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"description": "exp/types/staging: updated gcimporter\n\nMostly minor changes to match the new\ndefinitions in types.go and const.go.",
"cc": [
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"text": "LGTM",
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"date": "2012-09-17 20:09:29.497820",
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{
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"text": "Hello rsc@golang.org, r@golang.org (cc: golang-dev@googlegroups.com),\n\nI'd like you to review this change to\nhttps://go.googlecode.com/hg/",
"disapproval": false,
"date": "2012-09-12 04:23:44.163280",
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{
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"text": "LGTM",
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"date": "2012-09-12 04:25:54.062320",
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"text": "*** Submitted as http://code.google.com/p/go/source/detail?r=a6faf7c5aca0 ***\n\nexp/types/staging: updated gcimporter\n\nMostly minor changes to match the new\ndefinitions in types.go and const.go.\n\nR=rsc, r\nCC=golang-dev\nhttp://codereview.appspot.com/6506101",
"disapproval": false,
"date": "2012-09-26 00:39:32.709470",
"approval": false
}
],
"owner_email": "gri@golang.org",
"private": false,
"base_url": "",
"owner": "gri",
"subject": "code review 6506101: exp/types/staging: updated gcimporter",
"created": "2012-09-12 04:22:23.604340",
"patchsets": [
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],
"modified": "2012-09-26 00:39:33.833140",
"closed": true,
"issue": 6506101
} |
post_cb({"27336844": {"Id": "27336844", "PostTypeId": "2", "Body": "<p>This C++ oddity is due to two-phase lookup and the fact that <code>head</code> is a dependant name (as a member of a base class that depends on the \"current\" class's template arguments):</p>\n<blockquote>\n<p id=\"so_27336766_27336844_0\"><code>[C++11: 14.6.2/3]:</code> In the definition of a class or class template, if a base class depends on a template-parameter, the base class scope is not examined during unqualified name lookup either at the point of definition of the class template or member or during an instantiation of the class template or member. <em>[..]</em></p>\n</blockquote>\n<p>Bypass unqualified lookup by introducing <code>this</code> into the expression (per <code>[C++11: 3.4.5</code>]):</p>\n<pre><code>Node<T>* temp = this->head;\n// ^^^^^^\n</code></pre>\n<p>There's a longer explanation on this previous Stack Overflow answer:</p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https://stackoverflow.com/q/4643074/560648\">Why do I have to access template base class members through the this pointer?</a></li>\n</ul>\n<hr>\n<p>Here's a minimal(ish) testcase:</p>\n<pre><code>#include <iostream>\n\ntemplate <typename T>\nstruct Base\n{\n int x = 42;\n};\n\ntemplate <typename T>\nstruct Derived : Base<T>\n{\n void foo();\n};\n\ntemplate <typename T>\nvoid Derived<T>::foo()\n{\n std::cout << x << '\\n';\n}\n\nint main()\n{\n Derived<void> d;\n d.foo();\n}\n// main.cpp: In member function 'void Derived<T>::foo()':\n// main.cpp:18:18: error: 'x' was not declared in this scope\n// std::cout << x << '\\n';\n// ^\n</code></pre>\n<p>(<a href=\"http://coliru.stacked-crooked.com/a/8b60fff2efe76a9f\" rel=\"nofollow noreferrer\">live demo</a>)</p>\n<p>To fix, change <code>foo</code> thus:</p>\n<pre><code>template <typename T>\nvoid Derived<T>::foo()\n{\n std::cout << this->x << '\\n';\n}\n</code></pre>\n<p>(<a href=\"http://coliru.stacked-crooked.com/a/260d06482f90647d\" rel=\"nofollow noreferrer\">live demo</a>)</p>\n</hr>", "LastEditorUserId": "-1", "LastActivityDate": "2014-12-06T21:45:23.860", "Score": "3", "CreationDate": "2014-12-06T21:37:12.240", "ParentId": "27336766", "CommentCount": "6", "OwnerUserId": "560648", "LastEditDate": "2017-05-23T12:19:30.567"}, "bq_ids": {"n4140": {"so_27336766_27336844_0": {"length": 27, "quality": 0.9310344827586207, "section_id": 190}}, "n3337": {"so_27336766_27336844_0": {"length": 27, "quality": 0.9310344827586207, "section_id": 184}}, "n4659": {"so_27336766_27336844_0": {"length": 22, "quality": 0.7586206896551724, "section_id": 195}}}, "27336766": {"ViewCount": "104", "Body": "<p>I'm making a Linked list which is generic in nature and have some basic functionality. Then I'm trying to make another template class called \"Set\" which is inheriting from LinkedList. But when I try to access \"head\" which is a Node<>* defined in Linked List. It's giving an error. My files are:</p>\n<p>LinkedList.h</p>\n<pre><code>template <typename T>\nstruct Node {\n T data;\n Node<T> *next;\n};\n\ntemplate <typename T>\nclass LinkedList {\npublic:\n Node<T>* head;\n int size;\n\n LinkedList();\n LinkedList(const LinkedList<T> &lst);\n ~LinkedList();\n\n Node<T>* getHead();\n Node<T>* getTail();\n};\n\ntemplate <typename T>\nclass Set:public LinkedList<T> {\npublic:\n void insert(T item);\n friend ostream&(ostream& out, const Set<T> set)\n};\n</code></pre>\n<p>and an implementation of insert is:</p>\n<pre><code>template <typename T>\nvoid Set<T>::insert(T item) {\n Node<T>* temp = head;\n bool present = false;\n\n while (temp != NULL) {\n if (temp->data == item) {\n present = true;\n }\n\n temp = temp->next;\n }\n\n if (present == false) {\n /*Node<T> *tail = getTail();\n Node<T>* newTail = new Node<T>(item);\n newTail->next = NULL;\n tail->next = newTail;*/\n }\n}\n</code></pre>\n<p>It says:</p>\n<blockquote>\n<p id=\"so_27336766_27336766_0\"><code>error: \"head\" was not declared in this scope in line \"Node<T>* temp = head\"</code></p>\n</blockquote>\n", "Title": "Template class not inheriting the protected variable from another Template class", "CreationDate": "2014-12-06T21:29:34.637", "LastActivityDate": "2014-12-08T21:02:45.183", "CommentCount": "5", "FavoriteCount": "1", "PostTypeId": "1", "LastEditDate": "2014-12-06T22:11:08.177", "LastEditorUserId": "560648", "Id": "27336766", "Score": "-1", "OwnerUserId": "3813179", "Tags": "<c++><templates><linked-list><set>", "AnswerCount": "2"}, "27336802": {"Id": "27336802", "PostTypeId": "2", "Body": "<p>You're inheriting from a dependent base class so member access needs to be qualified with <code>this</code>:</p>\n<pre><code>Node<T>* temp = this->head;\n</code></pre>\n<p>For more information, see <a href=\"https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4643074/why-do-i-have-to-access-template-base-class-members-through-the-this-pointer\">this thread</a>.</p>\n", "LastEditorUserId": "-1", "LastActivityDate": "2014-12-06T21:45:00.557", "Score": "2", "CreationDate": "2014-12-06T21:32:47.577", "ParentId": "27336766", "CommentCount": "8", "OwnerUserId": "701092", "LastEditDate": "2017-05-23T12:06:55.837"}}); |
