with farmers in the central southern region of the country. The IKMP5 variety, nicknamed Kiipala (new millet) by local farmers, is popular because it ripens more quickly than the traditional variety and has greater resistance to drought. Kyelem Benjamin, a research technician at INERA, says it has a 70-day cycle, almost half that of traditional millet. Farmers can therefore sow later, enabling them to manage their agricultural timetable more efficiently and to cut down on their workload. This means they have more time to devote to other activities such as growing maize, peanuts and cowpeas. In the words of one farmer, Souleymane Ouédraogo: \"With the improved variety, you have to plough and make ridges, sow, weed and earth up, while with the traditional variety you have to go back five or six times for weeding.\"Farmers are also enthusiastic about the flavour of the improved variety. It is easier to chew and much sweeter, so much so that it can be used to make zoom koom, a local drink based on millet flour, without adding sugar. Producers claim dishes made from this new variety are more appetising, since the millet is less yellow than the traditional version.The new variety was introduced in the country's Toessé department 2 years ago. Mr. Benjamin stresses that it requires more technical precision, i.e. a distance of 80 cm must be left between each row and 40 cm between each plant. Some farmers are so keen on the new millet that they maintain it produces higher yields, a claim that is denied by the INERA researcher -traditional millet and the improved variety produce identical yields if grown in the same conditions. By contrast, he says, IKMP5 is more resistant to mildew, the scourge of millet.Photo: © Syfia International Photo: © Syfia International Family farming for the future ■ The French website \"Agricultures familiales et mondes à venir\" puts the spotlight on family farming, the world's number one activity. This sector employs some 1.48 billion agricultural workers, of whom 96% live in the South. Wherever it is practised, family farming faces a number of challenges, including less state support, the opening of markets to competitors, environmental concerns and new consumer demands. But from Brazil to Thailand, from Madagascar to Cameroon, as well as in Europe, farmers are introducing innovations, examining their position, coming up with solutions to their problems and anticipating future developments.http://afm.cirad.fr■ Rearing frogs can offer an additional source of revenue and food protein. In Kivu (Democratic Republic of the Congo), where this activity is being tried in artificial lakes made on the site of old brick quarries, about 30 frogs can produce a thousand more frogs for market in just 1 year. They need to be fed live prey (insects) and must be fenced off from their natural predators (snakes, birds, etc.). Frog legs are eaten locally in a number of restaurants and a sizeable market exists in Europe, which imports €29 million worth of this product each year. , and hosted on the FAO website, presents in some detail the arsenal of measures on hand to limit the extent of these frauds. A downloadable brochure will allow you to find out more about the weapons available to combat illegal fishing. FAO constantly this section, so it is worthwhile to consult it on a regular basis.The CTA website offers online access to a number of documents assembled for the Conference on ACP-EU Fisheries Relations which it organised in Brussels in December 2004. You can enter into the thick of the debate through the forum on illegal fishing created by CTA on the Euforic website, a cooperative platform for information and communication on Europe's development cooperation. Experts can also sign up for the D-Group (see below for address).The March 2004 issue, number 16 of the CTA bulletin ICT Update, is entirely devoted to fisheries surveillance, with special emphasis on the application of ICTs. Also keeping a keen eye on the fisheries sector is Agritrade, the CTA portal, which closely follows developments on these issues.The websites of regional organisations are another plentiful source of information: that of the EU's Directorate-General for Fisheries and Maritime Affairs is a good starting point. For the Caribbean, take a look at the website of the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), set up to promote sustainable fishing in the region; for the Pacific, the website of the Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) publishes a quarterly bulletin called the MCS Newsletter, dedicated to Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS). The site of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) outlines the regional MCS Programme developed by member states and gives addresses for national contact points. The Programme pêche-commerceenvironnement en Afrique de l'Ouest (PCEAO), a programme implemented to promote sustainable fishing in six West African states, can be explored on-line, though only in French. The website of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) also has a good fisheries section.Among NGOs, the Coalition for Fair Fisheries Arrangements (CFFA) plays a useful role in informing coastal communities on fisheries relations between the EU and ACP countries. Based in the same Belgian office, the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers (ICSF) publishes a magazine called Samudra, dedicated to small-scale fisherfolk around the world.Step by step towards PPP T he proliferation of publicprivate partnerships (PPP) in agricultural research for countries of the South reflects the growing conviction that the world of business can and must play a role in the development of the South. A document published by the United Nations Development Programme, entitled Unleashing Entrepreneurship. Making Business Work for the Poor is one of the cornerstones of this concept. PPPs in a rural development context also feature prominently on the website of Inforessources.To get a better sense of the benefits of this partnership, you can consult two reference papers, one published by the World Bank which traces the history of African Agricultural Research, and the other produced by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) on Investing in Sub-Saharan African Agricultural Research. At this point, you will be better equipped to appreciate the advantages of PPP as outlined in two long reports from IFPRI and the International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR). French speakers may also want to read the report on agricultural research published by Grain de sel, a magazine produced by the rural development network Inter-Réseaux.To round off your inquiries, the CTA web portal, Knowledge for Development deals with the issue of benefit sharing from joint research efforts by the private and the public sector. A wide range of examples are included in the proceedings of the International Expert Workshop on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing.Speak up, Ladies! ■ A programme launched by Kit Gender, based at the Royal Tropical Institute (KIT) in Amsterdam, set itself the goal of developing a range of good practices that would help improve the gender balance in governance. This book explains why there was a need for such an initiative, and looks at two African case studies which successfully managed to bring about changes in institutional practices, so that women had more of a voice. Website: www.frp.uk.comIn most countries of the South, rural households depend to some degree on livestock as a source of food, cash, draught power and manure for crop production. But farmers could gain even greater benefits from their livestock if they were given a greater say in research and technology development for this sector.This book explains the participatory approach to livestock research, and with it participatory technology development (PTD), a term coined to describe a process in which local people and outsiders work together to develop technologies that can address their particular problems and help them to take advantage of opportunities.Over the past 2 decades, PTD has gradually gained credibility as an alternative to conventional forms of agricultural technology development, but it still lags behind in the livestock sector, where there is considerable scope for better farmer participation. As well as discussing the general philosophy behind PTD, and its applications, the book offers case studies that show how livestock-keepers have been helped by this approach. One example One approach is restockingdistributing livestock as a form of disaster relief, rehabilitation and development -which offers an effective means of poverty alleviation, enabling poor pastoralists to be re-incorporated into the social and economic fabric. Unlike food aid, restocking appears to promise a long-term answer to the problems of these most vulnerable rural people. This manual aims to improve the success rate of restocking projects by offering a guide to best practices. The result of a 2-year global study on restocking policy and practice which looked at 85 projects involving 700 households, mainly in Africa, the book offers advice on the best way to go about restocking.It also examines fundamental issues designed to help project leaders decide whether this approach is the best solution for a particular household or community -and to weigh the real chances of its success. Photo: © Syfia International ■ Meet Ali, his wife Leila and their daughter Miri. They are a small-scale farming family in a fictional setting, grappling with crop pests and diseases that are all too real. Together with their neighbours, Peter and Sarah, and John the extension agent, they are the protagonists of an entertaining and highly informative handbook, which uses the comic strip to explain the nature of crop pests and diseases, the agents that cause them and some of the best methods for getting rid of them.The emphasis is on environmentally friendly pest control methods. Suzie the bird is introduced as the farmer's insect-eating friend who gets rid of flies and grubs for him. The book, which has been revised from an earlier edition, is aimed at agricultural extension agents, teachers and trainers, and the humorous strip cartoons can be traced or photocopied and handed out to farmers.The comic strip is accompanied by a simple, well-written text which describes practical methods for controlling pests and diseases, going into considerable detail on how to prepare and apply them, and accompanied by clear drawings and diagrams.The guide concentrates on techniques which use everyday materials that are inexpensive and easy to find. It offers advice on how to make pesticides from plants, animal or mineral products, including the deadly 'cigarette spray', which uses the nerve poison in nicotine to kill a range of aphids, caterpillars and the eggs of butterflies and moths. The book focuses on integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) as the most pragmatic approach to tackle soil degradation in Africa. This holistic management strategy addresses a whole range of causes and consequences, taking into account the social, economic and political aspects of soil fertility decline, as well as the biological and chemical aspects.Case studies of ISFM's application in a range of African countries as well as a discussion of belowground biodiversity and an interesting analysis of ways to scale up soil fertility restoration technologies are also highlighted. • Publications ■ The sustainable use and conservation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) is a key issue for many ACP countries, but perhaps nowhere more so than in the Pacific region, whose small island states depend on their rich but dwindling patrimony of plant biodiversity. But the topic is also a difficult one. This 32-page booklet sets out to explain the main issues and examine their relevance in a Pacific context. Using a clear and simple style the Guide provides basic information that Pacific Island countries need to enable them to make decisions about important topics such as biodiversity, intellectual property rights and landraces (crop varieties evolved by traditional agriculturalists).The guide explains the importance of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as an instrument to protect the genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for food and agriculture. It also looks at the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) , and at the CBD's \"access and benefit sharing\" (ABS) mechanism, a procedure which allows an interested person, company or institution access to biodiversity within a country in return for prior consent. Finally, it discusses the importance of regional cooperation in protecting plant resources, a practice that is already well established in the Pacific. ■ Marketing agricultural products is an area fraught with uncertainties. Firstly, it raises questions for the government: should it organise the market and guarantee a minimum price for products? Secondly, for the producer, who needs to ask: should he use pesticides and if so, how much? Should he grade his products, and how many intermediaries can he afford to involve? This CD-ROM provides help in answering many of these questions by offering access to a dozen publications produced by FAO since 1990. Some of these documents are theory-based, but most offer practical advice for use as training materials by extension workers and by producers themselves. For example, the transcription of five texts from a radio series explains how markets are organised as well as postharvest maintenance. The Fertilizer Retailing Guide looks at the management of a fertilizer business by answering various questions that a retailer might ask. It even explains why fertilizers are useful. Overall, the subjects covered in these publications are relevant for both international and village markets. ■ Leasing land to small farmers can lead to improvements in access to land for farming and to better agricultural output. In so doing, it can contribute to social and economic progress as well as to food security. Each country therefore has a vested interest in seeing that this type of commercial exchange, between owners who lease their land for a given period and farmers who compensate them, runs as smoothly as possible. But outside factors sometimes intervene to upset the balance between the two parties. These may include Nature, through storms and droughts, and Man, through conflicts, migrations and emergencies.That is when awkward questions tend to arise, such as: Who should repair the fence? Who should pay for losses caused by fire? Who should foot the bill for fields ravaged by locusts? Or again, who should bear the cost of replacing a stolen plough? Failure to clarify such points in advance is a recipe for serious and sometimes violent clashes. To guard against the threat, FAO advises all grassroots organisations working with small farmers to draw up a leasing arrangement which is adapted to the local context. To help them, this first issue of Land Tenure Notes, explains what a lease is, how it should be drawn up, what information it should contain and how to use it. The idea is that this procedure will help safeguard the interests of both tenant and landowner in a lasting manner. Rural areas may also have fewer television sets and are not always covered by broadcasting networks. Television is mainly aimed at urban audiences.Nevertheless, television can play an important role in sensitizing ACP communities to the importance of agricultural development. The audience certainly exists -many urban dwellers have one foot firmly placed in the rural world, either because they are market gardeners or traders or, quite simply, because part of their family still lives in a village. Just one TV set can allow an entire village to watch a programme. So why do we not have more agricultural content on television?In answer to this question, CTA recently launched a series of television products which give a better understanding of current agricultural issues and show how information can help transform and improve ACP rural economies.One of these is a short programme on agriculture in Africa, Agriflash, developed in partnership with the Paris-based production company People TV. The programme is broadcast in English, French and Portuguese during the last week of each month as part of the Business Africa programme, which goes out on 35 television channels, mainly in Africa (see end of article).Agriflash is made up of news briefs lasting a total of 3 min, inspired by items carried by CTA publications such as Spore, Agritrade and ICT Update. These briefs give viewers an insight into positive and dynamic developments in African agriculture. Since the beginning of 2005, Agriflash has looked, for example, at dairy production in Uganda, and at internet websites that offer information on prices.Again in conjunction with People TV, CTA has begun co-producing short documentaries (8 min) aimed at farmers wanting more information to help increase their output and revenues. Four documentaries will be produced and broadcast in 2005.The first of these documentaries shows how, with support from CTA, organisations in Mali are supplying agricultural information to rural areas using various media (books, magazines, radio, meetings, mobile telephones and internet). Since this documentary is the first in the series, it contains an introduction to CTA's mission and areas of activity.The second programme explains how CTA's Question-and-Answer Service (QAS) works, through a visit to a regional centre in Cameroon. The first image takes viewers into a field of pineapples, where the owner describes how he improved production thanks to advice from the QAS. This documentary also shows some of the new tools, such as telephones, radio, etc., being used by the QAS to reach farmers living in isolated places, far from the nearest town.The final two programmes deal with product marketing. One looks at the emergence of regional markets and market information systems (MIS) that supply data on prices and volumes traded. The other examines access to international markets and negotiations under way between the EU and ACP countries.You have indicated an interest in seeing different formats. Producing a programme which may serve as a starting point for debate, or which can act as an information service, is a huge undertaking upon which CTA cannot embark unaided. For that reason, we have teamed up with other organisations to co-produce some documentaries. We are currently working on a film on the use of biotechnological applications in rural"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4348bc64c36b2770df2fed1ec5b09f8d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b49fcd9c-0a32-4c08-9d81-5b5ff4f845e1/retrieve","id":"1829149895"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fa046b38-7054-4f73-a480-564e2337e5e6","content":"Traditionally sweetpotato breeding programs have taken a long time, 7 to 8 years, to produce a new variety. Frequently those new varieties do not suit the various geographic areas and the preferences of diverse farmers and consumers within a country. Indeed, as of 2008, most countries in Africa had no real breeding program or dedicated breeders and relied on testing materials developed elsewhere, which in some cases works well, but not when agro-ecological conditions are quite distinct.We want to revolutionize conventional sweetpotato breeding. We seek to redesign sweetpotato breeding protocols in Africa to produce varieties in fewer years (about 4). We are investing in developing diverse sweetpotato types that will provide national programs with a wide range of \"parents\" with the preferred combination of characteristics to use in their own breeding programs. Particular attention is paid to preferences of women producers and consumers of all ages. We expect our national program partners to release at least 20 locally adapted sweetpotato varieties by 2015, a target they have already surpassed. We want to see a cadre of sweetpotato breeders, trained in the latest techniques, using common protocols, and capable of raising funds to support the development and dissemination of new, improved sweetpotato varieties within their countries.Three Sweetpotato Support Platforms (SSPs) have been established, with CIP sweetpotato breeders based in national breeding programs in Uganda, Mozambique, and Ghana to provide technical backstopping at the sub-regional level for the 17 countries targeted under the Sweetpotato for Pro t and Health Initiative: Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi, and DR Congo in East and Central Africa; Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Angola, South Africa, and Madagascar in Southern Africa, and Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, and Burkina Faso in West Africa.We are developing a new way of breeding sweetpotato using a combination of methods: First, in \"accelerated breeding\", we conduct multilocational testing from the earlier stages of selection, in contrast to the conventional approach of using one site for two or more initial evaluations. Second, we are creating very distinct sweetpotato populations in each sub-region, which, when crossed, should result in major improvements in yield due to heterosis. Third, we are developing molecular markers to apply to speed up the process of identifying and selecting plants that Preparing roots for analysis in Mozambique (credit J. Low).Understanding heterosis−crossing dwarfs to get a giant.For East and Central Africa: Robert Mwanga r.mwanga@cgiar.org For Southern Africa: Maria Andrade m.andrade@cgiar.org For West Africa:Ted Carey e.carey@cgiar.org Visit the Sweetpotato Knowledge Portal www.sweetpotatoknowledge.org have resistance to viruses, the most important disease of sweetpotato in SSA. Finally, we are using near infrared re ectance spectroscopy (NIRS) for the rapid and inexpensive evaluation of important quality attributes, including key micronutrients and di erent sugars.Each sub-regional SSP is developing a program to carry out and support the research in breeding, seed systems, and other areas targeting speci c needs of each region. This is a collaborative e ort with the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), which is currently supporting 7 sweetpotato national programs with their breeding e orts. Sweetpotato \"speedbreeders\" meet annually to learn new techniques and share knowledge, with the goal of building a vibrant community of practice.Our breeding e ort draws on the genetic diversity of African sweetpotato germplasm, exploiting its genetic potential and increasing and diversifying forms of use, to produce new locally adapted sweetpotato varieties in Africa. We are breeding in Africa for Africa, with a focus on creating populations with major traits demanded by each sub-region, namely: 1) Sweetpotato virus disease (SPVD) resistance and high beta-carotene content in storage roots (Eastern and Central Africa); 2) Drought tolerance and high beta-carotene in storage roots (Southern Africa), and 3) High dry matter and low sweetness (West Africa).These population improvement programs are linked to national variety development programs, led by National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) breeding programs. Farmers are active partners in the process of selecting materials to meet their conditions and preferences. We also expect that varieties and improved populations from each sub-region will have value in other sub-regions when exchanged and evaluated to select superior varieties.What have we achieved so far? "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"82d0eb49b3bae1723fcec1e6f4ff9604","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4d2a4f56-f844-4db2-a023-be93c22eb5a0/retrieve","id":"-2136520306"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3ac08354-480b-42ef-b158-c55f85d029b0","content":"Charles Darwin Red junglefowl only ancestor … Hence it may be concluded that not only the Game-breed but that all our breeds are probably the descendants ……. of G. bankiva *. If so, this species has varied greatly since it was first domesticated; but there has been ample time, as we shall now show … To be continued …….."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"475696d6c19f02acf384f14b961b68f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f930da81-cba0-4e62-a74a-7ec92afd1247/retrieve","id":"43395112"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"096eb875-9edf-42c6-9c65-6d7bc5680e09","content":"While there is now widespread acceptance of the need for Impact Assessment (IA) of Agricultural Research, its implementation is limited. Problems have been identified not only with regard to methodology, but also concerning institutional capacity and organisational learning. By realising the potential of regional co-operation, the Workshop aimed to improve the implementation of Impact Assessment of Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa.Strategic elements for implementing IA were identified with regard to institutional aspects, processes, and methods. related impact -, environmental and institutional impacts. Both quantitative and qualitative indicators are considered useful.\"Impact culture\" was identified to be a useful guiding principle for institutionalizing IA, with an orientation towards organizational learning, and improved accountability to donors, governments and beneficiaries. Adequate resources and capacity development are necessary but not sufficient conditions to institutionalize IA. In addition,  A conceptual framework that distinguishes institutional levels of IA stating the responsibilities, tasks, frequency and resources should be developed;  An organizational framework to generate and use impact assessments should be developed and integrated into the existing research process and decision-making system;  Internal responsibilities for IA up to the top management level, irrespective of discipline should be defined;  The motivation to do IA by sensitising managers and scientists for the usefulness of IA should be enhanced; and  Development-oriented research by rewarding scientists for their contributions to development objectives as well as for their scientific output should be encouraged.Recommended IA processes include establishment of a relation between IA and strategic planning/policymaking. Participation and systematic feedback of beneficiaries and other stakeholders should be ensured; e.g. indicators to assess attainment of research objectives should be negotiated with them. Direct benefits should be assessed at the research programme level (3 to 6 years after the start). Development changes should be assessed at the institution or strategic level (4 to 10 years after start of research activities). Such impact assessment clearly differs from project evaluation which measures project output in shorter intervals, most often annually.In order to improve research accountability towards donors and beneficiaries and credibility of IA results, the need to be explicit on assumptions underlying IA results is stressed. Moreover, it is recommended to assess not only economic but also social -including gender-It was recommended to ASARECA to integrate the follow up activities resulting from the Workshop into its five year strategic plan. A task force on IA within Eastern and Central Africa should be initiated, and guidelines and criteria for IA, data base of external experts, and inventory of methods elaborated. Within each NARS and regional networks an appropriate organisational structure to implement IA should be developed, and the necessary IA capacity should be developed through training and practical experience.The need for external support to institutionalise IA within NARS and regional networks and for capacity building should be identified and potential donors approached.It was recommended to initiate similar workshops in other regions, especially CORAF and SACCAR. Regional and international co-operation in implementing IA should realize efficiency gains to address common IA issues, adhering, however, to the subsidiarity principle.Half of the invited participants were from ASARECA networks and NARIs, and the other half from international institutions (ECART members including ATSAF, CIRAD, GTZ, IAO, KIT, NRI; CTA; CGIAR Centers; The World Bank; FAO; USAID; IDRC) and NGOs. CORAF and SACCAR were also invited.The programme included a keynote address by Alex McCalla, The World Bank, a lead paper by the Workshop Preparation Group, a state of the art paper by the CGIAR/IAEG and a commissioned regional paper. Six case studies were presented. Working groups supported by facilitators analysed the situation, developed recommendations and identified next steps with regard to improving accountability, organisational learning, institutionalising IA, and regional and international co-operation to implement IA of Agricultural Research. Limited resources, together with questions about the social, economic and environmental impact of new technologies have increased the need for impact assessment and evaluation to an extent rarely experienced in the history of agricultural research. Demonstrating clear and positive impacts of research could help to reduce these pressures, but impact assessment is not yet well developed and not widely implemented. Within the CGIAR, the topic is addressed through a specialist Impact Assessment and Evaluation Group (IAEG), as well as through activities at individual Centres. Other institutions have intensified their work on impact assessment and related topics such as monitoring and evaluation. ASARECA, ECART and CTA have organised this regional workshop in order to improve the implementation of impact assessment in Eastern and Central Africa, and to strengthen partnerships between institutions in the ASARECA region and in Europe.Improve the implementation of impact assessment in Eastern and Central Africa Specific Objectives  Strengthen partnerships between institutions within Eastern and Central Africa and with institutions in Europe  Synthesise available knowledge and analyse the current situation of impact assessment in the region  Identify key strategic elements for implementing impact assessment in the region  Provide operational guidance Outputs  Improved collaboration between various groups of the research community in the region and with European institutions  Recommendations to policy makers, funding agencies, research institutions and research managers concerning  The principles and practice of impact assessment  Incentives to encourage impact assessment and the use of their result  Agreement on next steps, especially with respect to ASARECA's strategic plan for regional co-operation  Publication of results in a workshop report together with short reports published in a number of relevant newslettersThe The Workshop programme included a visit to the Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute.Four working groups supported by facilitators analysed the situation (first session), developed recommendations and identified next steps (second session) with regard to improving accountability, organizational learning, institutionalising IA, and regional and international co-operation to implement IA of Agricultural Research.All four working groups went through two sessions, the first session to analyse the situation, and the second to develop recommendations and identify next steps. Their work was guided and visualised on pinboards by professional facilitators. Moreover, each working group had a rapporteur and a presenter of results to the plenary.In a first step, the stakeholders of agricultural research and their expectations with regard to accountability were listed. Their expectations were explored, as well as the ways in which NARS account to these stakeholders. The problems that have occurred in accounting were analysed. In a second session, approaches to solving these problems were discussed, recommendations to researchers, research managers, governments, donors, extensionists, NGOs, and IARCs were formulated and next steps suggested. They address measures to increase motivation of researchers to be accountable, to improve the co-operation between farmers and researchers, and to improve credibility of IA results:In order to develop a sense of need for IA within research organisations, the NARS managers should demonstrate the value of IA. Through negative and positive reward mechanisms, researchers can be made more accountable. NARS managers should fully involve scientists in IA regardless of discipline, including biophysics. Researchers should report on failures as well as success stories, so that all stakeholders can learn from them. This working group analysed the case studies and other ad hoc IA studies with regard to organisational learning, and went on to define the scope and focus of IA which is institutionalised, as opposed to ad hoc studies. Recommendations were formulated in order to foster an \"IA culture\" within a learning organisation, integrating IA into research management.Numerous examples for positive impacts of AR are known to experts; however few of these are analysed through formal and comprehensive studies. The focus and level of aggregation of data collected is most often determined by the use of IA results. Presently, institutions are often \"compartmentalised\"; IA is carried out for specific projects. This prevents a focus on the impact of the institution as a whole and on organisational learning. Internal studies using simple models are sufficient to give insight into adoption rates and direct benefits; these are more useful for management decisions. For research organisations, a \"culture of IA \" is more urgently required than additional formal studies conducted as response to external demands. In addition, the impact on the research system itself should be assessed. Research organisations should not measure indirect or secondary impacts e.g. on other regions, at national level, on other beneficiaries, or on highly aggregated development objectives (Figure 1). Specialised organisations should conduct such IA studies.In order to improve organisational learning, the working group recommended to 1. Define the supply of as well as the demand for IA for the research organisation, commodity program or research network. 2. Work towards consistent and common understanding of concepts and terms. 3. Raise awareness of managers for use of IA; demonstrate practicability to them; conduct sensitisation programs. 4. Implement a participatory approach to planning and IA which ensures information sharing with all stakeholders and their involvement in all stages. 5. Clearly define intended impacts of research projects or programs, and indicators or milestones, and make this a precondition for funding. 6. Define data required for IA during the program design, and implement regular low-cost data collection with partners. Guidelines for defining required data sets might be necessary. 7. Make IA mandatory for all projects and programmes; IA should become part of reporting requirements; provide for IA as part of project proposals; and provide for the required budget. 8. Ensure an internal discussion of IA results within the organisation as well as with stakeholders (e.g. through regular workshops); make sure that stakeholder perspectives are incorporated in IA. 9. Assign responsibilities for IA and specify this through job descriptions. The working group listed the most important constraints in institutionalising IA at their organisations, and found a lack of motivation as well as a lack of appropriate concepts.In order to improve motivation to institutionalize IA, the following recommendations were formulated:-Managers and scientists need to be sensitised to the role of IA as a learning process and in accountability. As a first step, managers and scientists should be informed of the results of this workshop. They should identify needs, and define and operationalise a strategy, e.g. training workshops, study tours.-NARS managers and donors should incorporate impact considerations into planning as a funding requirement. Therefore, guidelines for IA in the planning process should be defined.-Scientists should be assessed not only on the basis of publications but also of the relevance of their work to development goals. Therefore, research managers should define criteria to decide on the relevance of research to development.-Responsibility for IA studies must be clearly defined. NARS managers should identify staff to undertake IA studies and give them clear ToR.With regard to developing a concept to institutionalize IA, the following suggestions were made. Figure 2   The working group tackled the subject of co-operation by assessing the current status of IA in the ASARECA member NARS from which recommendations were drawn. The findings were summarised as follows. Ethiopia and Sudan are relatively far ahead, while others are in early stages of including IA in their research activities. Whereas NARS directors are willing to do IA, so far very little has been done to develop strategies, especially with regard to small NARS. Where IA is carried out, it is part of broader socio-economic studies. It is often a once off activity, not an in-built part of research programmes. IA efforts are mainly carried out using external funds, normally contracted out and hence very expensive.Among the reasons for the dismal performance were listed:  Lack of both human and financial resources  Little priority accorded to IA  IA is a very new idea to the systems  The main motivation of IA is externally driven  Research planning does not include indicators for different levels of impact  Most programmes are too young for impact assessment  The appropriate timing to put up an IA strategy is not clear.Problems in pursuing regional and international strategies were identified:  Lack of a common regional concept and strategy on IA  Limited capacity for IA and to support IA at regional level (MEPU has two positions only)  Considerable differences in the sizes of NARS in the region  Regional activities depend on the active contribution from NARS for success  Poor information flow amongst NARS members in the region caused by poor communication system and language differences (English /French)  Duplication of activities due to poor co-ordination in the region  ASARECA networks not fully owned by NARS and strong co-ordinating position of CG centersThe comparative advantage for co-operation at regional level and the role of ASARECA in implementing IA was described:  Learn from each other  Facilitate networking and information sharing amongst NARS  Reduce duplication of efforts (e.g. methodology, regional benefits)  Develop common tools and joint programmes to solve common problems  Facilitate technological transfer through the regional level  Use spill over effects to increase efficiency  Regional level to act as entry point for external expertise and international co-operation  Strengthen negotiation position for funding and other donor support  Increase the efficiency of resource use in the region  Adhere to the subsidiarity principle: ASARECA should carry out only those activities which can't be done by NARS Recommendations with regard to regional aspects included:  Regional activities should address NARS directly, not through the networks  ASARECA should formulate a support programme for NARS (including forming international alliances) following the principle that ASARECA member organisations should take over roles in areas where they have specific competences  In addition to its current mandate, MEPU should assume a role in strengthening capacity of NARS for IA  MEPU should assist in impact assessment of regional research networks Across the recommendations generated by the working groups, the following general issues were distilled. Four main areas require attention in developing the relevant strategies for IA in the Eastern and Central African countries: 1. Institutionalisation, 2. Processes, 3. Methods, and 4. Regional and International Co-operation. Next steps were summarised as an immediate follow-up to the Workshop. Use the idea of an \"impact culture\" as the guiding principle for institutionalising IA  Integrate IA into the existing research process and into the decision-making system  Develop a conceptual framework that distinguishes institutional levels of IA stating the responsibilities, tasks, frequency and resources  Enhance the motivation to do IA by sensitising managers and scientists for the usefulness of IA  Encourage development-oriented research by rewarding scientists for their contributions to development objectives as well as for their scientific output  Define internal responsibilities for IA up to the top management level, irrespective of discipline  Provide for adequate resources to do IA at the relevant institutional level  Strengthen IA capacity by training staff and by improving the organisational framework to generate and use impact assessments Observe the general requirements for organising the process of IA, i.e. stakeholder agreement up front, adequate participation and systematic feedback from beneficiaries and other stakeholders, while maintaining sufficient flexibility  Negotiate indicators for the research objectives among key stakeholders before you start  Assess impacts at various levels  Improve the use and learning from IA results  Relate IA to strategic planning and policy making Observe the general requirements for the quality of IA results, i.e. clarity of indicators, transparency of method, being explicit on assumptions, as well as the usefulness and cost-effectiveness.  Use quantitative as well as qualitative indicators  Consider economic, environmental, social (including gender-related) and institutional factors Observe the subsidiarity principle, i.e. invest in regional IA activities only if there is a comparative advantage in doing so  Realise efficiency gains by co-operating at regional level to solve common issues regarding IA  Integrate workshop results into ASARECA's five year strategic plan  Use the regional level as a contact point for strengthening the bargaining position for support to IA research through international co-operation  Identify possibilities for research co-operation on IA between European and African partners in the framework of \"Confirming the international role of Community research/Developing Countries\" (INCO/DEV) programme. "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8e3e1253ec35b94ff4c4e16da4fd18a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b9407609-9b84-4833-a2fe-4aea0e069610/retrieve","id":"840139797"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"62f73f6d-28a0-4e8b-91e5-ef8d3ba60b3c","content":"I \"\"_\"0 ''''Conce tos Básicos de Gen€tica de Fri 01 Jeremy H. C. DavisEl frijol Phaseolus vulgaris, es un diploide con 22 cromosomas., Normalmente se autopoliniza, con solo una pequeña proporci6n de polinización externa, dependiendo de la cantidad de abejas que se presentan en el tiempo de floración.El objetivo del presente trabajo es examinar la forma en la cual la herencia de varios caracteres ha sido investigada en frijol (Yamell, 1965) y para ilustrar con ejemplos cómo pueden utilizarse los conocimientos de gen€tica para planear un programa de mejoramiento.Un gen es el factor heredado que determina una caracterlstica biológica. En la planta de frijol, como en otros organiamos diploides, los genes existen en pares, en cromosomas equivalentes. Los dos genes de cada par se conocen como ale10s. Los genes que se encuentran en el mismo cromosoma son ligados. El grado de ligamiento entre los genes en el mismo cromosoma depende de la distancia entre ellos y la frecuencia del entrecruzamiento entre cromosomas equivalentes. Entrecruzamiento es el mecanismo genético para la recombinación de caracteres controlados por genes en el mismo cromosoma.En frijol, los genes de cada par son normalmente id€nticos (homocigotes). Cuando los alelos aon diferentes, normalmente como resultado de cruzas entre dos plantas de frijol diferentes, se dice que la planta es heterocigota. Cuando una planta heterocigota se distingue de una homocigota, uno de los genes del par al€lico es dominante.1.i) Hábito de crecimiento: Las variedades de frijol en las cuales el tallo principal termina en una inflorescencia son llamadas determinadas (Tipo 1), así como aquellas que solo tienen inflorescencias axiales y un ápice terminal vegetativo SOn llamadas indeterminadas (Tipos 11,111 Y IV). Cuando una planta de frijol indeterminada se cruza con una planta determináda, el híbrido (F ) es indeterminado. Cuando 100 semillas de eete híbrido (t 2 ) se siembran, aproximadamente 75 de las plantas serán indeterminadas, y 25 determinadas (3:1 proporci6n de indeterminadas:determinadas). 'Este resultado indica que el hábito de crecimiento indeterminado es controlado por un gen dominante, llamado Fin (Lamprecht, 1934). Las plantas son indeterminadas cuando son homocigotas (Fin Fin) O cuando son heterocigotas (Fin fin). son determinadas solo cuando son homocigotas por recesivo (fin fin).ii) Brill%pacidad de la testa: Este es un caracter importante de las variedades de frijol que determina parcialmente su valor en el mercado en muchas partes de America Latina. Este caracter es determinado por un gen. En presencia del alelo dominante (Sh) la testa de la semilla es brillante, y con dos alelos recesivos (sh, sh) la testa es opaca (Moh y Alan, 1974).iii) Resistencia al virus del mosaico común (BCMV): Una reacción hipersensitiva al BCMV que previene la transmisión por semilla de todas las razas mas conocidas del virus, es producida por un gen dominante 1 (Ali, 1950). Genes de resistencia a raza-especifica han sido descritos también, pero éstos son recesivos (bc-l, bc-2, bc-3;Drijfhout, 1978).Cómo utilizar esta información en un programa de mejoramiento Tomando los ejemplos anteriores, digamos que tenemos dos variedades: A es una determinada con testa opaca y susceptible a BCMV. Los genes que tiene son fin fin sh sh ii. B es una variedad indeterminada con testa brillante y resistente a:BCMV: los genes son Fin Fin Sh Sh 11.La nueva variedad que deseamos mejorar deberia ser indeterminada con testa opaca y resistente s BCMV: Fin Fin sh sh 11. Debido a la dominancia podemos predecir que el hibrido F 1 entre! y ! (Fin fin Sh sh 1i) sera idéntico a la variedad B; pero en F 2 , hay 64 combinaciones posibles de genes (Cuadro 1). De estas 64, solo una corresponde genéticamente a nuestro objetivo de mejoramiento, aunque nueve plantas en total mostraran la combinación correcta de caracteres. Las progenies de ocho de estas plantas estaran segregando para caracteres no deseados en F3. Estas progenies segregantes pueden ser eliminadas en F 3 , dejandonos con una nueva linea mejorada que combina los mejores caracteres de ambos padres.Los conocimientos de genética, por 10 tanto, nos han permitido predecir que necesitsmos por 10 menos 64 plantas en la generación F para lograr encontrar una planta con la combinación correcta de genes ~caracteres).Para estar seguros de encontrar la planta deseada es preferible sembrar más de 64 plantas en F 2 • Ahora imaginemos un programa de mejoramiento en el cual mas de tres caracteres (genes) tienen que considerarse. El número de plantas necesarias en F 2 para obtener todas las combinaciones posibles se incrementa geometricamente con el número de genes involucrado. Por ejemplo: con cuatro genes una población minima de 256 plantas es requerida, con cinco genes la población minima sera de 1024 plantas y con 11 genes (uno por cromosoma en frijol), la población minima de plantas necesarias seria de 4,194,304. Cuadro l. Segregación F de tres genes que controlan el hábito de crecimiento, ~orma de testa (opaca/brillante) y resistencia 8 mosaico común.Finsbl FinSbi Finsbi finShI f1nshl f1nSbi finshiDesafortunadamente el ligamiento genético en frijol ha sido muy poco estudiado. Hay muchos ejemplos de caracteres que se han encontrado asociados (correlacionados) Con otros caracteres, pero la base genética de la correlación na ha sido estudiada en detalle en la mayoria de los casos.i) Vigor de plántula y color de semilla: Se ha notado que las variedades de frijol de color muestran por regla general una mejor emergencia y mayor vigor de planta que las variedades de semilla blanca (Figura 1), y que esto puede atribuirse a la mayor resistencia o tolerancia a pudriciones de raiz, en particular Rhizoctonia solani y Pythium spp. (Deakin, 1974). Parece que uno de los genes involucrados en la producción del pigmento (color de la semilla), está involucrado también en la producción de una substancia quimica, phaseolina, la cual se conoce como efectiva contra Rhizoctonia y pudriciones radiculares. Este puede ser el gen P (Prakken, 1970), ligado genéticamente con otros genes que producen colores especificas de semilla. Las variedades homocigotas por el alelo recesivo ~, son de semilla blanca y generalmente altamente susceptibles a pudriciones radiculares. Por otro lado, es posible romper el ligamiento entre P y otros genes-color, para que la resistencia a pudrición radicular pueda combinarse con la testa blanca de la semilla (Dickson y Abawi, 1974).ii) Resistencia a razas de antracnosis Beta y Gama: Los genes responsables por la resistencia a razas Beta y Gama de antracnosis se han encontrado ligados en el mismo cromosoma. Si quisiéramos mejorar una variedad con un tipo de planta y tipo de grano de Dark Red Kidney, pero con resistencia a antracnosis de Michelite. el ligamiento parcial entre los genes de resistencia serIa una ventaja, ya que ellos tienden a ser heredados juntos. Las probabilidades de encontrar una planta que combine todos los caracteres deseados están favorecidas por el ligamiento en este caso.Por otro lado, en un programa de mejoramiento para combinar resistencia a pudriciones de raíz con color blanco de semilla el ligamiento hará el trabajo más dificil. La única forma de romper los ligamientos es sembrar más plantas en la generación F 2 , ya que los ligamientos reducen el número de plantas recombinantes.La autopolinización ocurre por naturaleza en los frijoles, y el resultado es que las plantas tienden a ser homocigotas (Cuadro 3).Cuadro 3. Resultado de una cru~a entre dos variedades, una hipersensit1va resistente a BCMV (11) y la otra susceptible (ii). Tomando como ejemplo el Cuadro 3, si la selección se enfoca en generaciones tempranas a otros caracteres más complejos, tales como rendimiento, se puede predecir que el 53% de las lineas en F5' sin ninguna selección previa para resistencia a BCMV, serin resistentes.Hasta ahora hemOS considerado los caracteres cualitativos, cada uno controlado por un solo gen. Caracteres tales como rendimiento y altura de planta son cuantitativos y son controlados por varios o muchos genes. El medio ambiente afecta generalmente los caracteres cuantitativos mucho mis que a los cualitativos. Los efectos del ambiente e interacciones genotipo y medio ambiente reducen la eficiencia de la selección por un carácter como rendimiento. Diseños de campo experimentales, tales como los diseños látice, se desarrollaron con el objeto de apartar lo más posible la variación ambiental en la fertilidad del suelo y otros factores. El uso de dichos diseños, preferentemente a un número de localidades (para incluir la interacción de genotipo x medio ambiente) incrementa grandemente la eficiencia de la selección por caracteres cuantitativos. Es decir, un buen diseño experimental intenta maximizar la heredabilidad de un carácter cuantitativo. La heredabilidad se define como:VA es la varianza de los efectos genéticos aditivos y Vp es la varianza fenotlpica que incluye ante todo los efectoS de medio ambiente (error) y de genotipo x medio ambiente.La segregaci6n de genes que afectan el rendimiento o altura de planta en una población h1brida se espera que resulte en una curva de distribuci6n normal. La Figura 2 mue8tra, por ejemplo, dos distribuciones de curva normales de rendimiento, para dos selecciones segregantes F3' En ambas poblaciones solo seleccionamos plantas que rindan más de 55 g. Esto resulta en más plantas para ser seleccionadas de la población 2 que de la población 1, ya que en promedio la población rindió más. Se puede predecir la resP2esta a la selección (!) si se conoce la heredabilidad (h ) y se calcula la diferencia entre el rendimiento promedio de las-plantas seleccionadas y e 2 rendimiento promedio de cada población (S). Por definición R -h x S. Utilizando esta fórmula, se puede predecir el rendimiento promedio de las selecciones en F 4 , que es 45.7 g de la población 1 y 57.4 g de la población 2. Aunque el mismo nivel de selección fué aplicado en ambas poblaciones, las selecciones de la población 2 fueron en promedio mejores que las de la población l. Como regla general, entonces, las mejores selecciones normalmente vienen de la mejor población.Los caracteres cuantitativos están influenciados normalmente por muchos genes. Si cruzamOS dos variedades de frijol que difieran solo en un gen en cada cromosoma (esto es para 11 genes en total), necesitamos llegar minimo a la población F 2 de 4,194,304 plantas para lograr todas las combinaciones posibles de esos genes. Para la mayoria de mejoradores es imposible cultivar y seleccionar entre un número tan grande de plantas. Pero-si preguntamos cuántas plantas necesitamos para encontrar cada gen en condiciones homocigotas o heterocigotas, el número es mucho meyys (como minimo una población de 24 playjas en F 2 = 1/ (.25 + 0.5) ; 176 plantarl en F3 = 1/ (.375 + .25) li 561 pIantas en F 4 ~ 1/ (.4375 + .125) \"; 2048 plantas en F~= l/S • (Ver sección sobre el efecto de la autopolinización). Sin selección el número minimo de plantas necesarias se incrementa dramáticamente con cada generación. La probabilidad de encontrar una planta que tenga todos los genes que se buscan, por lo tanto, disminuye con cada generación. Se puede concluir que seleccionar por un carácter cuantitativo como rendimiento debe empezar en la generación más temprana posible... "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dfb6bc5841c1838fcbef1dbeba5cee3f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/797549e0-e6e1-4735-9acf-d8cd16ee6034/retrieve","id":"1404278589"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"94e3ac12-f9e1-44ab-a22b-e9667ba98470","content":"GRiSP, Global Rice Science Partnership [30 September 2010] What follows is the iISPC's commentary on the revised GRiSP proposal submitted to the Fund Council on 17th September 2010. The iISPC provided the FC with initial comments on a version of 9th July, 2010. Subsequently the proposal was substantially revised.The iISPC strongly supports funding of the GRiSP as a CGIAR Research Program (CRP).GRiSP presents a comprehensive program bringing together three CGIAR Centers and three other main partners that contribute significantly to rice research, including CIRAD (Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement), IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement) and JIRCAS (Japan International Research Centre for Agricultural Science). GRiSP represents a highly commendable effort to coordinate the previously disparate efforts across the CGIAR and its partners that address global rice productivity and sustainable rice-based farming systems. Through reaching out to partnerships beyond the CGIAR, GRiSP provides enhanced possibilities through the emerging collaboration to bring the best efforts to bear on problems of rice research globally.The GRiSP proposal has been developed without the finalization of an overarching CGIAR strategy for prioritizing research that would include budget envelopes for each CRP agreed by the Donor Fund (as also emphasized by the Consortium). This matter seriously affects development of CRPs in general. In the absence of the Strategy and Results Framework (SRF), the assessment of GRiSP as a CRP contributing to a portfolio of CGIAR programs is difficult. It is particularly difficult to assess the inter-linkages of GRiSP with other programs (such as those on other cereal systems, climate change and integrated agricultural systems) and the relative prioritization among them. Thus GRiSP has been assessed as a stand-alone program with several observations on how GRiSP would need to adjust its content when the SRF has been finalised and evolve its linkages with other emerging CRPs.The GRiSP proposal makes a very compelling case for addressing the CGIAR's objectives as defined in the draft SRF through a program on rice and rice systems. Rice is the world's most important food staple of the poor. Enhancing food security in many developing countries through yield increases and more sustainable rice supplies and systems for the poor is central to the CGIAR portfolio.Nevertheless, the iISPC believes that the separation (and separate genesis) of the three main cereal system programs (rice, wheat and maize systems) misses an opportunity to capitalise on parallel advances in modern plant breeding and biological sciences. The opportunities to increase efficacy across crops and component activities are clearly evident -from the molecular research and bioinformatics systems, to the application of new tools, to the systems in which the crops are grown, and to the seed systems which are often the major local bottle neck for the dissemination of all crops. The iISPC envisages the CGIAR as an enterprise where some components of the business would be undertaken by the most efficient provider (including, for instance, regional hubs). The iISPC therefore urges that close integration be developed between the three cereal components of the CGIAR research Theme 3 taking account of the Generation Challenge Program (GCP) and the Genomics and Integrated Breeding Services (GIBS-see below). This evolution needs to be closely monitored for greater coherence, synergy and complementary.The iISPC is cognizant of the lack of flexibility for GRISP to reallocate funds in the short term, due to the high level of restricted funding (about 80%) supporting current work. Building on the current comprehensive exercise in ex ante strategic assessment, the GRiSP should identify, more explicitly than does the current proposal, that GRiSP aims to develop a long-term strategy for the program beyond current funding commitments, and this may result in significant shifts in priorities. Given major uncertainties about many features of future global supply and demand (e.g., climate change, consumption trends, etc.), the strategic assessment should include development of multiple scenarios to guide rice research planning. It should also recognize the rapidly changing context for rice research, such as rapid urbanization and declining poverty in much of Asia. Finally it will need to include a strategic analysis of the institutional landscape in order to strengthen existing partnerships, or form new ones, to serve the Program's needs and devolve work where appropriate.The proposal identifies the need for capacity strengthening (mainly as a component of the research activities) in order to enhance outcomes. Yet the funding requested for a major effort in capacity strengthening is inadequate. If human and institutional capacity are the major constraints in some of the partner countries to the ultimate achievement of outcomes and impact (and the iISPC believes that this is the case; see below) then there is a need for realigning funding so as to alleviate these constraints to achieving the expected outcomes of the program.Overall, the iISPC considers that it is highly desirable to fund GRiSP fully (scenario 3) through the Fund. The current committed restricted funds that account for about 80% of the immediate research to be done in GRiSP should be subsumed in the Fund. A continuing dichotomy between Fund-dependent research and research dependent on restricted grants would endanger the objectives of the CGIAR change. It is essential that the Fund eventually will be able to cover a large majority of the portfolio that is judged most relevant for implementation of the final, agreed SRF.The comments below are intended to highlight areas, judged against the common assessment criteria 1 , where the Council considers GRiSP should evolve.GRiSP is compelling in terms of the global research context. It addresses a high priority strategic research area and provides convincing evidence of the global importance of rice, with clear developmental benefits deriving from rice research. Overall, the proposal explicitly links rice research to the CGIAR's objectives in the draft SRF of poverty, hunger and sustainability specifically through the entry point of increasing productivity. The underlying modelling effort is commendable and the overall results -such as an expected 0.35% productivity growth rate -are consistent with the results in the draft SRF. However, all model assumptions should be made available to both donors and other CRPs through a web-based background paper.The revisions in the proposal 2 show intention towards greater focus and synergy through reduction of Product Lines from 32 to 26 (compared with the initial proposal). Nevertheless, GRiSP presents a compilation of the ongoing programs of the three CGIAR Centers and therehas not yet been a rationalisation and prioritisation among the main ecosystems and regions. The results from a major priority setting activity taking place in parallel are not yet available for prioritization within GRiSP. The completion of the current comprehensive priority setting exercise will be critical to guide the relative prioritization and amalgamation at regional and ecosystem level. This exercise provides an important opportunity to analyze strategic questions; such as the role of global productivity growth in reducing poverty and hunger through lower consumer prices versus the specific targeting of major ecosystems where poor rice farmers are concentrated. This would also provide the analytical basis for setting research priorities and budgetary allocations to those ecosystems deriving from such prioritization. Such an exercise will also need to recognize different ways of achieving resilience and ecological sustainability through the different avenues of breeding, systems management, capacity building and institutions.In general, iISPC agrees that the great bulk of the GRiSP relates to areas where the CGIAR and its partners have a comparative advantage. However, further rigorous screening against explicit comparative advantage criteria and potential alternative suppliers would likely eliminate some product lines. For example, product line 5.3 to develop a real time rice monitoring and forecasting system seems hard to justify given the knowledge, skills and mandate of the CGIAR, and a number of alternative suppliers that should pick up this activity.The proposal has a strong analytical base in terms of ex ante analysis that feeds into a results framework with specific quantified indicators. Specific impact targets are projected and details for these claims are provided. Impact pathways are described in satisfactory detail and examples also include Africa.The research outputs are targeted at the main problems limiting rice production, especially amongst poor farmers, in each of the main rice production zones. The expected outcomes from current projects will need to be mapped and subsequently evaluated. As noted above, the Program should be very transparent about the potential tradeoffs between addressing poor consumers and improving the livelihoods and production environments of poor producers. Systems analysis approaches are encouraged to help identify any potentially negative impacts of the program strategy on groups of producers or environmental sustainability.The proposal does not adequately address capacity building as a strategic issue which will affect the success of the program in maximising the intended outcomes. The program will develop new, sophisticated products (genes, markers, germplasm, crop management tools and approaches for plant and system health) and its impact depends on incorporation of these products into breeding programs for adaptation and introduction into the local cultivars and cropping systems. To do so will need facilities, reorganization at regional level (regional hubs) and enhanced plant breeding and agronomy capacity at the national level capable of modern marker based breeding and use of informatics and systems analysis tools. GRiSP contains a program of capacity building for breeders, agronomists and extension specialists, but its effects are likely to be slow. A more comprehensive and integrated approach through professional and network capacity building is needed. Similarly, strategic activities for capacity building should have high priority in GRiSP's funding allocation plan.A good formal gender analysis is lacking but the proposal recognises that greater emphasis is to be given to this in the future. However, already in this proposal it would have been useful to see an attempt to relate gender considerations to specific technologies and the research directions that are discussed for the themes. It is recommended that the ongoing strategic assessment will fully integrate gender elements.Overall the quality of the proposed biophysical science appears excellent and the research approaches are solid. The molecular science is cutting edge; the research is state of the art in key areas such as genomics, system resilience to pests, yield gap analysis, adaptation to climate variation, and strategic assessment and impact analysis. The program is capable of producing significant breakthroughs in overcoming a number of environmental constraints to rice production, particularly drought, flooding and salinity. It would be wise to put more emphasis also on the relatively routine technique of anther culture to speed up the breeding process. Defining responses to issues such as the allocation of resources across product lines, the likely barriers to uptake, the potential negative impact of various interventions, and the elaboration of targeting environmental and social impacts through research -given the entry point on increasing productivity -will require the strong integration of analytical capabilities in the social and environmental sciences.One of the main recommendations from the last EPMRs of IRRI and Africa Rice was the need to strengthen the quantitative analysis of genotype x environment and to incorporate early multi-site testing in the breeding programs to capture favourable GXE effects. This is particularly important for the variable rainfed systems but increasingly important for the irrigated systems as they too become variable in water supply. The proposal has addressed these recommendations, although a more vigorous, multi-site testing network for analysis of segregating material for the irrigated environment would be desirable. The new area of research on labour-saving technologies in Africa is urgently needed.The research component on C 4 -rice, building on IRRI's current work, is commendable. GRiSP is in a unique position to facilitate the work of basic research laboratories in this exploratory research on rice, which can potentially have very high impacts on other crops as well as rice. Among others, the work in this area -with potential synergies from research and application to other crops -is an example of potential gains that could be achieved from combining research on the major cereals. The proposal presents some \"new frontiers\" research which will depend on the availability of funds. The iISPC encourages the Fund to provide the flexibility to explore these new areas of research with high potential impacts in the longer term.The quality of the GRiSP research partners in advanced institutes is outstanding and the three research partners in GRiSP (CIRAD, IRD and JIRCAS) complement and strengthen the program. GRiSP also has a strong suite of development partners in Asia and among the BRIC countries. The role of other ARI partners could be increased. The description and justification of partners in the institutional sense should be strengthened. Nearly 900 partners have been identified though mapping all existing partnerships and these have been categorised as partners in research and in development, the latter representing mainly the complementary activities required for impacts to accrue. Strategic selection and management of partnerships clearly needs to evolve as the prioritization and consolidation progresses. GRiSP also needs to provide greater clarity regarding the balance of GRiSP funds flowing to the partners and to distinguish this from the co-investment to the Program from partners.As other CRPs expected to contribute to the portfolio are still at various stages of development, GRiSP understandably does not provide details of links with them. However, the GRiSP leadership and the System should be cognizant of the risk of losing potential synergies among CRPs and maintain flexibility concerning the ultimate location for components of research that are jointly undertaken or overlap between CRPs. This is essential for GRiSP to avoid becoming diffuse. The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia is an important follow-up to an earlier initiative and has been included under GRiSP. This is a high priority activity that merits inclusion in the overall SRF portfolio. Including it in GRiSP is one solution, although aspects could also have been included under other embryonic CRPs. Until such programmatic and management arrangements are sorted out, similar work in other CRPs should be included as part of those other relevant proposals, irrespective of the ultimate programmatic locus for the work.The iISPC considers that maintaining and building on the systemwide activity on genomics, and the development of molecular breeding approaches and partnership established in the GCP, are very important. As emphasised above, greater integration of cereal system research is essential across the new CGIAR. GRiSP participation in and linkages to other commodity CRPs through cross-cutting GIBS is commended.The newly added management structures reinforce the observation above that the program proposal at times seems to be a compilation of all existing activities of the three Centres. It is not designed to streamline decision-making at the CGIAR system level. It is essential, as is indicated in the proposal, that the participating Centers will change their research management structures to be fully aligned with GRiSP. The roles and responsibilities of the Program Management Unit in relation to and the administrative and management systems of the participating Centers -and the evolution of this arrangement -all need to be clarified. There are well-developed strategies for intellectual property management and embryonic strategies for communication and risk management. Capacity building is handled well through research but less well at the level of national institutional capacity across the rice sector.In the iISPC's view the governance of CGIAR Research Programs is an unresolved issue which needs to be addressed at the System level. In the GRiSP case, the lead Center approach may be justifiable, but this should not be seen as a precedent for other CRPs. With GRiSP it is important that IRRI and Africa Rice will revisit the size and composition of their Boards, as indicated in the proposal."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a1eb6d2768f6baea084874274b2ccf8e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a70ec34-7c15-4181-8afc-11b0324def0b/retrieve","id":"-222753720"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"003bafba-686a-4202-a257-0ecf7dcdf223","content":"Qu'est-ce qui peut être exploré? Les cartes traduisent la probabilité que l'agriculture de conservation, l'irrigation à petite échelle ou les petits barrages puissent être bien adoptée au niveau district dans un bassin.A qui est destiné cet outil? Aux non experts qui veulent savoir quelles parties d'une région remplissent les conditions sociales, humaines et naturelles pour faciliter le succès d'une intervention en GEA envisagée.Quelles informations vous livre-t-il? Où des technologiques spécifiques de GEA peuvent être adoptées avec succès à l'aide du modèle Bayésien.En "}

main/part_2/0386015894.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d268635ad92f34a9769a42033ea01dc5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/73eaa884-27b8-4429-be29-f02a520b395b/retrieve","id":"-1516927817"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ea17ddc5-57cf-46ac-9b23-6224c335d25c","content":"The ILRI Poverty Gender and Innovations (PGI) team is grateful for the support provided by the Ford Foundation and the IDRC for funding this study. Although milk and milk income has been traditionally controlled by women, it seems to be getting into the control of men. • In joint sales, women and men market milk in markets used by men. • The take over of products that were traditionally under women's control once the production becomes commercialized has been documented in other livestock and crop value chain studies. • Selling jointly, to men's preferred markets, seems to be the conduit for men's take over of control of products and incomes from women.Women play a vital role in livestock value chains.Studies in Kenya and Tanzania show that women own fewer livestock than men (Njuki et al. forthcoming). In spite of this, women have been known to participate in livestock product markets and control livestock products even when they do not own the livestock (Waters-Bayer, 1985). Their participation in markets has however not been well studied due to a lack of gender analysis of livestock value chains. The study reported here uses a gender and value chain analysis framework to analyze men and women's preference for and participation in livestock markets.What types of livestock and livestock product markets do women have more access to, which provide limited barriers to women's participation and that provide women more flexibility and control while ensuring sustainable incomes?• Men only, women only and mixed focus group discussions were held in five districts in Tanzania and four districts in Kenya. • Household interviews were conducted in male and female headed households. In male headed households, both male adults and female adults were interviewed. A participatory gender and value chain mapping was done during the focus group discussions. • Data collected included market preferences, livestock products sold, who sold and to what markets they sold to.• In Tanzania, men preferred eggs and milk more than women, and women preferred only manure more than men (Fig 1). • In Kenya, men preferred only cow milk more than women. Women preferred goat milk, traditional chicken eggs and honey more than men (Fig 2).• The cow-milk and egg markets were emerging in Tanzania whereas in Kenya, the cow-milk market is well established. • This might explain the interest in these products by men.• Men and women in Tanzania and Kenya sold cow milk independently as individuals and jointly. The dairy market is more established in Kenya than in Tanzania as is shown by the many market options. • When women and men sold milk jointly, they tended to sell more in markets dominated by men. • Women in Kenya sold most (about 80%) of their milk at the farm gate to farmers (63.2%) and traders (19.1%). In Tanzania, women sold all their milk at the farm gate. Women appear to prefer the farm gate as their main milk market. • Men used the farm gate to farmers and traders in Tanzania and Kenya and in Kenya they also delivered to traders and the collection center. • In Kenya, 83% of jointly sold milk was sold at the farm gate (50%)to traders and 33% delivered to traders. In Tanzania, all milk sold jointly was sold to traders at the farm gate. "}

main/part_2/0405882658.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"01470fd3b3c77c788628b33cc9b97ecb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e2caec49-709a-4066-9e23-ebec88191d07/retrieve","id":"-1427355386"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"12aa897d-b52d-43bc-aeaf-3127b212a72a","content":"Changes in climate patterns are having their most acute effect on people living in the world's dry areas and marginal lands. As these rural communities are largely dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods, it follows that improvements in agricultural research and 'integrated agro-ecosystem' approaches are probably the primary protection from climate related problems. This is also why agricultural innovation, research, technology transfer and capacity building should be strategic priorities of the UNFCCC.The aim of this report is to examine the problem of changing climate patterns in dry land areas and its effect on rural populations and offer some practical solutions, as input the Conference of Conference of the Parties (COP18) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) It has been prepared to inform government policy makers and agricultural planners in dryland countries, and development partners, of the issues at stake and present options available to reducing risk and increasing productivity of agriculture in drylands agricultural systems.The information presented here comes from discussions at the International Conference on Food Security in Dry Lands, held in Doha, Qatar, on Nov 14-15, 2012. It is informed by the body of agricultural research produced by three authors of this report: The Doha conference brought together a large number of dryland government ministers with researchers, policy makers, donors, NGOs, farmers' unions and private agribusiness enterprises to explore the challenge of increasing agricultural production in dry countries, under conditions of severe water scarcity and climate change.The ministers' recommendations, resulted in the Doha Declaration (see Annexe), which is taken forward on behalf of the Dry Lands to the 18th session of the Conference on Parties of the UN Conference of Parties of the Convention on Climate Change (COP 18), which opened in Doha in November 2012.The added-value that agriculture and agricultural research brings to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeThe evidence presented in this report shows that many of the most effective climate change interventions have their roots in agriculture. Targeted agricultural investment in spreading the technologies and practices described here, and backed up by robust policies, can reduce the vulnerability of farming communities to drought and climate change and sustainably improve agricultural productivity.Against a backdrop of increasing climate change, a primary challenge for decision makers in the world's dry lands will be helping rural communities to earn a living and produce food securely in a situation where land is degraded, water scarce, and rainfall and temperature patterns increasingly unpredictable.Viable options and interventions exist today. They include using: improved crop varieties and livestock breeds; farming approaches to reduce risk and improve nutrition; making farming for communities living in on marginal lands more resilient; and methods for making the best possible use of the scarce water available. Approaches such as diversification of cropping systems, more efficient water management and conservation agriculture can contribute to securing livelihoods for rural people and increasing food security for the dry land countries.Likewise, 'climate smart' strategies and technologies will have an important role to play in helping producers to adapt to changing weather patterns and adopt more sustainable farming methods that protect fragile natural resources. Given the importance of agriculture to dryland countries, where farming is still the backbone of the economy, it is crucial that this sector receives the investment and policy support it needs to move forward.If farmers are given the chance to seize the opportunities available, they can increase food production to keep pace with the growing population and reduce the need for costly food imports. To achieve this goal, they must change some of their practices and embrace new methods, while continuing to preserve some of the most effective systems handed down through generations.Projections from the recently launched CGIAR Research Program on Dryland Systems suggest that planned interventions will result in higher and more secure incomes for 87 million people in dryland systems, while improving the productive capacity of natural resources and reducing environmental degradation in nearly 11 billion hectares of dry areas.Within six years, agriculture productivity and production can be increased by 20 to 30% in high potential areas and 10 to 20% in low potential areas or marginal lands. Out-scaling of proven technologies will cover a far wider area and improve the standard of living of a much larger population.Strong agricultural adaptation measures are the key to developing food production in dry lands, but these are contingent on policy and financial support. Since agriculture holds so many of the answers to challenges posed by changing weather patterns, it makes sense that this sector takes center-stage in climate change negotiations.Agriculture holds the key to many dry land problems. Urgent action in favor of agriculture will help build food and water security and mitigate the negative effects of climate change.• Food production systems in dryland countries are highly fragile • Some 16% of the population of dry lands live in poverty • Food imports are untenably high • Water scarcity is a constant and growing problem • Adverse climate events (extreme heat and cold; drought and flooding) are aggravating vulnerability• Securing more resilience and reducing vulnerability of people living in marginal lands • Achieving sustainable intensification of higher-potential agricultural areas • Taking an integrated agro-ecosystem approach to these actions.Risks posed by degraded land and scarce water resources Dry areas cover more than 40% of the world's land surface and are home to 2.5 billion people -one-third of the global population. Poverty, food insecurity, biodiversity loss, frequent drought and environmental degradation are widespread.In recent decades, food production has fallen significantly in most dry areas, while demand has increased due to high levels of population growth. These areas face several demographic challenges -rapid population growth, high urbanization, large youth populations and among the world's highest unemployment rate.Climate change is already exacerbating these countries' problems, and experts predict that the situation is going to get worse.The global food crisis of 2007/8 and subsequent price hikes have highlighted the danger of policies based on food imports. The dryland areas have a strong reliance on imported food, especially wheat, which is a staple product and which suffers from substantially lower yields than those of many other regions -up to 30% below the global average.Water scarcity is a constant and growing problem for dryland countries. The dry lands have less than eight per cent of the world's renewable water resources and are challenged by extreme temperatures, frequent drought, land degradation and desertification.Across all dryland areas, scarce water availability is the key limiting factor for food production. All these countries are suffering from severe groundwater depletion and salinity, compounded by rapid natural resource degradation and desertification.The Middle East and North Africa is the most water scarce region in the world, and the problem is set to deteriorate.Famines and disasters have hit dry lands with increasing intensity and have, together with spikes in food prices, led to political unrest in many countries. With climate change, such events may become even more frequent.There is a strong link between food security, climate change, water security and poverty and agriculture plays a key role in the equation. Agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate change. Unreliable precipitation patterns increase the likelihood of crop failure and falls in production of both crops and livestock. In many dryland countries, the effects can already be seen as climate change makes the delicate ecosystem balance even more precarious. Climate change is causing more frequent and intense periods of drought as overall rainfall levels decline. Temperatures are more extreme -both hot and cold -and climatic zones are shifting. This results in shorter growing seasons for farmers and in prevalence of pests and diseases in areas where they were not previously a threat to crops. If temperatures rise by 4 degrees Celsius, as forecast by some climate change models, vast areas of dry lands will have their growing seasons cut by more than 20%.Access to food is also threatened, and there are fears that this will be further compromised in dryland areas due to lower incomes and the emergence of new pests and diseases caused by a changing climate. In dryland countries that are already geopolitically volatile, such developments could have a serious impact on social and political stability.Without vigorous adaptation measures, use of new practice and technologies -and policies and financing to support them, there can be little hope of reaching poverty alleviation and food security goals. Farmers and other players in food production value chains can make key contributions to sustainable food and water security, provided they have access to technologies and support to help them adjust their practices to take account of changing weather patterns. Climate initiatives and 'climate smart' technologies can help increase food production for a growing population, while safeguarding precious natural resources.Adaptation measures not only improve food security. They can also contribute to reducing the impact of climate change by lowering greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Agriculture is a major contributor to climate change, through deforestation for land cultivation, methane emissions from livestock production and unsustainable practices in food production systems. The sector is also the biggest user of the world's freshwater resources -up to 90% in some countries. The next round --COP18The COP 18 talks, in Doha, Qatar, from Nov 26 to Dec 7, represent an important opportunity for countries with extensive dry lands to shape the global climate agenda and ensure that food security receives attention in the negotiations.Climate change adaptation is a costly process, and if dry areas are to maintain -or increase -food production under these conditions, it is essential that they are able to tap into any funding made available. The prospect of agriculture continuing to be bypassed in negotiations carries the risk that the sector will lose out on substantial funding for climate change. The Green Climate Fund has a target of US$100 billion by 2020. The fund will be used to limit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to the impacts of climate change.Current state of play: Agriculture's place in the UN Climate Change Framework As things stand, agriculture has been all but excluded from international negotiations on climate change. However, some progress has been made in achieving more focus for agriculture in the UNFCCC agenda. At COP 17, held in Durban in December 2011, with vigorous support from host country South Africa, agriculture was specifically mentioned in the UNFCCC text for the first time. A small victory perhaps, but a significant step in the right direction.Specifically, at COP 17, there was:• High level support for inclusion of agriculture • Wide support, e.g. across Africa and in OECD countries, for agriculture (though perspectives differed on how to deal with it in the negotiations). • Agriculture graduated from \"Long-term Co-operative Actions\" (LCAs) to the \"Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical Advice\" (SBSTA) • A call for submissions on an agriculture work-plan under SBSTA.The next stage will be establishing a SBSTA agenda for agriculture -a work program on agriculture. This should provide the evidence and methods to achieve development goals of mitigation, improved food security and more resilient livelihoods and where feasible, mitigation. SBSTA has been mandated to consider issues related to agriculture and to prepare a decision to be adopted at COP18 in Qatar.Although there have been divergent views of countries regarding adaptation and mitigation approaches, submissions to date have shown a high degree of consensus on the need for a programme of work to include: • Better information on agriculture and climate change -knowledge on both adaptation and mitigation, including lessons from the developing world • Dissemination and use of knowledge to improve farming practices: so as to:increase outputs adapt to changing conditions and reduce emissions.Prof. Thomas Rosswall, chairman of the CGIAR Independent Science Panel for the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).How is agriculture linked to climate change? \"Agriculture is part of the problem, but it is also part of the solution. Agricultureand its impact on deforestation -account for one-third of greenhouse gas emissions. So better agricultural practices are very important for mitigating climate change. Agriculture is also one of the sectors that will be hardest hit by climate change. In the dry lands, additional decreases in rainfall and more drought will exacerbate an already very difficult situation.\"So what needs to be done? \"Agriculture can contribute to mitigation, by intensifying current land to avoid deforestation and other land use changes. By increasing storage of carbon in vegetation and soil, and by reducing methane and nitrous oxide emissions. These factors also contribute to adaptation and create a win-win situation.\"What about adaptation for dryland farmers? \"Small-scale farmers have so far had very little opportunity to adapt. Climate change adaptation will be very costly for agriculture. It is absolutely essential that the agriculture sectors receives a share of funding available.\"How can funding be channeled to the agriculture sector? \"Climate financing is essential and 10% of national budgets must go to agriculture and food security. Countries driving greenhouse gas emissions must also pay. The Green Climate Fund must reach its US$100bn target by 2020. COP 18 offers a unique opportunity for governments to ensure that food security gets attention in the negotiations.\" Land and water, crops and livestockThe situation is serious, but certainly not hopeless. With more targeted research and investment, there are good prospects for reducing risk and even improving agricultural output, despite climate change. A number of practical approachestested in recent agricultural research initiatives -can improve prospects for farmers and rural communities.Iproved crop varieties that can resist temperature extremes, drought and disease, different land and water management practices, diverse cropping and mixed crop-livestock systems can all bolster food security and increase incomes for rural communities. The challenge in dry areas is how to produce more with very little. To do that, it is crucial to favor crop varieties and livestock breeds that make efficient use of the natural resources available.Improving efficiency, without using more land There are two key strategies for the world's dry lands. In high potential rural areas, where there is relatively high rainfall, the target must be sustainable intensification of food production -with the accent on sustainable. Egypt is an example of this type of ecosystem. In high potential areas, 72% of increased food production is expected to come from agricultural intensification. 21% is expected to come from cropping intensity. And only 7% will come from an increase in arable land.For the low potential marginal lands, it will be important to make the natural resource base more resilient to climate change, reducing risk and vulnerability for the worst affected rural communities. Food production here is likely to center around the rearing of sheep and goats, though this may be coupled with production of hardy drought resistant fodder crops. A good example is the Awasi sheep, a sturdy native breed that gives resilience to rural communities in the Middle East. Awasi offer considerable potential for use across marginal lands in many dryland countries (Central and West Asia, East and North Africa) bringing nutrition and new income streams to rural communities from milk products, wool or meat.A three-pronged approach should target:• Sustainable natural resource management, especially water More agricultural modernization, driven by science and technology, is key to increasing food production in dry areas.In seven countries across North and sub-Saharan Africa, new approaches tested by national research and extension systems, with ICARDA, have produced a 22% increase in wheat yields for Egypt and a 58% increase in Sudan -based not just on trials, but on actual farmer experiences. Techniques include the use of different planting methods, high yielding varieties, improved water management and integrated pest management.With sustainable intensification, climate change can actually become an opportunity to increase yields. Climate change brings with it higher levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). If water levels are adequate, a plant can convert this CO2 into a form of natural fertilizer. The plant uses the carbon for photosynthesis, and grows bigger and better as a result.Advances in crop science to produce improved and higher-performing crops and livestock hold exciting prospects for making dryland food production systems more efficient, and more resistant to pressure from drought, extremes of cold and heat, unpredictable rainfall and new pests and diseases. For optimal performance, varieties can be targeted to specific farming systems, depending on local conditions and stressesReleases of plant genetic materials from ICARDA's gene banks, which host wild relatives of barley, wheat and legumes, has led to the development of crops with higher yields and greater resistance to a range of biotic stresses. Some varieties also offer large improvements in bread-making quality, nutritional value and other traits. What are some of the main challenges currently facing dry lands? \"Key biophysical constraints include natural resource limitations and degradation, particularly water scarcity and encroaching desertification, in addition to salinity problems in irrigated areas. Livelihoods are also constrained by non-biophysical limitations such as inadequate and unequal access to land, water, markets and inputs and limited access to information about alternative production technologies.\"Given these difficulties, what should the approach be? \"The challenges are complex, to the point where there is no silver bullet for solving these problems. But there are practical solutions available today that will increase food security. These practical solutions follow an integrated approach involving sustainable natural resource management and inputs; crop and livestock genetic improvement; socio-economic considerationsand require an enabling policy environment. Partnerships are also critical success factors, considering the complexity of the challenges facing drylands and the need for an integrated approach. Countries now need more precise action plans to follow an integrated approach and develop strategic partnerships to find solutions to increase the productivity agriculture in the dry drylands.\"How much real potential is there, given the serious threat posed by climate change? \"The possibilities for improving food security in dry lands are tremendous. The two major target areas are sustainable intensification -and it is crucial to underline sustainability, without excessive use of water -and increasing resilience for marginal lands. For example, the use of 'raised bed' farming for wheat in parts of Egypt during the past two seasons has resulted in a yield increase of 20%, using 20% less water. In rangeland areas, herders are being encouraged to diversify, and to produce value-added products such as yoghurt and cheese.\"How important is it to invest in scientific research for agriculture? \"Science-based agricultural technologies are a real force for increasing food security in dry areas. Unfortunately, in the developing world, many countries have not invested in science and technology for agriculture. Those countries who have invested -such as China, India and Argentina -have grown very well, but in most parts of the developing world there is the feeling that investment in agriculture does not contribute to the national economy -we need to help change this thinking.\"So what can be done to mobilize more investment in agricultural research and technology? \"I think we as scientists have a very important role to play. It is important that we demonstrate the benefits and impact of agricultural research to decision makers -to ministries of agriculture but also to ministries of planning and finance. A study we have done on investment in a wheat initiative in Upper Egypt demonstrates returns of 37%. This shows what is possible, and what can be spread to others countries and regions, in a real-life farming situation.\"Already, scientists have produced some convincing results: More than 880 new varieties have been released for cultivation, generating annual benefits worth US$850 million.• Dryland researchers have developed synthetic wheat varieties that can produce 2.5 tonnes per ha with just 220 mm of water.• Between 2005 and 2007, Syria turned from being a wheat importer to a wheat exporting country with the help of new improved plant varieties, and supplemen tal irrigation -which targets the critical period in crop growth -and inputs.• In Sudan south of Khartoum, an irrigated heat-tolerant variety is enabling farmers to grow wheat in an area where temperatures were too high and the season too short for growing traditional varieties.• In Bangladesh, new lentil varieties combine high protein levels with micronutri ents such as zinc and iron.• A drought tolerant variety of chick pea introduced in Turkey had such strong resistance that it was able to withstand the searing temperatures and rainfall scarcity of the 2007 drought. The 'Gokce' variety is now used for about 80% of the country's chickpea production. With a yield advantage of 300 kg/ha over other varieties and world prices of over US$1000/t, this variety brought in an additional US$165 million for Turkish farmers in 2007 alone.Diversification of agricultural systems can be an effective means of mitigating risk and increasing income. In both high potential areas and marginal lands, this approach is proving an important strategy.Herders in rangeland areas are being encouraged to produce value-added products such as yoghurt and cheese from their sheep and goats. Plans to develop crops with low water requirements are another option. In Tunisia, pastoralists are growing spineless cactus as fodder for their ruminants. The Awasi sheep, a hardy native breed brings resilience to rural communities in the Middle East. With good resistance to high temperatures and low rainfall, this is one of several indigenous breeds that have considerable potential for use across marginal lands in many dry land countries, providing meat, milk and wool for farmers.Farmers do not always have to choose between crop or livestock systems. New methods are needed to cope with a changing situation and integrating crop-livestock systems can be a highly effective way of cushioning each sector from external pressure and getting maximum effects from a symbiosis of both. Successful technologies that combine crop and livestock systems include:• On-farm feed production • Rotation of barley with forage legumes • Growing cactus and fodder shrubs • Making feed blocks from crop residues and agro industrial by-productsConservation agriculture (CA) -also known as zero till and no till --is particularly well suited to dryland farming, especially in rainfed conditions. The technique involves avoiding tilling soil, conserving nutrients and water in the undisturbed soil, and retaining crop stubble. Crop rotation is an important part of the approach, which produces significant benefits through lower production costs, higher yields and better soil health and nutrient recycling. Under conservation agriculture soil carbon is retained and increased, contributing to climate change mitigation.Field trials on wheat, barley, lentil and chickpea have produced documented evidence. By using conservation agriculture together with good crop management, farmers can increase net revenues by about US$120 per hectare. The extra revenue comes from higher yields (12% increase) and lower production costs (saving of $40 per hectare for each eliminated plowing). In four years, adoption has grown from zero to almost 27,000 hectares in Iraq and Syria. To encourage mechanization, specially designed zero-tillage seeders have been developed. These are manufactured locally by small-scale entrepreneurs. They cost $1,500 to $5,000, compared with $50,000 to $60,000 for imported machines 9 Most countries are relying on increasing the efficiency of irrigation systems to save water. My argument is that this will not solve the problem -they will not have enough water to increase productivity sufficiently to achieve food security. Part of the solution should come from increasing water productivitythe return for a cubic meter of water.Currently, the strategy is to increase the return on cubic production unit of land. But our research shows that increasing yields requires more water. The same goes for expanding land area under cultivation. So this approach is not valid for water scarce areas facing climate change.Instead of focusing on land and yield we should shift the focus to water productivity. The total return of m3 of water consumed. With less water, you can produce more food.Using deficit irrigation, you irrigate less than the full requirement. You may reduce the yield by 10%, but you will save 50% of water. You can use this water on other land. With supplemental irrigation to rainfed crops in dry lands, you apply a little irrigation selectively, during shortages. That saves the crop and improves quality. This is especially important for climate change.Water harvesting can be very effective, concentrating water into, for example, small basins where you can grow crops. Farmers can also space crops in strips, leaving a fallow strip in between. The water flows into the planted area, with help from channelling if necessary. Contour infiltration ditches stop runoff and soil erosion. Interventions such as these will be very important under climate change, when rainfall will become more erratic and intense.\"A massive surge in wheat prices and availability in the wake of the 2007/8 global food price crisis prompted scientists at ICARDA and partner organizations to devise a strategy to help producers and consumers weather the shocks.Arab countries have been hard hit by the soaring cost of wheat since all, except Syria, are net importers. Wheat yields in these countries are an average 30% lower than global levels, with the exception of Egypt.Focusing on wheat -a staple in the region -the project, launched in 2010/11, targeted six countries: Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, Syria, and Tunisia. It was later extended to include Jordan.The challenge of increasing wheat yields was not exclusively one of producing better technologies. It soon emerged that all countries had national research programmes with improved technologies, but most had yet to pass these on to farmers.Dissemination of research results has therefore been a key component, using various methods to transfer technology, including mass dissemination, farmer field schools and lead farmers coaching satellite farmers. A total of 7,500 farmers were reached in the first 2 years. The scheme used a tried and tested model that encouraged farmers to explain why they did not adopt certain technologies. This was followed up by measures to address the issues.The package varied, but could contain: Strategies for combating climate change in drylands agriculture The key to sustainable food production in dry lands Water is the common denominator for problems affecting farmers in dry land countries. Depletion and mismanagement of groundwater reserves is being exacerbated by the effects of climate change, with less rainfall, and more erratic distribution. Population growth, pollution and increased salinity compound the problem, placing growing pressure on smallholder farmers in their quest for stable food production. The difficulties are becoming even more acute due to competing demands from rapidly increasing urban areas.Dry areas have witnessed a steady decline in groundwater reserves in recent decades, mainly due to unregulated borehole drilling. Typically, water tables in semi-arid areas have dropped by between 0.5 and 2m per year, with serious impacts for both public supplies and ecosystems.Farmers are the hardest hit, but they are also the biggest users of water. Globally, agriculture uses 70% of all water extracted from rivers, lakes and aquifers. In some low income countries, fresh water use for food production is has high as 90% or all available water resources.However, while water issues are recognized by national leaders as a strategic priority, very few countries have a master plan for managing water in their agricultural sector and for dealing with the uncertainties that lie ahead.In Morocco, where 71% of farms are under 0.5 ha, agriculture is at a crossroads. In an effort to drive the sector forward the government has drawn up an ambitious programme, which focuses on private and public investment, added value for fruit, vegetables and other sectors, as well as policy support for producer organizations, marketing and finance for farmers.Dubbed the Green Plan, the initiative aims to have a significant impact on economic growth, as well as on land management, sustainable water development and employment, with a potential for creating a total 4 million new jobs.The Green Plan is targeting new exports markets in Europe, the US, Russia and Asia, while also servicing the growing domestic market, particularly in rapidly developing urban centers.With its fragmented land surface, where the average farm is only 2.1 ha, there is an urgent need to group producers together to increase their presence on markets and improve quality and processing.The scheme involves sustainable intensification, diversification and development for marginal lands, cultivating olives, cactus and other suitable crops. The plan also includes measures to overhaul an industry framework that is out of step with principles of deregulation.Adopting a market-based value chain approach has already brought success for the tomato sector in the Souss region, and the strawberry sector in the north. This latter has seen spectacular growth, exporting fresh but also frozen fruit for processing into products such as yoghurt, mainly to Europe. The model is now being duplicated using other soft fruit.Producers in the dairy, sugar and sheep and goat sectors have all benefited by being grouped together and receiving help with modernizing production practices through transfer of skills and technology. The keystone to all these successes has been an entrepreneurial management approach by farmers, with encouragement and backing from the policy sector. Producers now have access to private investment and the plan is working to facilitate these channels, from national and international sourcesComponents of the strategy to modernize the industry framework include accelerating land privatization, giving incentives for a water pricing policy, improving access to wholesale markets and abattoirs and providing support for farmers, including access to credit and subsidies.With its private, free trade approach and strong government backing, the Green Plan is widely seen as a policy model that could be adapted for other dryland countries.The Green Plan has the potential to achieve greenhouse gas gains of 63.5 million tCO2e over 20 years. These gains are expected largely from the sequestration of soil carbon through improved agronomic practices. How is water used?As far as consumption is concerned, water use is embedded in different products.Beef has a much higher level of water use than beans on a per unit basis. In most Middle East and North African countries, a large share of water is imported as 'virtual water', in the form of imported grain. There is also an energy component, since virtual water, in the form of imported food, requires transport. Limiting imports, and expanding domestic food production through climate smart technologies, is a far more efficient means of using water and energy.Challenges of water security must be addressed with sustainability in mind. It is important that even wealthy arid countries, that can afford costly desalinization schemes, pursue water resource management options that do not exact too high a cost either in financial terms, or social or environmental terms.For poorer dry countries, what are the options? Some solutions for water scarce dry lands Irrigation efficiency, crop rotation and biotechnology -enhancing efficient water use in crops, are all options for making maximum use of scarce water reserves. Most of these approaches require advanced technology, such as using ground sensors to measure soil moisture.Adapting crop varieties to use less water is a promising approach that is already producing impressive results in some dry countries. Investments in water technologies, such as drip irrigation, hydroponics, vertical agriculture and water harvesting techniques must go hand-in-hand with improved soil and crop management techniques. Conservation agriculture (zero tillage) retains precious moisture in soil that would otherwise be lost through plowing -also trapping nutrients and maintaining soil fertility.Harvesting water in a dry lands context is markedly different from the conventional view of rainwater harvesting. In dry lands, new strategies are emerging for locating micro-catchments in areas where, apparently, there is no water. A combination of satellite remote sensing and observation on the ground can identify new water sources. Using this approach, countries can pinpoint where new sources exist and install appropriate structures to capture the water -for home use, animals or irrigation. This strategy has been tested in dry areas such as Jordan and Libya.Rural communities may have more opportunities for developing water security than urban dwellers. Strategies open to them include careful conservation and management of renewable groundwater, rainfall harvesting and underground storage (in cisterns or aquifers). But the success of these initiatives will to some extent depend on improved weather forecasting, combined with education and training initiatives. It is important that farmers and other members of rural communities are involved from the outset in any changes in water use that will affect them.Better tracking by government agencies will help to identify where water is being lost, in the environment and along the food production chain. A policy shift is also key, so that users have better incentives to adopt more sustainable water management practices. In dry land areas in particular, there is an urgent need for more data on groundwater reserves and water quality, and for improved monitoring strategies.The resilience and adaptability of rural communities should be harnessed and developed. But there is also a need for more scientific know-how on water efficiency, especially for agriculture.Sustainable water management options for the dry countries include:• Modernizing irrigating systems and improving efficiency • Modifying cropping patterns to enhance water productivity • Supplemental (targeted) irrigation • Macro and micro water catchments • Watershed management • Deficit irrigation.12 Using water wisely -supplemental irrigationResearch and experience in the field show that supplemental irrigation, which allows farmers to plant and manage crops at the optimal time, regardless of climate vagaries, can significantly increase water productivity.Here are some results from Ethiopia, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey.On-farm water productivity is 2.5 kg/m3 under supplemental irrigation, compared with 0.3 to 1 kg/m3 under rainfed conditions and 0.75 kg/m3 under full irrigation.Field trials in several countries showed massive increases in wheat and barley yields with small quantities of supplemental irrigation: yield increased from 1.25 t/ha to 3 t/ha in Syria, from 4.6 to 5.8 t/ha in Morocco, and from 2.2 to 3.4 t/ha in Iran.Supplemental irrigation allows farmers to plant their crops early, increasing yields and preventing exposure to terminal heat and drought stress in hot areas and frost in cold areas.Addressing Climate Change: Adaptation? Mitigation? Or both? Interview: Dr Bruce Campbell, Director, CCAFS.In the countries where we work, adaptation is the priority. If you look at the prognosis for Africa, you can see that climate change can potentially devastate agricultural production, through rising temperatures, more frequent and severe extremes, and increased aridity. But fortunately, for many of the options that are needed to build adaptive capacity, they also provide what we call a 'mitigation co-benefits'.A great example comes from Niger, for farmer-assisted tree regeneration.Farmers have added trees in the landscape over an area of five million hectares. This is essentially rehabilitating degraded farmland. Through this practice, crop yields have increased and there is more fodder for livestock. Some 2.5 million households have benefitted.This practice contributes to both climate change adaptation and mitigation.The enhanced and more diverse livelihood portfolios that families in this area have -different production and income streams -allow them to cope better with current and future climate-induced risks. These approaches also bring large-scale sequestration of atmospheric carbon created by the 200 million new trees and also reduced carbon loss from soils -reducing loss of topsoil through wind and water erosion.Partly. This grew out of a traditional woodland management approach, pioneered by farmers in Niger over many years, and. It involves selecting, protecting and pruning re-growth from living tree rootstock. It became known as 'Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration' (FMNR). Research has helped better understand this and to identify opportunities for scaling-up in other locations. A new feature furthered by intermediary organizations that assisted the farmers was to incorporate FMNR into agricultural crop lands so that trees are managed as part of a farm enterprise. In the 1980s FMNR became a component of a development project and by 1985, 500,000 trees in 95 villages had been regenerated and protected.Changing climate patterns will affect people in all ecosystems. But those living in dry areas will face more acute challenges. Countries already suffering from high poverty levels due to poor land and water availability are being hard hit by climate change, with erratic rainfall, more frequent droughts, extreme temperatures, shifting climatic zones and the arrival of new crop pests and diseases. As well as measures taken at farm level, such as the introduction of climate adapted crops, it will be important to make adjustments at institutional and policy level, promoting systems that can protect livelihoods and the environment. These may include changing the way that agricultural extension is delivered, how weather forecasts are given or through new safety nets, such as insurance for farmers and cash transfers in times of need.Increased carbon sequestration -for example by planting trees --can make an important contribution to mitigating climate change, and dry areas have significant potential here. It has been calculated (Lal 2000) that drylands can sequester 0.9-1.9 Gt C per year. This compares with tropical deforestation releasing 0.6-0.9 Gt C per year. However, to achieve even a fraction of this potential requires a co-ordinated effort at national and international levels. Landscape restoration can have both adaptation and mitigation benefits.Lesson from Niger's farming communities -farming trees for income and land regeneration 'Farmer-managed natural regeneration' (FMNR) is a simple, low-cost practice pioneered by farmers in Southern Niger and encouraged by development projects to become a component of farming practices.It encourages natural tree re-growth by selecting, pruning and protecting naturally regenerating trees, and uses living rootstock it makes tree planting easier. This approach has potential for the regeneration of degraded lands.• The method is flexible, adapting to farmers' situations and needs.• FMNR increases the farmers' supply of a range of products that farming households can either consume or sell -fuel, food, medicine and fodder, and specifically benefits women. • Research has shown that adopting FMNR increases access to market and levels of farmer education. The approach is also associated with increased household income, crop and tree diversity and lower migration rates, but in the survey area did not result in increased crop yields. • Advocacy for a change in policy were important to the spread of the FMNR practice in the region. Uptake was further stimulated after the Nigerien Government eased restrictive national forestry regulations in the 1990s and again in 2004. This allowed the farmers 'rights' to the trees that they protected -that had previously belonged to the Government.Summarized from paper on Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration in Niger -Sidsel F. Cappiello and Peter Cooper (see reading list).Some of the most effective climate initiatives launched to help rural communities weather shocks caused by climate change include:• Ethiopia's Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). Launched as an alternative approach to food aid, this program reaches some 7 million people. It includes a public works component that involves landscape and watershed rehabilitation, at the same time providing jobs for rural communities and increasing food security.• Weather-based insurance schemes can offer valuable protection to farmers faced with erratic climate conditions. Such initiatives encourage producers to continue investing in farming, safe in the knowledge that they will be protected if natural events prevent them from reaping the profits they deserve. In Kenya, a livestock insurance system has started paying out dividends to herders who have lost animals to drought, and is now being rolled out to other dry areas.There is also interest in linking micro insurance initiatives such as this to microfinance schemes, providing a one-stop affordable finance package for smallholder farmers. The right environment An enabling national policy environment is essential to support investment in agricultural development, drive sustainable productivity growth and encourage better farming practices, including natural resource management. In many dryland countries, there is a strong need for more capacity development and institutional support. Agriculture, which is the backbone of most dry land economies, needs to be a national priority. This is especially important given the inexorable onset of climate change. Real advances can be made in adapting to its impact, but only if there is the right backing in terms of science, technology and research, so that farmers have real help in adjusting to new conditions. In the UNFCCC the technology transfer mechanisms and the work around capacity building can, if agriculture receives deserved attention, help in getting technologies to farmers and building capacity around climate smart agriculture.While the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) will cover the international policy framework for how agriculture is incorporated into future climate agreements, developing regional and national policy is an urgent priority. Farmers need policies that support the introduction of climate smart farming techniques. Policies and strategies should recognize proven technologies for carbon sequestration, such as mulching, intercropping and agroforestry. Experts have also called for more backing for climate risk management, including insurance and productive safety nets and better access to weather information adapted to farmers' needs. Rewarding successful farmers with certificates or small gifts can be an effective way of raising awareness of better practices and generating support in the rural community.Agriculture continues to be the main engine for economic growth in most dry land countries, and experience has shown investment in research generally produces excellent returns -often better than those of the commercial sector. Yet spending remains low in many dryland countries. In general terms, agricultural research is not a high investment priority for governments of developing countries. Many dryland countries spend between 0.2% and 0.5% of agricultural GDP on research. Decisions to save money by failing to invest in technology to make food production more efficient could cost countries very dearly in the long run.Countries that have made investments in science and technology and agricultural research have seen impressive national growth as a result. Cases in point include Brazil, China and India, and, more locally, Tunisia and Morocco. The repercussions of investment in agricultural research go way beyond the immediate farm sector, with a ripple effect that takes in transport, agro industries and the social dimension, helping to create jobs, livelihoods and stability, so people can realize their full potential.More funds are needed to promote adaptation. Potential sources include national budgets, donors and development agencies and more innovative sources, including the private sector and carbon markets. It will be important to develop a policy framework for public-private partnerships that can attract responsible private investment in the agriculture sector, and dry lands in particular.Partnerships are an important mechanism for sharing knowledge and solutions.Options for alliances that can help dryland countries improve agricultural performance and adapt to climate change challenges include those between:• National agricultural research systems In 2012 CCAFS supported South-South exchange between India and countries in West Africa on climate information services. Thus South-South cooperation is also key. Agreements between countries facing similar problems are needed to capitalize on existing financial and technical experience and expertise, including the development of partnerships at sub-regional, regional and international levels.Research pays dividends.In Ethiopia, where the government has made agricultural research a priority for much of the past decade, lentil production tripled between 2000 and 2010, using the same amount of land and smaller amounts of fertilizer. Over the same period, faba production increased by (broadbean) 40% and chick pea production rose by 30%. In 2010, the country exported more pulses than coffee."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e8577995f82897ce13f17939c2f42da1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/64a616e0-981d-4e0f-81a2-76eee108f81c/retrieve","id":"-274680294"},"keywords":["Food banks","natural disasters","rehabilitation","food security"],"sieverID":"605394c9-9afb-471d-85ab-2135f1e6ac70","content":"The food bank project showed its strengths in the wake of tropical cyclone Winston in 2016.T o be food secure is to have food readily available before, during and after disaster periods. The food should be nutritious and locally stored. For communities living in cyclone paths, like the Yasawa community, this is often difficult to achieve because people are reliant upon government handouts after a cyclone has hit and they are reluctant to plant vegetables in fear of the next cyclone hitting in the near future. It is because of this that Vinaka Fiji implemented a food bank project in the community. This food bank project was piloted in the two villages of Kese and Soso, on the island of Naviti. This was made possible with the assistance of the Pacific Risk Resilience Programme (PRRP) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and Live & Learn Environmental Education (LLEE), Fiji.Naviti is a volcanic island and the largest island in the Yasawa Group in the western division of Fiji. It is located on a cyclone path, making it susceptible to natural disasters between the months of November and April. The district of Naviti was severely affected by TC Evan in December 2012 and an extended dry spell in 2014. In 2016, Naviti was also hit by category 5 TC Winston.Kese and Soso are two of the seven villages of Naviti district. Kese has a total population of 219 people while Soso is home to 433 villagers. The main sources of income are tourism and fishing. Many also plant cash crops, such as Chinese cabbage, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, long bean and tomatoes, which are then used for family consumption.The project began in February 2015 and was expected to last six months; however, it was later completed in February 2016. The project was extended due to delays in implementation, caused by unforeseen bereavements within the villages. The main objectives were • to plant disaster resilient crops that could be stored for long periods of time, after harvest, for consumption; and• to have nutritious food stored for the communities before and after disaster periods, rather than relying on non-nutritious food rations.The main problems that were identified in a number of cyclone path communities included• The over reliance on the government to support them with food after every disaster period; and• A complete lack of availability of nutritious foods after disaster periods.The stakeholders involved in the project's implementation processes ranged from private businesses like South Sea Cruises, local villagers, farmer's committees, church groups, local and international donors and the government. The project married traditional food storage knowledge with current technology which helped to build the storage facilities.In the wake of tropical cyclone (TC) Evan in 2012, Live & Learn Environmental Education in Fiji helped Vinaka Fiji, a charity that works to improve the lives of those who live on the Yasawa islands, to implement a food bank scheme in the Yasawa community. When TC Winston devastated the country again in 2016, it was the communal farming plots and the two newly built food stores in the community, established by the project in 2015, which ensured that the villages of Kese and Soso were able to sustain themselves.The different partners and stakeholders that were engaged in the implementation of the food bank project.monthly activities. The committee advised the nominated village development leaders on their planned activities, and the leader would relay this information to community members at village meetings.(c) Operational plan: The food bank committees in Soso and Kese villages had monthly planning sessions where upcoming meetings and activities were clearly outlined. The food banks plan for the two villages focused on reviving the art of planting traditional resilient crops and maintaining traditional storage sheds (lololo).Training was provided to subsistence farmers to teach them traditional methods of planting, harvesting and preserving resilient crops.Through the food bank project, the two communities planted 2,000 suckers of dalo ni tana and 1,000 kumalaThe project involved the following steps:(a) Consultation meetings: This was one of the first activities that was carried out before the project was implemented. A Rapid Assessment of Aspirations and Perceptions (RAP) was undertaken by LLEE to gather information about the aspirations of the participants of the project. Consultation meetings were then held with the two villages to confirm the project activities, budget, expected outputs and outcomes, and expectations from partners on their inputs and roles within the project.(b) Establishing the committees: The food bank project had a committee made up of 11 members in each village. These 11 members were part of preexisting village committees. They also represented the sub-clans (Tokatoka) in the villages and facilitated all wild yams. On the other hand, the yams were harvested after the cyclone, and the vegetables which cannot be stored for long had to be sold to the nearby resorts.Edwina Luveitoga, a doctor from the Ministry of Health, expressed concern about the growing number of non-communicable disease cases in the district. She urged villagers to place even greater emphasis on their food bank project. \"Growing more vegetables for the food bank will assist in providing healthy food and the villagers will come away from the noodles and canned foods which are the causes of these sicknesses,\" said Luveitoga.The project undertook an inclusive approach involving all the existing village groups in its implementation. Vinaka Fiji had previous knowledge about how to work well with communities like these, having worked with the community in Yasawa since 2010. They knew about the existing structures within the villages which they could call upon for assistance with the project. For example, the women's group, the different church denominations in the two villages, the men's group, the youth group and the eight existing committee groups in the villages. Due to the project's success, there was also an indication of an extension to the food bank project, with the government supporting a plan to build a collection centre and a vegetable cooler for the two villages. These plans were set to be implemented in 2018.Away from the successes, there were challenges faced by this project. There were times when the committee members misunderstood that they had to attend meetings with new stakeholders. There were also other plants, both of which are traditional resilient crops. Committee members took it in turns to work on the various plantations once a week. Harvested disaster resilient crops were then transported to the storage houses located within the two villages. New yams and dalo ni tana are planted in accordance with the Fijian traditional farming calendar of vula i cukicuki ( July).(e) Storage houses: Two storage facilities were constructed by the village committees with support from the Vinaka Fiji volunteers. The facilities ensured the safe storage of harvested crops from the farming plots. The stored crops were used to supplement the diets of 141 households, to provide shoots and topping for the next planting season, and for sale to local resorts and hotels.(f) Banking: Communal income, collected through the sales of crops, such as Chinese cabbage, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, long bean and tomatoes, to the hotels, was deposited into a bank account. Vinaka Fiji undertook financial literacy training in the villages as a form of capacity building. In addition, two emergency bank accounts were set up to enable the villages to access finances quickly during post-disaster emergencies.The food bank project showed its strengths in the wake of TC Winston in 2016. Farmers from Kese and Soso were able to sustain their communities with crops which they had stored earlier in the year. The planting of resilient crops in the villages has also now increased compared to previous years. The selected resilient crops like kumala were harvested before TC Winston and were stored in the storage house, as well as vegetables and root crops, such as eggplant, yams and Looking back, however, it was possible to draw many lessons. Among these, for example, the team agreed that having previous relationships with the locals helped to garner support for the project. One of the conclusions was that \"we should expect that we will always face challenges when implementing projects\". As such, the need to have proactive measures drawn up should be emphasised in all programme planning, budgeting and executions. The team mentioned the need to be prepared to face unexpected weather conditions; and be aware of the needs of the people. RAP surveys are beneficial to this end. Last, it has been clear that food bank projects are the way forward in helping communities affected by natural disasters to build up their food security, rather than relying on others for handouts/support.projects in the villages which the village members had to carry out, such as the women's project. This contributed to delays in the implementation of some of the activities of this project.As these villages are located along the cyclone path, they experienced bad weather conditions during the cyclone season. There was also limited availability of resilient crops, such as kumala, yams and wild yams and planting materials so Vinaka Fiji had to purchase seedlings from farmers on nearby islands. Local mentalities were also a barrier to the success of this communal project, for example members of the communities were resistant to change. Lastly, the Soso storage house was destroyed during TC Winston but then rebuilt afterwards.Lanieta Tokalauvere works as the Local Level Coordinator for the Pacific Risk Resilience Project, Live & Learn Fiji. E-mail: lanieta.tokalauvere@livelearn.org"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7b3096297f503d82babe3ca7b43b17bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/261a1992-68bc-4076-bb8a-aa540ddfc04d/retrieve","id":"-1684056951"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6e04de9e-5702-4edd-860f-c61f9a48c534","content":"Expanding Utilization of Roots, Tubers and Bananas and Reducing Their Postharvest Losses (RTB-ENDURE) is a 3 year project (2014)(2015)(2016)  Cassava is an important source of food and income in Uganda. Consumption of cassava has been increasing especially in the urban areas. Market demand for fresh cassava in 2013 was estimated to be 309,528 MT per annum in 2013. It was projected to increase by 25% to 387,074 MT in 2018 (RTB-ENDURE-Cassava scoping study, 2014). New market segments for fresh cassava roots have been emerging for both niche and mass markets. Fresh cassava was found to be consumed in various forms. According to findings from the Market Study 2015 high-end restaurants had introduced cassava recipes. Fried cassava chips were a delicacy in road-side food catering services, a new phenomenon in urban areas. Further, analysis of respondent responses revealed that the most preferred consumption form was fried (37%), followed by boiled (35%) and steamed in banana leaves (25%).Cassava enjoys a unique position as a convenient food that is easy and fast to prepare. It is in recognition of this, among others, that cassava has been selected as one of the 10 priority crops with a high potential to transform the agricultural sector in Uganda through provision of household food security, incomes, and employment. . However, despite a growth in demand, both the utilization and income derived from marketing of fresh cassava roots are being hindered by the rapid postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD) that causes spoilage of cassava roots within two to three days of harvest. The implication is that it cannot be marketed over a long time and distance, thereby reducing incomes and food security to growers, consumers and traders. This in turn leads to less investments and hence low productivity.To address this challenge, the RTB-ENDURE Cassava sub-project also known as \"Extending the Shelf life of Fresh Cassava Roots for Increased Incomes and Postharvest Loss Reduction\" aimed at introducing, testing, validating the efficacy of two technologies for increasing the shelf-life of fresh cassava roots, and thereby assisting to increase the value to growers, traders and consumers along the entire value chain. These technologies included high relative humidity storage and waxing. This research also focused on investigating and establishing the business cases for the two technologies in Uganda since both technologies are in commercial use elsewhere but the commercial applicability and viability of the new technologies in Uganda was unknown. The next phase of the project, following on-station research and user validation therefore was to determine the commercial and institutional feasibility of these technologies in Uganda.In doing so, the project proposed to set up two packhouses in order to test their commercial viability. They included one packhouse managed by farmers and another managed by an entrepreneur. To facilitate the successful commercial operations of the packhouses, it was necessary to build the entrepreneurial and business skills of the operators. This report describes the capacity building process and activities that were done to enhance the business and entrepreneurial skills of packhouse operators.The capacity building activity aimed at sensitizing and imparting knowledge and skills to packhouse operators, and their business collaborators to support the profitable commercialization of shelf-life enhanced fresh cassava roots in Uganda. The training targeted all key actors along the supply chain such as farmers, processors and traders involved in operating, supporting or doing business with the packhouse owners in Kyenjojo and Kabarole districts in western Uganda. These actors also included extension and NGO staff responsible for and operating in Kyenjojo and Kabarole districts. . Specific objectives included the following:1) Providing knowledge on best business management practices 2) Provide operators with knowledge for increased revenue while reducing expenses 3) Enable operators to keep proper records 4) Build the capacity of operators to ensure good financial management 5) Empower operators to practice best practices for marketing 6) Provide knowledge to operators for increasing capital and investments such as attracting new shareholders and investors by improving credit worthiness and cash flow 7) Improve communication skills and customer care services 8) Provide knowledge and information to operators to create and manage business networks.Shelf-life extension technologies such as waxing and relative humidity storage require market access. Available literature indicated that these technologies were already in commercial use in Latin American countries such as Colombia. Therefore, an initial visit to Colombia was conducted to enable the Ugandan research team acquire knowledge on the commercial context in which these technologies were being applied.Subsequently, a capacity building plan was developed to equip operators of the two packhouses in Uganda with business and entrepreneurial skills. Two training sessions were held in Kyenjojo (Farmer model) and three in Kabarole (Trader model). However, a training session in Kyenjojo targeted both farmer and trader model participants. See Tables 1 and 2 for details on the training sessions. The general approach of the training involved the following steps:1) Assessing current commercial and investment capabilities of identified packhouse operators (Rwibaale Farmers Cooperative and Brica Investments) in agri-business in general and cassava enterprise in particular. 2) Participatory identification of opportunities for and constraints to marketing of shelflife enhanced fresh cassava in Uganda. 3) Participatory identification of business and entrepreneurial training gaps for both traders and farmers in respect of #1 and #2 above. 