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{"dta.poem.17903": {"metadata": {"author": {"name": "Silesius, Angelus", "birth": "N.A.", "death": "N.A."}, "title": "146. Das Werck bewehrt den Meister.", "genre": "Lyrik", "period": "N.A.", "pub_year": "1675", "urn": "urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4-20008-3", "language": ["de:0.99"], "booktitle": "Silesius, Angelus: Cherubinischer Wandersmann oder Geist-Reiche Sinn- und Schlu\u00df-Reime. 2. Aufl. Glatz, 1675."}, "poem": {"stanza.1": {"line.1": {"text": "Freund weil du sitzst und d\u00e4nckst/ bistu ein Mann voll", "tokens": ["Freund", "weil", "du", "sitz\u00b7st", "und", "d\u00e4n\u00b7ckst", "/", "bis\u00b7tu", "ein", "Mann", "voll"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["NN", "KOUS", "PPER", "VVFIN", "KON", "VVFIN", "$(", "ADV", "ART", "NN", "ADJD"], "meter": "+--+--+--+-+-", "measure": "dactylic.tri.plus"}, "line.2": {"text": "Tugend:", "tokens": ["Tu\u00b7gend", ":"], "token_info": ["word", "punct"], "pos": ["NN", "$."], "meter": "+-", "measure": "trochaic.single"}, "line.3": {"text": "Wenn du sie wircken solst/ siehst du erst deine Ingend.", "tokens": ["Wenn", "du", "sie", "wir\u00b7cken", "solst", "/", "siehst", "du", "erst", "dei\u00b7ne", "In\u00b7gend", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["KOUS", "PPER", "PPER", "VVINF", "VMFIN", "$(", "VVFIN", "PPER", "ADV", "PPOSAT", "NN", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "alexandrine.iambic.hexa"}}}}} |
{
"name": "oprira",
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}
|
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"trade_volume": 7640457.0,
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} |
{"definitions": [{"wordtype": "Noun", "description": "A light horseman. See 2d Hobbler."}]} |
{
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"fen": "4rrk1/pp2q1p1/2pRp2p/2PnP3/1P2Q3/P7/1B4PP/3R2K1 w - - 1 25",
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"lines": {
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"e3d1": {
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}
}
}
},
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} |
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},
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{"body":"Conrad Botzum Farmstead Conrad Botzum Farmstead ©Ed Toerek On a gently sloping terrace of the Cuyahoga Valley\u0027s southwestern wall sits the Conrad Botzum Farmstead. Its winding dirt driveway crosses the Towpath Trail and the railroad tracks before climbing 50 feet to the farmstead\u0027s plateau. The Conrad Botzum Farmstead conveys a feeling of self-containment and separation from the world beyond the wooded hills above and the river valley below. Conrad and Louise Botzum NPS Collection History of the Farmstead Like all land in the Cuyahoga Valley, speculators in the Connecticut Land Company originally owned the property. John A. Botzum and his family took a frightening and dangerous journey before finally purchasing the property in 1876. The Botzum family originally owned woolen mills along the Rhine River in Germany. Fearful that his five sons would be drafted into the German Army during the Napoleonic Wars, John George Botzum decided to flee the country. During passage to America, pirates boarded their boat and robbed all of the passengers. As a result, the Botzums landed in New York City without any money to begin their new life. In New York, a dishonest agent attempted to persuade John to migrate to South America with a guarantee of quick fortune. Before agreeing to the trip, John discovered that the agent planned to sell the family into slavery. According to family history, the Botzums were soon rescued by new friends and headed to Ohio in 1836. After a brief stay in Cleveland, the Botzums moved to Northampton Township. John worked as a construction laborer while his wife Katherine took in boarders. John\u0027s sons purchased additional property in the area, including what is now called the Conrad Botzum Farmstead. In 1876, John A. Botzum purchased the farmstead, which was later transferred to his brother Conrad in 1883. All of the Botzum brothers excelled at raising livestock. Whereas the average local farm had about 13 sheep and produced about 64 pounds of wool, John A. Botzum owned 65 sheep and produced 500 pounds of wool. Conrad Botzum Farm ©Jeffrey Gibson Botzum Brothers Company Conrad\u0027s oldest sons, Charles and Harry, maintained ownership of the farmstead into the mid-20th century. They also operated the Botzum Brothers Company, a successful business that sold everything from planting seeds to construction materials. As with others valley farms, after about 1930 the Botzum Farm succumbed to agricultural competition from elsewhere in Ohio and beyond. Charles and Harry Botzum eventually sold the farm to Sherman and Mary Schumacher, who sold the farm to the National Park Service in 1991. The Farmstead Today Today, Conrad\u0027s great-granddaughter, Maureen Winkelmann, and her husband George work to preserve the property through their non-profit corporation. The 1898 bank barn is now a popular location for weddings and other special events. Click to visit the Conrad Botzum Farmstead website. Click on the links to discover more: Former Coliseum Property Conrad Botzum Farmstead Point Farm Welton Farm Heritage Farms","url":"https://www.nps.gov/cuva/learn/historyculture/botzum-farm.htm","title":"Cuyahoga Valley National Park: Conrad Botzum Farmstead"} |
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{"title":"Java面试","date":"2019-12-09T12:45:48.304Z","link":"post/Java面试","updated":"2019-12-09T12:45:40.217Z","content":"<h3 id=\"Java面试考点\">Java面试考点<a href=\"post/Java面试#Java面试考点\"></a></h3><p><strong>写在前面的话：</strong></p>\n<p> <strong>1. 面试需要长期积累</strong></p>\n<p> <strong>2. 合理利用搜索引擎，培养主动解决问题的能力</strong></p>\n<h4 id=\"1-Java考点\">1. Java考点<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-Java考点\"></a></h4><p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1572610742574.png\" alt=\"1572610742574\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<h5 id=\"1-1-问题一：谈谈对Java语言的理解\">1.1 问题一：谈谈对Java语言的理解<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-1-问题一：谈谈对Java语言的理解\"></a></h5><p>从以下几个方面：</p>\n<ul>\n<li>平台无关性(Compile Once，Run Anywhere即一次编译，到处运行)</li>\n<li>面向对象：封装、继承、多态</li>\n<li>GC(垃圾回收机制)：无需像C++一样手动释放内存</li>\n<li>语言特性：泛型、反射、Lambda表达式</li>\n<li>类库：Java本身自带的集合、并发库、网络库、IO和NIO等</li>\n<li>异常处理</li>\n</ul>\n<h5 id=\"1-2-问题二：Compile-Once，Run-Anywhere如何实现\">1.2 问题二：Compile Once，Run Anywhere如何实现<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-2-问题二：Compile-Once，Run-Anywhere如何实现\"></a></h5><p><strong>即考察平台无关性(Compile Once，Run Anywhere的前提是JDK或JRE版本相同)</strong></p>\n<p>Java源码首先被编译成字节码，再由不同平台的JVM进行解析，<strong>Java语言在不同的平台上运行时不需要进行重新编译</strong>，Java虚拟机在执行字节码的时候，再把字节码转换成具体平台上的机器指令。 </p>\n<p>首先，源代码经由javac编译生成字节码并保存在.class文件中。字节码和.class文件就是跨平台的基础。再由不同平台的JVM加载执行对应的.class文件。 </p>\n<p><strong>javac</strong>指令将源码编译生成字节码，并存入对应的.class文件。.class文件保存源码翻译的二进制字节码文件，同时会添加一个共有的静态常量属性class，该属性记录了类的相关信息及类型信息，是class的一个实例。</p>\n<p><strong>java</strong>指令使JVM解析对应的.class文件，将字节码加载进内存，并转换成操作系统能够识别的机器码去执行</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1572613736866.png\" alt=\"1572613736866\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p><strong>如何查看字节码文件</strong></p>\n<p><strong>javap</strong>——JDK自带的反编译器，可以查看生成的字节码，从而了解编译器内部的工作机制</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1572614300130.png\" alt=\"1572614300130\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1572614483662.png\" alt=\"1572614483662\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<h5 id=\"1-3-问题三：为什么JVM不直接将源码解析成机器码去执行\">1.3 问题三：为什么JVM不直接将源码解析成机器码去执行<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-3-问题三：为什么JVM不直接将源码解析成机器码去执行\"></a></h5><ul>\n<li>避免每次执行前都需要各种检查</li>\n<li>兼容性，也可以将其他语言解析成字节码</li>\n</ul>\n<p>若JVM直接将源码解析成机器码去执行，则每次执行前都需进行各种语法、句法、语义的检查(且不会被保存)，性能大大受到影响</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-4-问题四：JVM如何加载-class文件\">1.4 问题四：JVM如何加载.class文件<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-4-问题四：JVM如何加载-class文件\"></a></h5><p><strong>主要通过Class Loader将符合其格式的class文件加载到内存中，经由Execution Engine解析class文件中的字节码，并提交给操作系统去执行。</strong></p>\n<p>Java虚拟机：是一种抽象化的计算机，通过在实际的计算机上仿真、模拟各种计算机功能来实现的。JVM有自己完善的硬件架构(如处理器、堆栈、寄存器等)，还具有相应的指令系统。JVM屏蔽了与具体操作系统平台相关的信息，使Java程序只需生成在Java虚拟机上运行的目标代码——字节码，即可在不同平台上运行</p>\n<p>JVM屏蔽底层操作系统平台的不同，并且减少基于原生语言开发的复杂性。只需虚拟机厂商在特定操作系统上实现虚拟机定义如何将字节码解析成本操作系统能够执行的二进制码。</p>\n<p><strong>JVM最值得学习的两点：1. JVM内存空间结构模型 2. GC</strong></p>\n<p><strong>JVM是内存中的虚拟机，即JVM中的存储就是内存！</strong></p>\n<p>JVM的架构</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1572616101746.png\" alt=\"1572616101746\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<ul>\n<li>Class Loader : 依据特定格式，加载class文件到内存中(JVM在内存中)</li>\n<li>Execution Engine : 对命令进行解析</li>\n<li>Native Interface(本地接口) : 融合不同开发语言的原生库为Java所用(Java的性能不及C和C++,主流的JVM也是基于C实现)</li>\n<li>Runtime Data Area : JVM内存空间结构模型。我们所写的程序都会被加载到这里，之后再开始运行</li>\n</ul>\n<p>Class Loader的作用：加载编译好的class文件到内存。Class Loader加载的文件有格式要求(无需深究)，只管加载符合格式要求的class文件。只要符合格式，就能加载。至于能否运行，则由Execution Engine负责。</p>\n<p>Execution Engine，又名解释器。负责对命令进行解析，解析之后提交到真正的操作系统中执行。</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-5-问题五：什么是反射\">1.5 问题五：什么是反射<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-5-问题五：什么是反射\"></a></h5><p>Java反射机制是在运行状态中，对于任意一个类，都能知道这个类的所有属性和方法；对于任意一个对象，都能够调用它的任意方法和属性；这种动态获取信息以及动态调用对象方法的功能称为java语言的反射机制。</p>\n<p>理论性过强，列举常用的反射函数或写一个反射例子</p>\n<p>狂神Java反射</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-6-问题六：类从编译到执行的过程\">1.6 问题六：类从编译到执行的过程<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-6-问题六：类从编译到执行的过程\"></a></h5><ol>\n<li>编译器将xxx.java源代码编译为xxx.class字节码文件</li>\n<li>ClassLoader将字节码转换为JVM的Class<xxx>对象</xxx></li>\n<li>JVM利用Class<xxx>对象实例化为xxx对象</xxx></li>\n</ol>\n<h5 id=\"1-7-问题七：谈谈ClassLoader\">1.7 问题七：谈谈ClassLoader<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-7-问题七：谈谈ClassLoader\"></a></h5><p>ClassLoader在Java中有着非常重要的作用，它主要工作在Class装载的加载阶段，其主要作用是从系统外部获得Class二进制数据流。它是Java的核心组件，所有的Class都是有ClassLoader进行加载的，ClassLoader负责通过将Class文件里的二进制数据流装载进系统，然后交给Java虚拟机进行连接、初始化等操作。</p>\n<p>classLoader是一个抽象类，提供了一些接口，用以自定义class的加载流程以及加载方式</p>\n<p>主要方法：loadClass</p>\n<p>通过该方法才能加载类以及给定类名返回该类的实例，找不到则抛出异常classNotFoundException</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">protected</span> Class<?> loadClass(String name, <span class=\"keyword\">boolean</span> resolve)</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">//resolve默认为false</span></span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>ClassLoader的种类：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>BootStrapClassLoader: C++编写，加载java自带的核心类库java.*(用户不可见)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>ExtClassLoader: java编写，加载扩展类库javax.*(用户可见)</p>\n<p>加载路径：java.ext.dirs</p>\n<p>用到才会加载，并非一次性加载</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>APPClassLoader: java编写，加载ClassPath目录(程序所在目录/类路径)下的内容(用户可见)</p>\n<p>加载路径：java.class.path</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>自定义ClassLoader: java编写，定制化加载</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<blockquote>\n<p>用户可见：可以通过代码看见</p>\n<p>用户不可见：不可以通过代码看见，BootStrapClassLoader是用C++编写的</p>\n</blockquote>\n<p>自定义ClassLoader的实现：通过覆盖两个函数</p>\n<ol>\n<li>findClass：寻找class文件，包括如何读进二进制流并对其进行处理，继而返回一个class对象</li>\n<li>defineClass：定义一个类，传入的参数是一个byte[]数组，字节码文件就是以一个byte数组的形式传入</li>\n</ol>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">protected</span> Class<?> findClass(String name) <span class=\"keyword\">throws</span> ClassNotFoundException{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">throw</span> <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> ClassNotFoundException(name);</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">protected</span> <span class=\"keyword\">final</span> Class<?> defineClass(<span class=\"keyword\">byte</span>[] b, <span class=\"keyword\">int</span> off, <span class=\"keyword\">int</span> len) <span class=\"keyword\">throws</span> ClassFormatException{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">return</span> defineClass(<span class=\"keyword\">null</span>,b,off,len,<span class=\"keyword\">null</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>findClass就是根据名称去加载.class字节码，然后调用defineClass去解析定义.class字节流并返回class对象</p>\n<p>自定义ClassLoaderDemo</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br><span class=\"line\">11</span><br><span class=\"line\">12</span><br><span class=\"line\">13</span><br><span class=\"line\">14</span><br><span class=\"line\">15</span><br><span class=\"line\">16</span><br><span class=\"line\">17</span><br><span class=\"line\">18</span><br><span class=\"line\">19</span><br><span class=\"line\">20</span><br><span class=\"line\">21</span><br><span class=\"line\">22</span><br><span class=\"line\">23</span><br><span class=\"line\">24</span><br><span class=\"line\">25</span><br><span class=\"line\">26</span><br><span class=\"line\">27</span><br><span class=\"line\">28</span><br><span class=\"line\">29</span><br><span class=\"line\">30</span><br><span class=\"line\">31</span><br><span class=\"line\">32</span><br><span class=\"line\">33</span><br><span class=\"line\">34</span><br><span class=\"line\">35</span><br><span class=\"line\">36</span><br><span class=\"line\">37</span><br><span class=\"line\">38</span><br><span class=\"line\">39</span><br><span class=\"line\">40</span><br><span class=\"line\">41</span><br><span class=\"line\">42</span><br><span class=\"line\">43</span><br><span class=\"line\">44</span><br><span class=\"line\">45</span><br><span class=\"line\">46</span><br><span class=\"line\">47</span><br><span class=\"line\">48</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">import</span> java.io.*;</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">MyClassLoader</span> <span class=\"keyword\">extends</span> <span class=\"title\">ClassLoader</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">private</span> String path; <span class=\"comment\">//加载路径</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">private</span> String classLoaderName;</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"title\">MyClassLoader</span><span class=\"params\">(String path, String classLoaderName)</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">//super(parent);</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">this</span>.path = path;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">this</span>.classLoaderName = classLoaderName;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">//用于寻找类文件 </span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"meta\">@Override</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> Class <span class=\"title\">findClass</span><span class=\"params\">(String name)</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">byte</span>[] b = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> <span class=\"keyword\">byte</span>[<span class=\"number\">0</span>];</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">try</span> {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> b = loadClassData(name);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> } <span