4) Conducting capacity building sessions.The methodology combined sensitization, lessons as well as both theoretical and practical exercises which were done in groups. The trainings focused on group dynamics and collective action; costing; record keeping; marketing and market information analysis; business management and decision-making; financial reporting and business networking.For packhouse operations, the approach targeted a few selected trainees in the case of the trader model and cooperative's committees and members for the farmer model. These trainees are expected to conduct trainings to new members in the future. These trainees constituted the initial packhouse managers, operators and owners as well as selected nearby supplying farmers.Rwibaale Farmers Cooperative, unlike many other producers organizations, enjoyed some good degree of cohesion. However, there was need to improve networking amongst the members and create stronger structures to support collaboration and joint effort in problem solving.Group cohesion is very essential for success. This session focused on strengthening group cohesion and collective action for the farmers' enterprise. The value of collective action was explained to the members. Participants were sensitized about the importance of joint planning and implementation. They were also taught important things that need to be done to assist in trust building. Every business must have a vision, mission and a clear set of activities. In the case of a farmer enterprise it was extremely important for members to have a shared vision. All the aims and goals of the business were explained and agreed to by members.Collective action may be challenging but it can play an important role in enhancing competitiveness by reducing costs. It also increases the bargaining power of smallholders. Among the others, group cohesion involves assigning each member a role, working together and leveraging the small outputs from each member. This in turn leads to increased economies of scale.The trainings also focused on group dynamics. Leaders and members were trained to spot causes of conflicts and deal with them. They were provided with conflict resolution techniques and approaches. Group leaders were sensitized on the importance of respecting member rights and feelings.Forming a strong business cooperative requires rules, regulations and incentives. This training contributed to achieving the following:1) Planning cassava production schedule to ensure consistent supply of commercial roots to the packhouse 2) Collective transfer of cassava production knowledge and methods to the members 3) Financing: fund mobilization to support production and processing investment plans 4) Approaches to taking-in new members based on the objectives of the enterprise 5) Gender equity in the distribution of both roles and benefits of production, roots handling and processing at the packhouse 6) Scaling-out of the novel technologies by the group to the community at large (farmer-to-farmer knowledge transfer) 7) Group leadership and how members can contribute to the common good of owning and operating a successful business venture. This training session focused on emphasizing the importance of conducting both farming and packhouse operations in a business-like manner. It aimed at enhancing the agribusiness mindset of the trainees. Smallholder farmers view farming in a traditional sense, i.e., as a way of life rather than as a business that requires investments and good planning. Participants were exposed to the meaning of enterprise. They were sensitized about the importance of taking initiative and risks. Business is about identifying an opportunity, taking a decision and the associated risks. Participants were taught that each activity has a cost and therefore should create value. Participants were trained to critically analyze the costs and benefits of each activity.Risk-taking is important in business. There is no such a thing as a \"sure fire bet\" in business. All business investments carry one or more risksa chance or probability that something could go wrong and lead to losses. Participants were trained to take calculated risks and to ensure that likely returns from taking a risk are enough to make the gamble worthwhile. Trainees were introduced to the process of business planning and its importance. They had an opportunity to review and update the information used earlier on to formulate their business plans. Each category of information contained in the business plans was explained. Business plans developed by the project team are living documents which need to be reviewed in the light of actual business performance and the changing environment.One of the critical factors that have hindered the growth of strong agricultural businesses is lack of accountability and transparency. This has been the case for both farmer owned/managed rural enterprises and those that are owned by individual entrepreneurs.Trainees were sensitized about the importance of accountability and what it means to a successful business. Accountability is about leaders having the duty to explain the business actions to members. It is also about members exercising their right to demand explanation and justification from those that lead them. Transparency is about being open, frank and honest in the enterprise dealings. The importance of having open discussions about planned investments, incurred expenses and revenues is very important. Accountability and transparency go hand in hand. They involve leaders being aware of who they are supposed to report to, what pieces of information are important to share and how best to communicate to members and those they deal with. Participants were exposed to some of the key principles of accountability and transparency such as honesty and truthfulness.Many small business and especially those managed by rural farmers have a poor record keeping culture. Records are not consistently kept or are totally lacking. Important business information is usually not captured.Record keeping is crucial for any business. The importance of keeping good and separate business records was emphasized during this session. Any business needs to know its financial standing on a regular basis. In case of cooperatives, it is also important for ensuring group cohesion. Participants were introduced to the benefit of keeping good records by training them on how to undertake the following:1) Monitor the progress of the enterprise 2) Prepare financial statements 3) Identify sources of income 4) Keep track of deductible expenses/costs 5) Identify own weaknesses and strengths 6) Understand the prerequisites for accessing loans 7) Distribute profits to shareholders as dividends or for partnerships where losses and profits have to be shared.They were trained on the basic principles and benefits of record keeping and to understand that records can help show whether the business is improving, which markets are growing and or which changes need to be made. They help the business update its business plan.Good records help a business to prepare accurate financial statements. These include income (profit and loss) statements. Such records help a business in dealing with its bank and creditors. A business can receive income from many sources. Records will help in separating business sources from other non-business categories.Participants were trained to keep all important documents such as those that contain payments, receipts, credit purchases and sales, and assets and liabilities. They were trained to make simple documents. For instance, where it is not possible to obtain a receipt for an expense, they were shown how to make a simple note and record the details.The record keeping system was explained to the participants to include a summary of the business transactions such as accounting journals and ledgers, which will show gross income, as well as deductions and credits.Participants were urged to choose a recordkeeping system that best fits their business. Records should clearly show income and expenses. In the case of small businesses, the business checkbook is the main source for entries in the business books.Participants were made to appreciate the need to keep supporting documents in addition to the business books. These were explained to include sales slips, paid bills, invoices, receipts, deposit slips and cancelled checks.Purchases were explained to be items bought in order to produce cassava with extended shelf-life for sale to customers and the supporting documents were listed as cash register, cancelled checks, sales slips and invoices. On the other hand, the documents for costs incurred by a business were listed as invoices and petty cash slips for small cash payments.Monitoring, collecting and analysing market information is very crucial for any business enterprise. Operators of the fresh cassava paskhouses will be operating in a free market economy characterized by many sellers and buyers with low barriers to exit and entry. Consequently, actors will face a lot of competition. Tracking market trends will help packhouse operators stay ahead of their competitors. Trainees were educated on who and what aspects they needed to monitor. These included prices of other competing goods, customer needs and feedback, behaviour of sellers, demand trends by market segments etc. Market information is used to design and update the marketing strategy.This was explained to participants as the management process by which waxed and relative humidity storage cassava roots will be moved from the packhouse to the consumer. Participants were introduced to the concept of 4 Ps of marketing that included the following:1) Product in this case cassava roots with extended shelf-life 2) Price formation 3) Place and in this case the different market segments, and 4) Promotion strategyParticipants were introduced to the importance of having and implementing a marketing strategy. This combines all the marketing goals into one comprehensive plan. It is ought to be drawn from market research and analysis. It should focus on the right market mix in order to achieve the maximum profit potential. Participants were also educated on how to sustain the waxing and relative humidity storage business with marketing as an important driver. Participants also learned that this strategy is the foundation of the marketing plan. They were requested to typically rely on the customer value proposition as a major part of their marketing strategy.Participants were introduced to the distinction between marketing and sales. The former is crucial and it requires thinking about customer needs and their satisfaction. The participants were introduced to the importance of building a lasting relationship with their customers and to be patient about this. They were educated about having a marketing plan, implementing it, monitoring and evaluating it. Marketing is about developing a demand for waxed cassava which is new on the market and satisfying as much as possible the needs of its consumers at all times and in all places. It is different from selling.Selling was introduced to the participants as all the tricks and techniques of getting consumers to exchange their cash for their cassava. Marketing was explained as the entire business process consisting of a neatly integrated effort to discover, create, arouse and satisfy customer needs. Participants were introduced to the concept of customer value proposition which for waxed and relative humidity storage cassava roots would detail all the reasons/benefits that accrue to buyershence explaining why people should spend their money on the treated cassava. Examples were given to the participants (most of who already have attested to the value of waxed and relative humidity stored cassava) as:1) Having a longer shelf life 2) Safe and clear 3) No need for traders to discount prices during the period of storage and sale 4.6.1. PricingPricing is very important in marketing. It can be a winning factor or lead to loss of sales. It is critical to get the pricing right for both the buyer and the seller. Price enables the seller to recover all his costs and make a margin.Price is the value that will purchase a finite quantity, weight or other measure of a good or service and in this case waxed or relative humidity storage cassava roots.Participants were introduced to the different forms of price determination/formation. Price can be fixed by a contract, left to be determined by an agreed upon formula, discovered or negotiated in the course of dealings between parties or determined by forces of demand and supply.They were also made aware that price is determined by 1) what buyers of waxed or relative humidity stored cassava roots are willing to pay; 2) what seller is willing to accept; and 3) competition (market forces of demand and supply).Waxed or relative humidity storage cassava roots are a new product on the Ugandan market. However, the existing price of fresh cassava has a role to play in terms of being a point of comparison.Participants were introduced to differentiated pricing for the different market segments. For instance, niche markets existed in the case of high end supermarkets. On the other hand, mass open markets would not offer the same higher price as that offered in supermarkets.Moreover, in open markets fresh cassava is currently sold much as it might not be with extended shelf life.Participants were educated about the importance of assessing all their costs in order to determine their break-even price. This will help them to determine whether or not to take a certain price that the market is willing to offer. Given presentation of waxed and relative humidity storage cassava roots, price is one of the variables where packhouse operators can exercise some degree of control.Trainees were educated about the importance of promotion in any business. It combines all the aspects of marketing and sales promotion described in detail above. It keeps customers connected to the business and tends to increase demand. Trainees were introduced on how to use radio, SMS, telephone, print media plus word of mouth as tools that can help them reach out to their customers. Trainees were provided with information that they could share via radio. They were taught how to communicate, be confident and build partnerships with radios, and TV stations to assist in promoting their business activities and events (See Figure 6). They were educated about the importance of doing outreach via adverts and publicity.4.6.3. Place Generally, this training emphasized the need to identify, study and monitor trends in the different markets segments (niche and mass market; rural and urban market). The needs of these markets are different and the opportunities offered also differ.Within the rural areas, the volumes purchased are small in terms of driving the commercialization of shelf-life enhanced fresh cassava roots. The trainees were trained to target the urban markets. Cassava has mainly been consumed in open mass markets. Niche markets (mainly supermarkets) have not been selling fresh cassava due to its high perishable nature. This therefore provides an opportunity to tap into this niche market. However, trainees were exposed to opportunities that are available within the mass markets. This is mainly due to the high volumes consumed in these markets.Participants were sensitized and trained in ways in which they can present high quality cassava fresh roots to attract consumers. Waxed roots should be well packed in crates while high relative humidity storage roots should be sold in bags and clearly labelled by name of variety, number of roots and weight before placing them in crates. Designing a marketing strategy can be a challenging task to rural farmers and agricultural SMEs. It is about developing a planned mix of the controllable elements of a product's marketing plan commonly known as the 4Ps (described above). The trainees were educated about the need to adjust these 4 elements until they obtain the right combination that serves the needs of their customers while at the same time generating optimum incomes to them as packhouse operators.Trainees had their capacity built to convey information effectively and efficiently on radio. They were shown how to use bulk SMS to communicate to their customers. They were educated to use material such as brochures, fact sheets to communicate about their enterprise. Figure 6 below shows the Leader of the Rwibaale Farmers Cooperative speaking about the waxed and high relative humidity stored cassava on a radio talk show. The participants were trained on the principles of cost calculation. Any enterprise has to conduct thorough costing of its activities. Costing is one of the biggest challenges affecting farmer rural organizations. Costing helps the business to monitor its costs and explore ways of reducing them. In a free competitive market system, it does not help a business to increase prices since it become uncompetitive. A better option would be to try and reduce its costs. Each and every activity has a cost. Where costs are not explicit, trainees were request to use proxy costs i.e., costs that are being paid for similar activities in the area.Trainees were provided with weighing scales and trained in their usage and were guided on how weighing is used in calculation of costs on a kg basis.Trainees were sensitized about the importance of building business networks and forming associations. Local cassava platforms were revamped in both Kyenjojo and Kabarole districts as a result of these trainings with the purpose of assisting the new business to develop. The local platforms are private sector driven with the main goal of bringing all major stakeholders to support the packhouse operations. These platforms included both public and private stakeholders. Packhouse operators were trained in managing these local platforms to achieve their business objectives. The two groups of packhouse operators were sensitized about the need to have a simple internal monitoring and evaluation system. In the case of the Farmer Model, each member of the cooperative ought to benefit from the business. The leaders were made aware that there is a need to get internal feedback from each member of the cooperative, to identify reasons hindering members from benefiting and finding solutions. In the case of the Trader model, which is a private entrepreneur, the entrepreneur was sensitized to appraise staff and roots' suppliers and possibly have a reward system to motivate them. The trader was encouraged to offer incentives to staff that are performing above average and to farmers that supplies good quality roots suitable for shelf-life extension treatments (and therefore contributing to minimizing the rejects).At the end of each training session, a training evaluation was carried out to get feedback from the trainees on their experiences. The evaluations covered course content, subject matter relevance, and practicability of imparted knowledge and practices.Participants appreciated capacity building in entrepreneurial and business skills that were imparted to them. All the participants strongly agreed that the course content was suitable and relevant to their training needs. The training approach was very practical with participants having hands-on experience on some of the principles introduced to them. The trainees agreed to provide the project implementation team with regular feedback regarding the progress of their enterprises."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c28f0e91083d70a8b999610a347c40a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5cfd5c8d-03c1-4276-9c53-458b4b15701a/retrieve","id":"1211551567"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e1d243b1-22ab-4e29-a664-629d2f4c4516","content":"The CGIAR Research Initiative on Nature-Positive Solutions (Nature+) aims to re-imagine, cocreate, and implement nature-positive solutions-based agrifood systems that equitably support local food and livelihoods, while simultaneously ensuring that agriculture is a net positive contributor to nature. This Initiative prioritizes the following countries: Burkina Faso, Colombia, India, Kenya and Vietnam. https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/nature-positive-solutions/The CGIAR Research Initiative on Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihoods, Nutrition and Gender inclusion (SAPLING) is working in seven countries focusing on livestock value chains to package and scale out tried-and-tested, as well as new, innovations in livestock health, genetics, feed and market systems. SAPLING aims to demonstrate that improvements in livestock productivity can offer a triple win: generating improved livelihoods and nutritional outcomes; contributing to women's empowerment; and, reducing impacts on climate and the environment. Its seven focus countries are Ethiopia,Soil health is essential for the sustainability of agricultural practices, and its condition is profoundly influenced by the types of crops grown. Among these, forage crops -including grasses, legumes, and a range of herbaceous plants -play a distinctive role in enhancing soil ecosystems. These crops have a comprehensive impact on soil health, affecting its physical structure, chemical composition, and biological activity.The physical structure of soil can be significantly enhanced by the root systems of forage plants. These roots increase soil porosity, which in turn improves water infiltration and retention, and reduces erosion (Franzluebbers, 2002). This advantage is especially pronounced in forage varieties with deep root systems, as they effectively bind the soil, thus mitigating erosion and reducing nutrient leaching (Kell, 2011). Moreover, the decomposition of these roots contributes to the enrichment of the soil with organic matter (Whitehead et al., 1990, Kell, 2011, Dormaar, 1992), a vital component for maintaining soil health.Additionally, forage crops significantly influence soil nutrition from a chemical perspective. For instance, leguminous forage plants, such as clover, alfalfa, and stylo, possess the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, thereby enriching the soil's nitrogen content and reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers (Zemek et al., 2018, Drinkwater et al., 1998, Ledgard et al., 2001, Vance et al., 1979). This nitrogen fixation not only supports the growth of the forage crop itself but can also benefit subsequent crops in a crop rotation system.Biologically, forage crops enhance soil health by fostering diverse soil microbial communities. The root exudates of these plants serve as a food source for soil microorganisms, which play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, decomposing organic matter, and suppressing soil diseases (Van Der Heijden et al., 2008). Furthermore, incorporating forage crops into crop rotations can disrupt pest and disease cycles, thereby reducing the incidence of soil-borne diseases (Karlen et al., 1997).In Vietnam, specifically in the northern highlands, as soil organic carbon steadily diminishes due to erosion, farmers are increasingly shifting their lands, previously used for annual crops, to grazing areas, forage crops, or tree plantations (Ha et al., 2012). Vietnamese government also highlighted the importance of expediting the transformation of a portion of ineffective agricultural land for the cultivation of forages for livestock feed in the scheme to prioritize the implementation of the livestock development strategy for the period 2021-2030, vision 2045 in Decision No. 1520/QD-TTg. This process is currently being implemented in several areas of the Northwest region, including Son La and Dien Bien (Hong, 2023, Lan, 2022).According to 2020 data from the General Statistics Office (GSO, 2023), Son La is a leading producer of cattle and buffalo in Vietnam's northwest highlands. However, the province faces challenges due to limited livestock feed, especially during the dry season (Atieno et al., 2021). The Livestock Development Scheme for 2022-2025, with goals extending to 2030, aims to increase cattle numbers to 363,920 by 2025 and 500,000 by 2030, and buffalo numbers to 143,680 and 100,000, respectively (SLPC, 2021). To achieve these targets, the local government is focusing on transitioning from small-scale to larger, commercial farming (SLPC, 2021). Additionally, selecting and promoting drought-and-cold-resistant forage crops with high yields is crucial (SLPC, 2021).To contribute to addressing these challenges, Alliance of Bioversity International & CIAT has been evaluating several improved forage species under the earlier Li-chăn (Livestock CRP) project (Douxchamps et al., 2021) and the ongoing Chan-henh (SAPLING) initiative. The goal is to evaluate improved forage varieties that are well-suited to the local soil, climate, and farming conditions. Eight improved forage varieties, including both grasses and legumes, are currently being evaluated in four different communes of Mai Son district, Son La province. In addition to measuring the productivity and quality of these forage varieties, Nature+ initiative in collaboration with SAPLING aims to examines the impact of these forages on soil health. This study presents preliminary results from this assessment which will continue in the coming years to monitor soil health impacts over time. This assessment will offer more detailed recommendations for the development and scaling up of the improved forages in Son La and the wider Northwest region.The experimental sites are located in four communes of Mai Son district, detailed information is summarized in Table 1.  At the experimental sites, the forage varieties were arranged in 3 replicates as shown below: The rate of fertilizer application was applied at 200 kg/ha using a 5-10-3 NPK formula as the basal fertilizer, which was entirely applied at the time of planting. For top dressing, an amount of 50 kg 12-5-10 NPK fertilizer was administered to all plots 30 days post-planting. Afterthat, an additional application of 50 kg/ha was top-dressed immediately after each harvest for the grasses, while there was no following top dressing for the legumes as they were remain until the end of the season.Soil sampling was done twice: the first time was before planting and the second time was when legumes started flowering.At the time of planting, for each demo farm, soil was collected from 10 random points at depths of 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm for each replicate. All samples from 0-20 cm depth for a replicate were combined into one composite sample, and similarly, all samples from 20-40 cm depth were combined into another composite. In total, 6 samples were collected, comprising 3 from the 0-20 cm depth and 3 from the 20-40 cm depth across replicates 1, 2, and 3. These samples were forwarded to the NOMAFSI soil laboratory for analysis. Parameters to be analyzed include soil pH, total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), organic carbon, cation exchange capacity (CEC), texture. An additional soil sampling occurred at the vegetative stage.When the legumes varieties (Rice bean and Stylo) in the experiment started to flower, soil was collected from 6 random points at depths of 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm for each forage or treatment.All samples from 0-20 cm depth for a specific forage, plot, or treatment were merged into one composite sample, and the same process is repeated for samples from the 20-40 cm depth. For each composite sample at depth of 0-20 cm, 5 g of soil was separated and put into a falcon tube to make sample for biological analysis.All the composite samples were sent to NOMAFSI's Lab for chemical analysis, while the falcon tubes were preserved in cold box and sent to the laboratory of CIAT for biological analysis.A two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the impacts of location and forage variety on soil health. This statistical approach allowed for the testing of both individual and interactive effects of the factors.Prior to setting up the trial, soil analysis of samples from the experimental sites showed minimal variation in the 20 to 40 cm soil layer. In contrast, the 0-20 cm layer exhibited more distinct differences in chemical properties across the sites. All sites had slightly acidic soil, with pH levels ranging from 4.84 to 5.15. Chieng Luong stood out for its higher total organic matter content compared to other locations. In terms of total nitrogen, as per the Kjeldahl method, the soil at these sites is in the medium range, with nitrogen content varying between 0.08 and 0.15% (Ho et al., 2006). Additionally, these sites are characterized by high available phosphorus content, according to the Oniani method, with over 15 mg P2O5/100g in the topsoil (Ho et al., 2006). The available K content in the soil is considered to be at a medium level, falling within the 10-20 mg K2O/100 g soil range (Tien, 2019). Furthermore, with a cation exchange capacity (CEC) between 1.48 and 1.81, these soils are classified as having low CEC. The results of soil analysis revealed that, with the exception of the experimental site in Chieng Chung classified as silty loam with a relatively high proportion of fine sand, the remaining experimental sites are all categorized as clay loam according to the USDA's classification method. Despite having a high clay content, these sites are not affected by waterlogging due to the mainly sloping lands. However, the high clay content may lead to soil compaction and reduced air circulation, potentially impacting plant growth adversely.The pH analysis results indicate consistent findings in demo plots. The improved forage varieties do not impact soil pH. Soil pH in various experimental treatments of different varieties fluctuates between 5 and 6. This outcome aligns with the findings of researchers Pokhrel et al. (2021) and Liebig et al. (2015), who also observed no impact of cover crops on soil pH after three years of experiment in their studies. It is proved that diversification of grazing species is an effective approach for enhancing the accumulation of soil organic carbon (Sarkar et al., 2020, McLauchlan et al., 2006). Additionally, accumulation of cover crops will increase organic matter (Nascente et al., 2013). Given that the forage varieties were cultivated in monoculture, they were harvested without leaving any residual on the field, and observed for only one season, discerning a clear pattern in soil organic carbon differences among the forage varieties is challenging. Regarding the total nitrogen index in the soil at the experimental sites, the analysis results revealed significant differences in total nitrogen content within the demo plots. However, there were no significant differences in this index among the improved varieties. Acuña and Villamil (2014) also noted that a single growing season proved insufficient to observe changes in soil properties, particularly concerning total nitrogen. In other studies, it took two years to see the effect of hair vetch on a loam soil (Lin et al., 2019) and even ten years to see the impacts of barley and vetch cover crops on irrigated Calcisol soil (García-González et al., 2018) regarding the increase of total N index. Similar to the total nitrogen indicator, the available phosphorus content exhibited significant statistical differences among demo plots. However, there was no variance associated with the variety factor, as indicated by the statistical analysis results. Moreover, the available phosphorus content declined at all sites compared to pre-experiment levels, with Hat Lot site, specifically, showing the lowest available phosphorus index within the treatment planting Stylo. In the remaining communes (Chieng Luong, Chieng Chung, Muong Bon), although there was a decrease in the available phosphorus index, most sites still exceeded the threshold of 15 mg/100g, which is considered high according to Oniani's analysis method. The available potassium index was similar to those of total nitrogen and available phosphorus, exhibiting distinctions among experimental sites. Nevertheless, there was no statistically significant variance observed between the varieties utilized in the treatments.The available potassium content in all demo plots was lower than the initial pre-planting levels, with the lowest levels recorded at the demo plot in Muong Bon, ranging from 0.29 to 0.68 meq/100g. Available phosphorus and potassium levels showed a slight decline in some locations. This decline might be due to nutrient uptake by the forages, suggesting a potential need for balanced fertilization strategies in forage cultivation to sustain soil fertility.The CEC index derived from the soil analysis results similarly indicated that there was statistical difference associated solely with the locations of the demo farms, while no variations were linked to the varieties planted in the experiment. Notably, the CEC index for the soil planted different varieties at the Hat Lot experimental site was the highest, followed by Chieng Luong. Both of these sites exhibited a higher CEC index than the initial pre-experiment levels in all different treatments.Soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) is influenced by several factors, including the amount of clay, organic matter content, and pH levels (Purnamasari et al., 2021). Additionally, the cropping system (Galindo et al., 2020) and crop residue management (Koulibaly et al., 2017) also affect soil CEC. Practices such as recycling crop residues into compost or farmyard manure (Koulibaly et al., 2017), and maintaining long-term cover crops (Sharma et al., 2018), generally enhance soil quality and, in turn, soil CEC. Therefore, it is essential to continue evaluating our experiments to gain a deeper understanding of the effects of different forage crops on the CEC indicator. Analysis for soil biological properties is yet to be analyzed. The results will be shared in subsequent reports for the study. The location of the demonstration plots significantly impacts the soil's organic carbon content, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, available potassium, and cation exchange capacity (CEC), with notable differences observed across the experimental sites. However, the varieties of forages planted do not seem to exert a significant influence on these soil health indicators, as the experiment has only recently been set up and will take time (a few years) to note significant effects. Data collection will continue is subsequent seasons and reported.Regarding soil pH, the experimental plots showed no change attributable to the improved forage varieties after the first growing season. This suggests that the impact of these forage varieties on soil pH may require a longer period to manifest or may be influenced by other environmental or management factors.In terms of soil nutrients, there were slight decreases in the levels of organic carbon, available phosphorus, and available potassium at certain sites, while the total nitrogen content remained stable. This indicates a nuanced response of soil nutrients to the introduction of improved forage varieties, possibly influenced by site-specific conditions or the short duration of the study.Additionally, there was a marginal trend towards an increase in the CEC index, hinting at potential improvements in soil nutrient retention capacity. These findings underscore the complexity of soil responses to agricultural practices and highlight the need for longer-term studies to fully understand the impacts of forage crop management on soil health."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7daac64a048635d47f40f8f406c2d4e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/Digital/SB327.B76_Broadening_the_genetic_base_of_common_bean,_Phaseolus_vulgaris,_and_exploitation.pdf","id":"-1735151282"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2e004216-6edf-4360-baf9-0167d18d3f3a","content":".            The general objeetive of the project is to improve the productivity and adaptation of cornmon bean in Latín Ameriea and Africa through the incorporation of resislanee genes to Ascoehyta blight, bean golden mosaie virus (BGMV), and Bean Fly, which are lúghly expressed in sorne P.coccineus and P. polyan/hus accessions and nOI in P. vulgaris. Another objectíve is lo preserve and rationally manage the germplasm collections ofthese secondary gene pools.Therefore, investigations of the project are aimed :to understand the genetic organization, the phyletic relationships and Ihe genetic components of the botanic group;10 refine the in vi/ro embryoculture techniques needed to create new interspecific hybrids with interesting donor genotypes;to conduct an intensi ve breeding program and a molecular-marker assisted selection process among the interspecific hybrids.The project started in October 1996, with the first disbursernent of funds from AGCD .In CIAT, an agronomist with ample experience in the Bean Team, Ing. Agr. provide guidelines to develop an intensive breeding program, using the most appropriate parental genotypes, interspecific combinations and selection schernes.complement investigations conducted at C1A T, particularly providing data on the genetic organization of the Phaseolus gene pool, the molecular characterization of P. coccíneus and P. polyanthus genomes, the genetic boundary between taxa of primary and alíen gene pools of P. vulgaris and the combining ability among and within taxa.Activity report will be presented In a sequential methodology, covering a series of activities being tackled sirnultaneously.2.1. Core colIectioos of P. coccineus aod P. polyanthus are developed, based 00 available passport data, morphoagrooomic traits, and molecular characterizations Previously we reported;• Seed of about 80% of accessioos has beeo obtained In sufficieot quantities to initiate pheootypic evaluatioos.• A pattern has emerged that indicates that accessions from Chiapas in southem Mexico and other sites further south have lower seed production than accessions to the north of Mexico.• A nursery for vegetative propagation of accessions has be en established to make most efficient use of scarce seed.In 1998-99 we can report the following highlights:• The pro ces s of seed production is finally oearing completion. ¡ntransigent accessions were delivered to the Genetic Resources Unit for planting in Tenerife.• Seed was shared with national programs in Kenya and in Brazi!.• Vegetatively propagated cuttings served to economize on seed use for disease nurseries.While seed production was much more laborious than originally anticipated, it lS finally nearing completion, with the result that quite sizable seed stock s are available for these accessions, from 400-1000 or more seed in almost all cases (Table 1). This is more seed than is cornrnonly stored for these species. We have set ourselves the goal of having 1,000 seed of each core accession, in the expectation that the core collection could become a tool for scientists with interest in these species. For example, a seed request was received from Kenya for accessioos of P. coccineus, and it was possible to respond using the core colJection. Another set was dispatched to the Brazilian national bean program for evaluation for resistance to white mold (Table 11). Thus, the core is becoming a useful tool for supplying a rational subset of germplasm of these species to bean researchers. This is especially pertinent to the sustained research effort on these species, since they are of very difficult managemenl agronomically, and a core collection pennits studying broad genetic diversity with a modest number of accessions.However, about 19 accessions remained essentíalIy intransigent and have produced less than 400 seed in almost three years. lndeed, seven accessions have produced less than 100 seed in that periodo These are obviously very ill-adapted to the Popayán environment, therefore cunings of these accessions were delivered to the GRU for planting in lhe Tenerife site, to seek better seed production there.Thirty aeeessions that had been tentatively eliminated from lhe original seleetion of lhe core due to laek of seed were finally planted in July, 1999. These inelude 18 aecessions of P.coccineus (PC) and 12 of P. polyanthus (PP).The system that was developed for vegetative propagation was used suecessfully to economize on seed use during lhe evaluations of lhe core, but now lhat seed is more available, this activity has been scaled down.    In 1998-9 we can report the following highlights:• The core has been evaluated for anthracnose-ANT (Mesoamerican and Andean races); angular leaf spot-ALS (Mesoamerican and Andean races); and Ascochyta blight-ASe.• Accessions ofboth wild and cultivated P. po/yanthus were universally and highly resistant to ASe, thus the resistance is an ancestral traít.• 80th wild and cultivated P. coccineus present a range of reactions to ASC, with si milar values. Thus, the reaction of PC 10 ASe has nOI changed subslantially with domestication.• However, wilhin P. coccineus there is certain geographical stratification, such thal Mexican and European accessions ofien present inlermediate to susceptible reactions to ASe, while accessions lo the south of Mexico tend to be more resistan!.• Reaction to cornmon bean ALS is variable but generally low, and do es not appear to follow gene pool lines of the pathogen c1osely, although susceptibility to Mesoamerican iso lates is slightly greater.• Reaction lo cornmon bean ANT is almost universally resistanl in both species.The core has been evalualed for reaclion 10 common bean anthracnose-ANT (Mesoamerican and Andean races); angular leaf spot-ALS (Mesoamerican and Andean races);and Ascochyta blight-ASC (Table 111). Mean-AOTM coee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0-2,0 1.31.2 3.0 -5.0 3.2OTM cace e 1.0 1.0MEX cace e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -4.0 1.9 lA 3.0 -4.0 3.8MEX coee e 1,0 -3,0 1.3 1,0 -6.0 2.1 1.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 6.0 -7.0 6.8MEX eoee eMEX PLAN e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0-6,0 2.3 1,0 -3,0 1.5 1.9 1.0-2 .0 1.5MEX cace e 1,0 -4,0 1.6 1,0 -3,0 1.9 1.8 6.0•7.0 6.8GTM cocc e 1,0 -2,0 1.3 1.0 1.0JJ 2.5 6.0 -8.0 6.8RWA cocc e 1.0 -2,0 1.5 GTM PLAN e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -5,0 2,9 3,0 -7,0 4.9 3.9 1.0 -2.0 1.5MEX PLAN e 1,0,2,0 1.1MEX cace e 1,0,5,0 3.0 1,0 -6,0 4.1 3.6 1.0 1.0 1,0 -7,0 l .8 2.4 4.0 -6.0 5.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1,0-6,0 2.8 1.9 0.0 1.5 GTM coee e 0.0 MEX caee e 1.0 1.0 1,0 -2,0 1.11,0 -4,0 iJ \\,0 -5,0 1.9 1.6 4.0 -6.0 5.2GTM PLAN e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -2,0 1.1 1,0 -4,0 1.5 1.3 1.0 -2.0 1.5MEX eaee e 1,0 -3,0 \\A 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 -lO 23• 3,0 -6,0 4.1 3.5 1.0 -2.0 1.3YUG eaee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0MEX eaee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0 5.0MEX eaee e 1,0 -2,0 1.1GTM caee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 -5.0 4.0GTM eaee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -2,0 1.\\ 1.0 1.0 1.1 2.0 -3.0 2.8GTM PLAN e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -2,0 1.3 4,0 -6,0 4.5 2.91.0 1.0Idenl. 80th wild and cultivated P. polyanthus were universally and highly resistant 10 ASe.Although only two wild accessions of PP were evaluated, results with wild were nonetheless consistent with results with the cultivated. Thus it appears that the resistance may be an ancestral trait derived from the wild polyanthus and has not been subslantially altered during domestication. On the other hand, both wild and cultivated P. coccineus present a range of reaclions to ASC. The wild presented values from 1.0 to 5.5, and the cultivated from 1.3 to 7.0. Thus, the reaction of coccineus to ASC has not changed substantially with domestication either. However, within P. coccineus there is certain geographical stratificalion, such that Mexican and European accessions ofien presenl intermediate to susceptible reactions 10 ASC, while accessions to the soulh of Mexico tend to be more resistan!. This could feasibly reflect the lateness of these latter accessions, as noted in last year's reportoThe contrast between polyanlhus and coccineus presents an interesting evolutionary question. [t has been shown that the nuclear DNA of these two species presents greater similarity than either do with vulgaris, while the non-nuclear DNA of polyanlhus is more c10sely relaled 10 vulgaris. This suggests thal the nucleus of polyanlhus was heavily introgressed by coccineus al sorne point in ils evolution. Wild P. polyanthus is known to exist only in Guatemala to date, and two of these aeeessions presented ASC readings of 1.0.Wild Guatemalan coccineus presents ASC reactions from 1.3 to 4.8. If polyanlhus has been heavily introgressed from coccineus, why does it present such a narrow range of ASC values? Does the uniformly high reaetion ofboth the wild and cultivatedpolyanthus suggests thal this introgression was limited lO certain populalions of wild coccineus, even among the several populations in Guatemala? Again, lhis should be laken within the context of the limited sample size ofwild PP, and should be interpreted as a topie of future study and not as a conclusion.Reaction of PP and PC to cornmon bean ALS is variable but generally low. One migbt have speculated that Mesoamerican isolates of the pathogen could ha ve attained greater adaptation to the PPIPC hosts than Andean isolates, since PP and PC are believed to have evolved essentially in Middle America. [n fact, the Mesoamerican iso lates were slightly more viru[ent on about 25% of the accessions , although disease reaction did not follow gene pool Iines of the pathogen c1osely. The reaction of a given accession with the two types of isolates was similar in more cases than it was distinct. Curiously, in the few cases in which the Andean isolates gave a more virulent reaction, this was observed only with polyanlhus.This suggests sorne subtle differences in the evolution of the two species in relation 10 the ALS pathogen. Could PP have experienced sorne slage of its evolution in contact with 80th wild and cultivated P. polyamhus were universally and highly resistant to Ase.Although only two wild accessions of PP were evaluated, results with wild were nonetheless consistent with results with the cultivated . Thus it appears that the resistance may be an ancestral trait derived from the wild polyanthus and has not been substantially altered during domestication. On the other hand, both wild and cultivated P. coccineus present a range of reactions to ASe. The wild presented values from 1.0 tO 5.5, and the cultivated from 1.3 to 7.0. Thus, the reaction of coccineus to Ase has not changed substantially with domestication either. However, within P. coccineus there is certain geographical stratification, su eh that Mexican and European accessions often present interrnediate to susceptible reactions to ASe, while accessions to the south of Mexico tend to be more resistant. This could feasibly reflect the lateness of these latter accessions, as noted in last year's reportoThe contrast between polyamhus and coccineus presents an interesting evolutionary question. lt has been shown that Ihe nuclear DNA of these two species presents greater similarity Ihan either do with vulgaris, while the non-nuclear DNA of polyanthus ís more closely related to vulgaris. This suggests Ihat the nucleus of polyanthus was heavíly introgressed by coccineus at sorne point in its evolution. Wild P. polyanthus is known to One accession of P. costaricensis was also included in the evaluations, and Ihis accession was resistant to aJl three pathogens.The core was dispatched to Puerto IUco in an atternpt to evaluate resistance to BGMV, but disease pressure was unusuaJly light and did not pennit discrimination of differences among accessions.    To study the inheritance of resistance to ASC, a rughly susceptible interspecific progeny with PC phenotype, 3S6-IA, was identified in the field in 1997. Experience has borne out the initial observation regarding the extreme susceptibility of trus line. This line was crossed to resistant PC accessions including 035369. The F 2 populations has been planted in plastic bags and will soon be transplanted to Ihe field for inoculation. One of the populations will be al so be planted in the screenhouse for F 3 seed production.In the course of the evaluations of Ihe core collection, we realized Ihat Ihe acceSSlOn 035172, which figures as a resistant parent for Ihe study of BOMV resistance, is also highly susceptible to ASC (rating of 6.8). In Ihe study of BOMV inheritance, 035172 is crossed to a P. polyanthus accession (035337) that is resistant to ASC (rating of 1.5). Therefore, we have  Lecomte (1997) between these two species but, although fertilized ovules were obtained, up to 60 % of globular embryos failed to develop due to undefined ineompatibility barriers between embryo and mother plant. Only 7 % of these globular embryos could reach the cotyledonar stage when cultivated in vi/ro before dying (Lecomte 1997). Success in Phaseolus embryo reseue aetually has been limited to embryos more Ihan 8 days old that had reached at least the late heart-shaped stage (Table VII) .Table VII. Regeneration of interspecific hybrids within Phaseolus using embryoculture.Crosses (female x male)P. vulgaris L. x P. ritensis Jones P. vulgaris L. x P. luna/us L.Stage Reference(1), ( 14) (2), ( 16), ( 18) P. vulgaris L. x P. acutifolius A. Gray 16-23 12-24 14-28(3), ( 6) ,( 7), ( 8), ( 9), ( 12), (1 S), ( 16), ( 19), ( 20) In vilro rescue of very immature embryos requires a culture medium that can support their growth and development. The use of inadequate media results in embryo necrosis, callus formation or premature germination, which leads in tum to weak and unbalanced seedlings.For early heart-shaped embryos (6 days old), Mergeai el al. (1997)  Results obtained with globular embryos are relatively poor (Smith 1971). Lecomte (1997) underlined the benefits of an osmotic gradient in the culture medium. In particular, the use of a doubIe-layer medium as described by Liu el al. (1993)  This result suggested lhat it could be possible to regenerate at least 12 % o f globular embryos.Pod culture is lherefore a mean to avoid problems occurring during embryo extraction.In lhe work reported here, rather than using embryo rese ue or in ovulo culture, we assessed the interest of a pod culture technique adapted from Lazaridou el al. (1993) taking into account the in vivo evolution of osmolality within pods during the early development (2-40 days after pollination).During lhe first two years of our research, we optimized a protocol for histological studies. In the present report, we have reviewed embryogenesis in Phaseolus from ovule to seed and we have made sorne preliminary observations related to the abortion of embryos in P. vulgaris (~) x P. polyanlhus erosses.Several experiments were carried out during lhe first two years of the project. The main results were as foJlow :   Petri dish by dripping, permitting a constant evolution of tbe medium. To avoid losses by evaporation during tbe dripping of Po 1 medium, a special design was investigated (Figure 1). A one liter bottle decanter with an inferior tap directly connected to tbe top of a Petri dish was set up. Petri dish was completely sealed but two small apertures were made : one on tbe top-center permitting tbe entry of liquid PoI mediurn and a lateral one permitting to maintain a 100 mI volume of medium in tbe Petri dish by tbe discharge of tbe excess of liquid (Figure 1). Everyday during pod culture, 1 mI of tbe medium in the Petri dish was sampled to control tbe evolution of osmolality by osmolaJity measurements.(2)(1)Figure 1. The design used for liquid media experiments\" A one liter decanter (photo 1) with an inferior tap, is connected to • Petri dish (<1> = 15 cm, photo 2) completely sealed but with two small apertures : one on the tapeenter permitting the entry of liquid medium from the bottle decanter (photo 2) and a lateral one permitting ta discharge the exeess ofliquid (photo 3).  Three experiments were conducted (Table X). For each experiment, two culture conditions were compared using a different sterilizing method.  For histological studies, ovary tissues and pods were harvested at different stages of maturity (from 1 day before the opening of the flower, D-l, to 15 days after the opening of the flower, D+ 15) !Tom plants growing in a growth chamber. At least one seed per maturity stage was collected. Protocol can be surnmarized as follows : plant material lS freshly harvested and eventually nicked with a scalpel to facilitate penetration by fixing and embedding solutions.Objects were fixed in 1.2 % glutaraldehyde in 0.3 M phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) for 24 h at 4°C, rinsed in phosphate buffer (pH 6.6), dehydrated in a graded ethanol series and preembedded for I h in a mixed solution (SO/50) of absolute ethanol and TMTechnovit 7100 resino Objects were then embedded in pure TMTechnovit 7100 resin for four days at 4°C. Seeds were coated in special mould (TMHistoform S, Kulzer).Sections were cut, 2 ~m thick, with a Zeiss microtome (microm HM 360) fined with a tungsten knife. They were stained with an adapted Toluidine blue O procedure !Tom Gutrnann (1995 -general structure) or with fluorescent auramine-O (for cutic1e identification) and viewed with a Nicon Eclipse E800 light and fluorescent microscope. Pictures were taken with a NC 3-CCD color video camera and images were treated with image Archive Plus program ofSony.3.1 .5 .1. Embryoculture : technique adapted for globular embryos During the experiment 1, more than 50 % Petri dishes were lost due to the media contamination. These dishes were not considered in the data analysis but led us to try to improve the sterilizing method used in the experiments 2 and 3.The statistical analysis shows no interactions between the culture conditions and the sterilizing methods (data not shown). Therefore, the experiments I and 2 are studied in a single analysis, considering two factors : the culture conditions and the sterilizing method. Indeed, culture conditions were the same in these experiments.Experiment 3 is studied separately consideting one factor : the culture conditions. Finally, we al so discuss the interest to diminish drastically the PPM concentrations in media regarding the results obtained with IPO-I conditions, used in all experiments.Table XI shows the results obtained for the pad grawth between sterilizing methods (St lar St2) and culture canditians (IG6 ar IPO-I). Standard error 3,0 4,0 5,3 3,2An average pod growth of 97 % was obtained. No statistical difference was observed between culture conditions (P = 0,874). However, the pod growth under IPO-I conditions was more regular. Table XI shows that the standard error was lower under IPO-I conditions. A Statistical difference in pod growth was observed between sterilizing methods (P = 0,047).The pod growth decreased when using St2 method (Table Xl). However, using PPM during the pod culture, perrnitted to reduce the contamination rate by 100 %, so that the number of replicates considered during eKperiment 2 could be increased markedly, from 18 in experiment I to 38 in experiment 2 (Table XI).Table XII shows the results obtained for ovule mean lengths between sterilizing methods (St I or St2) and culture conditions (IG6 or IPO-I). Figure 2 shows the frequencies of extracted ovules by length c1asses between culture conditions while Figure 3 shows the frequencies of pod in relation with the number of ovules reaching at leasl 2 mm long within the pod after one week culture. Finally, Figures 4 and S illustrate respectively the growth of ovules within the pod under lG6 or IPO-I conditions.  Table XII shows no statislical difference in ovule mean length between sterilizing methods (P = 0,785) bul a highly significanl slatistical difference between culture conditions (P = 0,000).The growlh of the ovules increased markedly under [PO-I conditions. More precisely, Figure 2 shows thal Ihe percenlage of ovule reaching 2 mm after one week of culture was higher under IPO-l Ihan under IG6 conditions. [n facl, Figure 3 shows that a higher number of ovules per pod evolved under [PO-I conditions : I 104 ovules evolved under [G6 conditions while 4 lO 6 under IPO-I condilions. lt is worth nOling Ihal under [POol condilions, 6 ovules evolved within the pod for about 15 % cultivaled pods while such a number was nOI observed under IG6 conditions (Figure 3). This difference is illustrated by the Figures 4 and 5 showing also that the stage of embryo developroent after one week culture depends on culture conditions.(1)(2) (2)(3) (2) Median longitudinal section of a pod cultivated under IPO-I conditions during 5 days (magnification 20 x).showing 2 evolved ovules and a early heart-sbaped embryo (asterisk).(3) early heart-sbaped embryo al bigber magnification (IOOx).Table XIII and XIV surnmarize !he data obtained during experiment l. IPO-l conditions. Moreover, only embryos growing under IPO-l conditions evolved (Table XIV). Fínally, on Ihe 45,5 % germinated embryos cultivated under ¡POol conditions, only 3 % give rise to plantlets that survived !he first 50 days of culture (Table XIV).During the experiment 2, no embryo development was observed when adding 1 mlJl PPM in the germination medium Po l. Only one embryo, grown under IG6 conditions, could evolve but no plantlet survival was observed.During the experiment 1, a high leve! of pods were infected by different fungi and bacterial agents. More lhan 50 % of replicates (Petri dishes) were lost. The normal sterilizing method was not efficient enough for pods. Therefore, we proposed, in experiment 2, to use a novel product, lhe PPM, lhat acts as a general decontaminating agent. However, the level of PPM added to media is very critica!. In our experiment 2, we used lhe highest level proposed in the literature as welI for pod as for embryo development. Using this PPM level in lhe media alIowed to prevent media completely against contamination.Our results showed lhat pod growth was slightly affected by lhe presence of PPM in lhe medium but also lhat the PPM level was low enough, permitting a nonnal ovule growth wilhout any significant differences between the two sterilizing melhods (P = 0,785). At pod level , lhe use of a high PPM content was thus very interesting when contamination could not be controJled by lhe use of sodium hypochlorite as the single sterilizing method.On lhe contrary, when cultivating embryos, the use of I ml!1 of PPM in the maturation mediwn was totally inefficient. Indeed, no germination could be observed during experiment 2. It was supposed that the leve! of PPM was too high and affected the first steps of embryo development. Therefore, in experiment 3, we diminished drasticalIy PPM from the media on which pods and extracted embryos were cultivated.The results obtained in comparing culture conditions showed lhe imponance to adapt media to lhe in vivo conditions. In particular, our results demonstrated the imponance to adjust the osmolality level of lhe maturation media (in our experiment with sucrose) to lhe one observed in vivo. The ovule development wilhin a pod was more regular, suggesting a better distribution of nutrient suppl y from lhe medium. Moreover, lhe embryo development was much better : more than 60 % embryos were extracted with an osmotically adjusted medium. However, it remains to clarify whether this result is due to osmolÍc adjustment or is also related to lhe higher sucrose leve!.Finally, lhe number of plantlets obtained during our two first experiments was relative!y low. Only, an adjusted medium wilhout PPM enabled to obtain a plantlet sUrv1val rate of 3 %, i.e. plantlets surviving the first 50 days of culture. Due 10 contamination problems, we could no! rescue a normal plantlet : only one plantlet reached more lhan 3 cm long (Figure 6) .However, this result is promisi ng. Indeed , the plantlet survival is higher than in any olher techniques used before. For example, with 4 days old ovules, Derthe (I996) obtained only I plant from 300 cultivated embryos while Ridolfo (1998) with similar ovules obtained good results on germination rates but poor results in plantJet survival rates.Figure 6. Plantlel rescued froro a two days old pod using IPO-l conditions. Initiation of rools are visible (black poinlS) and leafapex is presenl (scale : 0,5 =).3.1.5.1.2. Experiment 3.During experiment 3, it was important to follow fue osmolality of fue medium in order to evaluate the good function of OUT designo Results are given in Figure 7. During fue first days of culture, medium osmolality decreased as regularLy as in in vivo conditions (P = 0,974). However, after 4 days, the osmolality of lhe medium increased significantly. This osmolality increase was due to fue difficulties encountered to protect pods from external contamination and results could lherefore only be partially exploited.--+-In vitro Table XV shows lhe means of pod growth and ovule length between IPO culture conditions. Figure 8 shows lhe pod frequencies in relation wilh lhe number of ovules reaching at least 2 mm within !he pod after one week culture between IPO (1 and 2) culture conditions.TabIe XV. Mean pod growths (in %) and mean ovule lengths (in mm) between IPO culture conditions. N = number of replica tes . A mean pod growth of 107 ,65 % was obtained while a mean length of 2,59 mm was attained for ovules. These results were slightly better than those obtained in experiments I and 2. Moreover, Table XV shows that no statistical differen ces were observed for pod growths and ovule lengths between IPO conditions. However, !he variability in !he results was higher under IPO-2 conditions. This variability could be attributed to the effect of contamination occurring after 4 days in most of !he Petri dishes . Despite this high variability, Figure 8 shows !he interest to use IPO-2 conditions. Indeed, in 18 % of!he pods cultivated under IPO-2 conditions, 6 ovules reached more lhan 2 mm while such evolution was observed in only 13 % of!he pods when cultivated under IPO-I conditions. This difference suggests a better distributi on ofthe nutrient supply under IPO-2 conditions than under IPO•I conditions.TabIe XVI compares lhe number of extracted embryos per cultivated ovules, lhe embryo growth, and the germination rate between IPO techniques. Figure 9 iIlusfrates a germinated embryo cultivated under ¡PO-2 conditions. In eomparison to tbe experiment 2 where no germination was observed, tbe germination rate under IPO-l conditions was 5,8 % witb a high variability. Thís result suggests tha! PPM remained toxic for tbe extracted embryo at a level of 0,1 mVI.The success of !P0-2 conditions on embryo growth was very 1.imited. Embryo growth was probably affected by tbe pod contamination. Only in tbree replicates, no contamination oceurred. In tbese replieates, 7 embryos (on 24 cultivated pods) germinaled well (Figure 9).Results obtained for tbe tbree experiments show tbe interest to adapt media lo tbe in vivo eonditions (Geerts et al. 1999b). Espeeially, during experirnent 1 using a medium (poO) adapted for very young pods (2 days old), the germination rate reached 50 %. Moreover, preliminary resuIts show an interesting potential to use a design in whieh a constant evolution of osmolality in tbe medium is obtained. Indeed, the ovule development within a pod was more regular suggesting a better distribution of nutrient supply from the medium. AIso, when no eontamination is ob5erved, cotyledonar embryos ean easily be obtained and germinated well. However, tbe plantlet survival remains very low (3 %) and, tberefore, tbe teehnique of plantlel regeneration obtained from two days old embryos has lo be improved.It is al50 important, in a latter study, to compare adjusted media using different osmotieum : ¡.e. polyetbylen glycol (pEG) as proposed by Ridolfo (1998) and mannitol (Emons el al. 1993). Results will show the importance of high sucrose levels and the interes! to use media osmotically adjusted to the in vivo conditions.During the experiments, a high level of contamination was observed. The use of a new technique of decontamination was thus necessary. We investígated the potential of the combinatíon ofTween 20 and PPM at different concentrations as proposed by Randall (1998).[t appears lhat during pod culture, I mV1 of PPM gave lhe best results while a drastic decrease of concentration was necessary when cultivating extracted embryos. More investígations are needed to precise the best levels to use.3.1.5.2. Histological studies : Interspecific crosses using P. polyanthus as patemal parentThe main objective of histological studies is to understand better the process that leads to embryo abortion by studying the nutrient transport of occurring at this time within immature seeds. In particular, we compared embryo development in selfpollinated and hybrid seeds.In thi s report we present in a first part (Par! l) a review of histological studies made on Phaseo/us species from pollination to cotyledonar stage of embryo development and illustrate them with our own observations. In a second part (Par! 11), we present preliminary observations made on interspecific hybrids obtained between P. vu/garis (G 21245, used as female) x P. polyanthus (NI 1015). Phaseolus vulgaris ovules (megagametophyte) are borne alternately as slight protuberances by perielinal divisions of cells lying below the epidermal layer on the two margins of the placenta, which is located on the inner dorsal surface of the laterall y flattened ovary (Weinstein 1926) . Later, nucellus is formed by anticlinal and periclinal divisions, as an undistinguished mass of cells. At the same time, two integument primordia are formed On each side of the nucellus (Sterling 1954), the outer and the inner integument, leaving a small opening at the free end, termed micropyle (Figure 10). At the other end , or chalazal end, ovule is raised on a stalk known as the funiculus (Figure 11). The outer integument grows much faster than the inner one and envelops it progressively. Therefore, ovule is tumed at right angles to the funiculus and the micropyle reaches a position parallel to the funiculus while nucellus is then at right angles to the lalter (Figure 12) . The outer integument is initially five cells thick (Figure 10) but reaches at maturity a massive structure. Cells are rich in fatty acids and starch corpus eles with dense cytoplasm and small vacuoles. The inner integument is only two cells in thickness, except near its upper margin where it reaches four or five cells thick (Figure 10). At anthesis, these cells have also dense cytoplasm with numerous small vacuoles and scattered starch grains. This starch is gradually depleted when cells divide. At the micropylar end of the ovule, a large hypodermal mother cell (megasporocyte or archesporial cell) of the nucellus become differentiated before the integument primordia.Ovule is crassinucellated with a zigzag micropyle : the mother cell is separated from the inner integument by a range of ce lis : the nucellar cap (Figure 10). At the time of fertilisation, cells of the inner integument are in direct contact with the embryo sac and elongate to give a characteristic layer of tissue called Ihe integumentary tapetum. The great majority of the pollen tubes, wilh their two male nuclei, do not penetra te the stigma (Weinstein 1926). The pollination takes place usually within 8 or 9 hours afier pollination (Tan & Jackson 1988), a single pollen tube enters through each micropyle to reach directly the each embryo saco Just afier anlhesis, ovules fill the ovarian cavity and curves toward the stylar end to a campylotrope position (Bocquet 1959). Pollen tube reaches the embryo sac at the micropylar end, penetrates one of the synergids, accelerating its destruction in Ihe process (Figure 18). Growth of pollen tube could be stopped by osmotic pressure conditions, causing ruprure of the rube at its weakest point (Russell 1982), or by changes in oxygen tension (Stanley & Linskens 1967). The role of synergids in fertilization (processes that leads to prior degeneration of one of the two synergid; predisposition of one of the synergid to prior degeneration; role of Ihe postdegenerating synergid) remains points of discussion. Also, Ihe remaining filiform apparatus, observed between Ihe synergids (Figure 14 and 16), could point out a role in Ihe nutrition of the zygote. Indeed, in Ihese transfer cells, nutrient could transient preferentially from the inner integument to the zygote. However it is not clear if this appararus is from embryo sac or synergid origin or is controlled by the embryo himself. After Ihe passage through Ihe cytoplasm of Ihe degenerating synergid, the cytoplasm and Ihe two mal e nucleus of Ihe poli en grain are discharged and fusion between the egg and a mal e nucleus occurs just after Ihe fusion between polar cells (Figure 19) and Ihe second male nucleus. The triple fusion between one mal e nucleus and Ihe two priorly fused polar nuclei of the embryo sac gives rise to Ihe primary endosperm nucleus. At Ihat time, two cells are thus formed : Ihe diploid zygote and the primary endosperm nucleus (Figure 14). The zygote is sharply pointed at Ihe micropylar end and its nucleus is located at the chalazal end (Figure 19).Zygote displays a mitotic activity to develop into the embryo, whereas the primary endosperm nucleus differentiates into a nutritive tissue know as the endosperm (Figure 20).Embryo and endosperm are enclosed in an ovule transformed into a seed wilhin the ovary.After fertilization, Ihe egg is transformed into lhe zygote, product of lhe fusion of two gametes (Figure 19), the sperm contributing the paternal genome and Ihe egg providing lhe maternal counterpart. The zygotic phase of embryo formation is known as zygotic embryogenesis.The egg enlarges after fertilization as it is transformed into a zygote. into polysomes and increased dictyosome activity. These last changes are consistent wilh a higher level of mRNAs content in lhe zygote. Raghavan (1990) shows not only an increase of RNA content but al so a gradient in its accumulation, with a high concentration in lhe chalazal parto AIl these changes during lhe formation of the zygote and his polarity reflect lhe capture of information necessary for his subsequent division to form lhe embryo.One of lhe important concepts to emerge from Iight microscopic analysis of embryo development in plants is that early division sequen ces of lhe zygote are canied forward according to a blueprint characteristic of each species. In Phaseolus vulgaris, as in most of angiosperm species, the first division of lhe zygote is asymmetric and perielinal, cuning off a large vacuo late basal cel! attached to the embryo sac wall (micropylar end) and a small, densely cytoplasmic organelle-rich terminal cel! toward lhe embryo sac cavity (chalazal end).The egg has a Iimited amount of cytoplasm, which is spread in a lhin layer surrounding the coccineus L. embryo and its replacement by specific hormones, as gibberellin. In particular, Ihey note that the suspensor also exerts its influence when placed next Ihe embryo-proper, suggesting Ihat it acts either by synthesizing andlor secreting substances or is more efficient in digesting Ihe sUITounding medium so !hat !he embryo can readily absorb substances necessary for its growth. In particular, Cluuer et al. (1977) note a high amylase activity in !he suspensor of P. vulgaris whereas it is not detected in the embryo-proper. In conclusion, these early observations are coherent with the hypothesis that suspensor may synthesize substances not produced by the embryo-proper and may also be the site of hormone syn!hesis. Later, Xuhan  (1993) show that no wall ingrowths are seen between the cell of the embryo head and the endosperm still at the globular stage (Figure 24). Therefore, suspensor may have not only a mechanical and physiological function but is also probably an organ for apoplasmic and  (1980) and Lecomte (1997) in P. vulgaris, Chamberlin el al. (1993) in soybean or Szczuka & (1996) in several other species.In describing embryogenesis, Ihe term \"proembryo\" is used to designate the early stages of development of Ihe embryo; initiation of cotyledons is considered as a good cut-off point for the end of the proembryo stage. Multiplication of the suspensor cells ceases at about Ihe time Ihat Ihe dermatogen begins to differentiate. The embryo is then at globular stage (Brown   1917). In Phaseolus vulgaris, cotyledons are initiated 4-5 days after anthesis at Ihe chalazal si de of the embryo (Figure 24). At !hat time, !he embryo is at heart shaped stage. Eleven days after anthesis, at cotyledonar stage, the cotyledons grow rapidly, and fill onJy in four days Ihe entire space of the integuments (Figure 25). By this time, endosperm has been almost entirely digested, and Ihe little that remains of it is to be found near the chalazal end of the seed cavity (Figure 26). The increase of weight and nitrogen content of the cotyledons is maximum between 22 and 34 days after anthesis (Ópik 1966). The cotyledon parenchyrna cells first beco me very highly vacuo late, but soon the large vacuo les are divided up and converted to reserve protein bodies, while expansion continues until senescence after germination. Starch grains grow within plastids to reach diameters of 50 microm.At Ihe end of embryogenesis, !he mature embryo has attained a basi c organization consisting of a bipolar axis wilh two cotyledons and, at each pole, an apical meristem. The point of attachment of !he cotyledons separates the embryonic axis into a hypocotyl-root region and an epicotyl-plumule region. The primordial root (radicle) is situated at !he lower end of hypocotyl, whereas Ihe primordial shoot (plumule) is attached to Ihe stem part called epicotyl.After fertilization, divisions of!he primary endosperm nucleus begin much earlier !han those of!he zygote nucleus (Brown 1917). Figure 19 shows !hat !he fusion between female and male nucleoli occurs afier complete fusion in endosperm nuclei. In Triticum aestivum, trus prior division of endosperm is particularly revealed . Bennett el al. (1973) show that afier 24 h afier pollination, 16 free nuclei are observed while only a two-celled pro-embryo is developed. The cell divisions of primary endosperm con forms to nuclear-type in which division is not accompanied by cytokinesis resulting in the formation of free nucJei in the central cel!. Cellularization occurs later (Figure 27), to form a partially cellularized endosperm with a multinucleate mass of protoplasm and populated by numerous small vacuoles called the liquid endosperm. The development of these structures before the division of the zygote can be considered as an adaptive value in ensuring the availability of an adequate food supply to the deve loping embryo. In contrast to embryo, where only cotyledons are accumulating reserve, all endosperm cells dedicate their synlhetic machinery to Ihe production and accumulation of food reserves.Divisions of the coenocytic endosperm are more irregular than those of Ihe zygote and not simultaneous (Figure 21). Moreover, these divisions occur only in Ihe portion directly in contact with the embryo and gradually progress toward the chalazal as the embryo increases in size (Figure 28). At the heart stage of embryo development, cell division is gradually confined to the region adjacent to the tips of the enlarging cotyledons, near the seed coat Up to the early cotyledon stage of embryo development, Ihe cellular endosperm completely encloses the embryo and thus may playa role in regulating nutrient flow to Ihe developing embryo (Figure 24). Indeed, any material entering the developing embryo must cross thi s layer of cells. AIso, following Ihe initial phase of cellularization, invaginations of the plasma membrane similar to transfer cells are seen on the wall of the endosperm cells surrounding the embryo in several legume species such as in Vigna sinensis (Hu el al. 1983) and Vicia faba (Johansson & Walles 1994). Later, these cells separate readily from one another, indicating that Ihe bond between endosperm and seed coat is stronger than between individual endosperm cells.At the same time, cuboidal cellular endosperm cells are developed from free cell wall formations (Yeung & Cavey 1988). Later, these endosperm cells, formed by freely growing walls, stretch to fonn a membranous sheet over Ihe embryo (Figure 27). This outennost layer of Ihe cellular endospenn incorporated into the seed as a single layer of cells around Ihe embryo is also described in soybean (Yaklich & Hennan 1995-Figure 26). Two methods of wall fonnation are described (Yeung & Cavey 1988) : freely growing walls are initiated directly from the central cell wall or later al so from Ihe walls of the newly fonned endospenn cells. Moreover, Ihe cellular endosperrn is initially loosely attached to the developing embryo while it finnly adheres to the inner surface of the seed coat at maturity when sandwiched between embryo and seed coa!. Cellular endospenn never appears in the region of degenerating nucellus (chalazal end) which is covered only by the walI of Ihe liquid endosperm (Figure 27).Cellularization of Ihe endosperrn is associated with a particular cycle of DNA synlhesis and mitosis. Endoreduplication and polyploidy are two conventional routes folIowed by endospenn cells (Raghavan 1997). This DNA amplification during Ihe early stages of endospenn development may be important for the synthesis and accumulation of storage products.Liquid endosperm, fonned by numerous small vacuo les of the embryo sac, surrounds Ihe embryo during early embryogenesis (Figures 11, 14, 17 and 18). Moreover, the embryo is enclosed in Ihe seed coal and the seed is in tum enclosed within the podo Therefore, a point of discussions from these observations concems Ihe imponance of anaerobic conditions for Ihe development of globular embryo. Indeed, Boyle & Yeung (1983) show the presence of a high specific activity of alcohol dehydrogenase involved in anaerobiosis during early embryo development followed by a continuous and gradual decline.A fter 5 days after anlhesis, Ihe liquid endosperrn is reabsorbed (Figure 28). 3.1.5.2.1.5. Funiculus and vascular tissuesThe developing seed is attached to the maternal tissue of the fruit by an organ called funiculus (Figure 11). Pod nutrients must traverse the funiculus to reach Ihe seed coa!. A characteristic sol id core of vascular tissue originates from the differentiation of the procambium and is present near the main vasculature of the pod (Figure 30). The amount of vascular tissue diminishes progressively to become a small strand prior to enter into the seed, phloem elements being located at chalazal end while xylem elements being located towards Ihe micropylar end of the seed (Figure 11 and 28). Thus, the vascular tissue within the funiculus appears as a conical structure with an interrwining network of vascular tissue : sieve and vessel mature elements can be found to lie side by side. It is thus a single primary vascular trace comprising xylem and phloem that enters the placenta into lhe funicular regio n and this toward the chalazal end of the embryo sac (Brady & Combs 1989 -Figure 30). At anthesis, xylem and phloem are made up of continuous files of mature and inunature vessel and sieve elements, companion cells, elongated procambial cells, and associated parenchyma.One day after anthesis, two recurrent branches develop from the procambial strands of the central regio n and run on either si de of the embryo sac of the seed from the primary chalazal trace parallel to the placenta loward the area of the micropyle where the embryo is developing. There is al so sorne limited tertiary procambial activity perpendicular to Ihe lateral traces. At coryledon stage, funiculus increases in size by mitotic activiry within the procambium and the surrounding parenchyma. A fter coryledon stage, the enlargement of funiculus is due to cell expansion, intercellular spaces, and maturation of vascular elements. In this chapter, we review the different incompatibility barriers, appearing as well in self fertilization as in wide crosses.To preserve their identity and stability, species have developed genetic mechanisms involved in the control of pre-and post-pollination and fertilization, known as incompatibility barriers. This incompatibility defines lhe inabiJity of lhe functional gametes to affect sexual recombination and eventual seed set in a particular combination. Self-incompatibility describes intraspecific reproductive barriers, between gametes from the same individual or from individuals of the same species. Cross-incompatibility is used in the olher cases. While self-incompatibility has been largely srudied , much less is known about cross-incompatibility (Raghavan 1997).Briefly, two type of self-incompatibility are recognized heterotrophic and homomorphic types.  (1973) posrulate that a deviant ratio in the chromosome number between embryo and endospenn causes abnonnalities in the endospenn and, as a consequence, embryo abortion. Thus, deleterious genes may exert their primary effect on the endospenn rather than on the embryo. This is pointed out by success obtained with sorne embryo culrure methods : these provide an artificial medium supplied with nutrient substances that are nonnally identified in the endospenn and used to obtain transplantable seedlings from aborted seeds of interspecific crosses. Therefore, the early disintegration of the endospenn, beginning soon after fertilization, is commonly cited as the most important factor in embryo abortion. Indeed, endosperm is an irnmediate so urce of food for the embryo that is deprived by this disintegration.[n general, the initial rate of development of the endosperm in nonviable crosses does not differ from Ihat observed in successful crosses, but afterward, it decreases slightJy. The strucrural changes are more dramatic than the decrease in cell number. [n particular, cells of the endospenn become vacuolated at the chalazal end and less dense than those at the micropylar end. Moreover, cell walls are dissol ved leading lO the fusion of the protoplasm and the nuclei as observed in aborting selfpollinated Phaseolus seeds (Figure 31).In Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium the endospenn is then reduced to a single or a few giant cells surrounding the embryo (Cooper & Brink 1945).Poor endospenn development and embryo abortion have also been associated in Oenolhera lamarckiana with Ihe proliferati ve growth of a tissue from the nucellus (Renner 1914). This hyperplastic growth of the nucellus, causing somatoplastic sterility, is a[so associated with a deficiency in the development of conducting elemenls within the seed, foreshadowing a suppression of nutrient transport to the endosperm. In other cases, infertile crosses show a proliferation of the integument (endothelium). This tissue proliferation begins to grow without restriction and extends into the embryo sac as a burgeoning mass of cells.This endothelium burgeoning is observed in aborting selfpollinated Phaseolus seeds (Figure 32). In any case, the hyperplastic growth of the nucellus or the proliferated tissue of the endothelium cause under-nutrition ofthe embryo.Figure 10. A median longitudinal seetion sb.owing a mother eeU (areb.esporial eeU) and its env1ronmenl al 0-1 (P. vulgaris G21245). Ovule is erassinueeUaled: the mother ceU is separaled from the inner inleguroenl by a range of ceU : Ihe endothelium.            embryos are easler to obtain and can develop into mature seed. The differences in the express ion of incompatibility barners between the two reciprocal crosses (P. po/yanlhus used as female or male), will enable us to identify more precisely the most important changes related to abortion in P. po/yanlhus (~) x P. vlI/garis crosses.On 104 crosses made between the wild genotype of P. vlI/garis (G 21245) and P. po/yanlhus (NI 1015), 47 pods were collected for histological studies at different stages of maturity. Pods were taken before any sign of abortion. On the 57 remaining crosses, 14 pods evolved to maturity and provide hybrid seeds (Figure 33 and 32). Germination of one seed gave an hybrid plant. The other hybrid seeds were dried and preserved for furtber studies. The hybrid plant was evaluated for morphological traits (Figure 35) and isozyme markers (using starch gel electrophoresis -Figure 36).  P. VUl. ~arlS ('i') aod P. polyanthus has an inlermediate size.- Results pointed out the relative easiness to abotain hybrids between G 21245 (as female parent) and NIlO 15 : success rate was more than 10%.The hybrid plant we obtained is currently evaluated for its potential to be crossed with P. polyanthus (used as female parent). One day after pollination, the development of the different structures in the hybrid appears normal. Only a vacuole separating the first two endosperm cells is observed (Figure 37). Sorne hypertrophy of the vascular elements is also observed (Figure 38). However, the nucellus shows normal cells.Two days after pollination, we can point out the weak development of the coenocytic endosperm (Figure 39). lndeed, only four nuclei are observed in comparison to 20 to 30 in normal developing seeds. Besides this di fference, another discriminating factor is the low development of the zygote which is still one or two-celled while zygotes in selfpollinated seeds are 16 to 24-celled at this stage (Figure 39) . lts division has not yet started. 2. Coenocytic endosperm is vacuolated and slight cellularization could be observed (Figure 40). We al so observe a delay in endosperm development. The nutritive function of the endosperm could therefore be greatly affected.3. Xylem elements and their parenchyma are hypertrophied at the chalazal side while phloem elements are well developed (Figure 41). This hypertrophy limits nutrient exchange between nucellus, outer integument and placental region. Procambial branches into the nucellus are al so hypertrophied. 4. A proliferation of endothelium tissue of the inner integument is observed (Figure 42). This tissue grows into the embryo sac at the expense of nutritive elements.After three days of development, most of the embryos aborted. However, in sorne cases, one or two seeds continue to develop within a podo In these cases, the development of the embryo was three to four days slower than in P. vulgaris seeds (Figure 42 and 41). We observed also that the proliferating tissue from the endothelium was limited in size (Figure 43). Finally, it was noted Ihat Ihe cell divisions of the embryo-proper were more irregular Ihan in selfpollinated seeds of P. vulgaris. More precisely, vertical divisions were more abundant, leading to Ihe growth of the embryo into Ihe inner integument, cutting off Ihe cellular endospenn which usually completely surrounds the non hybrid embryos (Figure 44).In concJusion, in hybrid seeds obtained between P. vulgaris (Cjl) x P polyanthus, embryos generally begin to grow in a relatively healthy way. Only the presence of a vacuole between developing coenocytic cells and sorne hypertrophy of the xylem elements are noted. This early disintegration of the endosperrn, beginning soon after fertilization, is commonly cited as Ihe most important factor in embryo abortion. In general, the initial rate of developrnent of Ihe endospenn in hybrid crosses did not differ from that observed tn selfpollinated seeds, but afterward, decreases in cell number. Structural changes are also observed. In particular, endospenn ce lis become vacuolated and cellularization is delayed.Embryo abortion is al so associated with the proliferative growth of a tissue frorn the endothelium. This tissue proliferation begins to grow without restriction and extends into the embryo sac as a burgeoning mass of cells. lt is supposed Ihat Ihe proli ferated tissue causes under-nutrition of Ihe embryo.In parallel to the development of a weak endosperrn, we note an hypertrophy of xylem elements and their parenchyma at Ihe chalazal end of Ihe seed while sieve elements develop nonnally. Later, hyperplastic growth of the nucellus is also assocíated with a deficiency in the developrnent of conductor elements within the seed.We suppose that Ihe hypertrophy of xylem elernents could be due to the export via the nucellus of substances (that could be honnone growth substances) produced in me embryo sac by the hybrid endospenn cells aml/or by the proliferating tíssue of Ihe endolhelium. In other word, deleterious genes of Ihe hybrid endospenn could lead to the production of substances mat induces the division of me endothelium and the hyperplastic growth of xylem elements and nucellus. The proliferating tissue, as the hyperpIastic growth of vascular elements, foreshadow a suppression of nutrient transport to the endosperrn and as a consequence leads to a weak development of the embryo. We note Ihat me development of the hybrid embryo was three to four days slower than in selfpollinated seeds.seeds obtained between :P. vulgaris (G 21245) x P. polyanthus (NII01S)Figure 37. Section a! D+ 1 showing !he fus! divisions of lhe primary eodosperm oucleus : a vacuole separates !he two first ceUs fonned (red asterisk). Median longitudinal sections in normal seeds oC P. vu/garis (G 21245).Al O 1, no vacuo le appears between cells of coenoc}1ic endosperm.Al 02, embryo is 16 to 24 celled and coenocytic endosperm nuclei are abundant. Cellularization is airead y in process.case study is the introgression of Ascochyta blighl resistance from Phaseo/us po/yanthus into Ihe common bean (Baudoin 1992). Sorne interspecific crosses have been attempted by Lecomte (1997)  Hislology of early embryogenesis within Phaseolus was reviewed using a histological method for small and relatively soft plant material (lOto 30 mm> depending on the shape) that has been improved in our laboratory during the first two years of the project. Emphasis was placed on the functions played by the different parts of the developing embryo and of their interactions with the surrounding cell s and tissues.From this base work, we investigated Ihe developmenl of hybrid embryos in order lo identify the incompalibility barriers between P polyanthus (<¡J) x P. vulgaris. Genotypes were selected according to results obtained during the second year of investigations. In particular, the wild genotype G 21245 was considered for P. vu/garis while two genotypes (NIlO 15 and G 35348) were identified ror P. polyanthus.We studied first Ihe problems of abortion in the reciprocal cross using P. vulgaris as female. Indeed, developing hybrid seeds when using G 21245 as female were more easily obtained. Moreover, the differences in the expression of incompalibility barriers in hybrids belween the two reciprocal crosses (P. polyanthus used as female or male), enable us lO identify more precisely the most important changes rel ated to abortion in P. polyanthus (<¡J) x P. vulgaris crosses. The study of P. polyanthus (<¡J) x P. vulgaris crosses is on progress.Our study on reciprocal cross using P. vulgaris as female shows that, soon after fertilization , endosperrn cells disintegrate and a tissue from the endothelium proliferate into the embryo saco In parallel to these changes, xylem elements and, later, also the nucellus, show hypertrophied cells. We suppose that cell hypertrophy of the vascular elements, causing a deficiency in nutrient transport, could be due to the export of substances produced by the degenerating endosperrn and/or by the proliferating tissue of the endothelium, and, as a consequence, leads to a weak development of the embryo. Sorne hybrid embryos evolved to maturity and provide hybrid seeds. Germination of one seed has given an hybrid planto The other hybrid seeds were dried and preserved for later studies.3.2. Interspecific hybridizatioo aod selectioo methodologies, combining classical aod molecular techniques, are developed to successfully transfer resistance traits into common beaoPreviously we reported:• Crosses wilh eommon bean were ereated uSlOg sourees of resistanee identified 10 the prevlOus year.• Interspeeifie progeny were distributed to Afriea for Bean Fly evaluation.For 1998•99 we report the following:• Populations among interspeeifie pro gen y and P. vuigaris (PV) were sereened for resistanee.• More lhan 90 seleetions were obtained in segregating F 2 populations and will soon be planted for evaluation as farnilies.• Additional populations for bolh snap and dry bean types are in F I and F 2 generations, for advance and subsequent field screening. Thirty-two F 2 populations are ready for planting in the second semester of 1999.• Segregating populations involving a local Guatemalan cultivar were shared with the Guatemalan national program for selection in the highlands.The crosses that were obtained among resistant interspeeific progeny, and between these and PV, were advanced to lhe F 2 generation and were evaluated under extremely severe disease pressure in lhe April planting season in Popayán. Sueh was lhe disease pressure in trus season that several neighboring trials of common bean were lost. Witrun lhe segregating populations, resistant plants were observed in a small minority of lhe population, thus tending to confirm that lhe resistance is probably recessive in its expression, or multigenic.Nonetheless, more lhan 90 individual selections were obtained and will soon be planted for evaluation as families (Table XVII). The most promising populations were lhose lhat combined the Guatemalan variety, JCT A Hunapú, with the interspecific lines. Hunapú is bred variety that was developed under natural attack of ASC and expresses and intermediate resistance. It is hoped lha! ¡he progeny will combine genes from Hunapú and lhe interspecific lines, to anain superior levels. However, it was noted that lhe most resistant selections were normally quite late lO mature, Ihus plant maturity may still be contributing to the apparenl resistance of selections. lt will be necessary to consciously seek plants that mature with.in an acceptabJe period, and express the maximaJ resi stance possible wilhin that maturity range, although th.is may not be Ihe best resistance observed.Segregating populations involving Hunapú were shared with Ihe Guatemalan national program for selection in Ihe highlands of !hat country (Table 11). This a region in which resistance to ASe would be a welcome contribution to small farmer agriculture. Additional populations for both snap and dry bean types are in F t generation and will be advanced to F2 and screened for ASC in Ihe present year (Table XVIII) . These involve the same hybrids of Hunapú and the interspecifi cs crossed to susceptible parents. Time will lell if this strategy pennits the transfer of adequate resistance.  Additional crosses with PC and PP for BGMY and BSM were also obtained (Table XIX). These crosses will be advanced, while those for BSM will be held as F 1 populations, still pending information from Tanzania. Crosses for BGMY will be gi ven a treatment of congruity backeross for one more complete cycle (crossing to the PC parent and then again to Ihe PY parent), lo inerease genetic recombination. Progress has been substantial toward understanding Ihe underlying causes of hybrid infertility in crosses between P. vulgaris and P polyanthus. We expect Ihat Ihese problems can be addressed effectively through the studies on embryo culture, which are a breakthrough in embryo rescue at the earliest stages of development. These results will have impact when they are deployed in breeding programs. lf the methods are as promising as Ihey appear, they could feasibly be applied on populations of several hundred progeny, permining Iheir ample use in breeding of common bean. Thus, the new methodologies are very timely, since they are becoming available through the University of Gembloux as the breeding program in CIAT is focussing more on transfer of traits to Ihe cornmon bean. The formation of a core collection in CIA T using agroecological data to select accessions from a broad range of environments has created a useful research tool to explore the potential of Ihese two species. Data obtained wilh Ihe core colIection are beginning to shed more Iight on Ihe value of Ihese genetic resources.Results in CIA T suggest that P. coccineus and P. polyanthus may have more disease resistance Ihan previously recognized, and if genes can be transferred more readily among Ihese species, cornmon bean could benefit significantly. We look forward to employing lhe melhodologies developed in Gembloux when Ihey are fully refined , on a broader scale in Ihe furure, to fulfill the objectives of the project and overcome production constraints of small farmers."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2fea674172ffea2cc0e6e521570dc0c8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b3a1b173-bcec-4e1e-90c8-b1d3d885549a/content","id":"-2054376515"},"keywords":["Zea mays","varianzas","líneas endogámicas","cruzas y heredabilidad Zea mays","variances","inbred lines","crosses and heritability"],"sieverID":"25d616db-e626-40e9-a6ff-5f81f641bfff","content":"La aptitud combinatoria general (ACG) y la específica (ACE) se usan para identificar combinaciones híbridas entre líneas endogámicas con rendimiento mayor o menor que el comportamiento promedio esperado de las líneas progenitoras. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la ACG de ocho líneas y la ACE de las cruzas realizadas y la hipótesis fue que los cruzamientos entre líneas con características contrastantes, producirán híbridos sobresalientes. En otoño de 2011 se formaron las cruzas y en primavera de 2012 se evaluaron en el campo experimental en Marín, de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, México. Ocho líneas endogámicas se evaluaron con un diseño experimental de bloques completos al azar y tres repeticiones. El análisis genético se realizó con el diseño ll de apareamiento de Carolina del Norte de Comstock y Robinson. Los progenitores, considerados como machos M-16 (4.74 t ha 1 ), M-11 (4.60 t ha 1 ) y M-14 (4.21 t ha 1 ) y las hembras H-8 (4.26 t ha 1 ), H-2 (4.15 t ha 1 ) y H-4 (4.13 t ha 1 ) presentaron los efectos mayores de ACG. Los efectos mayores en ACE se observaron en las cruzas H-8M-16 (4.99 t ha 1 ), H-8M-11 (4.83 t ha 1 ) y H-2M16 (4.78 t ha 1 ). La varianza aditiva para rendimiento de grano fue de 0.03 y superó la varianza de dominancia (0.34); la heredabilidad en sentido estricto, fue 7.65 % y la varianza de hembras (0.0075) fue superior a la de machos (0.0012).G enetic improvement programs dedicated to hybrids and commercial varieties formation of maize require generating lines with INTRODUCCIÓN L os programas de mejoramiento genético dedicados a la formación de híbridos y variedades comerciales de maíz requieren generar líneas con potencial de rendimiento alto, comportamiento agronómico bueno y aptitud combinatoria excelente. Las líneas que reunen estas características presentan resultados satisfactorios en combinaciones híbridas (Fan et al., 2008). Los conceptos de aptitud combinatoria general (ACG) y aptitud combinatoria específica (ACE) permiten expresar el comportamiento promedio de una línea en sus combinaciones híbridas y designar las combinaciones híbridas que resultan superiores, o no, a las esperadas en relación al promedio de la ACG de las dos líneas progenitoras. Estas se usan con frecuencia para estimar efectos y varianzas de ACG y ACE (Sprague y Tatum, 1942).Un propósito importante del mejoramiento genético de maíz por hibridación es generar cruzas que superen en rendimiento de grano a las variedades criollas y mejoradas. Si en una población los efectos de aptitud combinatoria general son más importantes que los efectos específicos, es recomendable mejorar a la población por selección recurrente; por el contrario, si los efectos de aptitud combinatoria específica son los más importantes, la población deberá mejorarse por hibridación (Reyes et al., 2004). El conocimiento de la acción génica que controla los caracteres de interés económico es básico para la planeación de un programa de mejoramiento genético mediante la aptitud combinatoria de los progenitores, el mejorador obtiene mayores logros en su programa de mejoramiento, porque permite seleccionar progenitores con un comportamiento promedio aceptable en una serie de cruzamientos e identificar combinaciones específicas con un comportamiento superior a lo esperado, con base en el promedio de los progenitores (Gillen et al., 2009;De la Cruz et al., 2005).Gran parte de la diversidad genética del maíz nativo de México se encuentra en los campos agrícolas como variedades criollas, ya que sólo en 23 % de la superficie sembrada con maíz se usa semilla mejorada (Polanco, 2008). Además, los agricultores han identificado características favorables a sus necesidades y preferencias combinando materiales genéticos de manera creativa para generar mayor variación (Louette y Smale, 1996). El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar una alternativa que mejore el comportamiento de los híbridos, derivados del cruzamiento entre líneas endogámicas high yield potential, good agronomic behavior, and excellent combinatorial aptitude. The lines that combine these characteristics exhibit satisfactory results in hybrid combinations (Fan et al., 2008). The general combinatorial aptitude (GCA) and specific combinatorial aptitude (SCA) concepts allow expressing the average behavior of a line in its hybrid combinations and designating the hybrid combinations that are superior, or not, to those expected regard the average GCA of the parental lines. These are often used to estimate the effects and variances of GCA and SCA (Sprague and Tatum, 1942).Generating crosses that exceed the grain yield per landrace and improving varieties is an important purpose of genetic improvement of corn by hybridization. If the effects of general combinatorial aptitude in a population are more important than the specific effects, it is advisable to improve the population via recurrent selection; on the contrary, if the specific combinatorial aptitude effects are the most important the population should improve by hybridization (Reyes et al., 2004). The knowledge of gene action that controls characters of economic interest is basic for planning a genetic improvement program through combinatorial aptitudes of parental lines, thus breeders obtain greater achievements in its improvement programs, because it allows to select parental lines with acceptable average behavior in a series of crosses and identify specific combinations with a higher than expected behavior, based on the parental average (Gillen et al., 2009;De la Cruz et al., 2005).Much of the genetic Mexican native maize diversity is found in agricultural fields as landraces, given that only 23 % of the maize sown areas are improved seeds (Polanco, 2008). In addition, farmers have identified characteristics favorable to their needs and preferences by creatively combining genetic materials to generate greater variation (Louette and Smale, 1996). The objective in this study was to identify an alternative that improves hybrids behavior derived from crossing between inbred lines of the \"Pinto Amarillo\" and \"Liebre\" groups collected in north-central areas of Nuevo Leon state, Mexico. Our hypothesis was that crosses between parents with contrasting characteristics from the \"Pinto Amarillo\" and \"Liebre\" populations will produce hybrids with high heterosis levels.Cuadro 1. Origen y descripción de las líneas de maíz con el nivel de endogamia S 3 participantes como progenitores en la formación de las cruzas. Este estudio se realizó en el campo experimental de la Facultad de Agronomía, de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, ubicado en el km 17.5 de la carretera Zuazua-Marín en el municipio de Marín, Nuevo León, México (25° 53' N, 100° 03' O, altitud de 375 m, temperatura promedio anual de 22 °C y precipitación anual promedio de 573 mm) (INEGI. 2013). En los ciclos de primavera 2010, otoño 2010 y primavera 2011 se derivaron líneas obteniendo las generaciones S 1, S 2 y S 3 , respectivamente; en otoño 2011 se realizaron los cruzamientos y en primavera 2012 se evaluaron las cruzas.Dieciséis líneas endogámicas se utilizaron (Cuadro 1). Las líneas identificadas con la letra H se usaron como hembra y con la letra M como machos, lo cual generó 64 cruzas.Las líneas de Pinto Amarillo son de grano amarillo semidentado y presentan buenos rendimientos, las líneas de Liebre tienen características de precocidad y son de grano blanco semicristalino tolerantes a sequía. Las 16 líneas se seleccionaron con base en resultados de un análisis multivariado. (Rodríguez et al., 2012). En otoño de 2011 se realizaron los cruzamientos entre las 16 líneas y se sembraron seis surcos de cada línea. En primavera de 2012This study was conducted at the experimental field of the Facultad de Agronomía, of the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, located at km 17.5 Zuazua-Marín highway, Marín municipality, Nuevo León, Mexico (25° 53' N, 100° 03' W, 375 m altitude, mean annual temperature of 22 °C and mean annual rainfall of 573 mm) (INEGI, 2013). During spring 2010, autumn 2010 and spring 2011 cycles genetic lines were derived, obtaining generations S 1 , S 2 and S 3 , respectively; crosses were made during autumn 2011 and evaluated in spring 2012.Sixteen inbred lines were used (Table 1). The lines identified with the letter H were used as female and males with the letter M, which generated 64 crosses.The Pinto Amarillo lines are of semi-ripe yellow grains and report good yields, Liebre lines have precocity characteristics and are of semicrystalline white color grains and drought tolerant. The 16 selected lines were based on multivariate analysis results (Rodríguez et al., 2012). The crosses between the 16 lines were made during fall 2011, from which six rows of each line were planted. In spring 2012 the 64 crosses were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The experimental plot had a 5 m long and 0.80 m wide furrow, with seven plants per meter, to obtain a 87 500 plants ha 1 density. The studied variables were: plant height (PH), cob height (CH), days to feminine flowering (FF), cob length (CL), cob diameter (CD), de-grained cob diameter (DCD), number of rows per cob (RC), number of grains per row (GR) and grain yield (GY). All plants in the plot were harvested and their grains weighed in kg VOLUMEN 53, NÚMERO 2 and transformed into t ha 1 , adjusted at 13 % humidity. The genetic analysis was done with the North Carolina mating design II of Comstock and Robinson (1948), whose linear model was as follows:where i1, 2...m (males); j1, 2...h (females); k1, 2...r (rep); Y ijk observation of the cross between the i-th male and the j-th female in the k-th repetition; general average; M i and H j effect of the i-th male and j-th female;  ij effect of the interaction of the i-th male with the j-th female;  ijk experimental error.The estimation of the effects of general combinatorial aptitude (GCA) for males and females, and of specific combinatorial aptitude (CEA) for crosses, was made according to the proposal of Sprague and Tatum (1942):where g i . g j and S ij are the effects of GCA and CEA, respectively, for the i-males, the j-females and their i and j crosses; Y i  . and Y j  . they are the average of the males and the females; Y ij is the value of the cross i*j and Y  .. is the average of the i*j crosses.The statistical difference between the GCA of the male and female parents and of the CEA of the crosses was determined by the test of minimum significant difference, DMS at 95 % confidence level, EEt ( 21. gl ee), where EEstandard error in the comparison of means; EE CME RM = ( ) − 2 1 ; Rrepeats; Mmales; Hfemales; gldegrees of freedom; and eeexperimental error.The genetic components were estimated according to the values of the expectations of the mean squares of the analysis of variance; male variance ( 2 MM4m2/rH), variance of females ( 2 HM3M2/rM), male variancefemales ( 2 MHM2M1/r), phenotypic variance ( 2 F 2 M 2 H  2 MH 2 e), additive variance ( 2 A4  2 M), dominance variance ( 2 D4[ 2 H 2 M] and narrow-sense heritability (h 2  2 A/ 2 F).For males (M) in CH, FF and GR (Table 2) there are highly significant differences and significance in GY, PH, CL, CD and RC. The MH interaction was significant for the GY, PH, CH and CD, except for the DO and FF, CL, RC and GR. These differences las 64 cruzas se evaluaron en un diseño de bloques completos al azar con tres repeticiones, la parcela experimental tenía un surco de 5 m de largo y 0.80 m de ancho, con siete plantas por metro para obtener una densidad de 87 500 plantas ha 1 . Las variables estudiadas fueron: altura de planta (AP), altura de mazorca (AM), días a floración femenina (FF), longitud de mazorca (LM), diámetro de mazorca (DM), diámetro de olote (DO), número de hileras por mazorca (HM), número de granos por hilera (GH) y rendimiento de grano (RG). Todas las plantas de la parcela se cosecharon y se pesó el grano en kg y se transformó en t ha 1 , ajustándose al 13 % de humedad. El análisis genético se hizo con el diseño II de apareamiento de Carolina del Norte de Comstock y Robinson (1948), cuyo modelo lineal fue el siguiente:donde i1, 2...m (machos); j1, 2...h (hembras); k1, 2...r (rep); Y ijk observación de la cruza entre el i-ésimo macho y la j-ésima hembra en la k-ésima repetición; media general; M i y H j efecto del i-ésimo macho y j-ésima hembra;  ij efecto de la interacción del i-ésimo macho con la j-ésima hembra;  ijk  error experimental.La estimación de los efectos de aptitud combinatoria general (ACG) para los machos y hembras, y de aptitud combinatoria específica (ACE) para las cruzas, se hizo según la propuesta de Sprague y Tatum (1942):. . donde g i . g j y S ij son los efectos de ACG y ACE, respectivamente, para los i-machos, las j-hembras y sus i y j cruzas; Y i  . y Y j  . son las medias de los machos y las hembras; Y ij es el valor de la cruza i*j y Y  .. es la media de las i*j cruzas.La diferencia estadística entre las ACG de los progenitores machos y hembras y de las ACE de las cruzas, se determinó mediante la prueba de t o diferencia mínima significativa, DMS al 95 % de confiabilidad, EEt ( 21. gl ee), donde EEerror estándar en la comparación de medias; EE CME RM = ( ) − 2 1 ; Rrepeticiones; Mmachos; Hhembras; glgrados de libertad; y eeerror experimental.Los componentes genéticos se estimaron de acuerdo con los valores de las esperanzas de los cuadrados medios del análisis de varianza; varianza de machos ( 2 MM4m2/rH), varianza de hembras ( 2 HM3M2/rM), varianza machoshembras ( 2 MHM2M1/r), varianza fenotípica ( 2 F 2 M 2 H  2 MH 2 e), varianza aditiva ( 2 A4  2 M), varianza de domi-are due the contrasting origin of the studied genetic material, which confirms results reported by Borghi et al., 2012;De la Cruz et al., 2005 andDe la Rosa et al., 2006, who identified high yield maize hybrids as a result of high genetic variability among populations from which lines were derived, and by genetic diversity among testing lines.The coefficient of variation, used as a precision measure in experiments conduction (Kang et al., 1999), for grain yield was 16.91 %, which is considered acceptable. The coefficients in the yield components fluctuated between 5.02 and 13.26 %, because they are characters with less variation.Table 3 shows the grain yield means and their components in the lines. The H8 and H2 females had the highest grain yield with 4.26 and 4.15 t ha 1 ; but they were similar to the females H4, H5, H6 and H7; among the males, M16 (4.74 t ha 1 ), M11 (4.60 t ha 1 ) and M14 (4.21 t ha 1 ) stood out (Table 3). It is probable that the combination with the females influenced the behavior of the crosses, since the similarity in the performance of the male lines is due to the fact that they are intermediate cycle, which is reflected in their yields. GY, FF, RC and GR were the components that contributed the most in the superiority shown by H8; and FF, CL, CD, CH and GR were for M16. These characters affected yield differently: for AH the females with the lowest size were H1 (1.92 m) and H7 (1.93 m). The highest ones were H6, H8 and H4 with 2.15, nancia ( 2 D4[ 2 H 2 M] y heredabilidad en sentido estrecho (h 2  2 A/ 2 F).Para machos (M) en AM, FF y GH (Cuadro 2) hay diferencias altamente significativas y significancia en RG, AP, LM, DM y HM. La interacción MH fue significativa para las RG, AP, AM y DM, excepto para el diámetro de olote, y para FF, LM, HM y GH. Estas diferencias se deben al origen contrastante del material genético estudiado, lo cual confirma los resultados obtenidos por Borghi et al. (2012)  (2006), quienes identificaron híbridos de maíz de alto rendimiento como resultado de la variabilidad genética alta entre las poblaciones de las que se derivaron las líneas, y por la diversidad genética entre las líneas probadoras.El coeficiente de variación, usado como una medida de precisión en la conducción de los experimentos (Kang et al., 1999), para rendimiento de grano fue 16.91 %, considerado como aceptable. Los coeficientes en los componentes del rendimiento fluctuaron entre 5.02 y 13.26 %, debido a que son caracteres de menor variación.Las medias de rendimiento de grano y sus componentes en las líneas se muestran en el Cuadro 3. Las hembras H8 y H2 tuvieron el mayor rendimiento de grano con 4.26 y 4.15 t ha 1 , respectivamente, pero There was a difference in CH and the H6 females (1.76 m), H5 (1.61 m) and H4 (1.5 m) stand out; in contrast, males showed less variation. The females H1, H3 and H7 with 61.20, 63.79 and 64.2 d to female flowering, each, were the earliest, and the latest were H8 (83.08 d), H2 (79.83 d) and H4 (77.30 d), also stood out with higher GY. Among females, the highest CL were H4, H2 and H8 with 15.79, 15.77 and 14.56 cm; the males that stood out were M14, M12 and M9 with 15.52, 15.45 and 14.27 cm. This was to be assumed since the females and males are intermediate cycle and also had the highest yields. The females with the highest CD value were H2 (4.72 cm), H3 (4.28 cm) and H5 (4.27). The males with the highest CD were M9 (4.1 cm), M16 (4.29 cm) and M11 (4.26 cm). The females that excelled with greater RC and GR were H8, H5 and H4; the males that stood out were M11 and M16; this allowed a greater number of RC and GR, and, if combined with high CL the result would be a greater number of grains per cob and per unit area. Wong et al. (2007) also related these components, which allows high expression with high yield. Therefore, good behavior is to be expected when los machos que sobresalieron fueron M14, M12 y M9 con 15.52, 15.45 y 14.27 cm, respectivamente. Esto era de suponerse ya que las hembras y machos son de ciclo intermedio y también presentaron los mayores rendimientos. En DM las hembras con mayor valor fueron H2 (4.72 cm), H3 (4.28 cm) y H5 (4.27), y los machos fueron M9 (4.1cm). M16 (4.29 cm) y M11 (4.26 cm). Las hembras que sobresalieron con mayor HM y GH fueron H8 H5 y H4; los machos que más sobresalieron fueron M11 y M16; esto permitió un mayor número de HM y GH y si se combinara con un alta LM el resultado sería un mayor número de granos por mazorca y por unidad de superficie. Wong et al. (2007) también relacionaron estos componentes lo que permite una alta expresión con un mayor rendimiento. Por tanto, se esperaría un buen comportamiento al combinar estos progenitores en la formación de híbridos (Soengas et al., 2003).El Cuadro 4 muestra los promedios de rendimiento de grano y las ocho características de las 20 mejores cruzas. El rango en RG de las cruzas más sobresalientes fue de 3.91 a 4.99 t ha 1 , y las cruzas incluidas forman el grupo estadísticamente superior: 816, 811, 216, 214, 411 y 416; sobresale la cruza 416 con valores aceptables para AP y AM (2.15 y 1.70 m, respectivamente). Las cruzas más tardías fueron 811, 814 y 816 con 87.80, 86.33 y 85.70 d a floración femenina, respectivamente, lo cual se reflejó también en mayores rendimientos por sus características de ciclo más tardío. La amplitud de estos rangos demuestra la variación entre las líneas, y algunos componentes del rendimiento influyeron en los resultados más que otros.La cruza 816 sobresalió en LM y DM, debido a la aportación de H8 y M16 y entre ambas contribuyeron a la expresión del alto rendimiento; en cambio, esta misma cruza presentó menor DO lo que pudo influir en la mayor cantidad y peso de grano. Sin embargo, estos resultados se reflejan en la intervención de M16 que contribuyó en la expresión de un mayor número de HM y GH.Estos resultados muestran que las cruzas que presentaron mayores rendimientos también fueron las más tardías y por consecuencia obtuvieron mayor LM, HM y GH por ser características de sus progenitores de ciclo intermedio. Wong et al. (2007) reportaron que el peso del grano y las características asociadas con la mayor cantidad de granos definen el rendimiento en cereales. combining these parents in the hybrids formation (Soengas et al., 2003).Table 4 exhibits the grain yield means and the eight characteristics of the 20 best crosses. The GY range from the most outstanding crosses were from 3.91 to 4.99 t ha 1 , and the included crosses constitute the statistically superior group: 816, 811, 216, 214, 411 and 416; the 416 cross stands out with acceptable PH and CH values (2.15 and 1.70 m, respectively) The most delayed crosses were 811, 814 and 816 with 87.80, 86.33 and 85.70 d to female flowering, respectively, which also reflects higher yields due to their delayed cycle characteristics. The breadth of these ranges demonstrates the variation between lines. Some performance components influenced the results more than others.The 816 crosses excelled in CL and CD, due to H8 and M16 contribution. Both contributed to their high yield expression; on other hand, this same cross presented lower DCD which could influence on greater quantity and grain weight. However, these results are reflected on the M16 contribution to the expression of a greater number of RC and GR.These results show that crosses with higher yield were also the later ones, and consequently obtained higher CL, RC and RG because of the intermediate cycle characteristic of their progenitors. Wong et al. (2007) reported that the grain weight and the characteristics associated with high grain quantity define yield in cereals.When combining by recombination and selection some contrasting lines, it could result in defined heterotic patterns because, according to Dzib et al. (2011) highly productive hybrids were because of heterosis and hereditary factors, such as multiple interaction of additive type genes. This shows the convenience of knowing the relative importance of each genetic component in hybrids production. H2 and H8 lines intervened on the outstanding crosses, followed by H4 and H6. M16 line appeared more times in the superior crosses, therefore H8 and M16 lines would be adequate to separate the rest of the lines in two heterotic groups (Malacarne and San Vicente, 2003).The highest effects for general combinatorial aptitudes for GY were found in H2, H8 and H4 Al conjuntar, por recombinación y selección algunas líneas contrastantes, podría resultar en patrones heteróticos definidos porque, según Dzib et al. (2011), los híbridos altamente rendidores lo fueron por la heterosis y también por factores hereditarios, como la interacción múltiple de genes de tipo aditivo. Esto muestra la conveniencia de conocer la importancia relativa de cada componente genético en la producción de híbridos. Las líneas H2 y H8 intervinieron más en las cruzas sobresalientes, seguidas de H4 y H6. La línea M16 apareció más veces en las cruzas superiores, por lo cual las líneas H8 y M16 serían las indicadas para separar el resto de las líneas en dos grupos heteróticos (Malacarne y San Vicente, 2003).Los mayores efectos de aptitud combinatoria general para RG se encontraron en las hembras H2, females with 0.72, 0.49 and 0.43, each (Table 5). In these cases PH, FF, CL, CCD and CD components highly contributed to the expression of GCA in H2 and, similarly, reported high GCA values for GY. This suggests that these lines contain genes with additive effects that favorably express grain yield (Ávila et al., 2009). The males with higher RG values were M16 and M12, all characters contributed more in the M-16, and the highest GCA values the M9 were associated in CL, CCD and RC.De la Cruz et al. (2005) demonstrated accordance in GCA positive values for grain yield. M16 male, contrary to that found by these authors, had positive GCA values because in our study it was crossed with lines not included by those authors. H2 and M16 showed a positive and higher GCA value for GY, but GR from H3 was the highest value, which may be a consequence of the high GCA value for CD in H2, together with x values greater than GCA in M16 and H8 y H4 con 0.72, 0.49 y 0.43, respectivamente (Cuadro 5), donde los componentes AP, FF, LM, DM y DO contribuyeron más a la expresión de ACG de H2 y, de igual forma, presentaron valores altos de ACG para RG. Lo anterior sugiere que estas líneas contienen genes de efectos aditivos que se expresan favorablemente en el rendimiento de grano (Ávila et al., 2009). Los machos que presentaron valores mayores para RG fueron M16 y M12 en RG, todos los caracteres aportaron más contribución en el M-16, y los valores más altos de ACG del M9 se asociaron en LM, DM y HM.De la Cruz et al. (2005) demostraron concordancia en los valores positivos de ACG para rendimiento de grano. El macho M16, al contrario de lo encontrado por esos autores, tuvo valores positivos de ACG porque en nuestro estudio se cruzó con líneas no incluidas por esos autores. H2 y M16 mostraron un valor positivo y mayor de ACG para RG, pero para GH de H3 fue la de mayor valor, lo cual puede ser consecuencia del valor alto de ACG para DO en H2, aunado al x valor mayores de ACG en M16 y el valor bajo en H2 para GH. La hembra H3 mostró el valor más alto de ACG para GH y DM, lo cual indica que no todos los the low H2 value for GR. H3 female showed the highest GCA value for GR and CCD, which indicates that not all components responsible for grain yield have similar behavior, but depend on each line genetic constitution. However, the M16 male showed the highest values in all the characteristics, which may be advantageous in the yield improvement, as mentioned by Wong et al. (2007).In all the above-mentioned characters, the GCA effects were greater than those corresponding to SCA, although it is important to show the presence of dominant genes, but the effects of additive genes contribute in greater proportion than non-additive effects in the phenotype expression. These coincides with Badawy (2013) for the variable number of rows per cob. However, our results differ with those published by Kanagarasu et al. (2010) and Borghi et al. (2012), who found that non-additive effects were superior to the additives for grain yield, cob diameter and length and plant height. As for the specific combinatorial aptitude (SCA), in the 20 highest performance crosses (Table 6), higher and positive values were found for GY, FF, CL and GR in the 816 cross; however, this cross was the second on PH, CH,  RG rendimiento de grano, AP: altura de planta, AM: altura de mazorca, FF: floración femenina, LM: longitud de mazorca, DM: diámetro de mazorca, DO: diámetro de olote, HM: hileras por mazorca, GH: granos por hilera. v RG: grain yield, AP: plant height, AM: cob height, FF: female flowering, LM: cob length, DM: cob diameter, DO: cob diameter, HM: rows per cob, GH: grains per row.VOLUMEN 53, NÚMERO 2 componentes responsables del rendimiento de grano tienen comportamiento similar, sino que dependen de la constitución genética de cada línea. Sin embargo, el macho M16 mostró los valores superiores en todas las características, lo cual puede ser ventajoso en el mejoramiento del rendimiento como lo mencionan Wong et al. (2007). En todos los caracteres ya señalados los efectos de ACG fueron mayores a los correspondientes a la ACE, aunque es importante mostrar la presencia de genes dominantes, pero los efectos de genes aditivos contribuyen en mayor proporción que los efectos no aditivos en la expresión del fenotipo, lo cual coincide con Badawy (2013) para la variable número de hileras por mazorca. Sin embargo, nuestros resultados difieren con los publicados por Kanagarasu et al. (2010) y Borghi et al. (2012), quienes encontraron que los efectos no aditivos fueron superiores a los aditivos para rendimiento de grano, diámetro y longitud de mazorca y altura de planta. En cuanto a la aptitud combinatoria específica (ACE), en las 20 cruzas mejores por su mayor rendimiento (Cuadro 6) se encontraron valores mayores y positivos para RG, FF, LM y GH en la cruza 816; sin embargo, esta cruza obtuvo el segundo lugar en AP, AM, DM, DO y HM. Los valores de ACE de las cruzas se reflejaron en los rendimientos altos y valores bajos o negativos que sus líneas progenitoras presentaron en la ACG.De los seis progenitores que intervienen en las tres cruzas con mayores efectos de ACE (H-8. M-16, H-2, M-14, H8 y M11), solo la cruza 816 estuvo dentro del primero y segundo lugar en todas las variables estudiadas, lo cual indica que sus progenitores son adecuados para formar híbridos intervarietales con alto potencial de rendimiento, o para derivar líneas que al cruzarse tengan buena combinación entre ellas. Al respecto, se espera que las cruzas con mayor ACE resulten de cruzar al menos una población con alta ACG (Reyes et al., 2004;Escorcia et al., 2010;Legeese et al., 2009).Los progenitores H-8 y M-16 rindieron más y presentaron un porte de planta y mazorca no muy alto, pero de mayor longitud de mazorca y mayor número de granos por hilera. Esto indica que en la herencia de esta cruza participaron genes no aditivos. La acción no aditiva de los genes fue reducida en las cruzas de progenitores de ciclo intermedio, y la participación de genes no aditivos en las mejores cruzas puede deberse a que los progenitores tienen variación genética CCD, CD and RC. The SCA values of the crosses were reflected in the high yield and low or negative values that their progenitor lines had for GCA.From the six parent lines who intervene in the three crosses with the greatest effects on SCA (H-8, M-16, H-2, M-14, H8 and M11), only 816 cross was within the first and second place in all the studied variables. This indicates that their parents are adequate to form intervarietal hybrids with high yield potential, or to derive lines that, when crossed, have a good combination between them. In this regard, it is to be expected that crosses with high SCA result from crossing at least one population with high SCA (Reyes et al., 2004, Legeese et al., 2009, Escorcia et al., 2010).The H-8 and M-16 progenitors yielded more and presented low plant and cob size, but with greater cob length and a greater grain per row number. This indicates that non-additive genes were involved in the inheritance of this cross. The non-additive action of the genes was reduced in the intermediate cycle progenitor crosses, and the participation of nonadditive genes in the best crosses may be due to the parents having broad genetic variation and major additive effects, as evidenced by high GCA values of the studied variables. These results coincide with those reported by Dzib et al. (2011) that non-additive genes in the length, rows and cob diameter expression contributed to obtain higher yield. Crosses with higher SCA values can be considered in breeding programs to form hybrids and introduce genetic variation in recurrent reciprocal selection programs. The values were small compared with those obtained by Reyes et al. (2004) andEscorcia et al. (2010), but similar to those from Legeese et al. (2009).When estimating the genetic components (Table 7) the variance of males was higher than that of females and their interaction in all the performance components in FF (112.096), GR (2.646) and CL (0.038); however, in GY the female variance was higher (0.007) than that of males. Dominance variance was higher in FF, CL, PH, RC and GR, except for GY, CH and CD, which indicates overdominance expression. Consequently, there is an additive variance for GY, CH and CD, which is favorable, given that the smaller the value of the additive variance the greater evaluated character response (Antuna et al., 2003). This is an indicator that these variables will show a high response when handled by recurrent selection, if the intention amplia y efectos aditivos mayores, como se corrobora con los valores de ACG altos de las variables estudiadas. Estos resultados coinciden con lo reportado por (Dzib et al., 2011) de que los genes no aditivos en la expresión de la longitud, hileras y diámetro de mazorca contribuyeron para obtener mayor rendimiento. Las cruzas con valores mayores de ACE se pueden considerar en programas de mejoramiento genético para formar híbridos y para introducir variación genética en programas de selección reciproca recurrente. Los valores fueron pequeños comparados con los obtenidos por Reyes et al. (2004) y Escorcia et al. (2010), pero similares a los de Legeese et al. (2009). Al estimar los componentes genéticos (Cuadro 7), se observa que la varianza de machos fue superior a la de hembras y su interacción en todas los componentes de rendimiento en FF (112.096), GH (2.646) y LM (0.038); sin embargo, en RG la varianza de hembras fue superior (0.007) a la de machos. La varianza de dominancia fue superior en FF, LM, AP, HM y GH, is to improve earliness, corn in the cob height and cob diameter in this group of lines.Therefore, the formation of heterotic synthetic varieties is suggested, for which selected lines that complement their characters and that form contrasting populations to recombine and extract new lines to form superior hybrids are selected in recurrent reciprocal selection schemes (Hallauer and Miranda, 2010). In addition, outstanding lines should be increased, analyzed and selected to obtain greater grain yield and form commercial hybrids (Preciado et al., 2005). The heritability value (h 2 ) for PH, CCD, GR and RC was 0.9, 1.92, 3.05 and 10.08, respectively, which were relatively low and negative. Heritability refers to the ability of characters to be transmitted from generation to generation, that is, it is considered as a similarity degree between the individuals of one generation and the next, for which it is considered that these would be the characters to recombine and select. con excepción del RG, AM y DO, lo que indica expresión de sobredominancia. En consecuencia, para RG, AM y DO se obtuvo una varianza aditiva lo cual es favorable, dado que entre más pequeño sea el valor de la varianza aditiva es mayor la respuesta del carácter a evaluar (Antuna et al., 2003). Esto es un indicador de que estas variables mostrarán una respuesta alta al manejarse por selección recurrente, si la intención es mejorar la precocidad, altura de mazorca y diámetro de olote, de este grupo de líneas.Por lo tanto, se sugiere formar variedades sintéticas heteróticas, para lo cual se seleccionan líneas que se complementen en sus caracteres y que formen poblaciones contrastantes para recombinar y extraer nuevas líneas para formar híbridos superiores, en esquemas de selección recíproca recurrente (Hallauer y Miranda, 2010). Además, se debe aumentar las líneas sobresalientes, analizar y seleccionar para obtener mayor rendimiento de grano y formar híbridos comerciales (Preciado et al. 2005). El valor de heredabilidad (h 2 ) para AP, DM, GH y HM fue 0.9, 1.92, 3.05 y 10.08, respectivamente, los cuales fueron relativamente bajos y negativos. La heredabilidad se refiere a la capacidad de los caracteres para transmitirse de generación en generación, es decir, que ésta se pueda considerar como el grado de parecido entre los individuos de una generación y la siguiente, por lo cual se considera que estos serían los caracteres para recombinar y seleccionar.These results are attributed to the diversity in the genetic constitution of the male and female progenitors, which, when mating, form heterozygous individuals, which reduce the additive effects. For this reason, the assumption is that all variations are estimated based on the genetic component determined as the dominance variance. The characters with the highest h 2 values were: CL, FF, GY, CD and CH (26.41,8.85,7.65,6.13 and 5.03 %,respectively). This indicates that they are closely associated with grain yield, considered high because these are characters controlled by gene pairs, except for negative heritability variables whose value seems logical because they have more qualitative characteristics. These effects may also be due to the fact that the same gene groups do not control all the genetic components responses, according to Springer and Stupar (2007), or hereditary factors such as additivity, dominance and overdominance, according to Lippman and Zamir (2007).The analysis of the results of the crosses suggests that the highest GCA lines obtained the highest grain yield, which allowed defining the usage of the parent lines through a hybridization system is the most adequate for a genetic improvement program. Which also indicates that their parents are adequate to form intervarietal hybrids with high yield potential.  RG: rendimiento de grano, AP: altura de planta, AM: altura de mazorca, FF: floración femenina, LM: longitud de mazorca, DM: diámetro de mazorca, DO: diámetro de olote, HM: hileras por mazorca y GH: granos por hilera,  2 M: varianza de machos,  2 H: varianza de hembras,  2 A: varianza aditiva,  2 D: varianza de dominancia,  2 F: varianza fenotípica y h 2 : heredabilidad. v RG: grain yield, AP: plant height, AM: cod height, FF: female flowering, LM: cob length, DM: cob diameter, DO: cob diameter, HM: rows per cob and GH: grains per row,  2 M: males variance,  2 H: female variance,  2 A: additive variance,  2 D: dominance variance,  2 F: phenotypic variance and h 2 : heritability.Estos resultados se atribuyen a la diversidad en la constitución genética de los progenitores hembras y machos, que al aparearse forman individuos de tipo heterocigótico, lo cual reduce los efectos aditivos. Por tal razón, se supone que todas las variaciones están estimadas con base en el componente genético determinado como varianza de dominancia. Los caracteres con los valores más altos de h 2 fueron: LM, FF, RG, DO y AM (26.41; 8.85; 7.65, 6.13 y 5.03 %, respectivamente). Esto indica que están estrechamente asociados con el rendimiento de grano, lo cual se considera alto porque son caracteres controlados por varios pares de genes, excepto para las variables de heredabilidad negativa cuyo valor parece lógico por tener más caracteres cualitativos. Estos efectos también pueden deberse a que un mismo grupo de genes no controlan todas las respuestas de los componentes genéticos, según Springer y Stupar (2007), o factores hereditarios como la aditividad, la dominancia y la sobredominancia, según Lippman y Zamir (2007).El análisis de los resultados de las cruzas sugiere que las líneas de mayor ACG obtuvieron el mejor rendimiento de grano, lo cual permitió definir que el aprovechamiento de los progenitores a través del sistema de hibridación es el más indicado para el programa de mejoramiento genético, lo cual indica que sus progenitores son adecuados para formar híbridos intervarietales con alto potencial de rendimiento. Además, las líneas con mayor ACG pueden aprovecharse para beneficiar la producción de semilla de las cruzas sobresalientes, utilizándose indistintamente como hembras o machos. Las líneas y las cruzas con rendimiento superior mostraron potencial de aprovechamiento en la producción de grano para la localidad de evaluación ubicada en el municipio de Marín, Nuevo León. In addition, the lines with the highest GCA can be used to benefit the production of seed of outstanding crosses, being used indistinctly as females or males. Lines and crosses with superior performance showed potential for application in grain production for the evaluation location at Marín municipality, Nuevo León, México.-End of the English version-pppvPPP"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b0a0bc27104ddc10359124c4c49a8017","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f7b1a115-4a7b-4447-a8a1-69c08e34e0cd/content","id":"52050115"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0ffa52af-2277-4356-acb1-49341f514f83","content":"mientras el autor gozaba de una beca en el CIMMYT para pr,parar IU tesl. de doctorado. El autor desea agradecer a Derek Byerlee, Carl Pray, Wlllls Peterson y dos c.olaborador.. anónlmol del CIMMYT por IUS comentarlos. las opiniones expresadas en este documento son exclusivo del autor y no reflejan necesarIamente las pollUcas del CIMMYT ni deIISNAR.En este documento se describe la relación que existe entre el sector público y privado en la investigación y la producción de semilla de maíz en México y Guatemala. El estudio se concentra en las Instituciones públicas de investigación agrlcola y en las compal\"ltas locales y multinacionales de producción de semilla. Se enfatiza la importancia de las normas Institucionales que afectan la interacción de los sectores público y privado. El tamaFlo del mercado, las actividades de investigación del sector público y las pollticas de reglamentación se identifican como elementos fundamentales que determinan el grado de participación de las empresas privadas productoras de semilla en la investigación. Tales compaí'lfas incrementan día a dla sus actividades de Investigaci6n en México y Guatemala. En México, las empresas multinacionales se muestran muy activas y las locales no, en tanto que en Guatemala sucede exactamente lo contrario. La complementariedad entre la investlgacl6n y produccl6n de semilla pública y privada es más fuerte en Guatemala que en México. La evidencia preliminar que se presenta en este estudio indica que durante 1987 los agricultores comerciales de México y Guatemala obtuvieron casi todos los beneficios derivados de la Investigación sobre variedades mejoradas e hlbridos de malz, cuando estos materiales rinden por lo menos un 20% más que las variedades existentes empleadas por los agricultores.Cita correcta: R.G. Echeverrla. 1990. Inversiones públicas y privadas en la investigación sobre ma(z en México y Guatemala. Documento de Trabajo 90/03 del Programa de Economia del CIMMYT. México, D.F.: CIMMYT. La Investigación en maíz y la producción de semilla en Guatemala Organización Producción de semilla Inversiones públicas y privadas en la investigación Distribución de los beneficios derivados de la investigación Resumen y conclusiones 33 Bibliografía 2 Figura 1. Interacciones de los sectores público y privado en la Investigación y producción de semilla de malz.Figura 2. Distribución de los beneficios derivados de la investigación realizada por el sector privado. Figura 3.Superficie cultivada, rendimiento y producción de malz en México, 1945-87. Figura 4.Regiones de México en las que operan las compafllas multinacionales privadas. Figura 5.Organización de la industria mexicana de semilla de marzo Figura 6. Producción de semilla certificada de marz en México por parte de los sectores público y privado, 1970-88. Figura 7.PrincIpales reglones productoras de malz en Guatemala. UnnMS~~sDe~rtmentmAgrlro\"uM Inisterio de Agricultura de Estados UnidosEn los aflos 80 se observó un rápido crecimiento de las inversiones de compat'ifas nacionales y multinacionales en investigación agrlcola y multiplicación y comercialización de semilla en el Tercer Mundo, sobre todo en cuanto se refiere a los hlbridos de malz. En los paIses en desarrollo. donde el sector público ha tenido un rol primordial en la investigación agrlcola y la producción de semilla, la creciente participación del sector privado en estas áreas plantea una serie de complejas preguntas. ¿En qué medida debe permitirse que las empresas privadas efectúen investigación y comercialicen semilla en los pálses en desarrollo? ¿Qué factores determinan si una compaflla privada toma o no la decisión de Invertir en actividades de Investigación en un pals determinado? ¿Cuál serIa el efecto distributivo de una Inversión semejante? ¿Qué puntos de Interacción existen entre los sectores público y privado y qué tipo de relación entre estos sectores serIa más beneficiosa para los productores y consumidores?SI se tienen en cuenta los diversos convenios Institucionales bajo los cuales funcionan las empresas públicas y privadas de Investigación y producción de semillas en los distintos paIses. no pueden hallarse respuestas sencillas y generales a estas preguntas. En este documento se estudian algunos de los problemas antes mencionados analizando las relaciones que existen entre el sector público y el privado en dos paIses con experiencia en investigación en malz realizada por compafllas privadas: México y Guatemala, un pafs grande y uno pequeflo. El objetivo general de esta comparación es el de determinar qué se puede aprender de interés para aquellos paIses que se están abriendo a las Inversiones del sector privado en Investigación y producción de semilla de mafz.El primer paso para comprender las funciones desempefladas por los sectores público y privado en la investigación y producción de semillas es Identificar los tipos de actividades a los que se dedica cada uno de los sectores. En el caso del malz en los paIses desarrollados, el sector público lleva a cabo casi toda la Investigación básica en áreas tales como la blologla y la genética y también realiza Investigación sobre fltomejoramlento para crear lineas endogámicas. El sector privado. que en Estados Unidos se ha especializado en la producción y comercialización de semilla de hfbrldos (Sprague 1980), efectúa Investigación sobre hrbrldos. Unas cuantas compafllas privadas Importantes crean sus propias lineas endogámicas. Como los hfbrldos poseen las caracterlstlcas de un secreto comercial. las empresas privadas tienen grandes Incentivos para Invertir en la investigación sobre hlbrldos de malz. El suministro de germoplasma mejorado y de lineas endogámicas por parte del sector público hace que exista competencia dentro de la Industria, ya que casi todas las compafllas pequeflas de semillas dependen de las lineas creadas por el s8ctor público. En este sentido. la Investigación gubernamental complementa y estimula la Investigación privada.En cierta medida. las funciones desempefladas por los sectores público y privado en los paIses en desarrollo son semejantes a las que realizan en los paises desarrollados.' Gran parte de la preocupación acerca de las actividades de los sectores público y privado surge de preguntas sobre los tipos de tecnologla hacia los que cada sector elige dirigir sus recursos y. por lo tanto, sobre quién se beneficia de los esfuerzos de cada sector. Por ejemplo, sila8 empresas comerciales de semilla S8 concentran en las reglones agrlcolas más favorecidas y en los agricultores comerciales que pueden adquirir sus productos. es posible que la Investigación realizada por el sector privado Consultar Ruttan y Pray (1987) para una descripción de la investlgactón efectuada por el sector privado en Asia y de Obschatko, Plnelro y Jacot. (1986) para un análisis de actividades semejante. realizadas en Am6rlca latina.aumente lA br~r.ha que existe entre .105 agricultores de mayores Ingresos y los más pobres. Este problema tiene graves Implicaciones en cuanto a la elección de estrategias de Investigación por parte de los programas públicos nacIonales, que tal vez deseen dirigir BUS esfuerzos a reglones y tipos de agricultores menos atractivos para el sector privado.Aspectos básicos de la interacción de los sectores público y privado En la Figura 1 se muestran las principales Interacciones entre los sectores público y privado de la Investigación y la producción de semilla de marzo Los miembros más Importantes de esta relación son centros de investigación(nacionales e internacionales), empresas públicas productores de semilla, d+pendenclas públicas encargadas de la reglamentación, compan/as privadas (nacionales e Internacionales) y agricultores.La Investlgación en ma/z llevada a cabo por los centros internacionales de Investigación agr/cola (IARCs) no tiene por objeto crear variedades definitivas que se adapten a condiciones locales especlflcas; por ejemplo. el Centro Intemacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMMYT) crea germoplasma experimental adaptado a diferentes mega ambientes, que se distinguen por las caracter/stlcas ecológicas, extensión de la temporada de cultivo. incidencia de enfermedades y p1ag8l. Yotros factores (CantreIl1986). Los programas del seator público en los palses en desarrollo tIenen prioridad para solicitar germoplasma del CIMMYT. Otras organlzaolones, tanto públicas Figura 1. Interacciones de los sectores público y privado en la Investigación y producción de _milla de malz.   como privadas, reciben semilla de acuerdo con las existencias que haya en el momento; las solicitudes de semilla se atienden por orden de llegada (asimismo, las empresas privadas deben pagar los costos de envio). El CIMMYT se guia por las pollticas nacionales que limitan o rigen la distribución de semIlla entre las organizaciones de un pals, dando por sentado que las autoridades correspondientes proporcionan una declaración por escrito de tales polltlcas.Un aspecto de la relación entre las Instituciones internacionales y nacionales de investigación y las companias de semillas que suele pasarse por alto es el tipo de agricultor al que dan servicio las Instituciones públicas y las privadas. El lucro es el objetivo primordial de una empresa privada, por ende, las companlas productoras de semilla se especializan en cultivos que justifiquen los programas de Investigación y desarrollo, es decir, cultivos en los cuales puedan \"aproplarse\" por lo menos una parte de los beneficios derivados de la investigación. Los hibrldos constituyen un buen ejemplo: las empresas privadas pueden conservar el secreto comercial y recibir un beneficio sin protección legal. Esta preferencia privada por ciertos cultivos significa que se necesita el sector público para realizar la Investigación en los cultivos que no le Interesan al sector privado. Aun cuando exista una Industria privada de semilla para ciertos cultivos, es posible que la Investigación pública sea necesaria a fin de producir variedades para determinadas regiones y/o grupos de agricultores.La mayoria de los paises cuenta con programas gubernamentales de investigación en malz. Por lo común, una compaflia paraestatal de producción de semilla, como en el caso de México, o una empresa local de semilla, como en Guatemala, multiplica y comercializa los productos de la Investigación pública (una nueva variedad, linea endogámica o hibrldo). Algunas empresas locales de producción de semilla realizan su propia Investigación en malz, para lo cual por lo general utilizan los resultados de la investigación del sector público o de las compafllas multinacionales. Muchas compat'llas locales operan como concesionarias de empresas multinacionales o tienen \"jolnt ventures\" con éstas. Las \"jolnt ventures\" son un ejemplo de complementarldad dentro del sector privado, ya que la multinacional proporciona la mayor parte de la capacidad de Investigación y la compat'lla local somete a prueba las varledades y comercializa la semilla. En el Cuadro 1 aparece una lista de algunos de los factores que afectan la Inversión del sector privado en actividades de Investigación en malz en 108 paises en desarrollo.Las empresas multtnaclonales llevan a cabo su propia investigación y comercializan directamente la semilla, ya sea a través de \"JoInt ventures\" o de concesionarios. Durante los últimos 20 anos, varias compat'llas Intemaclonales privadas de gran ta~o que se dedican a la producción de semilla han aumentado en forma directa las exportaciones de semilla de malz. Desde 1960 las exportaciones de semilla de malz de Europa y Estados Unidos al resto del mundo aumentaron en forma constante y para mediados de los afias 80 se exportaban cada afio 15,000 t de la Comunidad Económica Europea y 35,000 t de Estados Unidos. A una densidad media de siembra de 20 kgIha, la semilla exportada servirla para sembrar 2.5 millones de hectáreas de marzo Según cálculos recientes, el efecto de esta transferencia directa de tecnologla sobre los rendimientos es muy grande en los paises templados (es preciso observar que cerca de la mitad --37 millones de hectáreas-o de la superficie cultivada con malz en los paIses en desarrollo se clasifica como templada).2El malz hlbrldo es quizá el mejor ejemplo, por lo menos en cuanto se refiere a la teconologla biológica, de la participación del sector privado en la Investigación agrrcola. También constituye un buen ejemplo de cómo se usan diferentes tipos de semilla en distintas reglones. En el Cuadro 2 se presenta la superficie mundial de malz que se 2 Consultar Echeverrla (1988) para un análisis más general de la relaclón que existe entre la Investigación pública y privada y también para un análisis del efecto que tienen sobre la productividad del malz en 50 pal..., de 1981 a1985.sl~mbr;:¡ r,on dlf~rp.ntp.s tipoS de semilla. 3 Una terc~m parte de la superficie mundial cultivada con maíz se siembra con la semilla producida por los propios agricultores, el 63% con hibrldos y sólo el 4% con variedades de polinización libre (VPL) mejoradas. Los paises en desarrollo, que representan el 59% de la superficie mundial que se siembra con malz, sólo siembran el 51% de dicha superficie con tipos de semilla mejorada. Esta cifra desciende al 37% si se excluyen tres productores Importantes (China, Brasil y Argentina). En consecuencia, una gran parte de la 3 En CIMMYT (1987) puede encontrarse una revisión a nivel mundial de los aspectos económicos de la producción de semilla de malz en los paIses en desarrollo.Cuadro 1. Factores que determinan la inversión del sector privado en la Investigación en malz en los paises en desarrollo.Tamafto del mercado A nlVl'~1 nRclonAl, grAn n(.mAro rl~normAS in1;fifllr,jn,,~I\"1c; rlpfínen la interacción enfre los s~ctores público y privado.En algunos casos esta Interacción puede ser restringida, como sucede en México donde todas las variedades e hlbrldos producidos por el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales. Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP) deben pasar a la Productora Nacional de Semillas (PRONASE) para que ésta lleve a cabo la multlpllcacl6n y comerclall-zaci6n de la semilla. En otros casos, como en Guatemala. no existen las paraestatales y las companlas locales distribuyen las Hneas y variedades creadas por las instituciones públicas. En Argentina y Chile. empresas locales y multinacionales se encargan de casi toda la Investigación y comercialización de semilla de malz.Los Institutos nacionales de Investigaci6n y las compat'1fas privadas productoras de semilla pueden Interactuar por lo menos de cuatro maneras diferentes:1) Las organizaciones públicas pueden evaluar los materiales creados por las companlas productoras de semilla.2) Estas campanlas pueden obtener o pagar regaifas por semilla fundacl6n creada por el sector público.3) Las empresas privadas pueden financiar algunas actividades de Investigación del sector público.4) Los clentlflcos suelen pasar de un sector a otro.Los sectores público y privado también se relacionan a nivel de polltlcas agropecuarias. Incluyendo leyes relativas a la semilla. reglamentos comerciales y fijación de precios de Insumas y productos. Estas pol/tlcas gubernamentales afectan la Importancia relativa que se confiere a las distintas fuentes públicas o privadas de semilla. a la disponibilidad de semilla y a su costo. Los aranceles y otros tipos de restricciones pueden afectar el movimIento de germo• plasma de un pals a otro. SIn embargo. un obstáculo mucho más importante para la adecuada transferencia de tecnologla es con frecuencia la InsuficiencIa o Ineficacia del sector público en crear la capacidad de Investlgacl6n agrfcola necesaria para adaptar germoplasma a las condiciones agrocllmátlcas locales.En el caso de la Investigación realizada por el sector público. es evidente que el principal beneficiario es el productor (o el consumidor. si un producto tiene demandainélastica). En cuanto a la InvestigacIón realizada pbr el sector privado. ciertas personas sostienen que las companlas productoras de semillas se aproplan de la mayor parte de los beneficios (Barkln y Suárez 1983). En la Figura 2 se presenta la distribuci6n de los beneficIos entre compat'lras privadas productoras de semilla y los agricultores. suponiendo que la demanda de marz es perfectamente elástica. es decir. que el Incremento de la produccl6n sustituye las importaciones y no afecta los precios del marzo El valor agregado por la producción y la dlstrlbuci6n de semilla menos el costo de la Investigación, determina los beneficios obtenidos por las compal'lfu productoras de semilla.