class=\"keyword\">catch</span> (IOException e) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> e.printStackTrace();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">return</span> defineClass(name,b,<span class=\"number\">0</span>,b.length);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">//用于加载类文件</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">private</span> <span class=\"keyword\">byte</span>[] loadClassData(String name) <span class=\"keyword\">throws</span> IOException {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> name = path + name + <span class=\"string\">\".class\"</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> InputStream in = <span class=\"keyword\">null</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> ByteArrayOutputStream out = <span class=\"keyword\">null</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">try</span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> in = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> FileInputStream(<span class=\"keyword\">new</span> File(name));</span><br><span class=\"line\"> out = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> ByteArrayOutputStream();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">int</span> i = <span class=\"number\">0</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">while</span> ((i = in. read()) != -<span class=\"number\">1</span>){</span><br><span class=\"line\"> out.write(i);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> } <span class=\"keyword\">catch</span> (FileNotFoundException e) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> e.printStackTrace();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> } <span class=\"keyword\">finally</span> {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">try</span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> in.close();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> out.close();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> } <span class=\"keyword\">catch</span> (IOException e) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> e.printStackTrace();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">return</span> out.toByteArray();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>测试</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">ClassLoadChecker</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">main</span><span class=\"params\">(String[] args)</span> <span class=\"keyword\">throws</span> ClassNotFoundException, IllegalAccessException, InstantiationException </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> MyClassLoader m = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> MyClassLoader(<span class=\"string\">\"E:\\\\IDEA-WorkSpace\\\\Basic-Java\\\\src\\\\\"</span>,<span class=\"string\">\"myClassLoader\"</span>); </span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">//src后一定要有\\\\否则报错，因为name = path + name + \".class\";</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">//\"\\\\是转义\"</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> Class c = m.loadClass(<span class=\"string\">\"hello\"</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(c.getClassLoader());</span><br><span class=\"line\"> c.newInstance();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>要先用javac命令编译生成.class文件，否则找不到文件，无法转化成二进制流读入！</p>\n<p>findClass寻找到类文件后，就会将其以二进制byte[]数组的形式加载并传递给defineClass。</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-8-问题八：双亲委派机制\">1.8 问题八：双亲委派机制<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-8-问题八：双亲委派机制\"></a></h5><p>不同的ClassLoader加载类的方式和路径不同。加载类时会按照管理的区域各司其职，双亲委派机制就是让它们相互协作，形成整体的一种机制。</p>\n<p>双亲委派机制原理图</p>\n<p><img src=\"https://ss0.bdstatic.com/94oJfD_bAAcT8t7mm9GUKT-xh_/timg?image&quality=100&size=b4000_4000&sec=1572949872&di=164f71a0bcf42946dc62e24054ed345a&src=http://img2018.cnblogs.com/blog/1652057/201904/1652057-20190422161748156-1592156695.png\" alt=\"img\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>加载方式：</p>\n<p>首先，自底而上，从自定义ClassLoader开始查找是否加载过该类，若加载过则直接返回，若未加载则委派给APPClassLoader查找是否加载过该类</p>\n<p>重复上述过程直至找到BootStrapClassLoader</p>\n<p>若仍未找到，则BootStrapClassLoader就会尝试到Load JRE\\lib\\rt.jar或-Xbootclasspath指定路径下寻找是否有该类对应的文件。若有，则将文件加载进BootStrapClassLoader中并返回。若没有，则会从上往下委派给Extension ClassLoader去到对应的Load JRE\\lib\\ext\\*.jar或-Djava.ext.dirs指定路径下寻找是否有该类对应的文件。</p>\n<p>重复上述过程直至找到自定义ClassLoader</p>\n<p>ClassLoader中的loadClass源码：</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br><span class=\"line\">11</span><br><span class=\"line\">12</span><br><span class=\"line\">13</span><br><span class=\"line\">14</span><br><span class=\"line\">15</span><br><span class=\"line\">16</span><br><span class=\"line\">17</span><br><span class=\"line\">18</span><br><span class=\"line\">19</span><br><span class=\"line\">20</span><br><span class=\"line\">21</span><br><span class=\"line\">22</span><br><span class=\"line\">23</span><br><span class=\"line\">24</span><br><span class=\"line\">25</span><br><span class=\"line\">26</span><br><span class=\"line\">27</span><br><span class=\"line\">28</span><br><span class=\"line\">29</span><br><span class=\"line\">30</span><br><span class=\"line\">31</span><br><span class=\"line\">32</span><br><span class=\"line\">33</span><br><span class=\"line\">34</span><br><span class=\"line\">35</span><br><span class=\"line\">36</span><br><span class=\"line\">37</span><br><span class=\"line\">38</span><br><span class=\"line\">39</span><br><span class=\"line\">40</span><br><span class=\"line\">41</span><br><span class=\"line\">42</span><br><span class=\"line\">43</span><br><span class=\"line\">44</span><br><span class=\"line\">45</span><br><span class=\"line\">46</span><br><span class=\"line\">47</span><br><span class=\"line\">48</span><br><span class=\"line\">49</span><br><span class=\"line\">50</span><br><span class=\"line\">51</span><br><span class=\"line\">52</span><br><span class=\"line\">53</span><br><span class=\"line\">54</span><br><span class=\"line\">55</span><br><span class=\"line\">56</span><br><span class=\"line\">57</span><br><span class=\"line\">58</span><br><span class=\"line\">59</span><br><span class=\"line\">60</span><br><span class=\"line\">61</span><br><span class=\"line\">62</span><br><span class=\"line\">63</span><br><span class=\"line\">64</span><br><span class=\"line\">65</span><br><span class=\"line\">66</span><br><span class=\"line\">67</span><br><span class=\"line\">68</span><br><span class=\"line\">69</span><br><span class=\"line\">70</span><br><span class=\"line\">71</span><br><span class=\"line\">72</span><br><span class=\"line\">73</span><br><span class=\"line\">74</span><br><span class=\"line\">75</span><br><span class=\"line\">76</span><br><span class=\"line\">77</span><br><span class=\"line\">78</span><br><span class=\"line\">79</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">/**</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * Loads the class with the specified <a href=\"#name\">binary name</a>. The</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * default implementation of this method searches for classes in the</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * following order:</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <ol></span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <li><p> Invoke {<span class=\"doctag\">@link</span> #findLoadedClass(String)} to check if the class</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * has already been loaded. </p></li></span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <li><p> Invoke the {<span class=\"doctag\">@link</span> #loadClass(String) <tt>loadClass</tt>} method</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * on the parent class loader. If the parent is <tt>null</tt> the class</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * loader built-in to the virtual machine is used, instead. </p></li></span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <li><p> Invoke the {<span class=\"doctag\">@link</span> #findClass(String)} method to find the</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * class. </p></li></span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * </ol></span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <p> If the class was found using the above steps, and the</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <tt>resolve</tt> flag is true, this method will then invoke the {<span class=\"doctag\">@link</span></span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * #resolveClass(Class)} method on the resulting <tt>Class</tt> object.</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <p> Subclasses of <tt>ClassLoader</tt> are encouraged to override {<span class=\"doctag\">@link</span></span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * #findClass(String)}, rather than this method. </p></span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <p> Unless overridden, this method synchronizes on the result of</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * {<span class=\"doctag\">@link</span> #getClassLoadingLock <tt>getClassLoadingLock</tt>} method</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * during the entire class loading process.</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <span class=\"doctag\">@param</span> name</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * The <a href=\"#name\">binary name</a> of the class</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <span class=\"doctag\">@param</span> resolve</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * If <tt>true</tt> then resolve the class</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <span class=\"doctag\">@return</span> The resulting <tt>Class</tt> object</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> *</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * <span class=\"doctag\">@throws</span> ClassNotFoundException</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> * If the class could not be found</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\"> */</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">protected</span> Class<?> loadClass(String name, <span class=\"keyword\">boolean</span> resolve)</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">throws</span> ClassNotFoundException</span><br><span class=\"line\">{</span><br><span class=\"line\">\t<span class=\"comment\">//同步锁，防止多个线程调用同一个ClassLoader加载同一个类，避免冲突</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">synchronized</span> (getClassLoadingLock(name)) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">// First, check if the class has already been loaded</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> Class<?> c = findLoadedClass(name);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">if</span> (c == <span class=\"keyword\">null</span>) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">long</span> t0 = System.nanoTime();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">try</span> {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">if</span> (parent != <span class=\"keyword\">null</span>) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> c = parent.loadClass(name, <span class=\"keyword\">false</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> } <span class=\"keyword\">else</span> {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> c = findBootstrapClassOrNull(name);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> } <span class=\"keyword\">catch</span> (ClassNotFoundException e) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">// ClassNotFoundException thrown if class not found</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">// from the non-null parent class loader</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">if</span> (c == <span class=\"keyword\">null</span>) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">// If still not found, then invoke findClass in order</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">// to find the class.</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">long</span> t1 = System.nanoTime();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> c = findClass(name);</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">// this is the defining class loader; record the stats</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> sun.misc.PerfCounter.getParentDelegationTime().addTime(t1 - t0);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> sun.misc.PerfCounter.getFindClassTime().addElapsedTimeFrom(t1);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> sun.misc.PerfCounter.getFindClasses().increment();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">if</span> (resolve) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> resolveClass(c);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">return</span> c;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>通过c.getClassLoader().getParent()方法可以得到加载类的父类，从而可以证明APPClassLoader是CustomClassLoader的父类，ExtensionClassLoader是APPClassLoader的父类，而ExtensionClassLoader的父类是null(因为BootStrapClassLoader是C++编写的，无法得到)</p>\n<p>为什么使用双亲委派机制加载类？</p>\n<ul>\n<li>避免多份同样字节码的加载，内存是宝贵的，没必要保存相同的两个类对象(class对象)</li>\n</ul>\n<h5 id=\"1-9-问题九：类的加载方式\">1.9 问题九：类的加载方式<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-9-问题九：类的加载方式\"></a></h5><ul>\n<li><p>隐式加载：new</p>\n<p>程序在加载过程中遇到通过new方式生成对象时，隐式调用类加载器，加载对应的类到JVM中</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>显示加载：loadClass，forName等</p>\n<p>通过loadClass以及forName等方法。显示加载需要类。对于显示加载来讲，当获得class对象之后，要调用class对象的newInstance()方法来生成对象的实例。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>隐式加载与显示加载的区别：通过new来隐式加载则无需调用类对象(class对象)的newInstance()方法即可获取对象的实例，并且new支持带参数的构造器生成对象实例，而class对象的newInstance()方法则不支持传入参数，需要通过反射调用构造器对象的newInstance()方法才能支持传入参数。</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-10-问题十：loadClass和forName的区别\">1.10 问题十：loadClass和forName的区别<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-10-问题十：loadClass和forName的区别\"></a></h5><p>相同点：都能在运行时对任意一个类知道该类的所有属性和方法，对任意一个对象都能调用它的任意属性和方法。</p>\n<p>需要先了解类装载的过程(之前是加载，加载是装载的一部分)——class对象的生成过程。</p>\n<p>Java类装载分为3步：</p>\n<ol>\n<li>加载：通过ClassLoader加载class字节码文件到内存中，并生成class对象(将这些静态数据转换成运行时数据区中方法区的类型数据，在运行时，数据堆区中生成一个代表这个类的java.lang.class对象，作为方法区类数据的访问入口)。</li>\n<li>链接：<ul>\n<li>校验：检查加载的class文件的正确性和安全性。检查class文件的格式是否正确。</li>\n<li>准备：为类变量分配存储空间并设置类变量初始值。类变量随类型信息存放在方法区中，生命周期很长，使用不当很容易造成内存泄漏。类变量指的是static变量。初始值指的是类变量类型的默认值，而非实际赋予的值</li>\n<li>解析(可选)：JVM将常量池内的符号引用转换为直接引用</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>初始化：执行类变量赋值和静态代码块</li>\n</ol>\n<blockquote>\n<p>loadClass类中的resolve参数就是决定是否去解析类(链接类)，默认为false</p>\n<p>forName类中的initialize参数表示是否初始化，传递值为true。