\" los beneficios que obtienen los agrlcultores dependen del valor del mayor rendimiento derivado del empleo de hlbridos menos el incremento en el costo de la semilla. la variable clave que determina la distribución de los beneficios entre una companla productora de semilla y el agricultor es el precio de la semilla hlbrlda en relacl6n con el Incremento del rendimiento. En una Industria competitiva. la competencia generada por el sector público deberla controlar el nivel de las utilidades de las compatU.s produotoras de semillas.4 Como los beneficios y los costos.e producen en diferentes periodos, 8ste valor debe descontar.e e valor presente neto.México es el centro de origen del malz, el cultivo más importante del pals, que abarca el 40% (cerca de 8 millones de ha) de la superficie cultivada. En 1986, México era el cuarto productor de malz a nivel mundial, después de Estados Unidos, China y Brasil (FAO 1987). México posee un largo historial de participacl6n pública en la industria de semilla tanto a nivel de la produccl6n como de la Investlgacl6n, y ha sido sede del CIMMYT desde la fundacl6ndel Centro en 1966.Si bien la Industria mexicana privada de semilla de malz existe desde hace més de 20 aflos, s610 en la última década Increment6 en forma sustancial sus actividades de Investlgacl6n y comerclallzacl6n. Gracias a la proximidad de México con Estados Unidos. siempre ha existido un Importante comercio de semilla. Como las compafllas estadounidenses productoras de semilla Investigan y comercializan en México. el sector privado Ideal no está tan desarrollado como en otros Importantes paises productores de malz de América latina como Argentina y Brasil.Todos estos factores hacen que México resulte un caso interesante para estudiar las Interacciones Institucionales que se producen en el ámbito de la Investlgaci6n en malz, asl como los factores que determInan la Inversión privada en este ramo. -costo de la semilla hlbrlda en comparacl6n con la semilla propia F.I r.A~O de Gllntl\"mAla. rlnndp. sólo se cultivan con maíz 650,000 ha. es muv difl;lrp.nte. las compat'lIas extranjeras no participan directamente en la investigación, sino que producen semilla a través de \"joint ventures\" con empresas locales. Vale la pena analizar la complementariedad desarrollada entre las compatiias locales y el instituto de investigación del gobierno, el Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Agrícolas (ICTA).Los datos del Cuadro 3 son indicadores seleccionados de las industrias mexicana y guatemalteca de malz. Según las estimaciones del autor, la superficie de malz que se cosechó en México en 1987 fue 7.8 millones ha, de las cuales 1,150,000 ha se sembraron con semilla de híbridos y 850,000 ha con semilla certificada de VPL. El volumen total de semilla certificada que se sembró en México fue de 40,000 t, de las cuales 37,000 t se produjeron en el pals y 3.000 t se importaron de Estados Unidos (USDA n.d.).En Guatemala, se cosecharon 650,000 ha de maíz en 1987 con un rendimiento medio de 1.71 tlha. La superficie total sembrada con híbridos y VPL certificadas fue de 106,000 ha o 16% de la superficie total cultivada con malz.Alrededor de 71,000 ha se sembraron con semilla de hlbridos, en su mayor parte en las tierras bajas tropicales del sur del pals. Las VPL certificadas se sembraron en 35.000 ha. La cantidad de semilla comercial plantada durante 1987 fue de 1,800 t, constituida por 1,200 t de semilla de híbridos y 600 t de semilla de VPL.En México, el marz es un cultivo básIco de subsistencia que se cultiva sobre todo en condiciones de temporal (secano) y está bien adaptado a las diferentes condiciones ecológicas del pals. 5 Cerca del 75% de la producción anual se emplea en la alimentación humana, 20% en la alimentación animal y producción de semilla y solo el 5% como Insumo Industrial. El malz y el frijol constituyen las principales fuentes de alimento del sector de bajo Ingresos de la población mexicana.5 Para una revisión de la historia del malz en México, consultar la Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidráulicos (1982).Cuadro 3. El malz en México y Guatemala, indicadores seleccionados, 1987.Superficie cosechada (000 ha) Rendimiento (tlha) Producción (000 t) Importaciones de maiz (000 t) Superficie sembrada con semilla mejorada (%) Superficie sembrada con VPL certificadas (%) Superficie sembrada con semilla hibrlda (%) Semilla comercial sembrada (000 t) Semilla sembrada de VPL certificadas (000 t)Semilla hlbrlda sembrada (000 t)  3 2 1 O+--\"\"'T\"-....,--r_-\"T'\"\"-\"\"'T\"-....,--r_-\"T'\"\"-... 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 2__- ------------------  1945 1950 1~1980 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 ClIf'riro 4. OrQ;mlzAclones dedicadas a la investigación y a la producción de semilla de malz en México, 1987.Producción Nota: Se entiende por Invest/gaclón el mejoramiento genético básico y aplicado y el mejoramiento de cultivos en general; no se Incluye la prueba de variedades. Producción de semilla significa la multiplicación y distribución de semilla certificada de malz de cualquier tipo. ya sea que se trate de hlbrldos o de VPL.propiAS Inr:tAln\"¡,.,nA!'; Nn p.xi~tp. mllchil int~gr¡~cifln ~ntrp lo~institlltos dI\" ínve~tiqAci6n rlp.1 o:;ector público y entre las dependencias gubernamentales de Investigación y los productores de semilla. Por ejemplo, ellNIFAP entrega sus materiales únicamente a PRONASE para que ésta los multiplique.Una ley mexicana aprobada en 1961 creó el marco legal necesario para el desarrollo de la industria privada de producción de semilla (Diario Oficial 1961). Las compañías productoras de semillas Iniciaron la Investigación y la producción de semilla de maíz en México a mediados de los años 60. Antes de que entrara en vigor dicha ley, las compat'lías privadas importaban semilla sobre todo de Estados Unidos. Desde mediados de los sesenta a mediados de los ochenta dos tipos de empresas privadas, nacionales y multinacionales, comenzaron a producir semilla en el país y a dar servicio a mercados que antes eran atendidos por el sector público, y también se convirtieron en importantes distribuidores de semilla importada.Durante los últimos diez at'los, las empresas privadas se han ido trasladando hacia el sur del pals. Casi todas las companlas multinacionales están presentes en Tamaulipas cerca de la frontera con Estados Unidos (Figura 4), donde la semilla híbrida creada en Texas es adecuada para las condiciones agrocllmátlcas que prevalecen en esa zona de México. Esta reglón cuenta con sistemas de riego y el 70% de la superficie cultivada se siembra con hlbrldos simples. La segunda región Importante donde se encuentran las compat'lias multinacionales es Jalisco, una reglón semltroplcal de altitud media, y el estado con mayor producción de malz en toda la República. Ciertas multinacionales están extendiendo sus operaciones más al sur, hacia el ambiente de tierras bajas tropicales del estado de Chiapas. La Figura 5 resume los distintos aspectos de la organizaci6n de la industria mexicana de semilla de marz que se mencionaron anteriormente. El punto fundamental de la figura es que las compaflras privadas locales (un elemento clave de toda industria de semilla) llevan a cabo muy poca investigación y tratan de competir con las empresas multinacionales sin tener acceso a los materiales derivados de la investigaci6n del sector público.Los datos que aparecen en la Figura 6 muestran la cantidad estimada de semilla certificada de malz que produjeron los sectores público y privado en México de 1970 a 1988. 8 El volumen total de produccl6n de semilla se Incrementó más de cinco veces de principios de 1970 a fines de 1980, de menos de 10,000 t en 1970 a 50,000 t en 1988. Las tendencias de la produccl6n de semillas resultan un tanto sorprendentes. quizá a causa de los efectos combinados de la varlacl6n del clima y la falta de consistencia de las estadistlcas.7 De hecho. no existe ninguna polltlca de la Industria de semilla que defina la relación que existe entre las actividades de la Investlgacl6n y de la produccl6n de semilla de los sectores público y privado (McMullen 1987).8 Las estadlstlcas mexicanas sobre producción de semilla son Inconsistentes. Las cIfras presentadas en la Figura 6 son las mejores 8 estimaciones de que se dispone, derivadas de los datos proporcionados por PRONASE. SNICS y la Asociación Mexicana de Semilleros (AMSAC).Figura 5. Organización de la Industria mexicana de semilla de malz.---------+ il>n Pf~qllef\\a e!';cal:'l 'l'JP emr'~nn Sil propia spmíll::l y no semilla comercial. En casi todos los demás cultivos (excepto el frijol y el ajonjolf) se emplea semilla mejorada, y la partlclpacl6n del sector privado en el mercado de semilla mejorada es mayor en el caso de otros cultivos que en el del malz (Cuadro 5). El sector público tuvo una participaci6n del 60% en un total de 40,000 t de semilla de malz que se calcula se produjeron en 1987, mientras que las compañías privadas produjeron casi toda la semilla certificada de sorgo. algod6n y soya y cerca de la mitad de la semilla certificada de trigo y arroz (por lo general todos estos cultivos se producen con niveles muy altos de insumos).   60Fuente: SNICS (1987); Serrano (1987) y entrevistas efectuadas por el autor.Nota: la estimación de la producción de semilla en 1988 se calculó sobre la base de la superficie sembrada para producir semilla en 1987.Cuadro 5. Participación del sector público en la producción de semilla certificada en México, 1984-88. F.n Mlaxlco, los prpdos rte la semilla de mAfz varian de acuerdo con el tipo c1e semilla. la regl6n y la fuente (Cuadro 6). En término medio, PRONASE y las compaí'lfas locales productoras de semilla venden la semilla de h/brldos dobles al doble que la semilla VPL. En 1987, los precios de las empresas locales fueron un 40% más altos que los de PRONASE. El precio de la semilla de hlbrldos dobles producida por las multinacionales fue el doble del precio de las campanlas locales. De acuerdo con estos precios y empleando la cifra de US$100 como el precio de una tonelada de grano, la relaci6n de precios entre la semilla de h/brido doble y el grano fue de 6 en el caso de la semilla de PRONASE, 9 para la semilla producida por las campan/as locales y 18 para la semilla de las multinacionales.La calidad y los costos de producci6n explican en parte estas diferencias. Por lo general los agricultores consideran que la semilla producida por el sector público es de menor calidad que la producida por las empresas privadas. Por otra parte, la mayorla de las empresas locales y PRONASE no tienen gastos de Investlgacl6n y. por ende, sus costos de produccl6n son más bajos que los de las companias multlnaclonales. 9Inversiones públicas y privadas en la investigación En 1987, el presupuesto anual para la investlgaci6n en maiz de 25 empresas privadas cuyo personal se entrevist6 en este estudio fue de 1,700,000 dólares (Cuadro 7). lo cual implica 113,000 d61ares por estacl6n experimental y 61,000 dólares por c1entiflco.El presupuesto estimado para la investigaci6n en maiz dellNIFAP fue de menos de la mitad del presupuesto total del sector privado, pera el mismo número de estaciones de Investlgacl6n y más de tres veces el número de clent/flcos. El sector privado dedica 52,000 d61ares más por clentfflco al ano que el sector público. lO Como se menclon6 anteriormente. esta comparación no refleja el hecho de que ellNIFAP y las empresas privadas no realizan el mismo tipo de Investlgacl6n. El sector público se dedica a áreas tales como el mejoramiento del cultivo y la Investlgacl6n básica sobre ma/z además del mejoramiento, en tanto que el sector privado concentra sus esfuerzos en la investlgacl6n sobre el f1tomejoramlento aplicado. Además, las cifras correspondientes al sector público no Incluyen los gastos fijos generales.9 A fin de analizar las diferencias reales entre los precios de la semilla, se requieren datos sobre el rendimiento potencial de las variedades de PRONASE. las empresas locales y las multinacionales, pero ••ta Informacl6n no puede obtenerse con facilidad. 10 En este caso, \"sector público\" significa INIFAP, ya que no se dispone delnformacl6n sobre los erogaciones de las universidades en la Investlgacl6n en marzo De cualquier manera, estas erogaciones son pequenas sI se las compara con las deIINIFAP. Como se explica en el Cuadro 7, nota f, las cifras correspondientes al presupuesto d. Investlgacl6n dellNIFAP están posiblemente subestimadas. Cuadro 6. Preclol de la lemllla de ma'z (US$/kg) en México, 1987. Fuente: Entrevistas con personal de las companfas productoras de semilla y de PRONASE, 1987. I A'1 Invflr'llnnnc; rríVAdAS \"ln la Investlg:tdñn en mnfz pUAden finalizarse en el contexto dA los factores qUA delflrml• nan la Inversión en Investigación que se estudiaron en la primera sección de este documento. El mercado de la semilla mejorada de malz (40.000 t en 1987) representa sólo el 26% de la superficie total que se cultiva con malz.Los directivos de las compaf'llas productoras de semilla calculan una superficie potencial para las variedades mejoradas de maíz de alrededor del 50% de la superficie total cultivada actualmente. usando las variedades que ya existen. O sea. alrededor de ao.ooo t de semilla certificada que equivale aproximadamente a un mercado de semilla de marz de la misma magnitud que el del resto de América Latina sin contar Brasil. En consecuencia. el tama/\"lo del mercado mexicano constituye un importante elemento en la decisión de una empresa productora de semilla de Invertir en la investigación en malz. El hecho de que PRONASE posea el 60% del mercado de semilla mejorada de malz, es un factor Importante en la determinación de la participación en el mercado a que pueden aspirar las empresas privadas productoras de semilla.En el pasado, las politlcas gubernamentales no favoreclan la investigación por parte del sector privado. Al parecer. a fines de los a/\"los 80 se eliminaron casi todas las restricciones sobre las actividades del sector privado. Hoy en dia se conceden permisos para realizar Investigaciones a todas las empresas interesadas, se autorizan con rapidez las Importaciones de semilla, las empresas pueden ser de propiedad extranjera en su totalidad (en lugar del 49% máximo de propiedad extranjera que se exigla en el pasado) y, al parecer, también está aumentando la conciencia general sobre la función que puede llegar a desempe/\"lar el sector privado. (No obstante, según fuentes del sector privado, el procedimiento para la aprobación de variedades continúa siendo un problema.)'1 11 El CCVP evalúa durante tres al'l08 e/ rendimiento y la resistencia a las enf9rmedades de las variedades propuestas para su liberación y. después de ese periodo, aprueba o rechaza la liberación de las mismas. EIINIFAP selecciona las variedades potenciales para el CCVP. Las empresas privadas productoras de semilla pagan 40 dólare. anuales por localidad para que .. lleve a cabo esta evaluación. La preocupación de estas campanlas es que los datos obtenidos de las evaluaciones tienen poco valor porque las variedades no se clasifican en rangos, los materiales testigo no se especifican y no se proporciona ninguna Información sobre la resistencia a las enfermedades en las localidades donde se lleva a cabo la selección.Cuadro 7. e Incluye la8 pequenas empresas regionales de producción de semilla.f Calculado usando una cifra suministrada por ellNIFAP de 9.000 dólares anuales por clentfflco. Esta estimación 88 baja ya que Incluye sobre todo salarlos y no costos operativos ni gastos fijos generales. g 35 del total de 89 clenUflcos de malz son f1tomeJoradores.Como 10<: rf'('i4'>n'~s CAmhio,; h::ln ',,\"oírlo IJO efe-cto rm<:itivo f'n el sector privarlo. ~f'! hA Incn:~mentadode manera sustancial la Investigación en maiz que realizan las compañlas multinacionales con recursos derivados de las ventas locales y, en algunos casos, de las ventas realizadas fuera de México a América Central. Algunas de las empresas más importantes tienen presupuestos anuales de investigación superiores a los Ingresos que se obtienen con la venta se semilla, lo cual indica que la investigación se considera una inversión con un alto indice de rendimiento. Si esta tendencia continúa, y dado el tiempo necesario para evaluar y liberar nuevas variedades, es posible que dentro de unos diez afias la industria mexicana de producción de semilla de malz sea muy diferente de lo que es hoy en dla.Como las empresas privadas poseen una participación del 40% en el mercado de la semilla comprada, la semilla producida por estas compal'llas se siembra en menos del 10% de la superficie total que se cultiva con malz. Las reglones donde se vende semilla producida por empresas privadas suelen caracterizarse por fincas más grandes y mayor empleo de Insumas que las demás regiones donde se cultiva marzo Por lo tanto, las empresas privadas dan servicio a las regiones mejor dotadas donde suelen encontrarse los agricultores de mayor escala. En México esto equivale a las zonas irrigadas o de mediana altitud del norte y occidente del pals.En general. la producción de maiz en México depende más de la superficie cosechada que del rendimiento; sin embargo, existen Importantes diferencias regionales en cuanto al rendimiento. En 1986. el 15% de la superficie total contaba con riego (Cuadro 8). La mayor parte de la reglón irrigada se encuentra en los estados del norte. en especial Tamaullpas. que guarda gran semejanza con las regiones malceras de Texas. Estado8 Unidos, en cuanto Cuadro 8. Distribución del área de malz cosechada e irrigada, y de   A fin de complementar la actividad del sector privado desde un punto de vista social, la Investigación efectuada por el sector público podrla dirigirse hacia las reglones no irrigadas o de tierras altas donde se encuentra la mayor parte de las agrtcultores en pequena escala. No existe Información actualizada sobre la participación del sector público en Investigación y producción de semilla por reglones. Na obstante. sabemos que en las anos 70 el 54% de las variedades de malz liberadas por PRONASE estaban destinadas a las zonas irrigadas y el 42% a reglones can altitudes de menos de 1,200 m sobre el nivel del mar (Cuadro 9). Cuadro 9. Número de variedades de malz producidas por el sector público para zonas de riego y de temporal y para diferentes altitudes, México, 1968-78. r-omo r,p mp,ndonó nntF!S, eyi5tp.l::J ~pncia A pensnr qlJF! las r.ompafli,,~prori'l,..torA~na semilla son lAS principales beneficiarlas de la investigación realizada por el sector privado (Barkin y Suárez 1982 y 1986). Los datos que se presentan en el Cuadro 10 dividen los beneficios derivados de la investigación del sector privado entre los agricultores y las compat'\\las productoras de semilla en 1987. Se trata de indicadores preliminares correspondientes a un alío y no de un estudio histórico de rendimiento sobre la inversión, ya que no todos los costos ni todos los beneficios se calcularon o descontaron a través de una serie de alías. Se estimó que las utilidades obtenidas por las campanlas productoras de semilla fueron de 3.2 millones de dólares (entrevistas realizadas por el autor en 1987), lo cual representa, en término medio, un margen de utilidad del 16% sobre los 20 millones de dólares obtenidos de las ventas realizadas en 1987.Los beneficios obtenidos por los agricultores al sembrar variedades producidas por el sector privado varian de acuerdo con la cifra empleada para determinar las diferencias de rendimiento que existen entre estas variedades y las variedades que existlan antiguamente. Según fuentes de la industria de semillas una estimación realista del Cuadro 10. Beneficios obtenidos por los agricultores y las companlas productoras de semilla de las variedades mejoradas de malz procedentes del sector privado, México, 1987.Incremento estimado del rendimiento respecto a las variedades existentes de los agricultores 20% 30% 400k 1. 15,000 I de semilla vendidas por las empresas prIvadas (lomado de la Figura 6) a una densidad de sIembra de 20 kglha. 2. 15,000 t de semilla vendidas por las empresas privadas (tomado de la Figura 6) a un precio medio de US$O.45/kg en el caso de las VPL, de US$1.45/kg para los hlbrldos dobles y de US$2.30/kg para los hlbrldos simple. (lomado del Cuadro 8). 3. ( 2) -(costos de produccIón de la empresa). ObtenIdo de entrevistas del autor con el personal de las empresas productoras de semilla, 1987.4. De entrevistas efectuadas por el autor, (1987) al personal de la Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidráulicos (SARH) y de las companlas productoras de semilla.5. (4) .. (porcentaje de Incremento del rendimiento de la semilla mejorada). Obtenido de entrevistas realizadas por el autor al personal dellNIFAP y de las compalílas productoras de semilla. 6. [( 5)-( 4)] x (precio de' grano. US$100/t). 7. 20 kglha US$1.5/kg. 8. ( 6) -( 7), sin tener en cuenta el costo de otros Insumas, tales como el fertilizante. 9. ( 8) x (1). inrrpm':lntn (jol rpn(jirni..ntn p~t~rr;'l pn pi nrden (jpl ~n°/... Fn 1:' 1 Cl/adro 10 se presentA lA rlir.tribuci6n de los beneficios suponiendo un aumento del rendimiento del 20%. 30% Y 40% respecto a las variedades empleadas anteriormente por los agricultores. Con un incremento del 20% en el rendimiento. se calcula que los beneficios obtenidos por los agricultores ascienden a US$1 O/ha; con un incremento del 30%. a US$30/ha, un total de 22.5 millones de dólares; y con un incremento del 40% en el rendimiento. los beneficios son de US$50/ha, con lo cual los beneficios totales obtenidos por los agricultores alcanzan la cifra de 37.5 millones de dólares. Los beneficios que aparecen en el Cuadro 10 están subestimados. ya que se emplea la cifra de US$100/t como el precio del grano y no se descuenta el costo de la semilla de las variedades que solían usar los agricultores. 12 Con incrementos del 30% y 40% en el rendimiento. los agricultores obtuvieron una parte sustancial de los beneficios generados por la Investigación del sector privado.Las cifras presentadas, aunque inexactas, indican que los agricultores que adquieren semilla certificada obtienen un beneficio mayor que las compañlas productoras de semilla aun cuando el incremento real del rendimiento sea del 20%.13 El sentido común económico nos sel'lala que los agricultores no comprarfan semilla certificada si no obtuvieran alguna ventaja de ello.La investigación en maíz y la producción de semilla en Guatemala En Guatemala, cerca de 525,000 ha se cultivan con maíz como cultivo único y 12,000 ha se siembran con mafz mezclado con frijol u otros cultivos. El malz se produce sobre todo en las regiones centro occidental. oriental y de la costa sur del pals (Figura 7). Existen tres diferentes áreas de cultivo del malz (CIMMYT 1981):1) Tierras bajas tropicales con una altitud de menos de 1,300 m sobre el nivel del mar, donde los hfbridos y las variedades se siembran en una temporada de cultivo de 120 dfas;2) Zonas de altitud media entre los 1.300 y 2,000 m sobre el nivel del mar, y 3) Tierras altas con altitudes de más de 2,000 m sobre el nivel del mar, donde la temporada de cultivo es de más de 190 dfas.La Figura 8 muestra las tendencias de la superficie, el rendimiento y la produccl6n de malz en Guatemala de 1949 a 1986. Durante ese periodo, la producción de mafz creció a un índice medio anual de 2.7%, en su mayor parte debido a que el rendimiento medio creció de 0.68 tlha en 1949 a 1.74 tlha en 1986, un fndice de crecimiento de 2.5%. La superficie sembrada con mafz no ha sobrepasado las 700,000 ha durante todo el periodo y ha experimentado un fndica de crecimiento anual de solo 0.4%.En la Figura 9 se enumeran las principales organizaciones de Investigación y producci6n de semilla de malz en Guatemala. El instituto nacional de investigación agrícola, ICTA, es un organismo público semiautónomo creado en 1973.'4 Los programas nacionales de Investigación de México y Estados Unidos, el programa regional del CIMMYT y la Industria de semilla de malz de El Salvador (una de las industrias de semilla más desarrolladas de la regl6n), ejercen una Importante Influencia en la investigación sobre maíz que se lleva a cabo en Guatemala. La oficina del programa regional del CIMMYT para América Central y el Caribe se encuentra en Guatemala. Además de ofrecer apoyo técnico directo a los programas nacionales de la región y allCTA en particular. el CIMMYl organiza talleres anuales sobre la Industria de la semilla en los cuales los representantes de los sectores público y privado estudian problemas relacionados con la tecnologra de la semilla y las relaciones que existen entre la investigación y las pollticas de producción de semilla.La investigación efectuada por el IClA se organiza en torno a zonas agroecológicas especificas y tiene por objeto la creaci6n. prueba y transferencia de tecnologras para los pequeflos agricultores. Él sistema posee dos caracterrstlcas Importantes para el presente análisis: La primera son las unidades de valldacl6n socioecon6mlca y tecnológica. La unidad soctoecon6mica efectúa encuestas agroeconómicas antes de que ellClA ponga en marcha 14 Para un análisis delimpaeto dellCTA en la productividad agrlcola en Guatemala. consultar McDermott y Bathrlck (1982). Figura 7. Principales reglones productoras de malz en Guatemala.In InvAr:lIl1nf\"lón pn 'lnA nl/t'>I/n r\"'flIÓn: In I/nirlnrl rl~vnlldndón tocnol6n1cfl r,nmplA tl pn,'.hn. fin ni nlvAI rlfllnr; finCAS. las tecnologlas creadas en las estaciones experimenlHles. Es evidente que ente sistema aumenta las posibilidades de producir tecnolog/as adecuadas para grupos específicos de agricultores. Un ejemplo de este tipo de tecnolog/a son las VPL e hibridos de ma/z de alto rendimiento producidas por eIICTA.La segunda caracteristica importante del sistema de investigación dellCTA es que el sector privado participa en la producci6n de semilla certificada de las variedades creadas por el Instituto. El maíz constituye el mejor ejemplo de complementaridad entre ambos sectores. El ICTA vende semilla fundación y libera semilla básica a las empresas locales bajo un sistema de pago de regallas. También brinda a los productores de semilla un servicio de procesamiento de semilla y somete a prueba las variedades creadas por el sector privado. junto con sus propias lineas, en diferentes localidades.La mayor parte de la semilla de maíz producida por las compañías locales es resultado de su propia investigación o de la del /CTA. El mercado de semilla comercial está constituido por tres empresas principales: Cristlanl-Burkard, con una participación del 70% en el mercado de semilla de ma(z y Superb y Seminal, con un 10% cada una; el 10% restante se reparte entre e/lCTA (8%) Y otras pequet'las compat'llas productoras de semilla. la Crlstlanl-Burkard. que tuvo su sede en El Salvador de 1955 a 1981, opera en toda América Central desde SU$ nuevas oficinas centrales en Guatemala. la compa\"'ia cuenta con su propio programa de Investigación en ma/z y también tiene una concesión para vender semilla de Ploneer; alrededor del 30% de su germoplasma de maiz procede dellCTA. la principal actividad de Superb. que desde hace 15 at'los distribuye semilla de marz desde El Salvador, es la comercialización de semilla. en tanto que Seminal se especializa en la investigación. En 1985 Superb comenzó a comercializar los materiales dellCTA producidos por Superb y Seminal. Superb compra semilla fundación allCTA y tiene un programa conjunto de investigación con TACSA. una compania local del sur de México. puesto que en Guatemala la producción de semilla es una actividad combinada de ambos sectores. Por ejemplo, de un total de 1,800 t de semilla de malz producidas durante 1987, ellCTA sólo produjo 100 t.Durante los últimos 10 at'los se cuadruplicó la producción de semilla certificada de maiz. A mediados de los at'los 70. ellCTA inició su estrategia de producción conjunta con productores privados de semilla. En 1978. se Importaban de El Salvador 1.350 t de semilla de hrbridos, pero para fines de los 80, casi toda la semilla de malz se producia en Guatemala. Cerca del 70% de esta semilla es de híbridos. Las fuentes empresariales Indican que los hibrldos comerciales que se someten a prueba hoy en dla poseen un rendimiento 20% mayor que el de las mejores lineas comerciales que se encuentran ahora en el mercado. Según las mismas fuentes. estos hlbrldos comerciales rinden a su vez 30% más que las variedades antes existentes. Estas cifras set'lalan que es muy posible que el rendimiento del malz en las reglones que se siembran con semilla comercial experimente un fuerte Incremento durante los pr6xlmos 10 a\"os.En el Cuadro 11 se muestran los precios de la semilla en Guatemala durante 1987. la diferencia entre los precios de la semilla de las VPL y de los hlbrldos es, en promedio. s610 US$0.15/kg. Además. a un precio de US$l OO/t. la proporci6n de los precios semilla /grano de los hlbrldos es de 7.5.  19n 197819n 197919n 198019n 198119n 198219n 198319n 198419n 198519n 198619n 1987 Mo Mo Inversiones púhlirRC; y privadas en la invec;tigAr.ión En 1987, el presupuesto combinado de las dos empresas privadas que realizan investigación fue de la mitad del presupuesto del ICTA (Cuadro 12). Estas compañias gastan 90,000 dólares en dos estaciones y cuatro cienUflcos.En 1987, el tCTA tenía nueve científicos dedicados a la investigación en mejoramiento de malz en seis estaciones experimentales.Es posible que se haya subestimado el presupuesto anual del Instituto para la Investigación en marz, ya que solamente representa el 7% del presupuesto de investigación del ICTA y 3.6% de su presupuesto global (que incluye investigación y otros gastos). Stewart (1985) informa que en 1980-82 al maíz le correspondra el 11 % del presupuesto de investigación.' 5 Los ingresos que recibe el ICTA por la liberación de variedades de malz y servicios relacionados con la misma (venta de semilla fundación, regalías sobre semilla básica y procesamiento de semilla) constituye una cuarta parte del presupuesto anual de investigación sobre maíz. No. de clentlflcos e En GIJnlAm~l:l. In Inlpmf\"r.jrm rll1loc; c:~M()rf':lS p(,hlir.o y rrívArln p.n la Invp.stigAdón ~ohr~mar7 e~sllmamente productiva. Hace 15 afias, el sistema de investigación publico recomendaba que los agricultores sembraran semilla de malz hibrido creada por las empresas salvadorel'las. Hoy en día, el ICTA ofrece una amplia gama de VPL e hrbrldos de alto rendimiento creados por su programa de investigación. Los agricultores reconocen la semilla vendida con el logotipo del ICTA como un producto de excelente calidad, sin importar el tipo de semilla de que se trate. Esta apreciación es resultado en parte del método de investigación en fincas seguido por ellCTA y de la Interacción del Instituto con las empresas locales.Las compafifas locales se benefician de la investigación efectuada por el ICTA utilizando la semilla básica producida por el Instituto para crear sus propias lineas, o multiplicando la semilla fundación del ICTA y comercializándola con sus propias etiquetas y compitiendo en cuanto a la calidad. Las empresas locales negocian con ellCTA sus estrategias de Investigación y producción de semillas, en el entendimiento de que la complementarldad es sumamente beneficiosa para ambas partes. En Guatemala no existe una ley sobre semilla; como la Industria de la semilla es pequet'ía, aparentemente los dos sectores están de acuerdo en que no la necesitan .16A pesar del reducido tamal'lo del mercado de semilla de maíz. las pollticas y regulaciones de la Investigación Impuestas por el sector público proporcionan incentivos suficientes para que las empresas privadas deseen Invertir en la investigaci6n y producci6n de semilla en Guatemala. Una parte importante de estos Incentivos es la posibilidad de usar los resultados de la Investlgacl6n efectuada por el sector público a bajo costo. En pi (;1 mnrn 11; <:p. mllP<;tm 1:1 fnrm:1 pn 'lIJe <;P. distrihl 'Y\"\" 11)$ benpfidos (iprivrlrlnc:; rlp 11' 1 invp,c;tigacinn f'nlre los agricultores y las compañías productoras de semilla de Guatemala. Se estima que las utilidades procedentes de la venta de semilla en 1987 ascendieron a 1.2 millones de dólares con un precio medio de la semilla de US$0.68/kg.Las utilidades de las empresas locales fueron de 300,000 dólares, alrededor del 2S% de las ventas de semilla.En experimentos efectuados con maíz en toda Guatemala, Córdova (1984) encontró que el rendimiento aumentaba cerca del 90% si se usaban tecnologias mejoradas, ya que el rendimiento obtenido con tecnología tradicional era de 1.6 tlha y el obtenido con tecnología mejorada era de 3 tilla. La mejor calidad de la semilla explicaba dos terceras partes de ese incremento, en tanto que otros insumas eran responsables de la otra tercera parte. Córdova (1984) estima también que, en los campos de los agricultores, los híbridos y las VPL mejoradas rinden en término medio 35% más que las variedades de los agricultores. La claslflcacl6n de las reglones se basa en los metlos sobre el nivel del mar (msnm). VPL • variedad de pollnlzacl6n libre, FC • cruza entre miembros de una familia, OC • cruza doble y VC -cruza de variedades.1\\1 1t'Jllrll '1\"P pn Mfllfirn. pn GtI;:¡t\"'mr:tln In~C1grirlJltnrp!,: rnmprciales que arlqtliprpn spmillft mejorada reciblpron tinA gran parte de los beneficios generados por la investigación el1 1987 (más que las empresas privadas y los agricultores no comerciales). El sector público guatemalteco realiza la mayor parte de la Investigación y las empresas locales lIévan a cabo casi toda la comercialización. La ausencia de empresas paraestatales de semilla y la existencia de variedades producidas por el sector público han ejercido una influencia positiva en el desarrollo de las compañras locales. Además, como una compañía posee una gran participación en el mercado de semilla de marz, puede capturar la mayor parte de los beneficios derivados de la investigación. Por consiguiente, la estructura del mercado constituye un factor adicional importante en la decisión (a tomar por una compar\"lra privada) de invertir en investigación en marz en Guatemala. La inversión del sector privado en investigación y producción de semilla responde a las fuerzas del mercado y, por ende, está orientada a las utilidades. Son dos los factores básicos que afectan las utilidades esperadas de las compañías productoras de semilla: el tamaño del mercado y las politicas del sector público. Algunas de las variables que afectan la magnitud del mercado de semilla de maíz son la superficie que se siembra con malz, el rendimiento, la densidad de siembra y los costos de producción, así corno el tipo de agricultor y la estructura del mercado. Algunos ejemplos de las políticas del sector público que afectan las inversiones del sector privado en Investigación incluyen el alcance de las actividades del sector público en cuanto a la investfgación y a la producción de semilla y las regulaciones del comercio. En México, la inversión del sector privado en la investigación en maíz está determinada por la magnitud del mercado de semilla y por las políticas impuestas al sector privado. En el caso de Guatemala, la estructura del mercado de semilla de maíz y las políticas del sector público respecto a la investigación parecen ser los principales factores en la determinación de la inversión del sector privado en investigación.El tamaño del mercado mexicano ofrece una buena oportunidad de expansión de la investigación y producción de semilla por parte del sector privado en el futuro cercano, puesto que sólo el 15% de la superficie total que se cultiva con maíz se siembra con híbridos y 11 % con variedades mejoradas. La cantidad de semilla comercial de maiz que se siembra representa alrededor del 20% de toda la semilla de malz que se planta. Durante los últimos 10 anos se han reducido en forma considerable las regulaciones mexicanas impuestas a la investigación y el comercio. El gran tamaño del mercado y la eliminación de regulaciones han favorecido la expansión de la investigación realizada por el sector privado. En este contexto, las empresas multinacionales amplian con rapidez sus actividades de investigación. En 1987, las compañías privadas tuvieron una participación del 40% en la producción de semilla comercial de maíz. Las inversiones en investigación fueron de más de 1.5 millones de dólares. Sólo dos empresas tocales realizan investigación, pero poseen una participación reducida en el mercado de semilla y al parecer la competencia de las multinacionales y de PRONASE restringen sus actividades.Sólo el 11 % de la superficie de malz que se costtchó en Guatemala en 1987 se sembró con semilla de hrbrldos y sólo el 5% con variedades mejoradas. El mercado estimado para las variedades mejoradas e hibridos es de menos de 2,000 t. Si bien la superficie absoluta que se siembra con maíz es pequeí'la en comparación con la de México, la estructura del mercado en Guatemala atrae la inversión del sector privado en actividades de Investigación. La complementaridad creada entre las compal'lIas locales que producen semi/la y el lelA constituye un elemento fundamental del rápido crecimiento de la Industria guatemalteca de semilla de malz. Una pregunta Importante relacionada con esta Interacción de los sectores público y privado es cuán lejos debe llegar esta situación, teniendo en cuenta el reducido número de empresas que compiten en el mercado guatemalteco de semilla de maiz y el hecho de que los grandes agricultores comerciales son los que más se benefician de la semilla mejorada.La evidencia suministrada por Guatemala indica que, cuando el mercado de semilla de mafz es pequeño, el efecto combinado de una gran actividad de investigación por parte del sector público y la entrega de los resultados de dicha investigación a la industria favorece la investigación por parte del sector privado. Un mercado de mayor magnitud, como es el caso de México, brinda incentivos suficientes para que las empresas privadas de producción de semilla se muestren interesadas en realizar investigaciones sin depender de los organismos locales de inv~c;tÍ(l~df)n ,¡\"', c:p.r.tnr p(,hlir.() La~compal'lfac: <11 lP. pllPrl\"n p.mprender tnlec: nctividnrle~rjp Invf'lstiqAción !;on lAS multinacionales que ya cuentan con SUS propios programas de investigación o que tienen acceso a esos programas en otros parses.la relación que existe entre los sectores público y privado en cuanto a la investigación sobre fltomejoramlento y a la producción y distribución de semilla mejorada, es un elemento clave en el desarrollo de una industria de semilla. No obstante, el efecto de esta relación es tal vez mayor en las regiones agrrcolas más favorecidas. La evidencia preliminar que se presenta en este estudio Indica que en 1987 los agricultores comerciales de México y Guatemala fueron los que más se beneficiaron de la Investigación en variedades e hrbridos mejorados de marzo Por definición, los agricultores comerciales constituyen el mercado de las empresas privadas. Como el sector privado desarrolla y da servicio a las regiones más favorecidas, la investigación del sector público puede concentrarse en las VPL e hrbrldos no convencionales18 para las regiones menos favorecidas. Si se ponen estos materiales a disposición de las empresas productoras de semilla para su multiplicación y distribución, aumentará la difusión de semilla de mejor calidad entre los agricultores más pequet'los y menos comerciales.Una forma de fortalecer la Interacción que existe entre los organismos públicos y privados en cuanto a la Investigación y la producción de semilla de marz en México consiste en eliminar las restricciones Institucionales que Impiden que las companras locales y las asociaciones de productores tengan acceso al germoplasma desarrollado por el sector público. Una relación más estrecha entre eIINIFAP, PRONASE, las companras locales y las asociaciones de productores harra posible que el sector privado mexicano local compitiera con mayor eficiencia con las companlas extranjeras. la Industria mexicana de semilla de marz podrra avanzar aún más si se estrecharan los lazos entre el INIFAP y PRONASE en cuanto a la Investigación y la producción de semilla, ya que en ocasiones estos organismos actúan en forma independiente y sufren problemas de coordinación que obstaculizan la rápida transferencia de los resultados de la Investigación a los agricultores. La amplia diversidad de cultivos para los que debe producir semilla y el gran tamano de PRONASE también limitan, en algunos casos, la posibilidad de producir y suministrar productos de alta calidad.El objetivo primordial de brindar respaldo gubernamental a las compal'lías privadas que producen semilla mediante la liberación de germoplasma y la prueba de variedades, consiste en crear una industria de semilla eficaz. A fin de crear una industria semejante, los precios de la semilla fundación y la semilla básica y los precios de los servicios de prueba deben reflejar el costo total que Implica proporcionarlos. Por otra parte, tampoco deberlan dlstorslonarse los precios de la semilla de las empresas paraestatales, ya que la semilla subsidiada de las paraestatales significa una competencia desleal para las compal'llas privadas que producen semilla, una reducción de sus ventas y, por lo tanto, de sus actividades de investigación."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e41dbb50d09b37f0c23cb60f0b5f9477","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ce90b3f6-cacf-4e95-b6e7-9bbe2d4152ad/retrieve","id":"531422404"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"84754ec2-9bb8-4708-b36c-e25cd5e80f4e","content":"The proposal for a protocol emerged from collaborative experiences in several countries (e.g. Nepal, South Africa, Uganda) to build bridges between community seed banks and the national genebank, entities that do not by nature work together. (1) Concrete efforts to collaborate and work towards a protocol were supported in Kenya and Uganda. In Kenya, the Seed Savers Network of Kenya initiated a national consultation process/dialogue to develop a protocol for collaboration between the national genebank and the community seed banks in the country. Such collaboration entails the exchange of seed and knowledge, joint conservation activities and the creation of synergies towards a national conservation system. In recent years, national genebanks of some countries (e.g. Bhutan, Mexico, Nepal, South Africa and Uganda) have started to collaborate with community seed banks on the important task of conservation of crop (and tree) varieties. This collaboration has taken place in informal ways, in the form of participation in meetings and gatherings, seed and food fairs and through a number of joint activities, including the establishment of community seed banks and related (capacity development) activities. As far as is known, no formal agreements have been made/signed to structure, monitor and evaluate the collaboration in a more rigorous manner.Based on interactions among professionals from various countries who support community seed banks, the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT facilitated a co-creation process with international and national partners to develop a generic collaboration protocol that could help shape the collaboration process in countries where this has not yet taken place or to solidify the process in countries where this is already happening. Partners in Kenya and Uganda convened meetings with farmers/community seed bank members to discuss about the content of the protocol (goals, principles, activities). Based on these interactions and inputs, it was agreed that the protocol should promote the establishment of community seed banks at local level; promote regional, national and international cooperation; and promote knowledge management and exchange of plant genetic resources for food agriculture, on-farm seed production and marketing, and data management. The protocol applies to plant genetic resources (seed) maintained by the national genebank and the community seed banks; to the traditional knowledge associated with plant genetic resources; and to the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge. The protocol, inspired by the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), includes chapters (articles) on the roles of the national genebank; the roles of community seed banks; principles of collaboration; activities that can be done together and rules and regulations for the collaboration.The protocol was launched at the international conference on Guiding Seed Sector Transformation of the Integrated Seed Sector Africa program."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2b6caf88f87ab70329b4bac0a4843ab0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/914af228-e8db-407d-b1c5-6215db98ae1f/retrieve","id":"-615872773"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"20c7b7ac-8cec-4866-af68-c71a81275f26","content":"Evolución de los estudios empíricos Los estudios en los países latinoamericanos ¿Qué metodologías se han utilizado? El análisis de los datos Ubicación Población objetivo Estudiantes de educación superior Profesores y jóvenes profesionales del sector agropecuario Instrumento Fiabilidad del instrumento Análisis de datos Los estudiantes de educación superior Los jóvenes profesionales del sector agropecuario Los profesores de educación superior Conclusiones Recomendaciones\uD835\uDC67 2 \uD835\uDF0E 2 + \uD835\uDC41 \uD835\uDF00 2 (\uD835\uDC41 + 1) + \uD835\uDC67 2 \uD835\uDF0E 2 σ Ɛ 1 Este documento se basó en las estadísticas de la población estudiantil del segundo semestre del 2016. Las estadísticas para los territorios de análisis pueden ser consultados en el siguiente enlace: https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/sistemasinfo/Informacion-a-lamano/212400:Estadisticas 2 La investigación tomó como punto de partida el permiso de las autoridades centrales de la universidad y/o el de los directores de los programas académicos. Si determinada universidad o programa académico declinaba y/o no respondía a la solicitud de permiso para realizar la encuesta, la convocatoria continuaba con la siguiente universidad o programa de la lista. "}

main/part_2/0524927898.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"253872509aff2d744d8b7d335a23d89b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2dbd4249-02ca-4f0d-9601-87c715741863/retrieve","id":"2135615944"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bb201551-2750-4128-bc94-e319c2f2a787","content":"In these highly uncertain and rapidly changing times, the SADC region, like many regions in Africa, remains fundamentally dependent on a resilient agricultural system and natural resource base. Climate change still poses the greatest threat to the agricultural system and therefore technical capacity is needed to address these future impacts and adapt plans, policies and programs. Taking into account alternative futures, the SADC Futures project has produced tailored supporting materials and documents as part of a wider approach for foresight training in the region. These documents and the associated foresight framework aim to equip users to practically apply the range of foresight tools and methods for innovative strategic planning and policy formulation for climate resilience.Figure 33. Indicators of institutional perfomance in the SADC countries, 2018Figure 34. Applied weighted mean tariffs for primary products for sub-Saharan Africa (left) and regional trade agreement (right) Figure 35. Agricultural potential is the SADC region Table 6. 2016 maize production deficit in SADC countries and the number of affected people  This study aims to describe recent developments in the Southern African region by documenting a set of mega-trends defining social, economic, political and environmental conditions. It includes analysis of the recent past as well as projections of future trends. To the extent possible, the report is based on information from 2010 to the present, except in some cases where more recent information was not available. The purpose of this analysis is to get a snapshot of current conditions in the Southern African region and the dynamics that generated them, to inform the design and implementation of investments to secure climateresilient agricultural livelihoods in the region.The study goes beyond simply tracing trends, however, and provides guidance on how the information can best be used in making plans for the future. The mega-trend analysis gives insights into forces that will shape the future but does not provide predictions of the future. Humans are typically very linear thinkers and tend to look at trends from the past and project them forwards into the future, and we often fall into the trap of thinking that the future is defined by what has happened in the past. There is considerable uncertainty over how several of these mega-trends will play out in the near future, with the possibility of major disruptions and changes on the horizon. This can be seen quite clearly in the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic which is still unfolding, and which is already disrupting expectations of future conditions.This uncertainty of future conditions greatly complicates decision-making today. To address this complication, the development of scenarios to identify a range of plausible futures is an important tool for decision-makers. In the final section of the report we give examples of recent scenario work in the region to illustrate how the analysis of megatrends and their uncertainties can be useful in strategic decision-making under uncertainty.Summary of mega-trends analysis 1.2.Three main conclusions emerge from the analysis of the 17 mega-trends. These are:The Southern African region has tremendous resources and capacity to achieve climate-resilient agricultural livelihoods. Specifically, the region has:Considerable endowments of natural resources;Relatively high levels of per capital GDP for most countries;Achieved high rates of economic growth in recent past;Achieved nearly universal coverage of basic education;Seen significant improvements in women's empowerment;High rates of urbanization;Relatively low levels of distortions in regional trade;Increasing levels of intra-regional trade; andGood potential for developing renewable energy sources.The region is facing tremendous challenges and has not yet effectively addressed them. Specifically, the region has:Very high numbers of people of extreme poverty, concentrated in rural areas and projected to increase;The highest level of income inequality in Africa which is still rising;Stagnating economic growth rates in most recent years;Poor agricultural performance persisting over decades;Major challenges arising from climate change in terms of water availability and distribution and areas adapted to agricultural production;Relatively weak performance in regional integration; andLow scores on institutional quality and forward-looking thinking of governments for most countries.Greater regional integration is likely to be necessary to achieve climate-resilient agricultural livelihoods. Specific aspects are: Expansion of regional trade in water is increasingly important due to differential effects of climate change on rainfall and water availability throughout the region. This will affect agricultural production, electricity supply and access to water for human consumption; Development of regional market can be key driver of industrialization; Development of regional food production and expansion of regional food trade can enhance food security and reduce external debt; Development of regional agricultural value chains can not only underpin increased regional food production and trade, but also enhance employment opportunities; andExpansion and improvement of regional infrastructure is essential to achieve other benefits of regional integration.Population is expected to continue increasing up to 2050, but at a lower rate than the recent past. Countries in the Southern African region will experience a large growth of the youth population during the same period. Rural population is expected to decline slightly in some of the countries, and increase in others.The region has the highest level of urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa and is expected to remain so up to 2050.Increasing urbanization is due mostly to population growth in urban areas and reclassification of rural areas as urban as population densities increase. Rural-urban migration is less important as a driving force of urbanization.Dietary trends in the Southern African region are bifurcated with higher income groups following the classic transition to higher levels of meat consumption and highly refined foods, while high rates of under-and malnutrition are found amongst the poor and in rural areas.The region is being squeezed by a double burden of health risks: for the poor health risks are driven by undernutrition and stunting, as well as high vulnerability to communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria. On the other hand, for those with higher incomes poor diets leading to obesity and growth of noncommunicable diseases is becoming a major issue.There are high and persistent levels of extreme poverty with significantly higher levels in rural areas. The numbers of extreme poor are projected to increase up to 2040 in the region although the percentage of the population in poverty is expected to decrease. Low levels of economic growth and high levels of inequality in access to key productive assets inhibit successful and broad poverty reduction.Most countries in the region have inherited colonial legacies of unequal land distribution and are seeking ways to reform them. The systems of land tenure are diverse across the region but customary systems are important for most. Common needs for land tenure systems are more transparency and systems that allow greater access and security of women to land.At present the region is witnessing growth in mediumsized farms owned by urban and rural elites, as is the case in other parts of sub-Saharan Africa. In the small farm sector there is a high and increasing degree of fragmentation.Women have significantly less access to productive assets and education. However, considerable progress has been made in women's political participation and representation and also in some countries in increasing education levels of women.The Southern African region is characterized by low levels of energy access, particularly in rural areas. Planned expansion of energy infrastructure is mostly aimed at industrialization and urban areas. Hydropower is an important component of the energy supply and is likely to be affected by climate change. Energy demand is projected to grow rapidly up to 2050 due to expansion in the industrial sector with potential for major expansion from decentralized and renewable sources, particularly wind and solar.The Southern African region had the lowest levels of economic growth in Africa in 2017 and 2018, after several years of having the highest levels of growth. Projections of growth have been significantly reduced due to expected impacts from the COVID-19 pandemic.The contribution of the agricultural sector to GDP is generally quite low across all countries in the Southern African region, but its share in employment is generally highest amongst sectors. Youth unemployment is a significant problem across all countries in the region. Food prices have increased in the region as have food imports, despite expansion of food production in the region.countries in the Southern African region, and is a major contributor to the low agricultural productivity in the region. Contributory factors include poor soils, land fallows that are reducing or being eliminated with population pressures, and nutrient mining due to lack of attention to soil management and very limited use of inputs that could conserve and restore soil quality.African region is expected to worsen with climate change and threatens not only agricultural production, which is largely rainfed, but also economic development where hydropower plays an important role. The northern countries of the region have abundant water supplies and thus regional management is important but not yet fully operational.The Southern African region is characterized by low or even negative productivity growth in agriculture, with most of the growth obtained through agricultural land expansion rather than more efficient use of agricultural inputs. At present the most productive agricultural lands are relatively small areas of irrigated land in the arid south.The northern areas have greater potential for expansion of agricultural activities. In recent years, middle income countries have generally done better than low income countries in achieving both land and labour productivity growth for crops and overall productivity for livestock production. Post-harvest losses in the region as a whole are over 30%.The Southern African region is one of the most stable politically in Africa, albeit cases of political strife and even armed conflict have occurred recently in the region. The level of regional integration is complicated by the overwhelming strength of the South African economy compared with other countries in the region. The weakest aspects of regional integration are infrastructural (including water management and electricity). Successful coordination in managing water is essential to achieving the region's development goals but has not yet been attained.Introduction: The Role of Events in Shaping the FutureThis document provides a summary of mega-trends relevant to consider in the context of building plans and investments to support climate-resilient livelihoods in the Southern African region. These mega-trends are associated with driving appreciable change, whether through attitudinal, behavioural, economic or environmental mechanisms. The trends identified as \"mega\" depend to an extent on the context and institution describing them. For example, PwC 1 describe five: urbanisation, climate change and resource security, shifting global power, demographic and social change, and technology, whereas the UN 2 adds poverty and inequality, shocks and crises (as well as development finance) to their list. This report provides a synthesis of 15 megatrends most relevant for the regional context, covering social, economic, technology, environmental and political processes.While reviewing these results, it is important to keep in mind how they should be interpreted in the context of building climate-resilient livelihoods in the Southern African region. The mega-trend analysis gives insights into forces that will shape the future but does not provide predictions of the future. Humans are typically very linear thinkers and tend to look at trends from the past and project them forwards into the future, and we often fall into the trap of thinking that the future is defined by what has happened in the past. However, as 2020 has already shown, the future is not a simple linear extrapolation of trends, unfolding in a constant and gradual way. Instead, \"events happen\" and sometimes these events are both highly impactful and disruptive. Such events can arise for two main reasons. Firstly, \"black swan\" events are rare, but with very high impact; perhaps both unexpected and unprecedented. The COVID-19 pandemic is arguably such an event. Secondly, a single event (a hazard) or multiple hazards, can occur, and alone or together can create chains of interacting effects that cascade across borders. For example, the food price shocks of 2007-8 and 2010-12 created ripple effects that impacted across the world and arose from relatively minor climate events interacting with other policy areas (biofuel policy), and a lack of transparency of stocks, leading to an over-amplification of market dynamics. In extremes, \"risk cascades\" or \"black swan\" events can create systemic risks (Challinor et As time goes on, our economic systems are growing in fragility (Homer-Dixon et al. 2015). To illustrate, take food securityconsistent and reliable access to nutritious food-which is typically supplied through a combination of local production, and regional and global trade. The latter has become more important with growing market integration across borders, creating increasing dependencies on imports and exports. Agriculture depends on water, land, supply of labour and in many parts of the world, also chemicals and energy. Increasingly, agriculture is also reliant on more advanced technologies like satellite navigation in precision agriculture and transport networks. The drive for economic efficiency also leads to a greater reliance on just-in-time supplies. Food availability therefore relies on a range of sectors, infrastructure, complex logistics, finance, and so on, domestically, regionally and globally to work in concert in order to supply a nation's requirements. The just-in-time nature and sectorial co-dependencies of many food systems mean that any shock (which could be a climate change impact, a change in energy policy, a geo-political disruption) can rapidly propagate around the world.Proportionally, the impacts of such events are often felt most strongly by those with the lowest levels of wealth and economic resiliency.Perhaps most importantly, the spatial and sectoral cointegration of many human systems means that there is a very large combination of potential shocks, places they could happen, and pathways through which they could propagate to create significant impacts (Challinor et al. 2018). Thus, whilst we often think of \"black swans\", the number of potential ways that risks can cascade to affect any given country is very large. As such, we should regard events like the global financial crisis, food price spikes, insurgency, pest and disease outbreaks, impactful climate change, crises deriving from movement of people to all be elements of \"the new normal\". Each event may be a \"oneoff\", but in any given period, we should expect something big to happen.Our linear-thinking pre-disposes us to think of the future in terms of \"business-as-usual\" scenarios. But as outlined, the world is highly non-linear, stochastic and complex. Given enough shocks, our expectant realities of locked-in, resilient-to-change \"business-as-usual\" futures may be reconfigured.In the following sections of this document we describe 15 mega-trends covering social, economic, technological, environmental, governance categories. Climate change is not considered here since a more detailed analysis of this mega-trend in the Southern African region is covered in a separate report. The analysis is based on data and reports from 2010 to present, with time horizons up to 2050. The analysis utilizes material from beyond the southern African region, as in some cases information was only available at the country or sub-Saharan Africa level. In addition, the countries included in the Southern African category varied considerably by source and over the last 10 years. For this reason, the countries included in each of the regional-level analyses are identified.We conclude the report with a discussion of future uncertainty in the drivers, and the utility of scenario analyses for decision making under uncertainty, giving some recent examples of their use in Southern Africa to examine the future of food systems.Quoting from United States Global Strategic Trends 2035 (NIC 2017):\"Examining the trends…. makes vivid that the world will become more volatile in the years ahead. States, institutions, and societies will be under pressure from above and below the level of the nation-state to adapt to systemic challenges-and to act sooner rather than later. From above, climate change, technology standards and protocols, and transnational terrorism will require multilateral cooperation. From below, the inability of government to meet the expectations of their citizens, inequality, and identity politics will increase the risk of instability.\"Mega-trends in the Southern African region In the region, overall, there has been a downward trend in mortality, particularly infant and child mortality. The combination of high fertility and declining mortality has been largely responsible for the rapidly increasing population of the region.Figure 2 shows projections of the per cent of population aged 15-64 years-e.g., the projection of the size of the labour force for the Southern African region. As can be seen, the median projection indicates high increases up to 2040 with a gradual decline thereafter.Although there is some uncertainty in the level of growth, there is clearly an expansion of youth into the labour force in the next 10 to 20 years.3 In this context, the Southern African region includes Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe 4 Author's download of data from: https://population.un.org/wpp/ 5 Author's download of data from: https://population.un.org/wpp/  Most of this growth is from urban population growth rather than migration, or areas that were previously considered rural being reclassified as urban as population densities increased (Jayne et al. 2017). This is consistent with findings that a large share of Africa's urban population is now residing in secondary and tertiary towns, which tend to have close links with economic activity in surrounding rural areas. Farming and agri-food systems are therefore likely to play a significant role in employment growth in these urban areas.In the Southern African region, the overall trend has been towards increasing urbanization of the population in most countries with the exception of Mauritius and Eswatini which exhibit de-urbanizing trends. In other areas of the region, urban population growth rates are higher than national totals. In contrast to the situation in other areas of sub-Saharan Africa, inmigration to urban areas is a major source of urban population growth in the Southern African region (SADC 2013a).Figure 3 shows projected urbanization rates for the UN designated Southern African region. It indicates that the level of population living in urban areas is higher in the region compared with all other African regions, and it is projected to remain so up to 2050.Urban and higher income groups are likely to transition to highly refined food high in calories and fat while for rural and poor groups high levels of food insecurity and nutritional deficits will remain. Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho and South Africa are believed to be moving rapidly from stage 3 to stage 4 of the nutrition transition, although in some countries there are intra-country differences (Nnyepi et al. 2015). The dietary transition is analysed via consumption of edible oils, sugar and sweeteners to demonstrate dietary shifts from wholesome traditional foods for these countries in Southern Africa. These foods were selected in part because they provide significant energy but are largely devoid of other nutrients.   In Zambia, urban lifestyles and growing affluence in cities are driving a change in and diversification of diets, with the share of food expenditure devoted to maize decreasing significantly in recent years for both rural and urban households (GCRF-AFRICAP 2018). For poor households typically in rural areas, relative expenditure on vegetables has increased but remains low; among wealthier households, expenditure on wheat, rice, potatoes and animal proteins has increased along with the consumption of foods that are high in fat and salt. For low income households approximately half of dietary energy comes from maize and the consumption of nutrient-poor foods-and micronutrient deficiencies are common.Whilst the dietary transition has followed a common pattern in recent decades, the twin imperatives of mitigating environmental change (particularly climate change) and improving public health, signal the necessity of transforming diets towards healthier, more sustainable eating patterns. 7 Historical trends may therefore not predict future changes, given the costs of past trends are now better understood (see below). The Southern African region is being squeezed by double burden of health risks: on the one hand undernutrition and stunting, as well as high vulnerability to communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria, on the other hand poor diets leading to obesity and growth of noncommunicable diseases.According to the 2019 Regional Vulnerability Assessment and Analysis (RVAA) for the Southern African region, an estimated 41.2 million people in 13 Member States of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) 8 were food insecure in 2019. This was a 28% increase in food insecurity over 2018 for 11 of the SADC countries that reported in both years. Significant increases in the number of people who are foodinsecure have been recorded in Zambia (144%), Zimbabwe (128%), Eswatini (90%), Mozambique (85%) and DRC (80%).The prevalence of wasting (e.g., low weight-for-age) amongst children under age 5 is above 5% in 7 SADC countries, with some areas above 10%. Stunting prevalence (e.g., low height-for-age) is over 30% in 10 of the SADC countries The graphic below shows the distribution of wasting and stunting (low height-for-age) amongst children across the SADC countries from the latest SADC food security update in April 2020 (SADC 2020b). It is expected that COVID-19 will further exacerbate food insecurity in the region in 2020 and into 2021.The Southern African region has been hit hard by the HIV/AIDS epidemic-accounting for one third of total global cases. 9 Eight of the SADC countries are amongst those with the highest incidence of tuberculosis globally, and 75% of the SADC population is at risk of contracting malaria). However, projections indicate a declining rate of mortality from all communicable diseases up to 2030 as shown in the graphic below (Cilliers et al. 2011), though of course this may change in the light of emerging infectious diseases, such as COVID-19. The Southern African region is facing a growing \"double burden\" of poor nutrition, with obesity and associated health risks growing amongst several countries. One the main factors is poor diets-as discussed in the section on dietary transitions, as well as lack of physical activity. The graphic below from Nnyepi et al 2015 shows the distribution of risk factors for non-communicable diseases associated with diet and physical activity (PA) for 10 of the Southern African countries. Poverty is a large and persistent problem in the Southern African region as it is for all of Africa. Although poverty rates have declined over recent decades in Africa, the absolute number of poor people has increased (Badiane and Collins 2016).The Africa SDG 2019 report shows that for most Southern African countries meeting SDG1 on ending poverty remains a significant challenge.According to the analysis in the Africa SDG 2019 report, while the Southern African region is not on track to meet any of the SDGs, there is moderate progress on 7 of the 15 goals and in no case is there a worsening of performance. The conclusion is that Southern Africa is performing better than any other region of sub-Saharan Africa (SDG Center for Africa and Sustainable Development Solutions Network 2019).The Southern African region has a heavy burden of extreme poverty (measured as living on less than USD 1.90/day). It is estimated that nearly 88 million people (45% of the population) live in extreme poverty across the region. Southern Africa accounts for 9% of extreme poverty globally, even though it only accounts for about 2.5% of the world population (Porter 2017).Poverty has a strong rural bias in sub-Saharan Africa as can be seen from the figure below from the IFAD 2016 Rural Development Report. The percentage headcount of people in extreme poverty is significantly higher in rural areas than urban ones, although a slight decline in the relationship is shown for East and Southern Africa over the period 1990-2010 (IFAD 2016).As with the overall trend in Africa, the Southern African region 10 is expected to see a drop in the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty from 45% in 2017 to 41% by 2040 (Porter 2017). However, the absolute numbers of people living in extreme poverty are expected to increase to nearly 130 million-an addition of 40 million people to those in extreme poverty in 2017 (see figure 11). The reason is high population growth, high inequality and slow growth in the agricultural sector which most poor people rely on for their livelihoods. The Southern African region has not experienced growth that is sufficiently inclusive or high to provide for improvements in livelihoods of the poor in the region. The region as a whole is expected to average 3.5% annual growth to 2040, which is lower than every other region on the continent except for Central Africa. Meanwhile, population growth is expected to average 2% over the same time period (Porter 2017). Note this estimate does not include the impacts of COVID-19 which can be expected to exacerbate poverty.The Southern African region is one of the most unequal in terms of income and social indicators as indicated in the figure on the SDG Dashboard showing significant or major challenges in achieving SDG 10 on reducing inequality for all but 2 countries. The table below from the 2020 Southern Africa economic outlook report shows medium to high levels of inequality (e.g., high Gini coefficients) for 8 of the 14 Southern African countries included.  There is a growth trend in medium sized farms owned by urban and rural elites in countries. This could represent a potential source of wage income in the future. Overall, there is a high degree of fragmentation in agricultural land holdings and decreasing farm size for smallholders. There exist highly diverse systems of land tenure across Southern African countries but customary systems are important in all but one country. Tenure regimes that deny access to women are a problem throughout the region.The proportion of farm sizes that are small or very small in sub-Saharan Africa is higher than in many regions of the world (see Figure 13). Around 80% of all nutrients come from farms that are <20ha in size.Farmland distribution patterns in sub-Saharan Africa are changing rapidly, with a significant increase in demand for agricultural land from international and national firms, as well as urban-based African investors (Jayne et al. 2017).Rural population growth has also contributed to the increasing subdivision of land and fragmentation into tiny plots. Although farms of fewer than five hectares still account for about 90% of all farms in sub-Saharan Africa, the number of these farms is increasing only gradually in most African countries owing to land pressures, the economic unviability of further sub-dividing very small farms, and youth migration ( If current trends continue, we can expect that there will be fewer small-scale family farms and greater levels of wage employment on medium-and large-scale farms. We can expect that youth will face increased challenges in accessing land-particularly in areas of favourable access to markets (Jayne et al. 2017).Southern African countries exhibit the same trends as those at the sub-Saharan African level, albeit with considerable differences between countries in terms of land tenure systems. Gender inequality with women having less political, social and economic power than men has been, and continues to be, a major problem in the region, however, some improvements have been achieved with participation in political representation and schooling for females.According to the 2019 SDG Gender Index, sub-Saharan Africa has an average regional index score of 51.1-the lowest scoring region globally in terms of gender equality (SADC 2019a).The Southern African region exhibits several aspects of gender disparities in terms of political, social, economic and health status. These include lower schooling rates for females particularly in rural areas and early age of pregnancy and marriage, maternal mortality rates and prevalence of HIV infections. For example:Gender inequality exists in almost all spheres of life in Eswatini: socially, women are regarded as minors; decision-making power is vested in males at family, community and national levels; men take decision on matters relating to sexuality, reproduction, family size, and the adoption of fertility regulation measures (SADC 2013a).Information on status and trends regarding gender issues in Botswana, Mozambique, Tanzania and South Africa are scant; however, in Botswana, the customary law and practice have been observed as inhibiting the success of efforts (including government policies, legal instruments and programs) to eliminate gender discrimination by continuing the perpetuation of unequal power relations between men and women (SADC 2013a).However, many Southern African countries have taken the implementation of the SADC Declaration on Gender and Development (1997) and its addendum on the Prevention and Eradication of Violence Against Women and Children (1998), and the achievement of the Millenium Development Goal (MDG) targets related to gender seriously in their planning and implementation strategies, particularly primary school enrolment.Representation of women in the decision-making spheres of governance has been on the increase in almost all countries in SADC region, and the most recent data show that South Africa is a leader in this, with about 45% of women representatives in the Parliament, followed by Mozambique (39%), Angola (38.6%) and Tanzania (36%) (SADC 2013a).Photo: Neil Palmer (CIAT) Southern Africa has made significant progress in achieving universal access to primary school education with over 80% of school-aged children enrolled. This is significantly higher than the sub-Saharan African average of 70% (AfDB 2020). However, drop-out rates are over 10% in most countries. Secondary and tertiary school enrolment levels are low; at 50% in lower secondary, 30% in upper secondary and under 15% in tertiary for most countries.  Energy is a critical area of the infrastructure pillar of the revised SADC Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP) and considerable preparatory work has been done in this area to develop enabling policies, systems and processes that will greatly facilitate project preparation as well as help to attract private sector investments and further promote public-private partnerships.Regional integration of Southern African energy sources has been taking place over recent years. To date, nine power utilities on the Southern African mainland are interconnected, except Angola, Malawi and Tanzania. Some degree of integration of power networks involving Botswana, DRC, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia has been accomplished. This inter-connectivity has facilitated the establishment of the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) trading platform, enabling SADC Member States with power shortfalls to purchase power from those with surplus power within the framework of the regional energy security framework.At present, the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) is largely dominated by non-renewable energy in the form of coal. However, more recently, the growth of energy from renewable sources is increasing. When taking into account the commissioned capacity, hydropower in the form of conventional and pumped storage accounted for 43%, gas for 24%, solar systems (Photovoltaics and Concentrated Solar Power) for 11%, wind for 10% and coal occupied only 7% (SADC and SARDC 2018).The energy mix may, however, change more rapidly than expected, due to the rapid decline in prices of renewable energy systems (see figure below). Solar power (and to a lesser extent onshore wind) are essential on par with the costs of hydro-power, and increasingly cheaper than any fossil fuel form of electricity generation.Given climate change's impacts on water supply, the balance in terms of favouring new Photovoltaics (PV) installations vs. hydro, may flip; and if PV costs continue to decrease, the potential for rural energy supplies will increase rapidly.Access to energy in the Southern African region is still highly constrained, particularly in rural areas with average access to electricity for only 34% of the population.Energy demand is projected to grow rapidly to 2050. Much of the demand comes from expected growth in the industrial sector and rising shares of medium and advanced technologies therein. However, under current policy frameworks, rural areas are not likely to see a major increase in energy access (SADC and SARDC 2018).SADC is planning a significant increase in the uptake of renewables that will allow the region to achieve a renewable energy mix of at least 32% by 2020, which should rise to 35% by 2030. Most of this capacity will come from hydropower, followed by wind energy, solar PV, concentrated solar power and biomass. Development of a harmonized regional policy framework for new and renewable energy has been identified as an important step towards realization of SADC's goal of achieving the balance between meeting the region's energy needs and ensuring sustainability of the environment (SADC and SARDC 2018).  In 2018 and 2019, the Southern African region had the lowest growth rate amongst African regions. This was after having the highest rate of growth during the 2010-2017 period. Factors contributing to the poor growth were depressed global demand, supply side constraints, falling commodity prices and extreme weather patterns of drought and cyclones (AfDB 2020).Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic the expectations were moderate growth for 2020 and 2021, however, these are now significantly reduced. Projections shown in the figure below from the Southern African Economic Outlook Report of 2020 indicate economic recovery only in 2021 with a level of growth higher than advanced economies.policy environment, low public and private sector into value chains and unstable power generation capacity have all contributed to reducing the region's competitiveness and economic growth (AfDB 2020).A striking feature of Southern African economies is the high share of employment in the agricultural sector, despite the low share of the sector in contributing to GDP in seven of the region's countries (see table below).The service sector is both a significant contributor to GDP and a source of employment.Services dominate the region's economy, accounting for over 50% of GDP for most countries. Industry is the second largest sector in most countries, with only Madagascar, Malawi and Mozambique having the agriculture sector as the second largest contributor to GDP. South Africa is the largest economy, followed by Angola, Zambia and Botswana.Despite prioritisation of industrialisation development in the Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP), progress has been slow. An unfavourable  The region is expected to have a major increase in the workforce due to a demographic youth bulge. Presently, the highest rates of employment are in informal economy with low returns. Agriculture is the sector with the highest employment shares in most countries.The Southern African region has the highest levels of unemployment in Africa, with youth unemployment in double digits for most countries (AfDB 2020).As shown in figure 21 from the IFAD 2019 Rural Development Report, rural youth populations in sub-Saharan Africa are projected to increase in regions and countries with low rates of structural and rural transformation (measured by the share of GDP from non-agricultural activities, and value added per agricultural worker, respectively). However, three countries in the Southern African region, namely, South Africa, Eswatini and Namibia, are the only sub-Saharan African countries that have achieved high levels of both structural and rural transformation.institutions and low labour absorption capacity in industries. Essentially, there has not been sufficient importance given to employment growth in development policies. High unemployment rates are an important factor in the region's huge income inequalities.The COVID-19 pandemic is likely to exacerbate unemployment in the hardest hit sectors such as tourism and hospitality, entertainment, retail and trade, and agriculture, where most of the people in the region are employed. The small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and the informal economy in general, which are big employers in some of the regional countries, will also be adversely affected due to the national lockdowns and slowdown in business activity. Without government support, the majority of workers are at risk of losing jobs, thus, compounding the unemployment statistics (AfDB 2020). In sub-Saharan Africa, the ratio of the value of food imports as a percentage of the value of domestic agricultural output has been steadily rising since 2000, from 9.2% in 2001 to 24.1% in 2014 (see figure below). The greatest share of sub-Saharan Africa's total food imports is coming from countries outside the region. Food grain and oilseed imports (for animal feed) are driving rising food deficits, accounting for roughly 60% of the region's total food import bill (FAOSTAT 2017). These patterns reflect the region's inability to increase local food production fast enough over the past three decades to keep up with its rapidly growing population as well as the rising income-related growth in food demand.The regional level of food price volatility in SADC is considerably higher than that of any one country in the region-with the exception of Mauritius. Food price volatility is only weakly correlated between the SADC countries. These two conditions indicate high potential for reducing food price volatility through intra-regional trade. At present, SADC has the highest share of regional trade amongst the African regional economic communities (RECs) at 42%, compared with 6% for the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and 20% for the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). Although SADC is doing much better than the other two RECs, its member countries still account for far less than half of the value of agricultural trade within the region (Badiane et al. 2014).Food prices in the Southern African region have risen over recent years, as exhibited in the graph below showing changes in the Consumer Food Price Index from 2011 to 2019 for five countries in the region. The index is close to doubling over the period. Intra-regional trade in SADC has increased over the 2000-2017 period. Intra-SADC export shares exceed 30% for Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Eswatini (94% in 2017), DRC and Zimbabwe. In contrast, Angola, Comoros, Seychelles and Madagascar export less than 10% of their goods to the SADC region (Black et al. 2019). Fewer countries experienced rising shares of imports from intra-SADC trade over the same period, however. South Africa is both the major source of intra-regional exports as well as the primary market for other SADC country exports.There is a significantly higher share of manufactured goods being exported at the intra-regional level, compared with the extra-regional exports as shown in the figure below. This indicates considerable potential for enhancing industrial development through intra-regional trade (Black et al. 2019).imports. The real net import value of processed products in 2017 was less than a third of that in 2012 (Meyers at al. 2019).The SADC region is typically an exporter of unprocessed but perishable agricultural products which has remained fairly constant over the period of 2010-2017. Until 2012 it was also a major importer of processed agricultural products but since then there has been a major reduction in the share of processed foodThe SADC region continues to import significant amounts of products for which it lacks comparative advantage or competitiveness such as wheat and rice, and chicken meat. The graph below categorizes all agricultural imports and exports for the SADC region into 15 categories and tracks their levels over the 2010-2017 period.The likelihood that these historical trends will continue into the future depends on the development of global markets, which, in turn, rests on the stability of world order and market demand for today's commodities.As discussed above, market dynamics may change if dietary preferences shift (driven by health and sustainability concerns), and if geopolitical and trade instability increases, the costs and benefits to trade will change. These issues are further discussed in the Scenarios sections in the following pages.  Addressing the issue of land degradation is fundamental to achieving resilient agricultural livelihoods in Southern Africa. Land degradation is associated with poverty, given the importance of agriculture in the livelihoods of Africa's poor (Barrett and Bevis 2015). It also raises the importance of the distribution of especially fertile land and the insecurity of land rights in a number of countries in Southern and Eastern Africa as well as the imperfect functioning of Africa's land markets (Barrett et al. 2017).In Southern Africa, increasing population pressures leading to reduction in fallows and continuous cropping without inputs has resulted in soils depleted of nutrients. Soil fertility decline has led to declines in crop yields in the region (Vlek et al. 2019).In the Southern African region soils are generally of poor quality with low organic content and low water retention (Vlek et al. 2019).In most of Namibia and Botswana and the northwestern part of South Africa the soils are sandy, with low soil organic matter.In Lesotho over 70% of the soils are acidic, have low organic matter, low pH and are infertile.In South Africa over 30% of the soils are sandy and over 60% are low in soil organic matter, and exhibit high levels of degradation and low productivity.In Malawi soil erosion is a major cause of low productivity with an estimated loss of 20 kg of N and 30 kg of P annually.Mozambique is estimated to lose 112 kg of N, 60 kg P203 and 116 kg of K20 annually.Water availability in Southern Africa is variable both in time and spatially wherein some parts of the region are experiencing scarcity and other parts abundance. Blue water availability varies significantly across the region from over 8000 m3/cap/yr in the DRC to 869 m3/cap/yr in South Africa (CRIDF 2014). This is due not only to rainfall and runoff but also population dependency on the resource. The most stressed countries are not those with the lowest rainfall but those with high water demand relative to rainfall such as Eswatini with huge water withdrawals for irrigating sugarcane. South Africa stands out as the most water stressed-and also most vulnerable to climate change (CRIDF 2014).At present, in Southern Africa, 12 about 85% of surface and groundwater is used for agriculture (Vlek et al. 2019). The share of irrigated land is less than 20% and primarily in South Africa.Botswana and South Africa are the largest importers of virtual water, with 45 and 21% of their water footprint imported respectively (CRIDF 2014).There are three pivotal water basins in the SADC region: the Incomati, Limpopo and Orang/Senqu (CRIDF 2014).Management of these across SADC is a key requirement for the region to achieve its development goals. However, this is proving complicated as discussed in the section on water management policy below.Real water exports, such as interbasin transfers between the regions, are not common, with the most significant occurring between Lesotho and South Africa. The latter has invested heavily in dam infrastructure in the former to supply the densely populated and highly industrialized Gauteng province of South Africa. This has been to the detriment of local small-scale farmers in Lesotho for whom the inundated land is no longer accessible (Johnston and Chapman 2016).  The Southern African region is one of the most stable politically in Africa, albeit cases of political strife and even armed conflict have occurred in the region. The level of regional integration is complicated by the overwhelming strength of the South African economy compared with other countries in the SADC community. The weakest aspect of regional integration is in infrastructural integration (including water management and electricity). Successful coordination in managing water is essential to achieving SADC's development goals but has not yet been attained.According to African Development Bank, the Southern African region is the most stable region in Africa, being largely peaceful. However, there have been instances of political crises, democracy and governance deficits, and even armed conflict. Lesotho had political instability and a security crisis in 2015 and 2017. Angola had a new president in 2017 after 38 years, and Zimbabwe in 2018 after 37 years. South Africa witnessed changes in political leadership likely to boost investor confidence. Botswana continues to rank as a peaceful country on the global peace index, remaining in second place in Africa after Mauritius.The level of regional integration is a key indicator of governance. Regional integration has historically constituted an integral part of development strategies in Africa. It has been viewed as a means to achieve sustained economic growth and development and to overcome the region's structural problems such as political fragmentation, lower per capita incomes and small intra-regional markets.In a joint effort by the African Union, the African Development Bank and the UN Economic Commission for Africa, analysis of the level of regional integration is conducted using sixteen different indicators, grouped into five dimensions. The dimensions and associated indicators are shown in the figure on the right.Assessing the level of integration across the continent's regional economic communities indicated that the lowest points for overall integration are scored by SADC at 0.337 and the highest score overall is obtained by the East African Community (EAC) at 0.537.County level analysis indicates that SADC's top performers are South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe; its bottom performers are the DRC, Angola and Eswatini. SADC's country rankings appear to reflect the current state of socioeconomic integration in the community, where the best-performing countries have flourishing economies and enjoy a relatively good standard of living. SADC's strength lies in the free movement of people, and is weakest on infrastructural integration. Intra-regional levels of global powerIntra-regional cooperation is affected by the relative levels of power in the SADC Member States. One measure of global power has been developed by the International Futures (Ifs) forecasting tool. This tool calculates each country's portion of global power by weighting its share of global GDP (at exchange rates or purchasing power parity), population, a measure of technological sophistication (with GDP per capita as a proxy), government size, conventional military power and nuclear military power (Hughes 2014).A study by the ISS using this tool to compare projections of power among SADC countries showed that by 2040 Angola will be the only country that approaches South Africa, but that the latter will still wield more power potential. The only other country in SADC that will come close to these two heavyweights is Tanzania, largely because of rapid population growth (Louw-Vadren 2018).In order to get a snapshot of institutional performance in SADC countries, three indicators of institutional performance from the WEF Global Competitiveness Report 2019 were selected.The indicators and their definition are as follows: C&B (Checks and Balances) includes measures of budget transparency, judicial independence, efficiency of legal framework in challenging regulations and freedom of the press.Trans (Transparency) is a measure of the incidence of corruption.Future (Future orientation of the government) includes measures of government ensuring policy stability, governments' responsiveness to change, legal framework's adaptability to digital business models, government long-term vision, energy efficiency regulation, renewable energy regulation and environment-related treaties in force.All three indicators go from a range of 0 to 100 with 100 as the best performance.These statistics are put together by WEF from various sources including a survey of business leaders in each country.Overall, the performance ratings are low with several countries scoring in the 30s and 40s. Namibia, Seychelles and Botswana score quite high on the future orientation of the government (in the 60s), while South Africa, Namibia and Mauritius are highest scorers on checks and balances.The vastly higher level of global power held by South Africa creates tensions in achieving regional integration. According to Sokos (2018), economic integration within SADC has been marked by severe economic imbalances amongst SADC Member States and has been skewed in favour of South Africa. South Africa plays a dominant role in the Southern Africa Customs Union (SACU), although such a position is unlikely to be maintained in an enlarged SACU agreement. Success of regional integration in Southern Africa depends on South Africa's ability to discharge its responsibilities in accordance with its hegemonic status (Sokos 2018).A major source of tension in the SADC region is South Africa's outward looking stance on trade. South Africa has a unilateral trade agreement with the EU, which creates concerns amongst other SADC members that they would lose revenue from imports under the revenue sharing agreement due to lower common external tariff rates for South Africa (Brenton and Hoffman 2016).The bilateral EC-South Africa trade agreement contributed to fragmentation of SADC trade relationships with the EU, and substantially complicates the development of an enlarged customs union for the region (Brenton and Hoffman 2016). This is one reason efforts toward further integration have stalled and SADC is now engaged in developing the COMESA-EAC-SADC Tripartite Agreement, which is seen as a critical stepping-stone toward the grander plan for a continental free trade area by 2017. Figure 32. Distribution of power in select SADC countries . Source: : Louw-Vadren 2018 The SADC Regional Agricultural Policy (RAP) reflects the intention of SADC to develop a legally 'binding' instrument to stimulate sustainable agricultural development and food security in the SADC region (SADC 2013).The RAP lays out four main goals: i.) Enhance sustainable agricultural production, productivity and competitiveness; ii.) Improve regional and international trade and access to markets of agricultural products; iii. Improve private and public sector engagement and investment in the agricultural value-chains; and iv.) Reduce social and economic vulnerability of the region's population in the context of food and nutrition security and the changing economic and climatic environment. As can be seen from the analysis provided in the section on agricultural productivity growth below, there is still considerable need for enhancing sustainable and productive agricultural growth in the region. SADC has made progress on improving regional trade in agricultural products. Compared with other regional trade agreements (RTAs), the SADC region has one of the least distorting policy framework for agricultural products after the Accelerated Program for Economic Integration (APEI) (see figures below).Figure 34. Applied weighted mean tariffs for primary products for sub-Saharan Africa (left) and regional trade agreement (right). Source: Brenton and Hoffman 2016According to the draft RISDP 2020-2030 blueprints, the priority is to implement and enforce the measures outlined in the RAP and the accompanying Regional Agricultural Investment Policy (RAIP) 2017-2022 which was approved in 2016. The RAIP includes a budget of USD 1.3 billion. In March 2019, a program of EUR 9 million to support the operationalization of the RAP was initiated with funding from the EU and technical support from FAO (SADC 2019b).The allocation of water resources between SADC countries is governed by the Revised SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses, which came into force in 2003. The objective of the Protocol is to \"foster closer cooperation for judicious, sustainable and coordinated management, protection and utilisation of shared watercourses and advance the SADC agenda of regional integration and poverty reduction\" (SADC 2005). A large number of countries within SADC share river boundaries, and therefore potential future risks of meeting the allocation requirements need to be considered.There are a number of agreements between SADC countries with regards to required allocation of water resources between them. Tensions have arisen in the past, and with future climate stressors there is a high likelihood that the enforceability or meeting of legislative requirements becomes paramount. Such agreements and partnerships are necessary to ensure sustainable water management prevails.The SADC region has 21 transboundary river basins to manage and these fall into 3 categories: 1) Those that include non-SADC states and thus the SADC water protocol may not apply; 2) Those falling within SADC and equally across states and so more easily comanaged or those falling almost exclusively in one state; and 3) River basins not conducive to dams or water management and thus with erratic supply (CRIDF 2014).Management of the Incomati Basin illustrates the complications involved. Located within Mozambique (31%), South Africa (63%) and Swaziland (6%), the Incomati Basin is relatively small, but is of strategic importance. The Incomati River flows from the eastern part of South Africa, through north Swaziland and into the southern part of Mozambique, where it discharges into the ocean. Coordination in water use is paramount to avoiding conflicts and water shortages. In 1982, during a drought in the region, the Incomati River dried up. Mozambique, in expressing concerns about the water levels, learned that South Africa and Swaziland were planning to build dams upstream which would have drastically affected supply to Mozambique. Following a number World Economic Forum 2019 Global Competitiveness Index of meetings and discussions, the Tripartite Agreement on the Projections and Sustainable Utilization of the Water Resources of the Incomati and Maputo Watercourses (TIA) was signed in 2002 between the 3 countries (CRIDF 2014).The Southern African region is characterized by low or even negative productivity growth in agriculture and with most of the growth obtained through agricultural land expansion rather than more efficient use of agricultural inputs. At present, most production and irrigated area occurs in the arid south. The northern areas have greater potential for further development. Middle income countries generally did better than low income countries on both land and labour productivity growth for crops and overall productivity for livestock production over recent years. Post-harvest losses are over 30%.The Southern African region is characterized by four ecozone bands mostly determined by rainfall patterns and ranging from semi-arid and desert conditions in the southwest, and humid and tropical conditions in the north and east. Cereal production is dominantly rainfed and covers more than 50% of the agricultural land in the Southern African countries of Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Vlek et al. 2019). Maize is the dominant crop with nearly 10 million hectares followed by sorghum, millet and wheat with about 1 million hectares each. There are two major farming systems that dominate land use in the 9 countries of the Southern African region listed above. These are the mixed maize system and the agro-pastoral systems. Both are currently low productivity and low intensity.Of the total area of the 16 SADC Member States (986,246,000 ha), only 6 is cultivated (Nhamo et al. 2019). Smallholder farming is the main source of livelihoods in rural areas and is mostly rainfed, relying on increasing variable patterns of rainfall. Land with irrigation potential is about 20 million ha, yet only 3.9 million ha is actually irrigated.Most food production (including exports) and irrigation in the region occurs in the arid south-in South Africa by a large margin. Further north, in Angola, Zambia, and the northern parts of Mozambique, water resources are abundant, yet irrigation farming is far less developed and inefficient, resulting in water resources being less intensely managed (Vlek et al. 2014).   Agricultural growth rates as measured by changes in the agricultural GDP in the region have been low and most have not met the CAADP target of a 6% growth rate. Several countries had lower growth rates in the 2003-2010 period as compared with the 1995-2003 period, with Namibia and Zimbabwe showing negative rates in the later period (see figure 36).Turning to the growth in crop output over the 2000-2011 period, five countries of the fifteen SADC countries analysed had negative growth rates. Angola, which has a roots and tuber farming system in its northern region had a significantly higher increase in crop output compared with all other countries. Growth rates of land and labour productivity over the 2000-2010 period vary considerably over the fifteen SADC countries analysed. Four countries-Seychelles Zimbabwe, DRC and Lesotho-showed negative growth in labour productivity. South Africa showed the highest level of growth in labour productivity growth and Angola showed the highest growth in land productivity.The middle-income countries were found to have higher labour productivity than the low-income countries, although land productivity in the low-income countries was higher. However, the middle-income countries had higher growth rates in both labour and land productivity compared with the lower-income SADC countries. Labour productivity grew at an annual average of 0.1% in the SADC middle-income countries during the 1980-2010 period, while labour productivity declined in the low-income countries at an annual rate of -0.4% for the same period (Chilondra et al. 2013).Trends in livestock productivity also show considerable variation across SADC countries with the middle-income countries showing higher levels than the low-income countries and South Africa dominating Cereal yields in the region for the 2000-2010 and again for 2010 to 2017 period were generally stagnant. Several countries were below the RIDSP target level of 2,000 kg/ha.  Thinking About an Uncertain Future: Strategizing Under UncertaintyThe section above described fifteen mega-trends for the Southern African region, detailing recent patterns for these key drivers of today's conditions. However, we cannot assume these trends will continue into the future as they have in the recent past. High-impact, large-scale, disruptive events-such as COVID-19-are likely to grow in frequency as the world changes, becomes more interconnected, is put under greater pressure through demand and consumption growth, and is challenged by environmental change-related events arising from increasingly extreme weather, or emergence of pests and diseases. Such events change the evolution of drivers-through changing economies, markets, social attitudes, politics and geo-politics.The future is far from predictable-even with the most detailed and complete analysis of mega-trends to rely upon. This unpredictability is summed up with acronym \"TUNA\": Turbulent, Uncertain, Novel, Ambiguous (Ramírez and Wilkinson 2016). The future is turbulent because of its systemic fragility and non-linearity, meaning events can lead to escalating impacts (Homer-Dixon et al.; uncertain because these are often highly unpredictable and, from a climate perspective, unknown; novel because technological, social and environmental change create unprecedented situations; and ambiguous because every problem or solution is wicked-with both \"winners\" and \"losers\".The mega-trends identified are also typically contributing towards increasing uncertainty through undermining environmental sustainability. For example, economic and population growth drive unsustainable patterns of consumption, which drive climate change that then reduces the likelihood of existing trends continuing in a linear fashion because it contributes to disruption and destabilisation of our ways of living. In the long term, therefore, continuation of the \"business-asusual\" global mega-trends is not at all likely nor desirable.Furthermore, current economic growth modalities are facilitated by developing complex trade networks and just-in-time supply chains. Increasing connectivity between nations means that events or hazards occurring in one part of the world can create a cascade of effects that have widespread and diffuse impacts. Just-in-time supply chains increase vulnerabilities to hazard events; by removing redundancy in the name of efficiency, if something happens, the supply chains grind to a halt. Such shocks, like COVID-19, may be disruptive enough that they also unshackle \"business-as-usual lock-in\" and disruptively provide opportunities for rapid change.Given this, what might the future look like and how can the mega-trend analysis help in diagnosing it?Scenarios are a route to aid decision making under uncertainty (Courtney et al. 1997), when past trends cannot necessarily be extrapolated into the future with confidence, and where the future is likely to be shaped by drivers or events which may plausibly lead to very different outcomes.Scenarios can inform today's thinking about strategic decisions through exploring different possible futures.They examine a range of plausible futures, not to forecast what they may be like, but to provide a mechanism for thinking through the challenges that might be encountered and the opportunities that might arise. Scenarios are most useful when there is uncertainty about some of the factors that may significantly shape the future and when a range of outcomes may be plausible (even if some are more plausible than others).Decisions need to be taken today against the backdrop of future uncertainty, and many will play out over timescales during which things may change radically. Thus, scenarios can be a tool to examine blind spots and broaden perspectives; they are less about \"betting on a future\" and more about stress-testing plans to see-if the world diverged from existing trends-whether decisions made in the near future would remain \"fit for purpose\". Can our plans be robust to alternative futures? Given how TUNA the current world is looking, scenario thinking is more important than ever before.Photo: Ollivier Girard (CIFOR)Mega-trends in the context of recent food system scenarios A number of scenarios analyses have been published recently for food systems. 14 Whilst scenarios may take a variety of forms, a common approach is to use participatory processes to identify the two most important drivers which will shape the future, but about which there is great uncertainty in terms of what form they will take. A recent report taking this approach and asking \"what will global food systems be like in 2050?\" was published by the World Economic Forum (WEF) in 2017 (WEF 2017).The WEF's two key axes were chosen because they are inherently unknown in terms of how they may develop but are very strong determinants of the way local food systems may be shaped. 1.Scenarios for the future of food systems in Southern and Eastern Africa: the AFRICAP results The methodology within each workshop was to list the factors that would shape the food system-the mega-trends and drivers, and then to separate them into \"known knowns\" and \"known unknowns\". The \"known knowns\" are drivers about which there is low predictive uncertainty into the future: participants are sure about their magnitude. For example, the demographic distribution of a country's population can be projected into the future with relative uncertainty. \"Known unknowns\", in contrast, are drivers that there is certainty about that they will play a role in shaping the future, but will impact very different depending on the form they may take (for example, whether the world is more globalised or less globalised makes a radical difference to the drivers of agriculture).The standard methodology is to use an iterated series of discussions and anonymous voting to pick the two most influential \"known unknowns\" to create a set of orthogonal axes defining four scenarios.Interestingly, stakeholders in all four countries agreed that climate risks and how they would play out was one of the two critical uncertainties.Land tenure and reform (little versus radical) (South Africa);Technology innovation and adoption (weak versus strong) (Tanzania);Market access and functioning local to global (weak versus strong) (Zambia); andEffective policy implementation aligned to deliver food systems outcomes (versus poorly aligned, silo-ed, policy) (Malawi).What will be the impacts of future technologies? Will they be affordable and accessible?Will farmers want to adopt them?Will information, training and extension services be appropriate and sufficient?How will technologies affect farm size and agricultural employment?These issues translate into a scenarios axis by imagining futures defined by today's conditions continued into the future on the one hand, and a different future where there was significant support for the rollout, adoption and use of new technologies, harmonised in standards applicable in countries of production and consumption, particularly across the region, to support regionalised supply chains. Such a future will only be underpinned if technologies are also socially licensed through citizens' (a) desire to consume products produced in new ways (such as produced using genetically modified techniques); and(b) acceptance of the social impacts created (e.g., widespread uptake of advanced technologies has implications for employment rates). Given the range of social and regulatory constraints to adoption, development of new technologies is necessary but not sufficient for their uptake at scale.Policy and its alignment (poor policy, not aligned across siloes, weakly implemented to integrated policy, aligned across policy domains and well implemented).The final scenario axis selected by the participatory process pertains to the development and implementation of government policies. In particular, whether policies are developed but implemented badly (e.g., not assessed and monitored) or whether there is material policy mis-alignment (e.g., trade policy not supporting agricultural policy, or agricultural policy not aligned with infrastructure policy). This is perhaps most relevant to the area of food systems which impinge on a range of policy areas: agriculture, environment, health and nutrition, food security, trade, employment and climate change, for example.How can \"whole of government approaches\" be developed given that policymakers tend to be siloed within ministerial teams with little crossgovernment visibility?How best to build capacity so policymakers understand other areas?How can policy development and its implementation be better integrated? Particularly when implementation may be the responsibility of subnational regional offices.How can standards (e.g., on agriculture) be harmonised across complex, multi-country supply chains?Are \"system approaches\" to policy too complex to implement?Plausible extremes articulated on this continuum include, at one end, poorly co-ordinated and aligned policy, which is enacted but not monitored, so that actors face conflicting goals (e.g., people without access to nutritious food being incentivised to produce tobacco for an export market; agricultural incentives being put in place without farmer training; support for production of commodity crops without investment in market infrastructure; competition for land being enhanced through different policy areas not being minimised and managed; environmental policy undermining food security policy, and vice versa).Conversely, at the other end of the scale, a plausible alternative may involve cross-government coordination of policies such that multiple goals are aligned; these are coupled with investment in implementation and monitoring, and there are sufficient incentives to stimulate uptake.The mega-trends that have, over recent decades, shaped the world into the one we know today are changing (e.g., power shifting from West to East, the multilateral cooperative world driving increasing globalisation coming under strain from competition between states and inequality). In addition, the growing fragility of the globalised world means disruptions are becoming more common: COVID-19, agricultural pests and diseases, climate shocks and migration of people. Together, \"events\" and changing trends all lead to greater instability and uncertainty about the future. What has happened in the last decade or so suggests that, compared to our views at the turn of the century, the world of the future is less likely to be a predictable extrapolation of the past.The discussion on mega-trends and their associated uncertainties illustrates the potential for a range of plausible futures, some of which have been explored using scenarios. These futures will be shaped by events-like COVID-19, as well as drivers, some of which we know and can predict, but also some of which we know but they are not currently predictable. This latter category includes climate risks, access to markets and technology, structural changes around the access to and tenure of land, and more sophisticated policy frameworks tackling challenges systemically.There is a range of alternative, plausible futures that suggests three key questions for today's decision makers:If business-as-usual is not an option: what will the future look like?Given that the emerging drivers of the global and regional economies differ from the past, and yet the future is increasingly uncertain, how is it best to think about designing today's policies? Decisions made today, based on looking-backwards, may become less fit for purpose as the future diverges from the past. Whilst scenarios are not a means of predicting the future, thinking about alternative futures within a scenario framing is a route to challenging simple extrapolation of the past that may not be fit for purpose.A key question for decisionmakers today is: \"What happens if today's policies are geared around assumptions about mega-trends that turn out to be incorrect?\". For example, if investments in building climate-resilient livelihoods are based on increasing access to international markets just as the world is entering a phase of \"deglobalisation\"? Scenario exercises help imagine different futures to ensure that today's decisions do not lock the system into a pathway that is increasingly difficult to achieve. They therefore help develop robust, future-proofing of decisions given the uncertainty of the future.If \"black swan\" events are likely to happen, will that disrupt us and shift us towards a different future?Today's economies often seem impossible to change, because there is so much invested personal, political and financial capital in our current way of running things (as well as planning for the future). Lower income countries are invested in replicating pathways to development that have historically allowed higher-income countries to achieve their economic success. However, as COVID-19 has shown, \"business-as-usual\" thinking about development can be undermined by events.Whilst disruptive events by their nature create acute changes, some of which are painful, they also change the degree that the system is locked-in to its current trajectory. In some circumstances, such events can drive structural change sufficient to re-chart the direction of travel. Recognition that such events occur, and will occur more frequently, reduces the degree that decision-makers necessarily are locked-in, or constrained, in believing the future is a simple linear development of the past.Photo: Nicolas Picard-unsplash https://bit.ly/SADCFuturesForesight"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"46d0795b9a82e1e2890ccd5e5b380787","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/00dcfdeb-d8b4-4cdf-a030-706eb58a0339/retrieve","id":"-172842663"},"keywords":["Fertilizer demand","yield response","fertilizer profitability","shocks","smallholder farmers","Ethiopia"],"sieverID":"bac297f7-d10a-455b-9532-49ebe4a0d80b","content":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for country-led development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world.Global fertilizer markets experienced significant price surges beginning in 2020 due to a combination of factors, including higher natural gas prices as well as supply chain and trade disruptions triggered by COVID-19 and the Russia-Ukraine war (Arndt et al. 2023;Glauber et al. 2022;Glauber and Laborde 2022;Hebebrand and Laborde 2024). Although parallel increases in international agricultural commodity prices may have absorbed these price shocks, the implication of these shocks on fertilizer demand, yield response, and profitability remains unknown, especially in low-and middle-income countries. In many African countries, global fertilizer market shocks are often compounded by domestic challenges (e.g., conflict), disrupting the availability and affordability of fertilizers to farm households. Whereas international fertilizer prices have come down from their peaks in 2022, many countries in Africa continue to grapple with persistent inflation, deteriorating terms of trade, and macroeconomic imbalances that keep domestic prices high. The ultimate impacts of the surge in fertilizer and food prices may vary across countries, depending on several factors, including their dependence on imported fertilizers, farm households' purchasing power, and price elasticity of demand (fertilizer demand responses to price changes) (e.g., Arndt et al. 2023;Dillon and Barrett 2016;Rashid et al. 2013;Sheahan and Barrett 2017).Besides the surge in fertilizer prices, domestic fertilizer markets in Africa experienced supply disruptions after the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war (e.g., Abay et al. 2022b).While these shocks are likely to affect trends in fertilizer intensification and yield, the extent to which farm households respond to these shocks depends on, among other factors, the profitability and price elasticities of demand for fertilizers. Nonetheless, disentangling the effects of these simultaneous increases in fertilizer and output prices on fertilizer demand and profitability is less straightforward and remains understudied in the context of Africa. Specifically, while it is possible that some of the rising fertilizer prices are likely offset by the parallel increase in food prices, particularly in areas that are relatively close to urban centers, this is unlikely to be the case in rural areas, given that fuel costs often increase the rate at which input and output prices change relative to distance to markets (e.g., Arndt et al. 2023;Dillon and Barrett 2016;Minten, Koru, and Stifel 2013;Stifel, Minten, and Koru 2016). Furthermore, such offsetting patterns depend on the relative size of price elasticity of demand to changes in fertilizer and output prices. These responses are complex to understand, given that real-time, detailed farm-level production data are often not readily available in these contexts. Partly owing to this data challenge, the extent to which these compounding malign effects undermine fertilizer intensification and smallholder agricultural productivity in Africa remains less understood, while this remains critically important for policymakers desirous of mitigating the challenge, including through fertilizer price policies (Lunduka, Ricker-Gilbert, and Fisher 2013).At the backdrop of such creeping turbulence to smallholder agriculture, we revisit the demand and profitability of fertilizers in the context of Ethiopia, using data collected before and after the crisis.While this has recently received significant attention in policy discussions (Hebebrand and Glauber 2024; USDA 2023) and has reinforced calls for integrated management of organic and inorganic fertilizers (Snapp et al. 2023), little work to date is empirically grounded in smallholder farm-level data that can inform our understanding of the implications of such a compounded crisis on smallholder agriculture. To help address this gap, we focus on smallholder farming systems in Ethiopia and provide empirical evidence on the sensitivity of fertilizer demand and profitability at the household level and across time.We use unique longitudinal household survey data covering three rounds, collected in 2016, 2019, and 2023, and hence covering both pre-and post-crisis production periods. We focus on three major crops that grow in the Meher-the main rainy season-in Ethiopia: maize, teff, and wheat, which account for most of fertilizer consumption in Ethiopia. We first estimate fertilizer demand using a double-hurdle model, which incorporates a probit model to identify factors affecting households' decisions to adopt fertilizer and a truncated normal regression to analyze factors influencing fertilizer demand at both the extensive and intensive margins. We then compute price elasticities associated with changes in fertilizer and food prices. We estimate yield response to fertilizer applications based on plot-level data using a household fixed effects model, controlling for plot, household, and community level factors. Finally, we compute the average value-cost ratio (AVCR) using an average physical product (APP) estimated from a flexible production function using detailed plot-level data and ratio of prices.We find consistently increasing pre-crisis trends in fertilizer adoption, nitrogen application rates, yield responses, and profitability, but with important deceleration in these trends after the crisis.We report fertilizer elasticity estimates ranging between 0.4 and 1.1, which vary across crops and farm sizes. These estimates are substantially larger than previous estimates. We also find that smallholder farmers are more responsive to fertilizer prices than to output prices. Furthermore, we document important trends in the profitability of chemical fertilizers for all crops, with increasing AVCR values between 2016 and 2019 but declining after the crisis. While the AVCRs show profitable trends for most crops, the share of farm households with profitable AVCRs has declined following the fertilizer price surge. Overall, these trends are consistent with the disproportional recent changes in fertilizer and food prices. Although fertilizer prices have almost tripled recently, this increase was accompanied by high staple crop price inflation, on average, allowing fertilizers to remain marginally profitable despite the important heterogeneities across crops and farm households.Our findings offer important insights for understanding and informing policy responses to shocks arising from various triggers. The relatively large elasticities we estimate suggest that smallholder farmers in Africa exhibit responsive demand function to surges in fertilizer price, underscoring that smallholder farmers are likely to significantly cut back on fertilizer purchases in response to the recent price increases and declines in AVCRs. Given that smallholder farmers are credit constrained and primarily aim to achieve food security in their production objectives, the surge in output prices is less likely to fully absorb the additional cost of fertilizer and hence maintain demand for fertilizer. These patterns signal the need for effective policy instruments to support smallholder farmers in Africa, with the aim of boosting fertilizer adoption and intensification.The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides Ethiopia's policy context in the last two decades, summarizing the key milestones in fertilizer use-driven growth in that period. Section 3 presents the data and methods deployed in analyzing fertilizer demand, yield response, and profitability, while Section 4 presents the empirical estimation strategy, followed by the discussion of main results in Section 5. Section 6 concludes with a highlight of key policy implications.Ethiopia has made important progress in overall economic growth and development in the last two decades, with agriculture the main driver of growth (Bachewe et al. 2018;Diao, Hazell, and Thurlow 2010;Dorosh and Minten 2020). For example, Ethiopia's agriculture sector expanded by 7.6 percent annually between 2004 and 2014, with a 2.3 percent annual growth in total factor productivity, partly due to doubling in use of fertilizer and improved seeds (Bachewe et al. 2018;Berhane et al. 2018). However, achieving Ethiopia's agricultural transformation remains elusive despite such growth rates for over a decade or so and has faced several challenges in recent years.Prior studies indicate that despite recent progress in reported production levels, productivity levels remain lower than potential yields, one of the key reasons being the low level of intensification, particularly in using chemical fertilizers (Berhane et al., 2020). While most cereal producers widely adopt fertilizer, application intensities are far below required levels (Abate et al. 2020;Berhane, Abate, and Wolle 2022).Low fertilizer applications rates are often linked to access (supply chain bottlenecks and liquidity constraints) (Ali and Deininger 2012;Yu and Nin-Pratt 2014), production risks (Alem et al. 2010), and yield responses (Burke, Jayne, and Black 2017), for instance, due to mismatch between soil nutrient deficiencies and fertilizer type (Abay et al. 2022a) and to some extent, to profitability (Abay et al. 2018;Davis et al. 2010;Rashid et al. 2013;Spielman, Kelemework, and Alemu 2011;Zerfu and Larson 2013). While the country has been making good progress in improving access to fertilizer by leveraging and revitalizing farmer organizations (cooperatives) that serve as distribution centers and facilitating input credit, the recent supply chain disruptions reportedly limit fertilizer availability considerably. For instance, only 33% of households in our sample report timely availability of fertilizers during the 2023 production season (a decline by 29 percentage points compared with 2019), and only a third were able to buy as much fertilizer as they need and could afford.Production risks are another barrier to intensive use of fertilizer in Ethiopia, due to increasing climate variability and uncertainties related to input and output prices (e.g., Dercon and Christiaensen 2011). Productivity-enhancing inputs such as fertilizer require greater up-front investments that are at risk if crops fail due to climate events or changes in prices. These risks are important given that smallholder farmers in Ethiopia are subject to credit and insurance market failures (Ali and Deininger 2012;Zerfu and Larson 2011).While fertilizers are generally considered productivity-enhancing inputs, their profitability largely depends on the relative input and output prices and yield responses. In most low-income countries (including in Ethiopia), higher transport costs account for an important share of fertilizer and output prices (e.g., Dillon and Barrett 2016;Minten, Koru, and Stifel 2013), which ultimately can reduce the profitability of input use. For instance, Rashid et al. (2013) suggest that fertilizer use in Ethiopia is profitable only for maize (with an AVCR of greater than 2, a ratio conventionally used to assess fertilizer profitability in low-income countries to account for risks and other unaccounted transaction costs). 1 Ethiopia's agriculture sector has undergone several changes since Rashid et al.(2013) was conducted, partly due to the supply side government investments in agricultural extension services and the delivery of modern inputs, mainly fertilizers. Despite these positive changes, Ethiopia's modern input supply chain faces several bottlenecks that contribute to the overall low level of intensification.The recent supply chain disruption resulting from the Russia-Ukraine war and local conflicts seems to exacerbate the above-mentioned barriers to fertilizer use. Reportedly, trends in fertilizer use and application intensity slowed down because of the supply chain disruptions and increases in global chemical fertilizer prices. However, it is not clear whether and to what extent these recent changes have affected fertilizer profitability and hence demand vis-à-vis the considerable increases in crop output prices observed during the same period due to high inflation in the country (Ali 2022). Against this background, we revisit fertilizer demand, yield responses, and profitability in Ethiopia using recent data, given the importance of fertilizer to maintain increases in agricultural productivity in the country. Chemical fertilizers are crucial inputs with important implications for food security, as Ethiopia's soils are increasingly depleted due to population pressure and other factors (Abay et al. 2022a;Abdulkadir et al. 2017;Haileslassie et al. 2005).We use data from the Ethiopian Agricultural Commercialization Clusters (ACC) surveys conducted in 2016, 2019, and 2023. In 2016, the ACC survey consisted of 4,991 sample households from 333 kebeles (villages) and 153 woredas (districts) in the four agriculturally important regions: Amhara; Oromia; Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' (SNNP), and Tigray. 2 In 2019, the sample was expanded to cover new ACC woredas and kebeles, and it covered 5,311 farm households in 154 woredas and 355 kebeles. The sample households were selected following a three-stage sampling procedure. First, the woredas were stratified into agricultural commodity clusters (ACCs) defined by the Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA), and five sample woredas were randomly selected from each ACC. Second, two kebeles were randomly selected from each district to be part of the survey. Finally, 15 farm households were randomly selected from each sample kebele based on the household lists maintained by local (kebele) administrations. In addition, about 20 percent of the sample was selected from neighboring districts outside the ACCs, using the same three-stage sampling. In 2023, 3,904 households were revisited despite the security situation in Ethiopia (i.e., we were not able to revisit all sample households in Tigray and a sizable number of households in Amhara and Oromia). 3   Table 1 presents the key household and farm characteristics of the sample. Most sample respondents are male, with male-headed households representing about 90 percent of the sample.Around 49 percent of the household heads are literate (able to read and write). The average farm size owned and/or managed by sample households is 1.4 hectares, of which about 10 percent is reportedly poor in its soil quality/fertility status. About 74 percent of the sampled households reported they receive extension services, and a sizable share adopt agricultural inputs such as fertilizer (72 percent) and improved seeds (53 percent). Additionally, use of organic fertilizer is notable, with about 53 percent of households incorporating it into their farming practices. Table 1 also shows the importance of maize, teff, and wheat farming in Ethiopia, with more than 41 percent, 39 percent, and 32 percent, respectively, of our sample households reporting growing these crops across years.3 Attritions due to refusal, relocation, absence during the time of the survey, and deceased respondent were limited to 76 sample households (~0.02%). However, we were not able to revisit all sample households in Tigray and a sizable share of sample households in Amhara (45%) and Oromia (20%) regions in 2023 due to insecurity. In line with the national fertilizer use trend in Ethiopia, the descriptive results on fertilizer adoption (proportion of fertilizer users) show an increase over time (Table 2, Panel A). However, it is important to note that while the overall adoption trend remains upward, the growth rates slowed down substantially in the recent round. While the proportion of fertilizer users increased by 7 to 22 percent between 2016 and 2019, the growth rate between 2019 and 2023 is limited to 2 to 4 percent. A similar trend is observed for the proportion of fertilized plot and fertilizer application levels. For instance, the 20 to 36 percent increase in share of fertilized plots observed between 2016 and 2019 was followed by a more subdued increase for wheat (3 percent) and a decline for maize (−7 percent) between 2019 and 2023. Similarly, fertilizer application shows lower growth rate for maize and a decline for teff and wheat between 2019 and 2023 (Table 2, Panels C and D). The decline in the fertilizer adoption and application rates in the 2023 Meher seem to have adverse effect on crop yields. In line with the slowdown in fertilizer use, we observe a decrease in crop yields in the recent round. While crop yields have shown meaningful improvements between 2016 and 2019 (by 8-15 percent), yield sharply drops between 2019 and 2023 (by up to 10 percent) (Table 3). This deceleration in fertilizer adoption and application levels in 2023 (compared to 2019) and the presumable ensuing adverse effects on crops yields can be linked to the recent disruptions in supply chain, global price surges, and internal conflicts, which adversely affected the accessibility of fertilizer at the right time, right quantity, and affordable prices. In fact, more than a third of sample households surveyed in the 2023 round reported availability as one of the major constraints to using fertilizer (up from 9 percent in 2019). A considerable share of the sample (59 percent) also points to prohibitive fertilizer prices as the main reason for not applying fertilizers on their plots in 2023 (up from 40 percent in 2019). Figure 1 shows the main reasons sample households reportedfor not using fertilizer in all rounds, including post-crisis ( 2023), which include deterioration in last-mile fertilizer delivery and prioritization of members by cooperatives (seemingly due to shortage), besides price and timely availability. Table 4 presents trends in fertilizer and crop prices reported by sample households in each survey round. While fertilizer price shows a modest decrease between 2016 and 2019, it sharply increased after 2019 following the global fuel-food-fertilizer crisis. Crop prices, however, have continued to increase since 2016, and more so between 2019 and 2023. Specifically, nitrogen-phosphorussulfur/diammonium phosphate (NPS/DAP) and urea fertilizers increased by 220 and 247 percent between 2019 and 2023, respectively, while maize, teff, and wheat prices increased by 324, 173, and 47 percent, respectively, in the same period. Overall, while average fertilizer prices for both fertilizer types increased by 233%, average crop prices (for the three focus staple crops in this study) increased by about 181 percent, suggesting for the average staple crop producer that only about three-fourths of the fertilizer price increase is absorbed by the increases in crop prices.However, given their limited roles in food markets, subsistence-based smallholders are likely to respond differently to fertilizer and crop price increases. Thus, the extent to which the relative  Understanding and quantifying the implication of the surge in fertilizers and food prices on the profitability of fertilizers entails uncovering implications on components of the profitability function. First, profitability of fertilizers depends on how farmers' demand for fertilizers evolves in the context of a surge in both fertilizers and food prices. Characterizing households' demand for fertilizers entails estimating elasticities associated with changes in both fertilizer prices and crop prices. Second, given the prevailing price ratios, the profitability of fertilizers heavily depends on the evolution of yield responses that is often estimated from flexible production functions.We start by characterizing demand for fertilizers as a function of potential dynamics and spatial variation in fertilizer and food prices. The decision of whether to use fertilizer and how much fertilizer to use involves two distinct stages. First, the farmer must decide whether to use fertilizer on a specific plot. Once this decision is made, the second stage involves determining how much fertilizer to use. Because of this two-stage decision-making process, we need an empirical strategy that captures both decisions jointly. We use the double-hurdle model (Burke 2009;Cragg 1971), which offers greater flexibility by allowing the use of separate covariates for each of the decisions while also allowing us to include village-level fixed effects, the level at which the price of fertilizer and output often vary. Using this framework, we jointly model both the extensive and intensive margins of fertilizer demand as follows. The first hurdle, representing the decision to use fertilizer (the extensive margin), can be modeled as a binary choice using a probit model. The inverse Mills ratio from the probit model is then used in the second hurdle, the decision of how much fertilizer to use per unit of land (the intensive margin). The second hurdle is estimated using a truncated normal regression. The full double-hurdle model can be expressed using the following two equations:(1)where We are controlling for village fixed effects because prices vary at village level, and we anticipate that these parameters capture the impact of change in fertilizer and output price on demand for fertilizer. Except for the parametric assumptions we impose, the expressions in Equations ( 1) and(2) are similar to standard fixed-effects models exploiting temporal variations in fertilizer prices.Households have limited control over the evolution of fertilizers and output price in domestic and international markets.We anticipate that demand for fertilizer responds to both fertilizer and crop output prices. As shown in Section 3, farmers in Ethiopia witnessed a significant surge in both fertilizer and crop output prices. To test the implications of these counteracting factors, we control both fertilizer and output prices in the empirical specification in Equations ( 1) and (2). While a surge in fertilizer prices will likely reduce demand for fertilizers (and hence we expect α \uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D and β \uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D to be negative and statistically significant), an increase in crop output price may trigger demand for fertilizer (and hence expect α \uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D and β \uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D to be positive and statistically significant). We use output prices coming from crop sales reported by households and focusing on the three most important cereals for the Meher season in Ethiopia: maize, teff, and wheat. Estimating responses to changes in both fertilizer and output price helps to gauge whether farmers' fertilizer demand is more responsive to changes in fertilizer or food prices.An important factor farmers consider in fertilizer use and intensity decisions is the agronomic response of fertilizers, given the nature of soils and many other agronomic conditions (Rurinda et al. 2020). Thus, besides the relative prices of fertilizers to output, the profitability of using chemical fertilizers hinges on the response of crop yields to fertilizer application. Thus, we estimate a flexible production function of the following form that enables us to capture nonlinear relationships between fertilizer applications and crop production:where \uD835\uDC4C\uD835\uDC4C ℎ\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 stands for output for household ℎ plot \uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D at time \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56, \uD835\uDEFC\uD835\uDEFC ℎ stands for household fixed effects that capture household-specific time-invariant heterogeneity, and \uD835\uDEFF\uD835\uDEFFₜ stands for round dummies. \uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 i and \uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 j are inputs, including both land and nonland inputs. These inputs include fertilizer application, land size, labor days, rainfall, and improved seed use. In the context of fertilizer use in Ethiopia, farmers typically have options to use three primary types of chemical fertilizers: DAP, urea, and NPS. To simplify our analysis, we aggregate the application of these three fertilizer types.The fourth term in Equation (3) includes both the squared terms when \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 = \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC57 and interaction terms across a combination of different inputs when \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ≠ \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC57. Including squared and interaction terms allows us to capture nonlinear relationships between production and fertilizer application. For example, we anticipate that the response of crop yield to fertilizer application may diminish after reaching certain levels of application. Furthermore, production and productivity can be higher when farmers adopt a combination of inputs such as improved seed and fertilizer (e.g., Abay et al. 2018) or when applied in soils with better soil organic matter (e.g., Chamberlin et al. 2021;Marenya and Barrett 2009). \uD835\uDF16\uD835\uDF16 ℎ\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 is the error term representing other unobservable factors affecting production.We note that we implement Equation (3) on a large plot-level panel data, which offers us both substantial cross-sectional variation across households as well as across multiple plots managed by the same household and temporal variation across households. We control for household fixed effects to capture time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity (e.g., farming skill, agroecology, and topography) across households. As we focus on the three key crops, we aim to accurately estimate and comprehend the specific effects of fertilizer application. We also estimate Equation (3) for each crop separately. However, the data are not experimental, and hence the usual endogeneity concerns arising from time-varying unobservable factors remain important. The inclusion of saturated interaction and nonlinear terms in the equation will help to minimize these unobservable factors. Furthermore, the focus on three main crops and the separate implementation of Equation(3) for each crop will likely help reduce confounders.We also implement and estimate yield function arising from the production function specified in Equation ( 3) by dividing output as well as all inputs by plot size. For this purpose, we convert quantities of fertilizer application into macronutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). This serves mainly to examine yield responses associated with the application of nitrogen, while our profitability analysis relies mainly on the production function estimates.The most common approach to assessing fertilizer profitability is by computing the value-cost ratio (VCR), which incorporates not only the yield improvement resulting from fertilizer use but also the interplay of output and fertilizer prices. Essentially, VCR is the ratio of the total value of output gained due to fertilizer use to the total cost of acquiring the fertilizer used. Specifically, we compute the AVCR using the following expression:where P o stands for price of output; Y WF represents the production level with fertilizer use, and Y WOF signifies the production level without fertilizer; P f stands for price of fertilizer; \uD835\uDC39\uD835\uDC39 represents the amount of fertilizer used; and APP F denotes the average physical product of fertilizer. We compute the value of production with and without fertilizer and hence the APP values using the production estimates from Equation (3).We derive our fertilizer prices by dividing the total cost households incurred to purchase fertilizer by the total quantity of fertilizer purchased. Our output prices are acquired from crop sale data reported by each household. Given that measurement errors can introduce significant noise into fertilizer and output prices computed this way, we instead use village median fertilizer and crop prices for our analysis.This section presents the main results, starting with the demand for fertilizer and then proceeding to ultimate yield responses and profitability estimates. As pointed out earlier, our results are based on three staple crops (maize, teff and wheat) that are important in Ethiopia in both overall crop area cover and fertilizer use. 5We first assess what happens to fertilizer demand for the three crops in the face of rising fertilizer and crop prices in recent years. Given the two-stage nature of the fertilizer use decision, we estimate the double-hurdle model described in Equations ( 1) and ( 2), which allows us to jointly estimate the decision to adopt (the extensive margin) and intensity of fertilizer use per hectare (the intensive margin). In both hurdles, we control for factors that exclusively affect fertilizer use other than own prices in each round, including household characteristics, crop prices, annual average rainfall patterns, soil quality, and distance to major roads and woreda towns. In addition to year fixed effects, we also control for village fixed effects, the level at which the price of fertilizer and output varies, implying that Equations ( 1) and ( 2) are exploiting temporal and cross-sectional variation in prices. Although we include some variables that affect only the first hurdle (such as distance to market and district town because they most affect the first decision and not necessarily the adoption of fertilizer per unit of land), the two equations are mainly distinguishable by the different functional forms we apply, the first hurdle being a probit and the second truncated normal regression. We estimate the demand functions for each crop separately for two reasons: (1) crop prices vary significantly, maize being the cheapest and teff the most expensive; and (2) agronomic yield responses and hence returns to fertilizer application vary across crops.In Table 5, we first present the point estimates of our key variables of interest included in the two hurdles. There are three important empirical patterns worth highlighting. First, the estimates from the first hurdle show that despite some differences across crops, the extensive margin of fertilizer application is negatively associated with fertilizer price. While the extensive margin of demand for fertilizer appears to be not responsive to changes in fertilizer prices for maize, we observe strong responses for teff and wheat.Second, as expected, the intensive margin of demand for fertilizer-level of fertilizer applied per hectare-is negatively associated with changes in fertilizer price, indicating that recent fertilizer price surges may have reduced fertilizer application rates. The downward sloping local polynomial plots reported in Figure A2 (Appendix) also confirm the consistent negative association between nitrogen application rates and fertilizer prices. These results are consistent with prior works in Ethiopia (e.g., Rashid et al. 2013) and elsewhere (e.g., Liverpool-Tasie 2017; Takeshima et al.Third, although the local polynomial plots shown in Figure A2 suggest the expected positive relation between crop prices and fertilizer use, parametrically estimated coefficients for crop prices are not statistically different from zero. This suggests that farmers' response to increases in staple crop prices is not as strong and hence appears to be statistically insignificant. An important result is that, keeping all other factors constant, while farmers strongly respond to increases in fertilizer prices (i.e., by reducing their per hectare fertilizer applications), they seem to fail to respond to favorable crop price increases. This suggests that, to the average farmer in our sample, changes in fertilizer prices are more important determinants of demand than changes in crop prices. We note that the latter may primarily depend on the level of a farm household's subsistence or whether a farm household is a net-buyer or net-seller in these markets, with important implications for policies aimed at cushioning farm households from fertilizer price shocks. We return to these potential heterogeneities in the next sections.Other complementary inputs included in our estimation also turned out to be important determinants of fertilizer adoption and application intensity. For example, the coefficients for land size, observed in both hurdles, indicate that while farmers with larger land holdings are more likely to adopt fertilizers, those with larger land sizes are likely to apply less fertilizer per unit of land.Improved seed use, on the other hand, is associated with a higher likelihood of fertilizer adoption and intensification, as improved seed use is optimized with fertilizer application (e.g., Abay et al. 2018). Moreover, availability of family labor is strongly associated with fertilizer use and per hectare applications, as family labor remains critical in the absence of mechanized farming (e.g., Croppenstedt et al. 2003). Consistent with these findings, farmers are more likely to apply fertilizer in greater quantities per hectare (Table 5). Finally, farmers appear to be substituting organic and inorganic fertilizer, as the application of inorganic fertilizer is negatively associated with manure application. The inverse Mills ratio appears to be positive and statistically significant for all crops, justifying inclusion and control for this ancillary component to account for positive selection in fertilizer application rate. Using estimates reported in Table 5 and following Burke (2009), we compute fertilizer price elasticities of demand (and hence unconditional average partial effects), as discussed in Section 4.Table 6 reports these elasticities by crop. We note two important results here. First, the results show important differences in fertilizer price elasticity of demand across crops, with teff farmers exhibiting higher price elasticity than wheat and maize farmers, suggesting farmers are more sensitive to fertilizer price surges when applied to teff than to wheat and maize. Intuitively, this may be because teff production is likely more resilient to reduced fertilizer applications than wheat or maize. On average, a 1 percent increase in fertilizer prices leads to a 1.08 percent reduction in fertilizer demand (or applications) on teff plots. This is consistent with other findings in similar contexts (e.g., Komarek et al. 2017). On the other hand, farmers are relatively price inelastic to fertilizer demand (or applications) on maize and wheat parcels, likely due to use of hybrid varieties where fertilizers are often recommended (Duflo et al. 2008). Indeed, maize turns out to be the most price inelastic to demand-a 10 percent increase in fertilizer price reduces demand for (and application on) maize fields by about 4 percent, while wheat and teff stand at 8.2 and 10.8 percent, respectively.Second, fertilizer users of all crops are relatively less responsive to own-price increases than nonusers (comparison of last two columns of Table 6). This is intuitive, as those who are already familiar with fertilizer are less likely to dis-adopt it than those newly adopting it. 6 Previous studies have documented similar patterns and differences in elasticities across fertilizer users and nonusers in Africa (e.g., Croppenstedt et al. 2003;Rashid et al. 2013). We assessed potential heterogeneities in fertilizer price elasticity of demand by farm size categories by conducting a subsample analysis for households above and below the median farm size using a simple probit and ordinary least square (OLS) regressions (see Tables A1-A3 in the appendix). 