即调用forName时就会初始化该类</p>\n</blockquote>\n<p>不同点：Class.forName得到的class是已经初始化完成的，ClassLoader.loadClass得到的class是还没有链接的。</p>\n<p>演示代码：</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br><span class=\"line\">11</span><br><span class=\"line\">12</span><br><span class=\"line\">13</span><br><span class=\"line\">14</span><br><span class=\"line\">15</span><br><span class=\"line\">16</span><br><span class=\"line\">17</span><br><span class=\"line\">18</span><br><span class=\"line\">19</span><br><span class=\"line\">20</span><br><span class=\"line\">21</span><br><span class=\"line\">22</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">package</span> JVM6_5;</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">Robot</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">private</span> String name;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">sayHi</span><span class=\"params\">(String name)</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(<span class=\"string\">\"hello,my name is \"</span> + name);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(<span class=\"string\">\"hello,moto\"</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">//测试类</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">package</span> JVM6_5;</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">LoadDifference</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">main</span><span class=\"params\">(String[] args)</span> <span class=\"keyword\">throws</span> ClassNotFoundException </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> ClassLoader cl = Robot.class.getClassLoader();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">//运行结果为空白(什么都没有)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> Class c = Class.forName(<span class=\"string\">\"JVM6_5.Robot\"</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\">\t\t<span class=\"comment\">//控制台打印\"hello,moto\"。因为static代码块中的内容需要在初始化时执行</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>由此可证明Class.forName得到的class是已经初始化完成的，ClassLoader.loadClass得到的class是还没有链接的。</p>\n<p>forName的用处：连接数据库驱动</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\">Class.forName(<span class=\"string\">\"com.mysql.jdbc.Driver\"</span>);</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>在Driver中有一段静态代码，因此只有调用forName才能执行</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br><span class=\"line\">11</span><br><span class=\"line\">12</span><br><span class=\"line\">13</span><br><span class=\"line\">14</span><br><span class=\"line\">15</span><br><span class=\"line\">16</span><br><span class=\"line\">17</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">package</span> com.mysql.jdbc;</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">import</span> java.sql.DriverManager;</span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">import</span> java.sql.SQLException;</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">Driver</span> <span class=\"keyword\">extends</span> <span class=\"title\">NonRegisteringDriver</span> <span class=\"keyword\">implements</span> <span class=\"title\">java</span>.<span class=\"title\">sql</span>.<span class=\"title\">Driver</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"title\">Driver</span><span class=\"params\">()</span> <span class=\"keyword\">throws</span> SQLException </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">try</span> {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> DriverManager.registerDriver(<span class=\"keyword\">new</span> Driver());</span><br><span class=\"line\"> } <span class=\"keyword\">catch</span> (SQLException var1) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">throw</span> <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> RuntimeException(<span class=\"string\">\"Can't register driver!\"</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>loadClass的用处：在Spring IOC中，在资源加载器获取要读入的资源及读入bean的配置文件时，需要使用ClassLoader.loadClass加载。因为Spring IOC的lazy loading(延迟加载)。Spring IOC为了加快初始化速度，大量使用了延迟技术。而使用loadClass不需要执行类中的初始化代码以及链接的步骤，加快了装载速度，将类的初始化留到实际使用到该类时再做。</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-11-问题十一：什么是Java内存模型\">1.11 问题十一：什么是Java内存模型<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-11-问题十一：什么是Java内存模型\"></a></h5><p>内存简介：</p>\n<p>计算机的所有程序都是在内存中运行的。内存包括虚拟内存，也包括硬盘这样的外存支持。在程序运行过程中，需要不断将内存的虚拟地址和物理地址进行映射，找到相关的指令以及数据去执行。Java程序运行时面临和其他进程相同的内存限制，即受限于操作系统架构提供的可寻址地址空间。操作系统架构提供的可寻址地址空间由处理器的位数决定。常见的处理器有32位和64位。32位处理器提供了2^32的可寻址范围(大约4GB)，64位处理器提供了2^64的可寻址范围。</p>\n<p>地址空间的划分：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>内核空间</p>\n<p>主要的操作系统程序和C运行时的空间，包含用于连接计算机硬件、调度程序以及提供联网和虚拟内存等服务的逻辑和基于C的进程。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>用户空间</p>\n<p>除内核空间之外的空间</p>\n<p>Java进程实际运行时使用的内存空间。32位系统用户进程最大可访问3GB，内核代码可访问所有物理内存。64位系统用户进程最大可访问超过512GB，内核代码可访问所有物理内存。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>JVM内存模型——JDK8</p>\n<p>Java程序运行在虚拟机之上，运行时需要内存空间。虚拟机执行Java程序过程中会将其管理的内存划分为不同的数据区以方便管理。</p>\n<p>C编译器将内存区域划分为数据段和代码段，数据段包括堆、栈以及静态数据区。Java语言中将内存区域划分为线程共有和私有。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573132587108.png\" alt=\"1573132587108\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<ol>\n<li><p>程序计数器(Program Counter Register)</p>\n<ul>\n<li>当前线程所执行的字节码行号指示器(逻辑)</li>\n<li>改变计数器的值来选取下一条需要执行的字节码指令</li>\n<li>和线程是一对一的关系即”线程私有”</li>\n<li>对Java方法计数，若是native方法则计数器值为undefined</li>\n<li>不会发生内存泄漏</li>\n</ul>\n<p>是一块较小的内存空间。作用是当前线程所执行的字节码行号指示器。在虚拟机的概念模型中，字节码解释器工作是通过改变计数器的值来选取下一条需要执行的字节码指令。由于JVM的多线程是通过线程轮流切换的，并分配处理器执行时间的方式来实现的，在任一确认的时刻，一个处理器只会执行一条线程中的指令。因此，为了线程切换后恢复到正确的位置，每条线程都需要一个独立的程序计数器与之对应。各条线程的计数器之间各不影响，独立存储，称其这类内存为线程私有的内存。若线程正在执行Java方法，则该计数器记录正在执行虚拟机字节码指令的地址。如果是native方法则计数器值为undefined。此外，由于只是记录行号，程序计数器不会发生内存泄漏的问题。</p>\n<p>程序计数器是逻辑计数器而非物理计数器，为确保线程切换后都能恢复正确的执行位置，每个线程都有一个独立的程序计数器，程序计数器是线程独立的，且只为Java方法计数，且不会发生内存泄漏</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>Java虚拟机栈(Stack)</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>Java方法执行的内存模型</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>包含多个栈帧</p>\n<p>Java虚拟机栈也是线程私有的，可以说是Java方法执行的内存模型，每个方法被执行时都会创建一个栈帧，即方法运行期间的基础数据结构。栈帧用于存储局部变量表、操作栈、动态连接、方法出口等每个方法执行中对应虚拟机栈帧从入栈到出栈的过程。Java虚拟机栈用来存储栈帧，栈帧持有局部变量和部分结果以及参与方法的调用与返回。当方法调用结束时，帧才会销毁。虚拟机栈包含了单个线程每个方法执行的栈帧，栈帧则存储了局部变量表，操作数栈、动态连接和方法出口等信息。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li><p>本地方法栈</p>\n<p>与虚拟机栈相似，主要用于标注native方法</p>\n<p>Java方法调用虚拟机栈，带有native关键字的方法调用本地方法栈</p>\n</li>\n</ol>\n<p>局部变量表和操作数栈的区别：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>局部变量表：包含方法执行过程中的所有变量</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>操作数栈：包含入栈、出栈、复制、交换、产生消费变量</p>\n<p>在执行字节码指令过程中用到，这种方式类似原生CPU寄存器。大部分JVM字节码把时间花费在操作数栈的操作上，包括入栈、出栈、复制、交换、产生消费变量</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>因此，局部变量和操作数栈之间的交换变量指令操作通过字节码频繁执行。栈是一个后进先出的数据结构，因此，当前执行的方法在栈的顶部，每次方法调用时，一个新的栈帧创建并压栈到栈顶(?)，方法正常返回或抛出未捕获的异常时，栈帧就会出栈。除了栈帧的压栈和出栈之外，栈不能被直接操作。</p>\n<p>可以通过javap -verbose xxx.java 指令：用口语化的形式描述xxx.java文件</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">ByteCodeSample</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> <span class=\"keyword\">int</span> <span class=\"title\">add</span><span class=\"params\">(<span class=\"keyword\">int</span> a, <span class=\"keyword\">int</span> b)</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">int</span> c = <span class=\"number\">0</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> c = a + b;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">return</span> c;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573136450860.png\" alt=\"1573136450860\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573136192243.png\" alt=\"1573136192243\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>由上图可知操作数栈大小为2，局部变量表大小为3，一整个长方形条代表一个栈帧，共有7个栈帧。