7 The results indicate that the fertilizer price elasticity of demand declines as one goes from those below the median to those above the median farm size for all three crops-suggesting that farmers with larger land sizes are likely to be less responsive to price changes. In other words, those with smaller land sizes tend to cut fertilizer demand when prices increase because they are less likely to be able to afford the higher cost of fertilizers. These results clearly show that households with smaller farm (below the median) are more responsive to increases in fertilizer prices. This is intuitive because in Ethiopia fertilizers are sold in large quantities or unit and less divisible to accommodate the needs of small-scale farmers. Overall, controlling for other complementary inputs, such as labor, land, and rainfall patterns, these findings highlight that smallholder farmers in Ethiopia respond significantly to price changes, albeit with different elasticities. These responses are likely to have important implications on overall agricultural intensification, especially if the surge in prices continues.Next, we assess yield responses to fertilizer application (i.e., the technical relationship between inputs and outputs of a given farming typology) to lay the foundation for the ensuing analysis on fertilizer profitability. An important question a farmer often asks when making investment decisions on fertilizers is the extent to which the specific agronomic or biophysical conditions respond to fertilizer use and given price ratios, whether the conditions allow profitable use of fertilizers, as well as the extent to which such investments can improve the agronomic feasibility itself (Marenya and Barrett 2009;Rurinda et al. 2020). Thus, to understand the profitability of fertilizers, it is important to take stock of the biophysical relationships between fertilizer use and yield responses. Such a relationship can be captured by the production function in Equation ( 3) and associated yield response function-or fertilizer response function-that describes the technical transformation of inputs such as fertilizers into outputs.Table 7 reports yield response (marginal effects) associated with fertilizer application based on a household fixed effects model. This model enables us to remove the time-constant household level unobserved heterogeneities that would potentially confound our estimates, including specific farm management talents, which are expected to remain similar across rounds. We also control for year fixed effects to capture aggregate temporal evolution across years. Other important factors determining the fertilizer yield response include rainfall levels, improved seeds, and agricultural labor, each of which interacts with applied fertilizers. After accounting for these factors (complementary inputs), the results in Table 7 clearly show that fertilizer use increases maize, teff, and wheat yields meaningfully. The local polynomial graphical expositions of yield responses to levels of fertilizer applications also suggest similar increasing trends, showing that increased use of fertilizers is likely to result in increased yield responses, at least for the main crops reported here (see Figure A1 in the Appendix). Specifically, 1 kg/ha increase in fertilizer applications is, on average, associated with a yield increase of 7 kg/ha for maize and 4.5 kg/ha for both wheat and teff, which roughly show 1:7 and 1:5 fertilizer to yield ratios, respectively. These results are qualitatively consistent with the findings by Rashid et al. (2013), who, using 2008 data, find 1:5 for maize, 1:2 for teff, and 1:2.5 for wheat. Such yield responses are not surprising at early stages of intensification, as is the case in Ethiopia. Observed yield response improvements are also arguably intuitive, given the significant investments made over the last 15 years. However, these yield responses are still relatively low, even compared to similar studies from sub-Saharan Africa.For example, Chamberlin, Jayne, and Snapp (2021) report 10 to 13 kg for Tanzania, whileLiverpool-Tasie et al. ( 2017) report 8 kg for Nigeria, and Marenya and Barrett (2009) report 17 kg for Kenya. We also find that the other important complementary inputs, mainly land, labor, and improved seeds, are statistically significant and with the expected signs. Overall, while these results suggest the agronomic potential of using fertilizers, cost and profitability considerations are important to understand actual intensification outcomes in the face of price changes, which is the focus of the next section.This section reports results on the profitability of fertilizer use, focusing on the three main crops considered. Use of the AVCR enables us to measure the economic benefits of fertilizer application.Two important components of the AVCR are the APP, which captures the technical relationship between fertilizer and production levels, and the output to fertilizer price ratio as shown in Equation (4). To compute the APP, we estimate the flexible production function discussed in Equation (3). Table A4 in the Appendix presents the results of the production function estimates, which we use to compute the APP. We then compute the AVCR by combining the APP with the output-fertilizer price ratio. Figure 2 depicts the temporal evolution of the AVCR estimates over time. Four important findings stand out from these estimates. First, starting from a rather low base in 2016, AVCRs on average increased by about 43 percent from 2016 to 2019. Second, following the significant jump in fertilizer and crop prices after 2019, average AVCRs declined for most of the crops. For example, AVCRs for teff declined by about 12 percent, from 3.36 in 2019 to 2.96 in 2023. Third, while the rising trend in AVCRs seems to have been halted by the sharp rise in fertilizer prices, these values remained relatively above the rule of thumb threshold of 2, suggesting fertilizers may have continued to be profitable, on average, despite the recent surge in fertilizer price. 8 A concurrent increase in output price meant that a portion of the cost due to fertilizer price increase is compensated for by the increases in crop prices, in principle leaving fertilizers still profitable. However, we know that farmers in our sample are less likely to respond to fertilizer demand because of favorable crop prices per se but are strongly responsive to unfavorable fertilizer prices. This implies that the reduction in fertilizer use due to fertilizer price rise may be substantial despite the seemingly favorable AVCRs shown in Figure 2. This is likely exacerbated by the supply side constraints reported in Section 3.Fourth, while AVCRs vary by crop, with teff being on the high side, maize on the low side, and wheat in between the two, more recently teff and wheat are observed to converge to similar AVCRs. This indicates that returns to fertilizer use may vary by crop type. Teff is the most expensive compared to maize and wheat, while maize is the cheapest in domestic markets. The AVCR values are consistent with these patterns. An important question related to fertilizer profitability analysis is whether fertilizer is profitable for most farmers and who is more likely to generate positive returns associated with fertilizer applications. We assess this using the commonly used AVCR threshold of 2 and compute the proportion of farm households that are profitable despite the price hikes. These results are reported in Figure 3. First, fertilizer is not profitable for half of maize and teff producers and about a third of wheat producers. Second, the proportion of farmers with profitable AVCRs decreased by almost 6 percentage points between 2019 and 2023 for maize growers and by 8 percentage points for teff growers. Thus, while in 2023 the overall AVCRs remained above the threshold of 2, the proportion of profitable farmers given the price rise declined by 6 to 8 percentage points for maize and teff growers. We note that despite the above trends in AVCRs in general, there may be heterogeneities across farmers with varying scale of production (farm size). In Table 8, we further disaggregate the AVCR values crop and land terciles. The AVCR values in Table 8 show two empirical patterns.First, AVCR values across terciles of farm size show substantial heterogeneity, implying important variations in economic returns to fertilizer application across farm sizes. For most of the crops (except teff), farmers with larger farm sizes generate higher fertilizer returns than those managing small and medium farms. Given the inverse relationship between farm-size productivity, we suspect this may be driven by differences in access to and affordability of fertilizers. This suggests substantial gains associated with the scale of production. Given that land represents a major asset to farmers, these results suggest differential returns to fertilizer application across wealth or production capacity of farmers, with important implications for targeting of interventions to support farmers with a varying wealth profile (e.g., Harou et al. 2017)  and teff. This is not surprising given the disproportional increase in fertilizer price, compared to output price, reported in Section 3. This is also consistent with the trends in fertilizer application and implies that even though fertilizer continues to be profitable on average, the recent surge in fertilizer prices may affect agricultural intensification practices. Note: AVCRs = average value-cost ratios.Global and domestic shocks to food-fertilizer-fuel markets are disrupting food systems in Africa, with several import-dependent countries grappling with these challenges concurrently. We revisit the demand and profitability of chemical fertilizers in the context of the crisis, focusing on smallholder agriculture in Ethiopia. Despite Ethiopia's significant progress in improving the adoption of fertilizer and crop yield over the last three decades, fertilizer application rates remained below targets even before the fertilizer price surges. The recent global disruptions in fertilizer markets along with domestic conflicts and shocks further hamper access to and affordability of chemical fertilizers in these local markets. Although some of the adverse effects resulting from fertilizer price shocks are absorbed by the parallel increase in domestic crop prices, the ultimate impacts of these compounding crises on smallholder farmers in Africa remain less clear.Against this backdrop of these crises, we revisit the state of smallholder fertilizer demand and profitability in Ethiopia. Ethiopia presents an interesting context to assess these factors, as its recent input-use driven gains in agricultural productivity growth face drawbacks due to such global and local crises. We particularly examine farmers' response to changes in both fertilizer and food prices by estimating price elasticity of demand to changes in both prices. We then revisit the profitability of fertilizer by computing the AVCRs before and after the crises. We use three-round longitudinal household survey data, covering pre-crisis (2016 and 2019) and post-crisis (2023) production periods, and we focus on the three main staple crops in Ethiopia (maize, teff, and wheat) that account for most of the fertilizer use in the country.Our analysis shows important insights into fertilizer adoption and application rates as well as implications for yield response and profitability in the face of the price surges. We find that fertilizer adoption and yield were increasing until the recent price hikes, but they seem to halt afterward. We also find relatively large fertilizer price elasticity of demand estimates, ranging between 0.4 and 1.1, which vary by crop. These estimates are substantially larger than previous estimates, and we find suggestive evidence that farmers with small farms are more responsive to changes in fertilizer price than households with larger farms. Although increases in crop prices can theoretically increase demand for fertilizer, when controlling for fertilizer prices, we find that farmers' response to increases in staple crop prices is not as strong as perceived and hence appears to be statistically insignificant. Our findings highlight that smallholder farmers are more responsive to increases in fertilizer than to output prices. Last, we document important trends in the profitability of chemical fertilizers, with AVCR values increasing from 2016 to 2019 for all crops but declining after the crisis. While the pre-crisis AVCRs show profitable trends for most crops (based on the conventional threshold of an AVCR equal to or greater than 2), AVCRs and the share of farmers with profitable AVCRs have declined afterward.Our findings offer important insights to inform policy responses to shocks arising from various triggers. The estimated elasticities suggest that smallholder farmers in the study area exhibit important demand responsiveness to fertilizer price changes, underscoring that smallholder farmers are likely to significantly cut back on fertilizer use in response to price increases and declines in AVCRs. Given that smallholder farmers are credit constrained and primarily aim to achieve subsistence needs including food security, the surge in output prices is less likely to fully absorb the additional cost of fertilizer and hence maintain demand for fertilizer. More importantly, our results suggest that the extent of the adverse effects are heterogenous across farm sizes and crop types, disfavoring those with small farm sizes and growing certain crops-with important income distributional policy implications of such compounded global and local crises.Overall, these patterns signal the need for effective policy instruments to support smallholder farmers in Africa to continue boosting their fertilizer adoption and application rates, especially in countries where achieving the declaration of doubling fertilizer application target by 2025 remains less likely.     "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"44cc8d3a60c34dd7b9c89cccf36b90aa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a2151078-2ade-4fcf-8b3d-2a5c824cbdd8/retrieve","id":"-898630300"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a77e9dcc-5d2b-4b05-ae0d-344cc8d783a7","content":"La yuca (Ma:nihot esculertta Crantz) es actualmente uno de los cultivos de mayor importancia en la Economía Nacional y como tal ha sido incluida en los planes de fomento del Ministerio de Agricultura !Y Desarrollo Rural, como parte integral de las cadenas productivas. Por sus características de propaga-El presente trabajo de investigación se llevó a cabo en los laboratorios de Sanidad de Germoplasma y Cultivo de Tejidos de la Unidad de Recursos Genéticos del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT).Para dicho ensayo, se cosecharon 25 cIones con síntomas de la enfermedad del cuero de sapo con tres grados de severidad diferentes (leves, moderados. severos).De cada c10n y para cada técnica se obtuvieron dos estacas de aproximadamente 15 cm de longitud, posteriormente se desinfestaron con Dímetoato (Sístemín) al 0,3 % Y se sembraron en vasos de icopor con suelo pasterizado. Como controles se incluyeron injertos realizados con los mismos materiales del clon indicador, utilizados en la realización de la investigación.Las metodologías de las tres técnicas de injertacíón utilizadas para la indizacíón de los materiales se describen a continuación:Las estacas madres se llevaron a una cámara de crecimiento con una temperatura de 30 Oc hasta la obtención de yemas axilares, evento que ocurrió aproximadamente a los 20 días. Estas yemas se cortaron y bajo condiciones de laboratorio y dentro de una cámara de flujo laminar se realizaron los síguientes pasos: las yemas contenidas en vasos de precipitado de 50 mI se desinfestaron dos veces: la primera con alcohol al 70 % durante 10 segundos y la segunda con hipoclorito de sodio al 0,5 % durante 5 minutos, realizando lavados con agua destilada estéril entre cada paso. De estas yemas se extrajeron ápices de ocho primordios y se sembraron en tubos que contenían medio de cultivo Murashige y Skoog modificado (Roca, W, et al., 1984), luego se llevaron a un cuarto de crecimiento con 28 Oc de temperatura, fotoperíodo de 12 horas e intensidad de 2000 lux.Al cabo de 90 días se obtuvieron plántulas de tallo vigoroso y lignificado procediéndose a microinjertar con el clon Secundina. Para obtener el mícro-injerto se realizó un cortc en la parte apical del patrón a una altura de 3 cms y luego se hizo una incisión de 0,5 cms de profundidad, sobre ésta hendidura se insertó el clon indicador., Los micro -injertos se llevaron a un cuarto de crecimiento con 24 Oc de temperatura, fotoperíodo de ;12 horas, humedad relativa del 60 % e intensidad de 2000 lux (Figura No. 1).Las estacas madres se localizaron bajo condiciones de temperatura ambiente hasta que de las yemas axilares crecieron brotes formando tallos. Posteriormente se realizó un corte en la parte terminal del tallo a una altura de 5 -7 ems con una cuchilla evitando que se presentara necrosis en el tejido; sobre éste corte se hizo una incisión de 1 cm de profundidad y se eliminaron las yemas axilares. Luego se realizó un corte en la parte basal del tallo de la plántula de Secundina y ésta se insertó en la hendidura del patrón sujetándose con cintas de \"parafilm\".Finalmente los injertos se cubrieron con una bolsa de f.lástico transparente para evitar la deshidratación y se llevaron a una cámara de crecimiento con 25 C de temperatura, fotoperíodo de 12 horas e intensidad de 2000 lux (Figura No. 2).Se utilizó la técnica de injerto inglés (Jcngueta o látigo) según Jo descrito por Hartmann y Kester. (1971) con algunas modificaciones. Las estacas madres fueron colocadas bajo condiciones de cuarto de crecimiento hasta la obtención de brotes lignificados, situación que ocurrió a los 25 días. Se cortaron los brotes para utilizarlos como patrón y se realizó en cada uno de ellos un corte transversal definido en la parte superior, a su vez un corte de la misma longitud se efectuó en estacas de similar desarrollo del clon indicador; en éstas el corte se realizó en la parte inferior. Se eliminaron todas las yemas presentes en los patrones para evitar su desarrollo. Una vez ejecutados los cortes, ambos extremos se unieron sólidamente con cintas de \"parafilm\" para asegurar el establecimiento del injerto.Los clones injertados se colocaron en frascos de vidrio estériles conteniendo agua destilada y se ubicaron bajo las condiciones de un cuarto de crecimiento con un fotoperíodo de 12 horas luz y temperatura de 26 Oc (Figura No. 3).En cada téenica se realizaron dos repeticiones por cada clono Las evaluaciones se realizaron tan pronto fue posible la observación de síntomas. iLos resultados obtenidos, después de aplicar la metodología descrita, muestran que las tres técnicas de injertación detectan los materiales afectados por la ECS, en los tres niveles de severidad de la enfermedad, con algunas diferencias (Tabla 1).La evaluación del porcentaje de prendimiento de las tres técnicas para observar su eficacia como método de diagnóstico mostró que, a pesar de la mortalidad de algunos injertos, el porcentaje de prendimiento en este ensayo bajo las condiciones mencionadas con la técnica de la micro-injertación fue del 100 %, del 92 % con la técnica del injerto en brote y del 93,6 % con la técnica del injerto inglés, observándose que a pesar de las pérdidas totales evaluadas, en todas las técnicas las cifras fueron altas (Tabla 2).Describiendo los datos obtenidos en porcentaje puede observarse que un 48 % de detección de síntomas fue obtenido con la técnica de la micro -injertacíón in vitra, un 76 % con la técnica de injerto en brote y un 100 % con la técnica del injerto inglés sobre brotes enraizados en agua (Tabla 2) , El hecho de que el porcentaje de injertos con síntomas en la microinjertación in vitro y del injerto de vitro plantas en brotes hubiera sido menor que en la técnica del injerto inglés sobre brotes enraizados en agua, podría explicarse por las diferencias observadas en la formación de la conexión vascular entre el patrón y cl injerto. Las observaciones realizadas mostraron que los micro-injertos in vitro y los injertos de vitroplantas en brotes que expresaron síntomas, presentaron un mejor contacto con el patrón, formando un callo uniforme a lo largo del corte longitudinal de la base del injerto. Se están efectuando verificaciones adieionales y ajustes a las dos técnicas para lograr mayor eficiencia en la expresión de síntomas.En el caso del injerto inglés sobre brotes enraizados en agua la fusión de tejidos del patrón y el injerto fue completa; lo que explicaría su alta eficiencia en la expresión de síntomas. Según Hartmann y Kester, (1971) debe existir una presión del patrón hacia el injerto que permita el establecimiento de la conexión vascular para facilitar el flujo seguro de savia y por ende la translocación del virus, si éste está presente. Si se comparan las tres técnicas de injerto evaluadas con la injertación tradicional (injerto Inglés sobre estacas ), éstas resultan más eficientes en cuanto al tiempo total requerido para el diagnóstico (Tablas 2 y 3 ) Y poseen menos riesgos de reinfección con la ECS por presencia de B. tuberculata. Al momento el injerto inglés sobre brotes enraizados en agua es el más eficiente (Tabla 2 ). Sin embargo se espera que una vez efectuadas las verificaciones y ajustes del caso las otras dos técnicas se puedan aplicar para la indización pues pometen ser más eficientes y seguras .• CONCLUSIONES 1. Todas las técnicas utilizadas en este ensayo corroboraron la presencia de virosis observada en los materiales cosechados en campo, virosis posiblemente asociada al complejo de virus del \"cuero de sapo\".2. Las técnicas generan óptimos resultados cuando las condiciones ambientales para la expresión de síntomas son las adecuadas y el tipo de material tanto del c10n indicador como del patrón es el requerido.3. Los tres tipos o variantes de la injertación son funcionales y tienen aplicabilidad según los requerimientos de indización por tipo y clase de materiales y dependen de las facilidades y disponibilidad de recursos de quienes las practiquen.4. El porcentaje de prendimiento con las tres técnicas evaluadas fue elevado, sin embargo se recomienda que para la realización de cada una de ellas sea necesaria una capacitación dirigida.La técnica de injerto en brote podría ser la alternativa más adecuada para evaluar material que proviene de campo en un tiempo más corto del que se necesita para obtener resultados mediante la utilización del injerto inglés con estacas gruesas (injerto tradicional). 1 t 6. Roca, W; Nolt, B; Mafia, G; Roa, lC y Reyes, R. 1991. Eliminación de virus y propagación de clones en la yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) En: Cultivo de tejidos en la agricultura: Fundamentos y aplicaciones.  "}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ba70c3e09d297a5408b5507c4d439943","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6a32bd14-94c8-44f2-8cfd-b165ca0967bb/retrieve","id":"305733127"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a2d1475f-acf4-4ed0-807f-b0fff5042e32","content":"Agriculture is central to the economy of Uganda; it employs about 82% of the national workforce and is responsible for generating over 20% of Uganda's GDP (Oling, Rwabizambuga, and Warrenrodriguez 2014). Over 800,000 smallholder farmers in the Mbale, Manafwa and Bududa Districts (Mbale region, total area 137,128 ha) depend on agriculture as their main source of livelihood (Mbogga 2013). Farmers in these districts mainly produce bananas and maize, which are consumed locally and exported to neighboring countries like Kenya, as well as annual horticultural crops, such as carrots, Irish potatoes, onions, passion fruit and tomatoes. The Mbale region is also among the major coffee growing areas in Uganda, which is a major source of income for many farmers in the region. Additionally, most farmers also own livestock, which are usually kept in zero grazing systems or in combination with partial grazing (The Republic of Uganda 2013).However, the fertile land has also resulted in a high rate of population growth and land fragmentation. The Mbale region has a high population density of about 1000 people per square kilometer, which means that the average size of land holding is small, between about 1 and 2 acres, forcing farmers to till the land intensively throughout the year (The Republic of Uganda 2013). In addition to making the soils less fertile and productive, these unsustainable farming practices also contribute to soil erosion. Furthermore, there has been significant forest degradation in the Mbale region (Banana et al. 2014). Because the region is mountainous, these unsustainable practices can easily lead to mudslides when the soil is exposed to large amounts of rainfall. For these reasons, the Mt. Elgon region is one of the most vulnerable areas in Uganda to climate change, which was exemplified in the tragic landslide in Bududa and Manafwa Districts in March 2010 (Masiga 2013).Agroforestry is one solution to these complex challenges as it serves to mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon in trees, while helping to prevent soil erosion and improving soil fertility. Since October 2012, Environmental Conservation Trust (ECOTRUST) has been implementing an agroforestry-focused carbon project under the Trees for Global Benefits (TGB) program in the Mbale, Manafwa and Bududa Districts. This project was introduced to provide smallholder farmers incentives to participate in climate change mitigation activities, while accentuating soil and water conservation and exploiting the benefits of enhanced productivity for banana and coffee crops under an agroforestry system (van Asten et al. 2011). While the TGB program is driven by the voluntary carbon market and provides a minimal payment to farmers in proportion to their mitigation effort, the incentive is usually quite small, only about USD 175-235 per 0.5 ha over a 10-year payment period.To minimise transaction costs, maximize the carbon mitigation incentive that reaches farmers, and ensure the long-term sustainability of the initiative, ECOTRUST has been working on steps to scale up and build local institutional capacity to manage carbon project activities through a project with the Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and Ecoagriculture Partners. To do this, ECOTRUST has been focusing on building the training and recruitment capacities of community-based trainers (called ToTs) with the help of a new 2-day training program focused on the key aspects of the carbon project. The ToTs, who were composed of both elected farmer coordinators and government extension officials based at the sub-county level, receive additional training and support from ECOTRUST. Once trained, they are responsible for facilitating group training sessions for interested farmers in their communities using the developed curriculum and providing informal support to individual farmers, such as answering questions about the carbon payment schedule.March 2015In While there has been much success with this initial pilot project, scaling up the number of farmers who are participating in agriculture carbon activities in the Mbale District, will require more active engagement and commitment of the district local governments and national government, as well as other development partners.  While the TGB program implemented by ECOTRUST provides a good entry point into carbon programs for smallholder farmers, the scale of the challenge is much larger and requires public intervention. The Mbale, Manafwa and Bududa District Local Governments, as well as the National Government and external partners could build on the work of ECOTRUST to scale up agriculture carbon activities in the Mbale region and beyond. To achieve this, we make the following recommendations:Increase direct support to the ECOTRUST project to allow it to scale up.  programs (in the agriculture or forestry sectors) to host these expanded activities, as well as devoting specific budgetary support to these activities, which are well aligned with the district local governments' obligations under the Integrated Territorial Climate Plan (ITCP).The national government could work to expand the current agriculture carbon project activities into a larger scale carbon sequestration program in the Mbale region by integrating them into the design of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Activities (NAMAs). In addition to just focusing on agroforestry activities, the National Government could also use the knowledge and institutions developed in the ECOTRUST project to expand to additional, complimentary carbon mitigation activities, such as rural energy generation through biogas production. The management of a large scale carbon sequestration program would require a significant investment to build necessary capacities, make required institutional changes, and implement appropriate government oversight. Additional resources devoted to the implementation of NAMAs could help the government to effectively manage and implement such a program.The national government could expand on the current agriculture carbon project by integrating it into a REDD+ program. In addition to providing a means of scaling up tree planting, the REDD+ program could build on the knowledge and institutions already developed in the TGB project to better implement afforestation and reforestation activities with smallholder farmers in the region.The district local governments could also implement complementary projects and programs that would help link the agricultural carbon activities to broader landscape management objectives. These could include activities that do not directly relate to carbon emission reduction sales, such as providing support to farmers to reduce deforestation by promoting the adoption of energy saving stoves. Similarly, the district local governments could help link smallholder farmers to commercial opportunities so that they can access premiums associated with sustainable agricultural production.Scaling up agriculture carbon activities would help to support smallholder farmers improve their productivity, ensure the long-term sustainability of the land resource base, improve their resilience to climate change, as well as contribute to a low carbon, green economy. By expanding on the model piloted by ECOTRUST, the district local governments in the Mbale region and national government would be making significant strides towards achieving several of their development priorities related to food security, environmental protection, and livelihoods improvement in a cost-effective and sustainable way."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dc888c7c14cabb57471c3d2e9c2736a1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f6c5b66c-4f58-4dff-b72e-89d43a4dc643/retrieve","id":"-151456440"},"keywords":["Marie-Françoise BARRET-MARGER, proofreading,","Roselyne CALMEL, photographs,","Stéphane COLSENET, orientation towards young people, broad-based education and scientific knowledge,","Grace DELOBEL, translation into English,","Annie MARTI, complementary documents"],"sieverID":"092e7026-ebb3-41f7-8fa8-d6184dfe710e","content":"of CIRAD and INRA, based on an original idea of Michel LAUNOIS, set in prototype by Géraldine LAVEISSIERE, with documentary contributions of Georgette CHARBONNIER and the logistical support of Anita THIOUX, of the Innovative Pedagogical Production unit in the Innovation and Communication Department of CIRAD.from Asia to Africa.• an animal health problem in countries of the South • a H5N1 virus with pathogenic strains • birds that die • other animal species concerned or infected • healthy carriers • a proven risk for man • reasons for fear, others for hope • a risk to be managed within the context of the globalization of trade in animals and animal products • problems and remedies to be increasingly shared • scientific knowledge adapted to diverse audiences. The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), created in 1924, is one of the world's oldest intergovernmental organizations and also, with 167 member countries, one of the most representative. Present on 5 continents through regional coordinators and a network of collaborating centers and reference laboratories, the OIE manages a global surveillance and early-warning system for animal health and plays a key role in the field of scientific research and information. OIE also defines health standards for global trade in animals and animal products. In this respect, it is a major actor in political and financial mechanisms of international cooperation for less advanced and developing countries.The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) plays a leading role in international efforts against famine. At the service of developed and developing countries, it is a neutral tribunal within which all countries may meet on an equal footing to negotiate agreements and debate policy. It also is a source of knowledge and information and works to assist developing countries and countries in transition to modernize and improve agricultural, forestry, and fishery practices and to guarantee good nutrition for all. Since its creation in 1945, it has consecrated particular attention to the development of rural zones where 70% of the world's poor and hungry live. Its four main fields of activity consist of making information available to all, sharing policy expertise, serving as a meeting place for governments, and the transfer of knowledge to the field.The Inter-African Bureau of Animal Resources of the African Union (AU-IBAR) is a bureau of the Department of Rural Economics and Agriculture of the African Union. Its current mandate is to control major trans-border diseases, improve genetic and food resources, develop information, communication and technologies dedicated to animal production, and reinforce the trade in animals and animal products through an improvement of quality insurance and the harmonization of policies and norms related to this trade.The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) ACP-EU was created in 1983 within the framework of the Lomé Convention between governments in the ACP Group (African, Caribbean and Pacific group of states) and member countries of the European Union. Since 2000, the TCA operates within the context of the Cotonou ACP-CE agreement. The TCA's mission is to develop and provide services that improve access of ACP countries to information on agricultural and rural development and to reinforce the capacity of these countries to produce, acquire, exchange, and exploit information in this field.The French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), in pursuing sectorial policies and the Millennium objectives for development, aims to promote the emergence of societies able to access production processes and the diffusion of knowledge and culture. In this regard, it provides its partners support for sustainable development, particularly in the field of research and the promotion of access to culture and knowledge.The Aviculture Technical Institute (ITAVI) is a professional organization specialized in the development of, and applied research in, poultry farming, rabbit production, and goose and duck production. It provides technical and financial support to poultry farmers and to the overall sector. Every year, ITAVI organizes a training program designed for actors in the aviculture sector in tropical zones; it also has published two guides focused on bird farming in hot climates to address the specific needs of these professionals.CEVA SANTE ANIMALE is a French veterinary pharmaceutical company with an international reach. Exclusively dedicated to animal health, the CEVA SANTE ANIMALE group conceives, develops, registers, produces, and markets veterinary medicines (antibiotics, control of reproduction, vaccines, metabolic correctors, nervous system medicines, antiparasites). Due to its presence in zones infected with avian influenza, the CEVA SANTE ANIMALE group has been actively engaged in official avian influenza vaccination programs since the beginning of the epizootic in Asia. Its long partnership with CIRAD testifies to its engagement.The French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD) focuses on research, experimentation, training operations, information programs, and innovation. Its strengths in life, social, and engineering sciences are applied to food and agriculture and to the management of natural resources and social issues. One of the missions of the Livestock Production and Veterinary Medicine department is to capitalize on and expand current understanding of avian influenza. Within the Innovation and Communication department, the Innovative Education unit aims to bring educational value to scientific, technical, and practical knowledge through novel means. They are amplified by poor knowledge about the disease, particularly a lack of reliable consumer information.It therefore is important that this educational handbook, which is destined for a wide audience, explains in clear terms, using numerous illustrations, what HPAI really is.I salute this initiative, and I hope that the greatest number of people in our member countries may have access to it. Despite international efforts, avian influenza continues to spread throughout the world: in 2006, several African countries were affected one after another. The propagation of the virus in Africa, which lies at the heart of our Priority Solidarity Zone (PSZ), requires new means to assist our partner countries in addressing the epizootic. Beyond a moral duty to come to the assistance of the most vulnerable, aiding these countries is in our own interest because avian influenza illustrates the interdependence of the world today: if the virus is not concretely controlled in developing countries, it will continue to propagate beyond administrative borders.The control of health crises are therefore everyone's businessgovernments, international organizations, and citizens. It is essential to detect suspect cases as quickly as possible and to take the necessary measures to treat them, but also to avoid risky behavior and disproportionate responses that only amplify health and economic damage. For these reasons, it is important to develop effective and appropriate forms of communication, using clear language, to respond to people's legitimate concerns.This need for information is particularly strong in the case of avian influenza, an animal disease that has infected livestock on three continents. It must be emphasized that the people infected to date were poultry farmers or members of their families who probably were poorly informed about the disease, the behaviors to avoid, and the precautions to take during their daily contact with poultry.The educational handbook prepared by CIRAD is an attempt to respond to this need for information. It is addressed to all actors in the field as well as to various opinion relay points in France's Priority Solidarity Zone. It is necessary to consolidate in a practical format the main points of our current understanding of this virus whose animal source must be controlled and the transmission between people monitored. I have no doubt that this document, a veritable vademecum on avian influenza, will contribute to mobilization at the field level, which France encouraged and for which it will continue to resolutely act.  Poultry production in countries in the SouthIn Southeast Asia, half of the poultry population is raised intensively on medium to large scale commercial farms. The other half is a source of income for small farmers who keep only a few dozen ducks, chickens, geese, or turkeys. The birds live together in close proximity to the farmer's family, especially the children, who take care of and play with them.At certain times of day and during certain periods of the year, poultry and humans share the same habitat.In Africa, intensive poultry farming (or aviculture) has been developed in North Africa (from Morocco to Egypt), South Africa, and around the large cities of the Gulf of Guinea (Lagos, Abidjan, …) and East Africa (Addis Ababa, Nairobi, …). Elsewhere, backyard-bird farming dominates, with similar promiscuity between people and poultry found in Southeast Asia.In Madagascar, the situation closely resembles Asia: large areas are covered by rice fields with numerous geese and duck farms in close contact with pigs and people. Live-bird markets are a prime location for the transmission and spread of viruses. Contaminated animals that do not present an obvious sign of disease may be bought and transported to a new environment that is conducive to the spread of the virus.In addition, small-scale farmers and merchants often come in close contact with the poultry while transporting them by hand, bicycle, cycle rickshaw, in public transportation, or in the market stalls.Healthy birds may be contaminated in the market by other diseased poultry and if they are not sold then spread the virus upon their return to the family farm.The classic signsAfter an incubation period of 3 to 5 days, infected birds lack an appetite, no longer lay eggs, and show symptoms in the digestive, respiratory, and nervous systems. The most sensitive individuals die rapidly from hemorrhagic septicemia. In many cases, the mortality rate is brutal, killing nearly the entire population of a hen house within a few hours or days.A new shared epidemic?Veterinarians, like doctors, know that infected animals can transmit pathogenic agents to the humans who care for them or who eat them. This is called a zoonosis. In regards to bird flu, cases of infection are noted when there is close contact between humans and animals. Although this is not a new phenomenon, it is often misunderstood or ignored.Heavy subcutaneous congestion in the abdominal region of a pullet infected with avian influenza in Indonesia, 2004 -© CEVA SANTÉ ANIMALE Indonesia.Avian influenza is a poultry disease dreaded by farmers. It effectively can provoke a very high mortality among infected broilers and laying hens, turkeys, quail, guinea fowl, ostrich, geese, and ducks. It first was described clinically in 1878.In 1902, the causative agent was proven to be a virus. This agent was specifically identified in 1961. Avian influenza viruses that either are not or are only slightly pathogenic circulate in all countries, most often without consequence or with a weak impact on the health of poultry.In contrast, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses provoke a scourge known as fowl plague. When spread over a large geographic area, they result in economically devastating epidemics.The term, pseudo-plague, is reserved for Newcastle disease. This is as dangerous for young chickens as avian flu. Furthermore, it presents the same clinical signs, lesions, and epidemiologic profile. Geese and ducks are less affected.A HPAI epizootic is a catastrophe impossible to hide. It causes sudden and massive mortality among chickens that are raised intensively. In countries equipped with a well developed veterinary infrastructure, commercial poultry farmers have no choice but to actively cooperate with the veterinary services by declaring a suspect case, accepting the diagnosis, and following the control measures imposed by the official veterinary services: the culling of chickens that are still alive, the disposal of the carcasses according to strict bio-security standards, the thorough disinfection of the site and material, the quarantine of the farm, the provision of compensation, and the strict surveillance of movement and of other birds in a several kilometer radius from the outbreak. The greatest amount of transparency on the part of health authorities is obviously indispensable for the proper management of this type of crisis.An outbreak of HPAI on a small farm is a catastrophe because the farmer knows that all of his animals will either die or be culled while the compensation measures in many developing countries are very uncertain. Consequently, there is a strong temptation to kill a sick animal at the first sign of disease to eat, sell, or -if it already is dead -discretely get rid of the body. Without specific information and sensitization, a farmer will say nothing to neighbors or the authorities. This attitude is understandable when the authorities in a country, although alerted to the risk, do not diffuse information for fear of a negative impact on exports, commerce, tourism, and more generally the overall reputation of the country. The transmission risk HPAI virus transmission through the digestive system has not been noted in humans.The main mode of human contamination is through ocular or respiratory routes. It is therefore necessary to wear protective masks and glasses (in addition to gloves and overalls) when manipulating sick or suspect birds. The risk linked to the consumption of infected poultry is indirect: via the fingers while touching the bird before cooking, then through contact of the hand with the eyes or nose. Swallowing eggs is to be avoided because the virus may be on the shells of eggs laid by a hen in the very first stage of the disease (the hen later will cease to lay eggs). Consequently, hand washing before and after touching food is a simple and efficient preventive measure to be taken without exception.The consumption of poultry or poultry products (eggs, meat, foie gras…) presents no danger when veterinary control measures are implemented correctly. Products are only made available for consumption several days after poultry are slaughtered, which provides time for a potential infectious outbreak to manifest itself on the source farm.In case of doubt regarding the efficiency of the control measures, well cooked meat (having a core temperature of 70°C for at least one second, in other words, meat without the slightest trace of pink, including near the bones), presents no risk. A cooked egg also presents no risk. However, freezing does not destroy the virus; it conserves it.The many forms of HN virusesThe avian influenza virus is a small, infectious micro-organism (approximately one hundred millionth of a millimeter). It is made up of a dozen proteins and of a genome sequence segmented into 8 strands of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Like all viruses, the bird flu agent is by necessity an intracellular parasite: it can only replicate itself within a cell in which it has taken over the metabolism. To enter a cell, the virus must bind onto a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell. This capacity determines which cells are sensitive to infection and which species are vulnerable to becoming infected. Thus, influenza viruses are highly host-specific, avian viruses having much more affinity for avian cells than for human cells (and vice versa). The virus must adapt to a new species in order to jump across the species barrier.Members of the Orthomyxoviridae family placed in the Influenza genus, all avian influenza viruses have in common internal type A antigens.The subtypes that affect birds are characterized by external antigens, some are haemagglutinins H (16 different kinds are known, from H1 to H16), others are neuraminidases N (9 different kinds are known, from N1 to N9).There are 23 known H-N associations (of which 15 are found in birds) out of 135 potential ones. A slight modification or recombination of viruses of different lineages is sufficient for the creation of new and potentially virulent strains. On numerous occasions (e.g., in Italy and Mexico) H7N1 and the H5N2 strains, which initially were not very pathogenic, became extremely virulent in just a few months. The pathogenic power of H Numerous strains of the avian influenza virus, including the subtypes H5, H7, and H9, exist completely unnoticed in wild and domestic bird populations. In contrast, certain strains belonging to the same type may be very virulent and provoke up to 100% mortality. The pathogenicity of a strain is linked closely to the ability of haemagglutinin to cleave into two functional subunits required for the virus to penetrate the cell. This catalysis is facilitated in highly pathogenic strains by the presence of basic amino acids duplicated at the cleavage site, rendering it more accessible to the enzymes involved. Genome sequencing of the cleavage site reveals the pathogenic character of an avian influenza virus strain.If it is protected by moist organic material, the virus can survive well in the environment. It remains infectious for 4 days at 22°C, 30 days at 0°C in contaminated water, and 40 days in poultry droppings. However, it may be destroyed by exposing it to temperatures of at least 70°C for one second during the preparation of food products (meat, eggs…). The large H.N. familyThe avian influenza viruses are programmed to make use of cells in the respiratory and digestive tracts to multiply. They provoke epizootic outbreaks that are well known to veterinarians. Apart from the H9 subtype virulent in poultry, the H5 and H7 subtypes currently are host to the most aggressive viral strains. Type A avian influenza viruses are varied and unpredictable because they use a short term survival tactic. Through slight genetic modifications, they escape the immune defenses of a host while exploiting for as long as possible the population vulnerable to the infection.Genetic drift occurs through an accumulation of replication errors in a slow process to which organisms may adapt themselves. It is responsible for an antigen shift that allows a virus to partially escape a host's immune response or to progressively adapt to a new host species.In contrast, genetic reassortment occurs when two viruses trade genetic material, which is only possible if the same cell is infected simultaneously by these two viruses.Genetic reassortment can have two consequences: a major antigenic modification and the acquisition of new characteristics of virulence or adaptation to a host species.The combination of these two consequences resulted in the emergence of the viruses responsible for the Asian (1957) and Hong Kong (1968) flu in humans, springing from a recombination of a human and an avian virus. Three of the genes in the 1957 H2N2 virus came from an avian influenza virus and the 5 other segments came from a H1N1 virus derived from the virus responsible for the Spanish flu (1918)(1919).Sacred ibis flying in the sky over Chad, 2006 -Alexandre Caron, © CiradThe disease has been well described among domestic birds such as turkeys and chickens. However, all domestic and wild birds (including migratory ducks and geese) probably are vulnerable to the HPAI H5N1 virus. Migratory ducks play an important role in the spread of the virus across far distances. Water that is contaminated by infected bird droppings can serve as a passive vector for the most vulnerable species such as swans, which should be considered more as victims of the disease than as responsible for its spread. Domestic birds might become contaminated through contact with infected wild birds or water polluted with the HPAI H5N1 virus. Conversely, wild birds might become contaminated through contact with infected domestic birds or water polluted with their droppings or by domestic by-products that commonly are used as feed on fish farms in Asia and Africa.Ostrich farming has been developed world wide. In South Africa, an epizootic of influenza among these birds caused a direct (mortality) and indirect (the interdiction of exports) losses estimated at several tens of millions of euros in 2004.When the flu is shared Under certain circumstances, viruses with avian origins may infect mammals (pigs, horses…), or even humans. Nonetheless, this infection generally remains invisible. Wild (tigers in Thailand) or domestic (cats) felines have fallen ill or died after ingesting birds that died of avian influenza, or by having close and repeated contact with sick birds or their droppings. To date, such events are rare and there is little evidence that cats play a significant role in the transmission of the pathogenic H5N1 virus. However, genetic evolutions (mutation, reassortment) may allow a virus to adapt itself to a new host species. Great vigilance is required faced with this risk of crossing the species barrier.All evidence indicates that uncontrolled commercial movements and a lack of hygiene are much more effective than migratory birds at rapidly transmitting the virus to numerous farms in a given region. Examples are the movement and markets of live birds and the importation of hatching eggs or of chicks of suspect origins. However, the respective contribution of wild birds and of commercial exchanges is difficult to quantify : it is a research question which several teams are studying actively.Sample taken from a red-tailed godwit, traditionally hunted in Mali, 2006 Alexandre Caron, © CiradThe virus penetrates a bird's respiratory and intestinal membranes to infect the cells which will insure its replication. The incubation period is short: 3 to 5 days in general, although it may be up to 3 weeks. This upper limit was retained in international regulation for the exchanges of birds and bird products. With highly pathogenic H.N. viruses, the acute forms are common: in 90% of the cases, the birds suffer a septicemic attack and die within one or two days. With extreme forms, symptoms may be observed in isolation or in various associations, including general (loss of appetite, prostration…), cutaneous (oedema, congestion, hemorrhage in the combs and wattles), respiratory (respiratory difficulties, rattle, cough), digestive (diarrhea with occasional white droppings, possibly hemorrhagic), and neurological (poor motor coordination, wing paralysis, stiff neck...) signs. In subacute forms, birds suffer from respiratory symptoms (swelling of orbital sinuses, respiratory difficulty, cough) and cease to lay eggs. Mortality rates still may be high, differing from what is observed in mild cases: slight respiratory symptoms and a reduction in egg laying. Finally, forms showing no visible symptoms are frequent among wild birds. Chickens and turkeys are the most vulnerable domestic species. Pheasants, quail, guinea fowl, and ostriches are susceptible, as are geese and ducks. In enzootic zones, numerous domestic and wild species (chickens, geese, ducks…) might be reservoirs for the H5N1 virus, a small proportion of birds (0.1% to 2%) seeming capable of harboring the virus without showing symptoms. These birds might thus contaminate other birds. Pigs, horses, cats, and people may become infected by H5N1 and other avian flu viruses. In Asian zoos, carnivores accidentally fed chickens infected with H5N1 developed severe pneumonia and died.In addition to their own specific influenza viruses, pigs also may harbor viruses of both human and avian origin (a situation seen in China in 2004 and in Indonesia in 2005). Consequently, it is important to avoid contact between pigs and poultry to reduce the risk of the emergence of a hybrid virus potentially dangerous to man. Human cases remain exceptional: man is naturally resistant to avian flu. Repeated and close contact with diseased or dead birds is necessary for infection to take place. Humans are infected through their eyes, developing a generally benign form of conjunctivitis (the case of the H7N7 virus in the Netherlands in 2003), or through the deep inhalation of particles that may provoke a severe respiratory infection. The incubation period lasts between 1 and 2 weeks before the first symptoms appear: high fever, headaches, muscular pain, fatigue, cough, and respiratory difficulty. In certain cases, these symptoms evolve rapidly into acute respiratory distress that can lead to death.As of August 2006, the virus has provoked 241 confirmed human cases of avian flu in Southeast Asia, Turkey, Iraq, and Egypt, with a mortality rate of approximately 60% (the proportion of deaths among diagnosed cases). These cases must be considered in the context of the hundreds of millions of people exposed. It may thus be affirmed that the transmission of H5N1 from poultry to man is an exceptional phenomena that always is linked to extremely poor hygienic and sanitary conditions. In contrast, human influenza viruses are the indirect cause of several hundred thousand deaths each year around the world. The transmission of the HPAI H5N1 virus from an infected person to a healthy individual is extremely rare. A substantial mutation of the existing HPAI H5N1 virus strains would be required for this to be more frequent. Its occurrence would change the nature of the disease and considerably increase the risk of a pandemic caused by the mutant virus.Once upon a time, there was the Spanish FluThe culprit H1N1 virus killed over 40 million people between 1918 and 1919, a total that may be compared to the 8.3 million soldiers killed between 1914 and 1918 during World War I. The virus began in China and first circulated through Europe and the United States of America onboard troop transports, then reached Southeast Asia and Africa through land, sea, and air routes. Initially, it was not particularly deadly; the people who fell ill often recovered after suffering only a few days of fever. In a second wave, the virus became ten times more dangerous to the point of becoming lethal among healthy people between the ages of 15 and 35; in contrast, \"ordinary\" flu statistically affects the youngest and oldest in a population. At the time, it was thought that older people were spared because they had experienced the flu of 1889-1891 and survived.Some authors believe that the lethal character of the virus may have been acquired on pig farms located on the Great Plains of North America. Deaths were caused by severe primary viral pneumonia that developed very fast (2 days), as well as by secondary bacterial infections caused by Haemophilus influenza, a bacteria species involved in deadly pneumonias and pleurisy.The name, Spanish Flu, is due to a rumor that the source of contamination in Europe was canned food imported from Spain that supposedly was poisoned by German spies.During the pandemic, 25 to 30% of the worldwide population caught the flu. Life expectancy dropped 10 years in the space of only a few months. India counted 10 million dead. The United States of America lost 500,000 of its citizens, or more than the cumulated losses from the two World Wars, the Korean War, and the war in Vietnam. In France, 400,000 young adults died. Certain Polynesian islands lost 20% of their population while at the same time 60% of Inuits disappeared. Wearing face masks became a daily reality at work and on public transport.Pigs also were victims of the epidemic, either due to their role in the appearance of the virus, or by transmission from infected people.\"Despite active treatment: bleeding in the beginning, daily colloidal silver, camphor oil, strychnine, cold packs, fixation abscess, subcutaneous injections of oxygen, by the sixteenth day, the patient succumbed to the flu.\"American researchers recreated in a laboratory a virus similar to an avian H1N1 virus. They used a Spanish flu virus discovered in the bodies of Inuits which had been conserved in frozen Alaskan soil for nearly 90 years. The researchers were able to verify the virus' highly pathogenic nature on cultures of human pulmonary cells.Why cannot people be vaccinated with the vaccine used for poultry? Each vaccine is adapted to the species for which it is destined. The immune system of birds is different from man: a vaccine that works for birds will not necessarily be effective for people. In addition, the vaccine used in several parts of the world (e.g., Mexico) against avian influenza only provides immunity for a short time (several weeks) in vaccinated birds. Why get vaccinated against human flu if this will not protect against avian flu? (1) Because the human flu virus remains by far more wide spread among people than that of avian flu, (2) to avoid having someone accidentally infected by avian flu also become infected with human flu, which would facilitate the emergence of a potentially dangerous hybrid virus, and (3) to facilitate a differential diagnosis in the case of flu symptoms. Bird flu or avian influenza?The term avian influenza is preferable because it is less easily confused with the human disease (the flu) and it does not imply that birds are infected with a disease that resembles the human flu. What does influenza mean? Etymologically, influenza comes from the Italian «influenza di freddo», or influence of the cold. No distinction is made from a banal cold. Are all viruses dangerous? No, most are inoffensive or benign. Numerous types of influenza viruses pose no threat to people. Certain other viruses known as bacteriophages are used as biological tools to destroy pathogenic bacteria. How many duplicated viruses can a living infected cell produce? A sole virus that has infected one cell can lead to the production of several hundred new viruses in two or three days. Has the H5N1 virus evolved since 1997, the date when research for a vaccine began? Yes, it is continually evolving. What is infectiosity? The capacity of a pathogenic agent to establish itself in a host of a given species in order to multiply there. What is an epizootic? The sudden increase in the number of animals infected by a disease in a given region and during a given period of time. What is an enzootic? An infectious disease affecting one or several species of a region that does not tend to spread and which is permanently present at certain times of the year. When does one speak of an epizootic or an epidemic? The term epidemic is generic and may be applied to diseases affecting people, animals, and plants. The term epizootic refers specifically to an epidemic affecting animals. It is preferable to use this term in the case of avian influenza to avoid the suggestion that the disease is contagious between people, which has not been observed to date. Should one speak of a panzootic? Commonly the term panzootic refers to animal epidemics and the term pandemic is used for human epidemics. In the beginning of 2006, the H5N1 panzootic was confirmed, the H5N1 pandemic is still only feared. What is a pandemic vaccine? A vaccine against a virus capable of provoking a large scale epidemic. Why would a genetic recombination of avian and human viruses be dangerous? Genetic recombination may take place in a human or in an intermediary host such as a pig. The sudden change of antigens in a virus that has been recombined and adapted to a new species creates the conditions for a major epidemic in a population that has no pre-existing immunity.THE EDUCATIONAL HANDBOOK I 20 Virulent or contagious? A virulent virus provokes a serious disease in the host. A contagious virus is transmitted easily from one individual to another. A contagious virus may not be very virulent. A virulent and contagious virus always is to be greatly feared. What became of the Spanish Flu virus? Very mild pathogenic forms of viruses resembling the one that caused the deaths of 40 million people between 1918 and 1919 continue to circulate among wild bird populations without having changed considerably. Is there an estimate of how many chickens there are in the world? Approximately 100 billion. The H5N1 virus is an occasional pathogenic agent in man. Are there others? Out of 1,400 viruses, bacteria, fungus, champignons, protozoa and worms harmful to the health of people, 60% are shared with animals. Are more and more pathogenic agents affecting people? Not necessarily, but it is true that new research methods has enabled the description of about forty such pathogenic agents since 1980 (for example, the Creutzfeld-Jakob disease prion, the SIDA virus, the SARS coronavirus). What is behind the increase in health risks? An acceleration of trade, environmental change, global warming, an increase of immunodeficient populations (elderly or under treatment), a decrease in hygiene. How many chickens can coexist on one industrial farm? Up to 1.25 million individuals in California (USA). Did the current avian crisis begin in 1997 or 2003? In 1997, a HPAI H5N1 virus caused disease in both man and poultry in Hong Kong. Eighteen human cases were recorded, 6 of which were fatal. In December 2002 and January 2003, new outbreaks were reported in Hong Kong in poultry and wild birds. At the end of 2003 and beginning of 2004, multiple outbreaks occurred in Southern Korea and Indonesia, then in Vietnam, Japan, Taipea China, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and China. Different strains of HPAI H5N1 probably had been circulating in South-East Asia for several years and were only reported in some places. A conjunction of triggering factors such as a cool and wet climate, increased density of domestic birds, and more intense commercial exchanges (New Year feast) were probably at the origin of the epizootic. Is the clandestine poultry trade widespread? It is substantial but difficult to quantify. It was probably behind the dissemination of avian influenza from Nigeria to Niger, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, and the Ivory Coast. I caught bird flu, will I recover? Poultry farmers have caught avian influenza and spontaneously recovered. Others died after a tardy diagnosis and a lack of support for vital functions during hospitalization. For those who fall ill, an antiviral treatment taken at the start of the infection improves one's chances of recovery. How many deaths have there been in 2 years? One hundred and forty one deaths (17 August 2006) spread across a dozen countries, out of several million people that might have become infected. This figure is far lower than the number of deaths due to ordinary human flu (several hundred thousand per year worldwide).The People's Republic of China recently decided to restructure its veterinary services to conform to OIE (World Organization for Animal Health) recommendations. This change resulted in an increase in the declaration of avian influenza outbreaks: from August 2005 to April 2006, 28 declarations (chickens, partridge, ducks, geese) were made to the OIE in 14 provinces, including Tibet and Inner Mongolia, leading to the death or the culling of 400 000 birds. As of April 2006, 18 human cases of infection were confirmed since the beginning of the epizootic, of which 12 were fatal. Recent studies indicate that the H5N1 virus started from an enzootic zone in the south of the country and was able to contaminate other regions of China and the world due to both the commercial movement of poultry and poultry products and the migration of wild birds. The H5N1 virus is likely to cause heavy economic losses as much at the national level as at that of rural African families. The promiscuity of poultry and people in the villages increases the risk of human cases. The diversity of the ecosystems infected leads to the fear that the disease may become endemic, meaning that it may quietly circulate only to suddenly remerge given favorable climatic conditions or an encounter with an animal population receptive and vulnerable to the disease. The recommended control measures are slaughtering at an outbreak area and vaccination around the contamination point. These measures require the coordinated mobilization of local populations (supported by wide scale information campaigns), countries, and international assistance.And Western Europe?The H5N1 virus was introduced into Western Europe by wild birds coming from the East during the winter of 2005-2006. Only two commercial turkey farms were affected during this period: one in France and one in Germany. Past episodes of avian influenza in Europe allows one to think that official veterinary services will be able to control the health situation. Likewise, it should be possible to avoid the contamination of humans, or at the least limit it to exceptional cases. On the other hand, the economic losses in the commercial poultry sector already are enormous. The persistence of outbreaks in Eastern Europe and the spread of the epidemic in the Middle East and Africa will enable the menace to hover over all of Western Europe for several years.Poultry farm above a fish pond in Cambodia, 2002 -Vincent Porphyre, © Cirad• Avoid contact between domestic poultry and wild birds, protect watering holes and feed troughs with fences or nets. • Quarantine (the optimal period is 3 weeks) birds recently introduced or reintroduced (ex: unsold animals returning from markets) before mixing them with the flock on the farm. • When there is an abnormally high mortality rate among bird stock, immediately alert the closest veterinarian or veterinary services. • Farming birds in single-age flocks allows better control of disease in general. • Although the advantages of vaccination in general are well known, the ideal vaccine against H5N1 does not yet exist. In effect, certain vaccines in circulation were made from an inactive strain of H5N2.-Cross protection with the H5N1 virus therefore is not perfect, and the inactive character of the vaccine leads to an immunity of short duration. To obtain a satisfactory level of protection, two initial injections are required, followed by regular booster injections among birds with long life spans (laying hens, breeding birds). This treatment is expensive and involves repeated handling of the animals. Such practices are possible on modern farms, but are problematic for smallholders in Asia or Africa with freeranging birds. -The vaccine protects the bird against the disease, but does not guarantee that the wild HPAI H5N1 virus will not replicate itself in the digestive system of the bird if the vaccinated bird was exposed to the infection. Such a bird could then disseminate the virus and contaminate other birds that were not vaccinated.• Separate the different species raised on the farm (e.g., ducks, pigs). • Avoid contact with other animals, notably dogs, cats, and rodents. • Follow closely the recommendations of the veterinary services concerning confinement and vaccination.• Do not allow soiled material, equipment, or vehicles to enter the farm. • Material and equipment should be cleaned and disinfected regularly (egg trays, cages…). • Avoid using materials that are difficult to disinfect (wood, fibers…). • Control the origin of water and food that may be a source of contamination. In relation to people• Reinforce customary hygiene rules, such as washing hands and food. • Hunters should not handle dead wild birds with their bare hands. • At risk professionals (poultry farmers, veterinarians, livestock technicians…) should have protective equipment at their disposal (gloves, masks, goggles, overalls) and should use them whenever there is the slightest risk. In case of exposure to suspect birds or products, they should consult a doctor without delay. • Leave specific clothes (shoes, jackets…) at one's work site, and wash equipment regularly. • In the kitchen, wear gloves to pluck, clean, and cut up birds.Wash hands with soap before and after handling poultry carcasses. The consumption of poultry meat requires proper cooking (70°C for at least one second in the heart of the meat); the same principal applies to eggs. • Forbid access to bird-stock buildings to people not working on the farm who could contaminate birds through their clothes, shoes, or hands (veterinarians, technicians…). Protective clothing must be put at their disposal. • Footbaths (to disinfect feet and shoes) must be available at the entrance of each building and be maintained (disinfectants renewed every other day). • Require hand washing before and after entering areas where animals are kept. Even in the absence of an outbreak or of suspect cases, sanitary precautions must be strictly observed along the entire production chain, from farms or cooperatives to slaughterhouses, without overlooking food preparation factories or means of transport. For example, eggs must not be sold less than 4 days after being laid in order to leave time for possible diseases in incubation to manifest. If such is the case, this allows the eggs to be withdrawn from the distribution chain. When the risk of avian influenza is high, these measures are reinforced.Access to antiviral medicines is difficult for populations in developing countries -the people most vulnerable to avian flu. If a human case is suspected, the sick person must be taken immediately to a hospital as the antiviral treatment is only effective if it is administered within several hours of the first sign of symptoms. Within a 3 to 5 km radius (depending on the concentration of poultry present in the zone and the associated epidemiological risks):• Complete slaughter of the poultry present in the zone where compensation is available: compensation measures are necessary if the livestock farmers concerned are to accept the slaughter of their birds instead of hiding them and contributing to the maintenance of the infection. and/or • Vaccination of birds.• Prohibition of moving birds and their products.• Limits on the movement of people (anyone exiting the zone must pass through a control post and the means of transportation must be disinfected).Within a 5 to 10 km radius (or farther):• Vaccination of birds.• Prohibition of moving birds and their products.• Limits on the movement of people (anyone exiting the zone must pass through a control post and the means of transportation must be disinfected).On the remainder of the territory:• Prohibition of bird markets and other forms of bird gatherings (races, fairs, exhibitions…). • Reinforcement of the surveillance of poultry farms.• Reinforcement of on-farm bio-security measures.• Confinement of birds to buildings that allow a complete separation of domestic and wild birds. • No introduction of hatching eggs, day-old chicks or any other bird whose health status is not certified by qualified veterinary services. • Strict restrictions on off-farm contacts -people, material, feed, vehicles -accompanied by systematic cleaning and disinfecting measures (footbaths, disinfectant mats, disinfection of egg trays…). • Raising birds in single-age flocks and sanitary isolation of flocks to avoid the eventual transmission of the virus from one group to another. • Reinforcement of controls on the movement of people and animals within the interior of the country and on the frontiers.In each national preparedness plan, the limits of zones to be considered, as well as the length of the enforcement of health measures, are defined by the health authorities.The external lipidic layer of the viral shell is destroyed by detergents such as soapy water or particular hydro-alcoholic disinfectants. Simple rinsing with water is insufficient because the virus survives well in humidity, cold water, and at moderate temperatures. Bird droppings represent the greatest danger as the virus can remain infectious in them for over one month.A convalescent bird may excrete the virus in its ocular and nasal secretions up to 30 days after the infection. The disadvantage of this country-by-country map is that it makes it seem as if an entire national territory is infected when infectious outbreaks are often scattered. The advantage is that it shows the rapid geographic spread of the HPAI H5N1 virus.Recent studies showed that in some enzootic regions certain aquatic migratory birds, ducks in particular, were carriers of the H5N1 virus without presenting symptoms. The same virus was found on dead birds far from the closest outbreak of HPAI. However, it is certain that commercial exchanges of domesticated birds and their products (eggs, chicks, meat, feathers, and droppings) play a considerable role in the diffusion of the virus in the short and long term. Additional work is needed to identify the degree to which wild migratory and sedentary birds contribute to transmission compared to the movement of domesticated birds and poultry products linked to human activity.Countries not yet infected or where test results are not yet knownWhile the approximately fifty countries affected by the disease have suffered its direct negative effects since the beginning of the plague, the 150 countries thus far disease-free have experienced indirect effects such as an anticipated drop in the consumption of poultry that is nevertheless safe, an increase in health control measures, the stimulation of meat substitution sectors, the reorientation of tourism, a strengthening of international solidarity, and an awareness of globalization.Wire One hundred countries, in addition to international human and animal health organizations (including the FAO (1), OIE (2), and WHO (3)), meeting at a conference in Beijing (China) in January 2006, decided to donate 1.9 billion US dollars for the prevention of a potential human avian flu pandemic. The World Bank, Europe, and the United States respectively are supposed to provide 500, 121, and 334 million US dollars to fight avian influenza. The participants emphasized the necessity of coordinating activities to consolidate the global system for disease control and diagnosis.This system is organized on three levels: A world forum defining veterinary policies, alliances between international organizations, the private sector, and consumers, and the establishment of coordinated communication policies for the management of risk related to animal diseases;A regional coordination of efforts in partnership with the appropriate competent organizations, the FAO, and the OIE to facilitate the implementation of regional policies and provides necessary technical support through evaluations of veterinary services, reinforcement of skills, and the provision of expertise to countries who request assistance;At the national level, an evaluation of veterinary services in order to prepare the investments required for the prevention and control of avian influenza and other emerging diseases. It also facilitates an evaluation of a country's skills capacities and the constitution of alliances between official veterinary services and the private sector (including farmers), for example in the implementation of national compensation mechanisms for poultry farmers during culling campaigns following disease outbreaks.(1) FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(2) OIE: World Organization for Animal Health(3) WHO: World Health OrganizationTo avoid introducing avian influenza into a disease-free zone, all imports of birds or bird products must be inspected by the veterinary services of the country of origin and destination.The importer must present an international veterinary certificate which attests that strict and specific conditions were met for the departure of the animals or their products. Depending on the case, these conditions may relate to the health of the animals, the vaccines used, the nature and cleanliness of the packaging, the disinfection measures taken, etc. A precise definition of the norms is given in an international zoo-sanitary code available on the Internet at the following address : http://www.oie.intThe certificate is verified at the frontier by border inspection posts that are entitled to make additional inspections, ask for complementary analyses, or even consign or destroy the shipment if there are doubts concerning the documents or if a health problem is noted upon arrival.• The training guide for veterinary auxiliary workers in Vietnam «Prevention and control of avian flu in small scale poultry » a 40 page guide illustrated with 14 figures prepared by AVSF (Agronomes et Vétérinaires sans Frontières / Agronomists and Veterinarians without Borders), 50 000 copies published. http://www.livestockworkinggroup.org • The documents prepared by the OIE, FAO and AU-IBAR, for information and training purposes, provides general information on avian influenza, the species infected, transmission among birds and between birds and man, farm bio-security, risky practices, communication, transfer of information, the measures to adopt in case of suspect and confirmed outbreaks, drawing samples, avifauna, reference laboratories, culling of poultry and the destruction of cadavers, disinfection of sites, vaccination, preparing the management of health crises, sample documents for the report of suspect outbreaks of HPAI, assistance in deciding on sanitary culling, attestations for the culling and the destruction of poultry, poultry vaccines.http://www.oie.int/eng/avian_influenza/disease.htm • The teaching kit prepared by the EISMV (Ecole inter-états des sciences et de médecine vétérinaires / Interstate School of Science and Veterinary Medicine) of Dakar (Senegal) includes an illustrated handbook, pedagogical tools to lead meetings, a posters guide, prepared responses to frequently asked questions, monographs on the disease, slides on a CD-ROM, role play audio messages, and theatrically inspired video spots.http://www.refer.sn/eismvNegative repercussions  • It is difficult to draw together the financial, material, and human resources needed to stop the expansion of a panzootic even if the country of origin and the concrete sanitary control measures to be taken are known. • The media plays an important role in decision making, particularly in democratic countries. • It is easy to lose sight of the fact that bird flu is principally an animal health problem before being, and this is still very hypothetical, a problem of human public health.Numerous questions still remain concerning the epidemiology of the H5N1 virus (and of other avian influenza viruses), in addition to the potential to improve control measures. The following list is only indicative and not exhaustive:• The conditions in which the ordinarily mildly virulent H5N1 virus becomes very aggressive. • The role of wild birds in the transport of the virus over long distances. • The survival of the virus in tropical and temperate environments when it is protected from direct sunlight, high temperatures, desiccation, and the aggression of diverse chemical agents. • The possible transformation of the virus genome within the bodies of domestic pigs. • The impact of avian flu on small farms in Africa.• The transmission of the virus between domestic and wild birds. • The risks linked to commercial trade.• The modification of the spread of the virus at different scales (local, national, international). • Genetic and immunogenetic resistance.• The interaction between the virus and host cells.• The search for new vaccines to better protect domestic and even wild animals.During the summer and fall of 2005, the HPAI H5N1 virus quickly spread from South-East Asia to Siberia, then to Eastern and Western Europe. Two non-exclusive hypotheses might explain this phenomena: the trade of bird products (live animals, eggs, meat…), or the local and long-distance transmission by bird migrations. For the latter, many water birds breed in Eurasia and winter in the sub-Saharan regions of Africa. In African wetlands, these birds are in close contact with a variety of Afro-tropical water bird species but the transmission risk between Eurasia and Africa is poorly understood. A survey was funded and implemented by the FAO in early 2006 to investigate the carriage of H5N1 or other HPAI virus strains in wild-bird populations wintering in Africa. Field activities were coordinated by CIRAD and Wetlands International. Sampling sites were selected among bird-wintering areas of major interest (see map). Other sites were added following H5N1 outbreaks in Egypt, Niger and Burkina Faso. Most field operations were conducted between January and March 2006 in collaboration with international conservation and research organisations, NGOs, hunting associations, and safari operators. The target bird species were selected from families previously identified as AI reservoirs (ducks, waders, gulls, etc.). About 5,000 samples were collected in 13 countries: cloacal swabs (birds shot and provided by hunters, netted birds) and fresh droppings at roosting areas. Most were shipped to Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (Italy), a FAO/OIE reference laboratories for AI.No HPAI virus was detected, nor was any evidence of the circulation of H5N1 viruses in wild birds, including in countries that had experienced recent outbreaks. This result should be interpreted cautiously due to the small size of the sample compared to the millions of water birds in the target population.It is coherent with the absence of H5N1 virus reported by surveillance programmes in European countries, and with the very low prevalence of H5N1 virus reported so far in healthy wild bird populations in China. A new wildlife survey is implemented by the FAO in Eastern Europe, the Middle East and Africa during the boreal winter of 2006-2007 to bring new evidence for the role -or the lack of a role -of wild birds in the dissemination of HPAI viruses. The first results are expected in November 2006.Six reasons to fear a mixed human-avian virus if • the hybrid virus becomes regularly mortal for man, • the hybrid virus is revealed to be highly contagious between people, • the specific vaccine is not available in time or in sufficient quantities, • virus prevention is discovered to be less effective than foreseen, • the world is not ready to fully react in time,• new diseases add themselves to the effects of the virus which may facilitate the action of other pathogenic agents or engender the economic collapse of sectors.• Acquisition of equipment and skills for the molecular diagnosis of avian influenza in partnership with AFSSA (French Agency for Food Health Security), funded by the Languedoc-Roussillon region; • Research grants funded by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the European Union, in collaboration with French, European, African and Asian institutions and scientists, aiming to achieve: -a better understanding of epidemiological cycles and the virus flows between bird communities, -risk analysis and modeling of the disease spread in time and space, -economic and social management of health crises and the risks linked to the reconstruction of the poultry sector."}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"584159f83bddc96279f9365430700313","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c1d747b6-35f8-42ac-9b2b-408a35f62af5/retrieve","id":"1443647519"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e9a03818-9053-411c-b4e6-5d300810a6e8","content":"Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) considerations • The agriculture sector is the backbone of Ethiopia's economy and livelihoods. Yet, heavy reliance on rain-fed systems has made the sector particularly vulnerable to variability in rainfall and temperature. Climate change may decrease national gross domestic product (GDP) by 8-10% by 2050, but adaptation action in agriculture could cut climate shock-related losses by half. Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile 1 Taking into account 2011-2015 averages. It is worthwhile noting that agricultural GDP has been declining since 2012, from 48% to 40% in 2015.• Climate risk management interventions and long-term adaptation actions need to match localized vulnerabilities and impacts. The drought-prone highland areas are likely to experience more intense and irregular rainfall, affecting yields of slow maturing, long-cycle crops; however, the higher altitude moisture-sufficient parts of the highlands where cereal production is dominant are expected to increase in suitability and productivity of some cereals. Increased temperatures and extended drought periods are likely to negatively affect the lowlands, posing particular challenges to already vulnerable pastoral and agropastoral populations.• Smallholder farmers produce over 90% of the agricultural output in Ethiopia. Despite high usage of traditional production methods, there is evidence of increased use of organic fertilizers, adoption of crop varieties with higher resistance/tolerance to drought, pests, and diseases, and improved livestock feeding practices, as attempts to increase productivity and resilience, but also with cobenefits in terms of reducing agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.• Given the country's poverty and food insecurity challenges, priorities for economic growth and increased resilience have pushed mitigation efforts backstage. Less than one-fifth of the climate finance is directed to mitigation efforts, mostly through renewable energy. Increased investments in agricultural practices that bring about mitigation co-benefits would bring out agriculture's role as a lead sector in low-emissions development.• A large proportion of the country's land area is undergoing some form of soil erosion or land degradation, hence CSA-related efforts have been focused on restoring degraded lands through soil and water conservation measures, agroforestry, farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR), area closures, and dissemination of improved varieties. Such CSA practices and technologies are largely supported by the government and its development partners, through research and development, rural extension and advisory services as well as direct implementation. Many of these practices are implemented within the framework of the integrated watershed management approach through projects such as the Sustainable Land Management Programme (SLMP).• Adoption levels of some CSA practices and technologies, such as conservation agriculture and agroforestry, among smallholder farmers remain low. Increased public and private support to enable access to improved inputs, equipment, credit and insurance schemes is needed to boost farmers' ability to manage risks and invest in long-term climate actions.• Highly fragmented land units are not suited for effective implementation of some CSA practices, while land tenure regimes can significantly hinder credit access for smallholders. Ethiopia has made great effort to issue land certificates to smallholder farmers, and such programmes should be accompanied by sensitization of farmers and microfinance providers on the costs and benefits of investing in on-farm climate-smart and sustainable land management practices.• Through an ambitious policy framework built largely on the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy and an enabling institutional infrastructure, Ethiopia has taken major steps towards mainstreaming climate change into agricultural planning. To demonstrate its unwavering commitments to green growth and food security and operationalize strategies and plans, additional national and international resources need to be mobilized over the next years, to fill existing financial gaps. The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) concept reflects an ambition to improve the integration of agriculture development and climate responsiveness. It aims to achieve food security and broader development goals under a changing climate and increasing food demand. CSA initiatives sustainably increase productivity, enhance resilience, and reduce/remove greenhouse gases (GHGs), and require planning to address trade-offs and synergies between these three pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation [1].The priorities of different countries and stakeholders are reflected to achieve more efficient, effective, and equitable food systems that address challenges in environmental, social, and economic dimensions across productive landscapes. While the concept is new, and still evolving, many of the practices that make up CSA already exist worldwide and are used by farmers to cope with various production risks [2]. Mainstreaming CSA requires critical stocktaking of ongoing and promising practices for the future, and of institutional and financial enablers for CSA adoption. This country profile provides a snapshot of a developing baseline created to initiate discussion, both within countries and globally, about entry points for investing in CSA at scale.Economic relevance of agriculture in Ethiopia [3, 6]   People, agriculture and livelihoods in Ethiopia [3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]   People, agriculture, and livelihoodsEthiopia's population has been increasing rapidly over the past four decades, from 35 million in the 1980s to 99.4 million in 2015 [3]. The large majority of the population (82%) lives in rural areas, in the country's highlands. The lowlands are mostly populated by pastoralists and agropastoralists.Poverty rates in the country have decreased from 45% in 1995 to 29.6% in 2010 [3]. However, access to basic resources remains tight. Roughly 65% of all households and 54% of rural households have access to improved water resources; the rest of the population relies on water from ponds, streams and rivers. Almost half (48%) of all women in the country have no formal education, while 28% of men are without a formal education [4]. Illiteracy levels among farmers are high at 55% [4].There are approximately 17.5 million agricultural land holders 2 in the country, occupying 18 million hectares of land. Women represent only 19% of total agricultural land holders. Most farm holders are smallholder (farm sizes less than two hectares [ha]) 3 and they produce the large majority (over 90%) of the gross agricultural outputs in the country [4]. As land has been fragmented to satisfy the needs of new generations, most smallholder farms are between 0.5 and 2 hectares in size. The small plot sizes in the country are often insufficient to enable household food security or adequate income to invest in improved farming methods [5]. Large, commercial farms (over 10 ha) are not widespread; extending over 1.2% of the total agricultural land area and contributing less than 5% of gross agricultural output [11].There has been a steady increase in area under grain crops (cereals, pulses, oilseeds) over the past decades, from 10 million hectares in 2005/2006, to 12.4 million hectares in 2014/2015 [4]. Agricultural expansion has been carried out at the expense of natural resources availability and quality (particularly forests, water and soils). For example, in the highlands, where most Ethiopians live, over 40% of the land area is said to be undergoing some form of soil erosion, causing topsoil losses of over 1,493 million t/year and affecting regional and national crop production [12]. Unsustainable open grazing practices have also led to pasture degradation.Forests occupy approximately 12.3% of total land area, and some evidence shows between 1990 and 2005 deforestation rates averaged 140,000 hectares per year [13]. The decrease in vegetation cover and disturbance of the natural ecosystem have caused widespread soil degradation, contributing to decline in soil organic matter (SOM) and nutrient stocks [14]. In the lowlands 4 and midlands, over 19 million ha of fertile and uncultivated land is estimated to be available for agricultural investments [15].2 \"Holder\" here is defined by the capacity to manage and make decisions over agricultural land [4].3 Official statistics report 14.5-15 million farmers holding less than 2 hectares during the main season 2015/16 [4].4 Lowlands are normally stated as lying between 500 m and 1,500 m.a.s.l., the midlands are said to be between approximately 1,600 and 2,000 m.a.s.l.Ethiopia's proximity to the equator and its wide range of altitudes reflect distinct climate and agro-ecological conditions that favor the production of a diversity of agricultural goods, while at the same time posing challenges for technology development and targeting, mechanization and agricultural input (e.g. fertilizer) recommendations.The most commonly used categorization of Ethiopia's agricultural production systems refers to five main agro-ecological zones (AEZs), namely, \"moisture reliable cereal-based highlands\" (where the majority of the farmers live), \"moisture reliable enset-based highlands,\" \"drought-prone highlands,\" \"humid lowlands,\" and \"pastoralist areas\" [16], Annex 1.Cereals such as barley, maize, sorghum, wheat, and teff extend over three quarters of the country's cultivated land area and constitute the main source of food and income for the majority of smallholder farmers. Being a staple food for Ethiopians, teff accounts for 28% of the total cultivated area; it has traditionally been cultivated in the highlands, but it is quite adaptable to lower elevations and a variety of moisture, temperature and soil conditions. Maize is also grown by a large majority of farmers for food, fodder and sales; with its production volume being the highest among all crops. Sorghum and wheat each occupy around 17% of the grain-cultivated land. Sorghum has high tolerance to drought and high temperatures, but is less suitable for Ethiopia's high-altitude areas due to the cold temperatures, which are not favourable for the crop. Cultivated areas higher than 2,500 m.a.s.l. are almost exclusively dedicated to barley and wheat, which represent key components of the country's diet, and grown using many local varieties [17].Faba beans are the most widely produced legumes across the country, representing an important protein source for rural populations. Chickpea production follows close behind, accounting for nearly 46% of the continent's production, the highest in Africa [18]. Potatoes are a high-potential staple root crop, and while production averages are currently low, the crop remains a large contributor to food security.Coffee is an important cash crop, contributing an average of 33% of the country's agricultural exports by value between 2009 and 2013 [6].The majority of rural households (around 88%) hold livestock, especially local and indigenous cattle breeds [19]. Cattle heads are estimated at 53.9 million [20], while other livestock types amount to over 100 million heads [21], making the country home to one of the largest livestock populations on the continent. Half of the country's cattle stocks and a quarter of other livestock are owned by approximately 10 million pastoralists that occupy the lowland peripheral areas [5].Cattle rely greatly on natural pastures as livestock feed [22], although in the highlands crop residues are a main source of livestock feed. Livestock are crucial in Ethiopia as a source of draught power, social protection, and food and nutrition security (meat, milk and eggs), while leather and leather products from cattle, goat and sheep hides comprise major import revenue earners for the country.The following infographic shows a selection of agriculture production systems key for Ethiopia's food security. The importance is based on the system's contribution to economic, productivity and nutrition quality indicators. For more information on the methodology for the production system selection, consult Annex 2.Agricultural input use in Ethiopia [3, 6]   Production systems key for food security in Ethiopia [3, 6, 23]   Fertilizers (organic and inorganic), supplied mainly by parastatals, traders and private organizations, among others, were used over a half of the cultivated area in the 2015/16 season. Almost 70% of the fertilizers used were inorganic, 5 and were applied for cereals; with high organic and inorganic fertilizer use being recorded for teff, wheat and maize [4]. Overall Ethiopia's average fertilizer use stands at approximately 21 kg per hectare, above the sub-Saharan average of 15 kg per hectare.Although improved seeds of most cereals and pulses are available to smallholders, use of purchased improved seed is quite uncommon among smallholder farmers; in the 2015/16 season, improved seed area accounted for only 10.7% of the total cereal growing area, and this was mostly (83%) related to maize production [4].Agricultural systems are almost exclusively rain-fed. Of an irrigation potential of approximately 2.7 million hectares of land, only 2-3% of the cropland is currently irrigated [5,24]. In 2015/16, roughly 1.4 million farmers (180,000 ha of cultivated land) used irrigation for crop cultivation, mainly from rivers and natural ponds, and, to lesser extents, through installed water harvesting systems. Most of this irrigated area was for maize, sorghum and coffee production, [4] while sugarcane, potato and vegetables, such as onions and tomatoes, are also among the commonly irrigated crops. However, the country is endowed with huge water resources (springs and rivers), and their irrigation potential is highly underused.Food security, nutrition and healthVulnerability to poverty and food insecurity varies across Ethiopia's regions and is related to factors such as distance to input and output markets; access to productive assets; size, quality and productivity of land; household education levels and climatic factors. Households headed by women are particularly vulnerable, since, compared to men, they are less likely to own land and receive education. The moisture-reliable lowlands, pastoral areas and drought-prone highlands are among the regions most vulnerable to food poverty.Although it may seem counterintuitive that the moisture-reliable lowlands are vulnerable to food poverty, the region is classified as having the greatest proportion of poor people in the country [25]. In the pastoral and drought-prone highlands, in addition to poverty, lack of assets and low education; exposure to climate shocks is also high.Pervasive poverty and food insecurity in rural households has also triggered a relatively high dependence on emergency food aid, in order to increase domestic food supply. Ethiopia is still one of the largest recipients of food aid in Africa, with a 2014 estimate indicating that the country receives around 27% of the global food aid given to sub-Saharan Africa [26]. Most of the food aid has been channeled to the country's north and less so to the south and south-east areas [27].Household surveys have however shown, that the share of food in total expenditures is declining (fell from 60% in 1996 to 48% in 2011), while the quantities consumed (per adult equivalent) have increased by 55% [28].In response to high poverty and vulnerability in the country, the Government of Ethiopia has implemented the Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP), a component of the Government's Food Security program (FSP) 6 to support between 7 and 12 million people every year [29]. The programme is regarded as the largest social protection programme in Africa and is based on a cash or food for work principle. The programme has had some positive effects, with poverty rates having fallen significantly and the Global Hunger Index (GHI) score reduced from 43 in 2008 to 33 in 2016. 7 However, undernourishment rates remain high (at 32%) and 27% of children under five are underweight. Roughly 57% of childhood deaths are associated with malnutrition [30]. Ethiopia ranks 98 th among the 113 countries in the Food Security Index (FSI), 8 with a score that has not changed significantly over the past 5 years. Recent efforts have also been made to integrate climate-smart agriculture into the PSNP.On the positive side, as of 2015, Ethiopia was one of 12 African countries that had achieved the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 1C target of halving the proportion of undernourished between 1990/92 and 2015, as well as making some progress to achieving the World Food Summit (WFS) target of halving the total number of chronically undernourished [31]. Despite making progress towards ending hunger, malnutrition and poverty, as of 2011, 44% of children under five were still stunted and 29 percent were underweight. From a nutrition quality perspective, the diets of rural households are composed mainly of cereals and tubers. Despite a large livestock population, consumption of livestock products is low in rural areas, except for the pastoral areas, where milk is a major component of the diet. 9Food security, nutrition, and health in Ethiopia [3, 6, 32, 33, 34, 35]  Greenhouse gas emissions in Ethiopia [3, 6]   Greenhouse gas emissionsTotal annual emissions in Ethiopia amount to 144 Mt CO 2 eq, 10 the equivalent of approximately 0.3% of global emissions, while per capita emissions are similarly low, amounting to 2 tons of CO 2 eq annually. The agricultural sector in the country is a major contributor to national emissions, accounting for approximately 60% of total emissions. Given that Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa and has one of the largest livestock herds in the world [11], most of the agricultural GHG emissions emanate from livestock-related activities (methane and nitrous oxide emissions from enteric fermentation and manure left on pastures respectively), which account for almost 92% of agricultural emissions. Crop-related emissions are associated primarily with burning of natural vegetation, cultivation of organic soils and the use of synthetic fertilizer. Most emissions from the forest sector are associated with deforestation for the expansion of agricultural land [6,15,36].In 2011, in response to the need to reduce emissions, develop a green economy and build greater resilience to climate change, the Government of Ethiopia developed the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy. One of the CRGE's main objectives is to reduce per capita emissions by a third by 2030, along the larger goal of advancing the economy and bringing Ethiopia to a middle-income status country [15]. Furthermore, according to the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) prepared and submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat in 2015, the country plans to reduce its annual level of emissions by 64% by 2030 compared to the business-as-usual scenario projection for 400 Mt CO 2 eq; a significant portion of this being from the agriculture (90 Mt CO 2 eq reduction) and forestry (130 Mt CO 2 eq reduction) sectors [37].Low uptake of technologies is not only driven by a lack of financial resources for initial investments and/or maintenance, but also by the existing land tenure system. Farmers find few incentives and opportunities to invest in improved management practices on land that is insecure, 11 whose area is constantly diminishing and fragmenting as a result of continuous population growth [38]. Some farming practices, such as agroforestry, may not be suitable for implementation on small pieces of land as farmers aim to maximize land under cultivation of the main crop. Additionally, small plot sizes often impede credit access and at times may act as a disincentive for the use of improved seeds and fertilizer [39]. Small land sizes also place a constraint on mechanization; smallholder investments in mechanization and uptake of technological innovations therefore being low and insufficient to improve farm efficiency, and increase productivity and profitability.Food losses, which contribute to decreased availability of food in households and in markets, also result from inadequate storage facilities, pests and climate hazards. Some reports have indicated post-harvest losses for horticultural crops of as high as 40% [40], posing a threat to food security, incomes and profitability of producers.10 This includes emissions from Land-Use Change and Forestry (LUCF) sectors.11 In Ethiopia, land tenure insecurity is reflected by the Government's ownership of the land resources and the subsequent distribution to farmers, without any contractual arrangements. However, over the past years, land-use certificates have commenced to be issued.The agricultural sector in Ethiopia is faced by a number of challenges, centered largely on increased pressure over natural resources (driven by a rapidly growing population and demand for food), which has led to land degradation on over 40 million hectares of land [21], declines in soil fertility and high rates of soil erosion, particularly in the highlands.In addition, low agricultural yields have been associated with unfavorable climate conditions in some parts of the country (including climate shocks such as droughts and floods), which have had adverse effects on the natural resource base (e.g. soil erosion caused by intense rains) as well as on the livelihoods of rural populations who have limited resources ability to invest in resilience building and adaptation strategies.Asked about the causes of crop damage in the 2015/16 crop survey, most farmers reported shortage of rain (57% of all farmers reporting crop damage), diseases and pests (18%), frost or floods (9%), weeds (7%), hailstone (7%), excessive rain (5%), wild animals (5%), and other factors (20%) as the main contributors to crop damage and even loss. Shortage of rain mostly affected cereals [4] but is also a significant factor in livestock production; affecting the availability of water, fodder and pasture with impacts on animal health and the nutrition and food security of pastoralists and agropastoralists.Temperature and rainfall vary across the main regions of Ethiopia.There is a trend of decreasing temperatures and increasing rainfall from the lowlands in the south-and north-east to the central and upper highlands; with rainfall reaching over 2000 mm annually in the southwestern highlands compared to as low as 300 mm in the lowlands. The regions also experience very different seasonal regimes: while the June-September wet season (also known as the Kiremt season, with rainfall reaching as high as 350 mm/month) is common throughout most of the country, farmers and pastoralists in the North and the Centre rely yearly on an additional short wet season from February-May known as the Belg season. The South is exposed to rains between February-May and October-December (the Bega season), while rains are very scarce in the far eastern parts of the country [41].Analyses of historic climate data (1981-2014) revealed the occurrence of more frequent droughts, increases in mean temperatures, more erratic rainfall, and more frequent heavy rains [42,43]. These changes have had an impact on farmer livelihoods as well as on national economic performance. For example, studies have shown a close relationship between annual rainfall variability and agricultural GDP as well as affecting overall GDP growth. 12 Droughts in particular have had great impact on farmers' livelihoods. In terms of impact on livelihoods, the 1984 and 2003 droughts affected 7.5 and 12.6 million people respectively [43]. Losses from the 2006 floods amounted to US$3 million, 800 human lives, and 20,000 homes [44]. More recently, the El Niño event in 2015/16 resulted in Ethiopia experiencing one of the worst drought in decades, with over 10.2 million people estimated to be in need of food aid [45].Projected changes in temperature and precipitation in Ethiopia by 2050 [49, 50, 51]   These events led to crop damage, animal loss, loss of livelihoods, migration to urban areas and increases in malnutrition.In terms of future trends, projections using any of the four main GHG emissions scenarios used by the IPCC indicate a continued increase in mean temperature throughout the entire country, with the greatest increases expected to be experienced in the northern parts of the country. Higher variability of rainfall is also expected, with rains becoming more unpredictable, more unreliable, and more intense [46]. Future climate projections indicate increases in annual rainfall for Ethiopia as a whole, with these increases being greatest in the southern and southeastern parts of the country and least in the central and northern parts of the country. These increases are largely a result of increasing rainfall during the short rainfall season (October-December) in southern Ethiopia; however, changes in precipitation were found to be variable, with some scenarios and time lines indicating decreases in rainfall. Intra-and inter-seasonal rainfall variability are also expected to increase.The possible impacts of these changes on agricultural production in the country include, among others, the following:• Changes in water availability for crop and livestock production.• Increased competition and conflicts over pasture and water for livestock.• Geographical shifts and reductions in areas suitable for production of teff, maize, barley and sorghum [47].• Shifts from livestock rearing to crop cultivation, from nomadic to sedentary livestock keeping, and/or from pastoralist to agropastoralist [48]. Although traditional agricultural techniques such as repeated tillage, usage of ox-drawn wooden ploughs, low yielding crop varieties and traditional animal breeds are still common, Ethiopian farmers have begun to adopt new, improved technologies in both crop and livestock production systems. For crop production, there are efforts to promote organic fertilizer use and precise fertilizer application as opposed to the use of blanket fertilizer recommendations, while use of improved (drought-and heat-tolerant) cereal varieties (teff, maize, sorghum, wheat and barley) and crop rotations are increasingly being practiced. For pulses (faba beans and chickpea), the use of improved varieties, application of biofertilizers and development of cropping calendars informed by meteorological data are among the CSA practices being implemented. For coffee production, irrigation, mulching and agroforestry (tree shade) comprise key climatesmart practices. For agroforestry in coffee production, some key considerations for success include choice of tree, planting density and canopy management.For livestock, the use of improved breeds (hybrids or crossbreeds), changing to more resilient animal types (goats), fodder conservation and feed production are common practices. These livestock management practices are also being combined with broader sustainable land management practices such as improved rangeland management, controlled grazing, planting of fodder trees and area closures, 13 which are implemented for environmental, economic and social benefits. For example, area closures in Ethiopia have been found to improve soils and natural vegetation, regulate floods, improve soil fertility, provide alternate income in the form of beekeeping and provide a source of fodder (cut-and-carry system) for livestock. These benefits are in addition to the carbon sequestration benefits that accrue as the land fills with vegetation [52]. Improved animal veterinary services and the training of community animal health workers (paravets) are also being promoted as a means of supporting overall livestock health and resilience to climate hazards, as well as improved efficiency of production. Many of the crop-and livestock-based CSA practices also help build system's resistance to pests and diseases, such as in the case of drought-tolerant crop varieties and livestock breeds, and the use of rotations in crop production.In the broader Ethiopian context, climate-smart practices and technologies are being implemented within the framework of integrated watershed management, which incorporate a broad range of practices in crop and livestock production including agroforestry, crop rotation and intercropping [11] as well as broader soil and water conservation measures such as soil/stone bunds, terracing, infiltration ditches, and tie-ridges among others. It is important to note that although soil conservation practices, such as reduced tillage and crop rotations, have long been practised by farmers in Ethiopia, the promotion of conservation agriculture as a package with associated benefits has experienced various challenges related to knowledge, technology and awareness that still need to be addressed [53].In terms of adoption, most of the CSA practices and technologies identified have low-to-medium on-farm adoption rates, despite their potential benefits to adaptation, productivity increase and mitigation efforts. Many of the key barriers to widespread adoption include limited or no access to productive inputs (improved seeds and fertilizer), lack of access to credit, lack of adequate machinery and technology (e.g. row planters), low access to formal markets to sell produce, and limited extension service quality and access particularly in relation to climate-smart agriculture. Low participation in extension services programmes has also been noted; driven by factors such as \"suspicion of efficacy,\" insufficient arable land, and unavailability of programs that suit the farmers' needs [4] as well as limited technical capacity by the extension agents on issues such as climate change adaptation. Low access to and use of credit is mostly associated with inability to repay the loan and lack of return on investments, both of which can be addressed through conducting of cost-benefit analysis of different CSA practices combined with sensitization of farmers and microfinance providers on which practices to invest in, the likely returns and the required repayment periods.Uncontrolled and free grazing, which limits implementation of some climate-smart practices (e.g. mulching), has been part of the tradition and routine of farmers for generations. Switching to new, improved feeding systems would require a change in perceptions and attitudes [54], and additional efforts of extension workers to share and demonstrate to farmers the benefits of practices such as cut and carry. Capacity building of extension agents in the on-field implementation of CSA technologies and practices, in close cooperation with research institutions, becomes of utmost importance for effective knowledge transfer to farmers.The following graphics present a selection of CSA practices with high climate smartness scores according to expert evaluations. The average climate smartness score is calculated based on the individual scores of each practice on eight climate smartness dimensions that relate to the CSA pillars: yield (productivity); income, water, soil, risks/ information (adaptation); energy, carbon and nutrients (mitigation).A practice can have a negative/ positive/ zero impact on a selected CSA indicator, with 10 (+/-) indicating a 100% change (positive/ negative), and 0 indicating no change. Practices in the graphic have been selected for each production system key to food security, as identified in the study. A detailed explanation of the methodology and a more comprehensive list of CSA practices can be found in Annexes 3 and 4, respectively.Case study of CSA in Ethiopia: the System of Teff Intensification (STI)Teff (Eragrostis tef) is a staple cereal of Ethiopians' diet, mainly grown by women and used primarily for making the traditional fermented bread, injera. Planting involves the manual spread of very tiny seeds (approximately 2,500 per gram) on repeatedly ploughed soil. This practice is labor intensive with low productivity (an average of just 1.5 ton per hectare nationally).In order to increase yields, the System of Teff Intensification (STI), an adaptation of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), was initiated in the 2008/09 season at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center, Central Ethiopia, by the Sasakawa-Global 2000 program. In STI, young teff seedlings (20-days old) are transplanted at 20x20 cm spacing. Organic and inorganic nutrients are also applied to the soil, to help improve yields and address inherent soil nutrient deficiencies.The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA), a federal government agency, conducted STI demonstration trials at two major centers for agricultural research in Ethiopia, Debre Zeit and Mekele, in collaboration with the local partner, the Institute for Sustainable Development (ISD), and with partial funding from Oxfam America. Positive results from the trials encouraged efforts to increase the number of demonstration plots in major teff-producing regions of Oromia, Amhara, Tigray and SNNPR (Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples' Region) [55].From applying STI methods, farmers obtained average yields of 2.7 t/ha in the 2011/12 season (higher than the 1.5 t/ha national average for broadcasted teff), while maximum yields amounted to approximately 5 t/ha. In the subsequent year (2012/13 season), a new, less intensified approach, for the STI was tested by roughly 160,000 farmers who replaced transplanting with direct seeding. This approach, which usually requires wider row spacing and the utilization of a mix of organic (compost) and inorganic (urea and diammonium phosphate [DAP]) fertilizers to increase soil organic matter, resulted in average yields of 2.1 t/ha [56]. While these yields are slightly lower than those for full STI implementation, direct-seeded STI requires less labor for sowing and weeding and improves the balance of moisture and air in the soil [57]. The choice of STI approach, however, depends on the farmer's capabilities. Following these trials, the Ethiopian Government scaled out the STI management area to over 1 million hectares in the 2013/14 season. There are five tiers of government in Ethiopia, each with different roles and duties with regards to policy making and implementation: the federal government, the regions, zone administrations, woreda, and kebele. The federal government is responsible for the formulation and implementation of national policies, strategies and plans and also allocates the budget to the regions, depending on population size and capacity to contribute to national budget through revenues.The Regional Councils are entitled to legislate and execute laws, but also to exercise judicial power. The regions design socio-economic development plans that meet national-level targets and are also able to generate their own revenue, although dependency on federal budget is still high [58]. This illustrates a complex context not only for legislation and policy development, but also for budget allocation and management.As weather variability and changes in climate have continued to affect Ethiopia's agriculture sector, people's livelihoods and the economy as a whole, the CSA approach has gained a lot of momentum in the institutional and policy sphere over the years, in an effort to reduce climate impacts and to help build a more resilient, food-secure and economically competitive agriculture sector.  [11].The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) is an institution mandated to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. ATA undertakes four major programmes that target: (i) agricultural production and productivity of smallholder farmers; (ii) processing and value addition in agribusinesses for improved market access;(iii) sustainable and inclusive growth for improved farmers' resilience;(iv) and capacity building of agricultural institutions for project implementation and impact maximization. ATA has a broad portfolio of CSA-related work, including the training of extension actors on CSA practices, such as conservation agriculture, enhancing agricultural decision making through enhanced access to climate information and weather station installations, supporting improved access to agrometeorological information. 15   In terms of research, the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) and its regional research institutes, federal and regional research centers, as well as universities constitute the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) in Ethiopia, whose principal aim is to generate and promote the adoption of information, knowledge, improved practices and technologies that increase agricultural productivity. The NARS collaborates with extension workers, civil society organizations, NGOs, seed enterprises, international research centers, and the private sector. EIAR's work related to climate-smart agriculture includes climate modelling; conducting of on-farm trials of new varieties; and the testing of agrometeorological tools such as Agro-weather Decision Support System (DSS) 16 to improve farmers' access to weather information and hence support adaptation efforts. Numerous international research institutes are also involved in CSA-related research in the country.  [11]. CARE International also leads a consortium of partners (SNV, Farm Africa and Mercy Corps, among others) implementing the Climate-Smart Initiative, which aims to better integrate CSA into the Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) and the Household Asset Building Programme (HABP). Aspects of the initiative include supporting development of climate information hubs; supporting access to biogas technologies and efficient stoves; water harvesting and efficient irrigation for vegetable production; livelihood diversification through promotion of chickpea, lentil and faba bean production as well as support for dairy production. As a whole, rather than simply providing food or cash incentives, farmers are given training on climate change and provided with a means to invest in their own resilience. Organisations such as Food for the Hungry (FH), Terepeza Development Association (TDA), and Sasakawa Global (SG2000) have been specifically promoting conservation agriculture and green manuring within their projects [11].For international organisations, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has a long history of support for conservation agriculture and other climate-smart practices in Ethiopia, through the organization of demonstration plots and introduction of equipment (including jab planters and oxen-drawn seed and fertilizer planters), as well as training of extension agents for the development of conservation agriculture farmer field schools [11]. The German Development Cooperation Agency (GIZ) has been supporting the Government of Ethiopia's CSA efforts, particularly through involvement in the multi-stakeholder process to develop a CSA field manual for the Sustainable Land Management Programme (SLMP-II). The manual includes the identification of \"baskets of options\" that can be taken as climate-smart packages to farmers, under the premise that an integrated approach to CSA provides greater benefits against the three CSA pillars than a single-practice approach.The following graphic highlights key institutions whose main activities relate to one, two or three CSA pillars (adaptation, productivity and mitigation). More information on the methodology and results from interviews, surveys and expert consultations is available in Annex 5. The strategy is based on four pillars, two of which relate to CSA, namely: 1) Agriculture: improving crop and livestock production practices for greater food security and better income for farmers, while reducing emissions; and 2) Forests: protecting and re-establishing forests for their economic and ecological values, including carbon stocks [11]. One of the strategies highlighted in the CRGE is the use of energy-saving stoves as a means of reducing deforestation. In agriculture, CSA-related strategies include soil fertility management, conservation agriculture, residue management, efficient irrigation and watershed management for crops, as well as controlled grazing and improved feed production for livestock. In total, 41 options are identified to facilitate the attainment of the CRGE objectives in the agriculture and forestry sectors.The Agriculture Sector Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change (ASPACC) was also formulated in 2011 with the main objectives of contributing to the country's commitments to the UNFCCC, through integration of climate change into sectoral policies and development efforts. The development of a climate change adaptation plan to minimize agriculture sector vulnerability was another key objective set by the ASPACC [15].The Ethiopian Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change (EPACC) from 2011, built on the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA), 17 aims to mainstream climate adaptation into national-level decision-making processes, with a particular focus on poverty elimination, climate resilience, and sustainable development. Sectoral and regional programmes for putting EPACC into action have already been developed.The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP), now in its second phase (GTP II, 2016-2020), focuses on the gradual shift from traditional to high-value crops and livestock production in the highlands and agricultural out-scaling in the lowland areas (by converting rangelands into irrigation schemes), in order to accelerate growth in production. A concerted effort was also placed on mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation issues across all GTP II pillars. Financing CSAIn Ethiopia, future expenditures on drought-related interventions to ensure food security of the population have been projected to range from US$7.3 million to as high as US$1.2 billion annually, depending on the climate scenario (wet/dry). 18 On the other hand, very wet climate change shocks could bring about a drop in GDP by 8%, while the very dry climate scenario may decrease GDP by 10% by 2050. 19 These would include costs for infrastructure repair and maintenance (especially in the case of floods and heavy rains), and investments in hydropower generation, among others. Adapting the agricultural sector to climate change through investments in research and development and farm management practices, coupled with irrigation and drainage infrastructure could reduce the impacts of climate hazards, however, estimates have placed the costs of adaptation investments between US$68 and US$71 million annually between 2010 and 2050 [45].At present, annual investments in the agriculture sector in the country amount to US$1 billion. Over a third (approximately 40%) is public funding, through MoANR. However, to implement the 41 forestry-and agriculture-related options outlined in the CRGE, additional funding of US$400-600 million is estimated to be required [40]. The CRGE Facility was set up through a collaboration between the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED) and MEFCC to enable the implementation of the priority actions identified by the CRGE strategy, through a coordinated administration of funds allocated from domestic (public and private) and international resources [61].Ethiopia currently spends approximately US$440 million annually on climate change action (primarily on adaptation actions), which represents almost 11% of total government expenditure and almost 6% of the yearly financing required to implement the CRGE Strategy. 20 Most funding (approximately 80%) channeled through the national budget comes from domestic contributions, and not international public resources, as one would expect. 21 International public climate funds mainly come from the UK, Japan, EU, Ireland, and Norway and target areas such as food security (37% of total international public funds), education (13%) and agriculture (11%), among others [62].In 2011/ Banks and microfinance institutes also play an important role in financing CSA investments of smallholder farmers and value chain entrepreneurs. The Oromia Cooperative Bank of Ethiopia (OCBE), for example, established by the Oromia Regional Government, supports local agri-businesses that need to finance activities related to agricultural production, in a context where commercial banks largely finance export-related infrastructure. However, access to credit in rural areas is generally low. Bank coverage in these areas is poor -roughly 1% of the rural population has a bank account. Moreover, land cannot be used as collateral for credit, which further alienates smallholders from opportunities to finance their farm investments [63].To encourage increased adoption of vital agricultural inputs (particularly fertilizer and improved seed), the MoANR and ATA have developed an Input Voucher System (IVS), as part of an overall Rural Financial Services (RFS) strategy. According to this new strategy, distribution of inputs is primarily financed by the regional governments and distributed through multipurpose cooperatives by cash or partial credit.In March 2017, the Adaptation Fund Board approved the first ever regional Adaptation Fund project titled \"Agricultural Climate Resilience Enhancement Initiative (ACREI),\" for which Ethiopia is one of the target countries along with Uganda and Kenya, and which focuses on enhancing access to climate information and scaling up of CSA practices through farmer field schools and community adaptation initiatives. The project will be implemented by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), FAO, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and government departments and institutions in the three target countries.In addition, agricultural insurance, particularly weather-index based crop and livestock insurance, is limited. Some innovative financial instruments, such as the Nyala weather index-based insurance system; Oromia Insurance Company's livestock insurance schemes; Horn of Africa Risk Transfer for Adaptation (HARITA) insurance for work scheme, and other input and technology financing programmes have been developed in Ethiopia. However, most are small scale and have been restricted to pilot programmes rather than being rolled out at scale. Greater effort could be placed on expanding insurance services to smallholder crop and livestock farmers, with an opportunity to both build the resilience of farmers and also encourage private sector involvement in CSA.Despite various funds being accessed by the country for CSArelated activities, additional financing is required to help Ethiopia prepare for and adapt to the effects of climate change. Although large international climate financing instruments such as the Green Climate Fund (GCF) exist, access is contingent upon countries developing high-quality proposals and having adequate mechanisms for monitoring and implementation. An example of the need for high-quality proposals is the Green Climate Fund (GCF) Board's lack of agreement to fund Ethiopia's US$100 million project on \"Responding to the increasing risk of drought: building gender responsive resilience of the most vulnerable communities\" that aimed to build resilience of drought-affected communities in the country. The project has since been approved, however this highlights the need for development of improved proposals that better integrate CSA-related activities. Other funds from bilateral and multilateral partners, while crucially important, are at the moment not adequate to address the scale of the climate change challenge in Ethiopia. Ensuring sustainable financing from public and private sources will be necessary for the scaling up of CSA efforts. Additionally, increased transparency in how funds are allocated and spent would foster more cooperation between actors and would increase the likelihood that commitments would be turned into results. The methodology and a more detailed list of funds can be found in Annex 7.Ethiopia's agricultural sector is a key economic driver and a source of livelihoods for over 80% of the country's population, yet its GDP share has been challenged by other sectors (such as manufacturing), while the effects of weather variability and climate hazards on agriculture have been shown to not only have an impact on food security and agricultural GDP but also on national GDP and overall economic growth. The sector and those who rely on it for a living are, therefore, highly vulnerable to weather variability and climate change and hence the need to continue investing in resilience building of the sector, while pushing for sustainable growth within the context of Ethiopia's economic development targets as elaborated in the Climate-Resilient Green Economy Strategy.Agriculture has been a key forerunner in the effort to mainstream climate change into planning, receiving most of the climate financing available through national and international public funds. While this has been particularly beneficial for projects and programmes targeting productivity increase and food security, coordination with other sectors (health, environment) has not been fully operationalized, leaving important integration potential untapped.A number of CSA-related practices have either been practiced, are currently being practiced or are being promoted by various organisations (private and public) or through various policies and programmes. Improving the knowledge on the costs and benefits of different CSA-related practices at local level could be an important way of encouraging adoption of locally appropriate practices that are aligned to both national and local priorities.A commonly agreed upon principle in Ethiopia is that higher economic and environmental returns from CSA practices and technologies are most likely obtained if several measures are implemented jointly, through an integrated (farm-or landscapelevel) approach to climate-smart agriculture rather than a singlepractice-based approach. A better understanding of how and under which conditions various CSA practices can be associated on farms, watersheds and landscapes would help maximize benefits for farmers and incentivize farmers as well as public and private sector actors to invest in these efforts.Lastly, while various CSA-related programmes are being undertaken and various institutions are involved in CSA-related activities, there is still need for improved coordination of all actors, particularly in linking government initiatives with civil society initiatives. The conservation agriculture task force supported in recent years could be expanded and given a more prominent role and permanent seat as a climate-smart agriculture coordination unit within the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. In addition, moral, financial and technical support to the activities of the Ethiopia Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliance could help reach farmers and locations not currently targeted under other CSArelated programmes and projects in the country."}