虚拟机栈会按照程序计数器从大到小依次压入栈帧，执行时也按照从小到大执行。</p>\n<p>首先，会执行iconst_0：将int值0压入操作数栈中，同时，传入的参数是1和2，因此局部变量表中就有2个变量，分别为1(第0个变量)和2(第1个变量)。</p>\n<p>接下来执行istore_2：将操作数栈中的栈顶元素0 pop出来存入局部变量表中的第2个变量中，此时，局部变量表中有3个变量。</p>\n<p>iload_0：将局部变量表中的第0个元素压入操作数栈中</p>\n<p>load——入栈 store——出栈</p>\n<p>iload_1：将局部变量表中的第1个元素压入操作数栈中，同时之前放入的1就会被挤到栈底</p>\n<p>iadd：将2和1弹出，将运算后的结果重新压入操作数栈中</p>\n<p>istore_2：将栈顶的元素3弹出存入到局部变量列表中的第2个变量中(替换掉0)</p>\n<p>iload_2：将局部变量列表中的第2个变量再次压入操作数栈顶</p>\n<p>ireturn：将栈顶元素返回</p>\n<p>方法完成执行，上述栈帧被自动销毁</p>\n<p>由此可知，局部变量列表主要是为操作数栈提供必要的数据支撑</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-12-问题十二：递归为什么会引发java-lang-StackOverflowError异常\">1.12 问题十二：递归为什么会引发java.lang.StackOverflowError异常<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-12-问题十二：递归为什么会引发java-lang-StackOverflowError异常\"></a></h5><p><strong>递归过深，栈帧数超出虚拟机栈深度</strong></p>\n<p>复现java.lang.StackOverflowError异常:</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br><span class=\"line\">11</span><br><span class=\"line\">12</span><br><span class=\"line\">13</span><br><span class=\"line\">14</span><br><span class=\"line\">15</span><br><span class=\"line\">16</span><br><span class=\"line\">17</span><br><span class=\"line\">18</span><br><span class=\"line\">19</span><br><span class=\"line\">20</span><br><span class=\"line\">21</span><br><span class=\"line\">22</span><br><span class=\"line\">23</span><br><span class=\"line\">24</span><br><span class=\"line\">25</span><br><span class=\"line\">26</span><br><span class=\"line\">27</span><br><span class=\"line\">28</span><br><span class=\"line\">29</span><br><span class=\"line\">30</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">StackOverflowError</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> <span class=\"keyword\">int</span> <span class=\"title\">fibonacci</span><span class=\"params\">(<span class=\"keyword\">int</span> n)</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">if</span>(n == <span class=\"number\">0</span>)</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">return</span> <span class=\"number\">0</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">if</span>(n == <span class=\"number\">1</span>)</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">return</span> <span class=\"number\">1</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">return</span> fibonacci(n-<span class=\"number\">1</span>) + fibonacci(n-<span class=\"number\">2</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">main</span><span class=\"params\">(String[] args)</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(fibonacci(<span class=\"number\">1000000</span> ));</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"comment\">//递归过多</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">/*</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">Exception in thread \"main\" java.lang.StackOverflowError</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\tat JVM6_11.StackOverflowError.fibonacci(StackOverflowError.java:9)</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">\t......</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">*/</span></span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>产生原因分析：递归程序过多</p>\n<p>当线程执行一个方法时，就会随之创建一个栈帧并将建立的栈帧压入虚拟机栈中，当方法执行完毕后，就会将栈帧出栈。由此可知，线程当前执行的方法所对应的栈帧一定位于Java栈的顶部。而递归函数不断调用自身，每一次调用会涉及：</p>\n<ol>\n<li>每需调用方法就会生成一个栈帧</li>\n<li>会保存当前方法的栈帧状态，将其放入虚拟机栈中</li>\n<li>栈帧上下文切换时会切换到最新的方法栈帧中</li>\n</ol>\n<p>由于每个线程的虚拟机栈深度固定，递归实现将导致栈深度的增加，每次递归都会往栈中压入一个栈帧。当消耗超出了最大允许的深度，就会报java.lang.StackOverflowError异常。</p>\n<p>解决思路：限制递归的次数或直接使用循环替换递归</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-13-问题十三：为什么会引发java-lang-OutOfMemoryError异常\">1.13 问题十三：为什么会引发java.lang.OutOfMemoryError异常<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-13-问题十三：为什么会引发java-lang-OutOfMemoryError异常\"></a></h5><p><strong>虚拟机栈过多会引发java.lang.OutOfMemoryError异常</strong></p>\n<p>当虚拟机栈处于动态扩展时，若无法申请足够多的内存，就会抛出上述异常</p>\n<p>复现上述异常:</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br><span class=\"line\">11</span><br><span class=\"line\">12</span><br><span class=\"line\">13</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">stackLeakByThread</span><span class=\"params\">()</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">while</span>(<span class=\"keyword\">true</span>){</span><br><span class=\"line\"> newThread(){</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">run</span><span class=\"params\">()</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">while</span>(<span class=\"keyword\">true</span>){</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }.start()</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">/*</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">Exception in thread \"main\" java.lang.OutOfMemoryError:unable to create new native thread</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">*/</span></span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p><strong>Windows平台虚拟机Java线程映射到操作系统的内核线程上，执行上述代码会导致系统假死。运行需谨慎</strong></p>\n<p><strong>小结：</strong></p>\n<p>虚拟机栈也是Java虚拟机自动管理的，栈类似一个集合，但是有固定容量，是由多个栈帧合起来的，在编写代码时每调用一个方法，在运行时Java虚拟机就会自动在内存中分配对应的一块空间(就是栈帧)，方法结束后，对应的栈帧就会自动的被释放掉，即栈的内存不需要通过GC回收</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-14-问题十四：元空间-MetaSpace-与永久代-PermGen-的区别\">1.14 问题十四：元空间(MetaSpace)与永久代(PermGen)的区别<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-14-问题十四：元空间-MetaSpace-与永久代-PermGen-的区别\"></a></h5><p>元空间(MetaSpace)：在JDK8以后类的元数据放在本地堆内存中的区域(JDK7及以前属于永久代)</p>\n<p>元空间和永久代都是用来存储class对象的相关信息，包括class对象的method和field。元空间和永久代都是方法区的实现(实现方法不同而已)。方法区是JVM的一种规范。Java 7之后，原先位于方法区中的字符串常量池被移到Java堆中，并且在Java 8之后，使用元空间替换了永久代。</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>元空间使用本地内存，永久代使用的是JVM的内存</p>\n<p>使用本地内存的好处：java.lang.OutOfMemoryError:PermGen space异常将不复存在。因为默认的类的元数据分配只受本地内存大小的限制，即本地内存剩多少，理论上元空间就可以有多大，解决了空间不足的问题。但也不能放任无限壮大，JVM默认运行时根据需要动态设置其大小</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>元空间(MetaSpace)相比永久代(PermGen)的优势：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>字符串常量池存在永久代中容易出现性能问题和内存溢出(参考下例)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>类和方法的信息大小难以确定，给永久代的大小指定带来困难。太小，容易导致永久代溢出，太大容易导致老年代溢出</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>永久代会为GC带来不必要的复杂性，并且回收效率较低。在永久代中，元数据可能会随着每一次Full GC发生而移动。HotSpot虚拟机中的每一种垃圾回收机制都需要特殊处理永久代中的元数据，分离出来之后可以简化Full GC以及对以后的并发隔离元数据方面进行优化</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>方便HotSpot与其他JVM如Jrockit的集成</p>\n<p>Oracle可能会将HotSpot和Jrockit合二为一，永久代是HotSpot JVM特有的，别的没有永久代这一说法。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>用元空间替代能较好解决上述四个问题。</p>\n<p>只需重点记住<strong>元空间和永久代之间的区别是元空间内存使用的等额的本机内存，并且元空间没有了字符串常量池(在JDK 7时已移动到堆中)。MetaSpace其他存储的东西，包括类文件在JVM运行时的数据结构以及class相关的内容(method,field)大体上与永久代一样，只是划分上更加合理。比如说，类及相关的元数据的生命周期与类加载器一致，每个加载器(ClassLoader)都会分配一个单独的存储空间。</strong></p>\n<h5 id=\"1-15-问题十五：什么是Java堆\">1.15 问题十五：什么是Java堆<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-15-问题十五：什么是Java堆\"></a></h5><p>Java堆(Heap)</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>对象实例的分配区域</p>\n<p>对于大多数应用来说，Java堆即Java Heap是Java虚拟机所管理的内存中最大的一块。Java堆是被所有的线程所共享的一块内存区域，在虚拟机启动时创建。此内存区域的唯一目的就是存放对象实例，几乎所有的对象实例都在这里分配内存。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573290863634.png\" alt=\"1573290863634\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>上图为32位处理器的Java进程的内存布局。从图中可以看出：可寻址的地址空间共有4GB，OS和C运行时大约占用其中1GB，JVM本身也需占用内存，Java堆占用了大约2GB，本机堆(native heap)则占用了剩余部分。根据Java虚拟机规范，Java虚拟机可以处于物理上不连续的内存空间中，只要逻辑上是连续的即可。既可实现成固定大小，也可以是可扩展的(主流的虚拟机都是按照可扩展实现的)。通过-Xmx,-Xms控制。若在堆中没有内存完成实例分配，且堆也无法再扩展时，将会抛出java.lang.OutOfMemoryError。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h5 id=\"找一下64位的！\"><strong>找一下64位的！</strong><a href=\"post/Java面试#找一下64位的！\"></a></h5><ul>\n<li><p>GC管理的主要区域</p>\n<p>Java堆也是GC管理的主要区域，因此也被称为GC堆。从内存回收的角度看，由于现在垃圾收集器基本都是采用分代收集算法，所以Java堆中还可细分为新生代和老年代。再细致分为</p>\n<ul>\n<li>Eden</li>\n<li>survivor：分为from survivor和to survivor</li>\n<li>tenured</li>\n</ul>\n<p>(详情见Java垃圾回收)</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573291641950.png\" alt=\"1573291641950\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h5 id=\"以下从存储的角度学习五个部分\">以下从存储的角度学习五个部分<a href=\"post/Java面试#以下从存储的角度学习五个部分\"></a></h5><h5 id=\"1-16-问题十六：JVM三大性能调优参数-Xms-Xmx-Xss的含义\">1.16 问题十六：JVM三大性能调优参数 -Xms -Xmx -Xss的含义<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-16-问题十六：JVM三大性能调优参数-Xms-Xmx-Xss的含义\"></a></h5><p>例：java -Xms128m -Xmx128m -Xss256k -jar xxxx.jar</p>\n<p>调用Java指令执行程序时，可以通过传入以上三个参数去调整Java的堆以及线程所占内存的大小。</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>-Xss：规定了每个线程虚拟机栈(堆栈)的大小</p>\n<p>一般情况下，256k足够。此配置会影响此进程中并发线程数的大小</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>-Xms：堆的初始值</p>\n<p>初始的Java堆的大小，即该进程刚创建时专属Java堆的大小，一旦对象容量超过了Java堆的初始容量，Java堆将会自动扩容，扩容至-Xmx大小</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>-Xmx：堆能达到的最大值</p>\n<p>Java堆能扩容的最大值。在很多情况下，将-Xms -Xmx设置成一样的。因为，当Heap不够用而发生扩容时，会发生内存抖动影响程序运行时的稳定性</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h5 id=\"1-17-问题十七：Java内存模型中堆和栈的区别\">1.17 问题十七：Java内存模型中堆和栈的区别<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-17-问题十七：Java内存模型中堆和栈的区别\"></a></h5><p>堆——堆</p>\n<p>栈——堆栈，本机虚拟机堆栈</p>\n<p>要先了解程序运行时的内存分配策略</p>\n<p>程序运行时有3种分配策略：静态、堆式、栈式</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>静态存储：编译时确定每个数据目标在运行时的存储空间需求，因而在编译时就可以给他们分配固定的内存空间。这种分配策略，要求程序代码中不允许有可变数据结构的存在，也不允许有嵌套或者递归的结构出现。因为它们都会导致程序无法计算准确的存储空间。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>栈式存储：数据区需求在编译时未知，运行时模块入口前确定</p>\n<p>该分配可称为动态的存储分配，是由一个类似于堆栈的运行栈实现的，和静态存储的分配方式相反，在栈式存储方案中，程序对数据区的要求在编译时未知，只有运行时才能知道。规定在运行中进入一个程序模块时必须知道该程序模块所需数据区的大小才能分配其内存。和数据结构中的栈一样，栈式存储按照先进后出的原则进行分配</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>堆式存储：编译时或运行时模块入口都无法确定，动态分配</p>\n<p>专门负责在编译时或运行时模块入口处都无法确定存储要求的数据结构的内存分配，比如可变长度串和对象实例。堆由大片的可利用块或空闲块组成，堆中的内存可按照任意顺序分配和释放</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>堆和栈的联系：创建好的数组和对象实例都会被保存在堆中，想要引用堆中的某个对象或者数组，想要在栈中定义一个变量，使其取值为数组或者对象在堆内存中的首地址。栈中的变量就成为数组或者对象的引用变量，以后就可以在程序中使用栈中的引用变量来访问堆中的数组或对象。引用变量是普通的变量，定义时在栈中分配，引用变量在程序运行到其作用域之外后就会被释放掉，而数组和对象本身在堆中分配，即使程序运行到使用new产生数组或对象的代码块之外，数组和对象占据的内存也不会被释放。只有在没有引用变量指向时，才会变为垃圾，需要等待随后的一个不确定时间被垃圾回收器释放掉。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573044786338.png\" alt=\"1573044786338\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>由图可知，在调用new Person()时，会在堆内存中创建出相关的对象实例，同时将其首地址赋值给p并保存在当前线程虚拟机栈内存中。通过获取变量p中保存的对象实例的地址，便能轻松调用到保存在堆的Person对象的实例</p>\n<p>区别：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>管理方式：栈自动释放，堆需要GC</p>\n<p>JVM自己可以针对内存栈进行管理操作，而且该内存空间的释放是编译器就可以操作的内容，而堆空间在Java中，JVM执行引擎不会对其进行释放操作，而是让垃圾回收器进行自动回收</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>空间大小：栈比堆小</p>\n<p>一般情况下，栈空间对于堆空间比较小。这是由栈空间里面存储的数据以及本身需要的数据特性决定的，而堆空间在JVM对实例进行分配时一般大小都比较大，因为堆空间在一个Java程序中需要存储比较多的Java对象数据</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>碎片相关：栈产生的碎片远小于堆</p>\n<p>针对堆空间而言，即使垃圾回收器能够进行自动堆内存回收，但是堆空间的活动量相对于栈空间而言比较大，很有可能存在长期的堆空间分配和释放操作。而且垃圾回收器不是实时的，可能使得堆空间的内存碎片逐渐累积起来。针对栈空间而言，因其本身就是一个栈的数据结构，操作都是一一对应的，并且每一个最小单位的结构栈帧和堆空间内复杂的内存结构不同，所以在使用过程中很少出现内存碎片</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>分配方式：栈支持静态和动态分配，而堆仅支持动态分配</p>\n<p>一般情况下，栈空间有两种分配方式：静态和动态分配。静态分配是本身由编译器分配好，而动态分配可能根据情况有所不同。堆空间确是完全的动态分配，是一个运行时级别的内存。而栈空间分配的内存不需要考虑释放的问题，堆空间在即使有垃圾回收器的前提下还是要考虑释放的问题</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>效率：栈的效率比堆高</p>\n<p>因为内存块本身的排列就是一个典型的堆栈结构，所以栈空间的效率比起堆空间要高很多，并且计算机底层内存空间本身使用了最基础的堆栈结构，使得栈空间和底层结构更加符合，使其操作也变得简单。只涉及到2个指令：入栈和出栈</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>栈空间针对堆空间而言的不足是灵活程度不够，特别是在动态管理时。而堆空间最大的优点在于动态分配。因为在计算机底层实现可能是一个双向链表的结构，所以在管理时操作比栈空间复杂很多，灵活度自然就高了，但是这样的设计使得堆空间的效率不如栈空间，并且低很多</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-18-问题十八：从存储角度，将堆、meta-space-元空间-以及线程独占的部分间的联系\">1.18 问题十八：从存储角度，将堆、meta space(元空间)以及线程独占的部分间的联系<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-18-问题十八：从存储角度，将堆、meta-space-元空间-以及线程独占的部分间的联系\"></a></h5><figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br><span class=\"line\">11</span><br><span class=\"line\">12</span><br><span class=\"line\">13</span><br><span class=\"line\">14</span><br><span class=\"line\">15</span><br><span class=\"line\">16</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">Hello</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">private</span> String name;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">sayHello</span><span class=\"params\">()</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(<span class=\"string\">\"Hello\"</span> + name);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">setName</span><span class=\"params\">(String name)</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">this</span>.name = name;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">main</span><span class=\"params\">(String[] args)</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">int</span> a = <span class=\"number\">1</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> Hello hello = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> Hello();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> hello.setName(<span class=\"string\">\"test\"</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> hello.sayHello();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>各部分存储情况如下：</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573048160827.png\" alt=\"1573048160827\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>当类被加载进来时，元空间保存Hello这个装载进来的class对象的信息以及Method(方法)：sayHello\\setName\\main以及name这个Field，额外的还有System这个类对象以及该类中的成员变量和方法。</p>\n<p>当Hello被创建时，堆中主要存储的是Hello这个类创建出的对象实例Objective以及String(“test”)实例</p>\n<p>当程序执行时，即main线程会分配对应的虚拟机栈、本地栈以及程序计数器。栈中存有String类型的引用参数，对应与堆中的”test”字符串Object对应的地址引用，以及本地变量hello保存堆中Hello Object的地址引用，以及局部变量a保存1的值以及系统自带的lineNumber行号用来记录代码的执行，以方便对程序进行追踪</p>\n<h5 id=\"1-19-问题十九：不同版本之间的intern-方法的区别\">1.19 问题十九：不同版本之间的intern()方法的区别<a href=\"post/Java面试#1-19-问题十九：不同版本之间的intern-方法的区别\"></a></h5><p>主要讨论JDK6和JDK6以上的版本</p>\n<p>intern方法在JDK6中仅会在常量池中添加字符串对象，JDK6+既可以向常量池中添加字符串对象，也可以添加字符串在堆中的引用</p>\n<p>intern()是字符串的一个方法</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\">String s = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> String(<span class=\"string\">\"a\"</span>).intern();</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p>JDK6:当调用intern方法时，如果字符串常量池先前已创建出该字符串对象，则返回池中该字符串的引用。否则，将此字符串对象添加到字符串常量池中，并且返回该字符串对象引用。</p>\n<p>JDK6+：当调用intern方法时，如果字符串常量池先前已创建出该字符串对象，则返回池中该字符串的引用。否则，如果该字符串对象已经存在于Java堆中，则将堆中对此对象的引用添加到字符串常量池中，并且返回该引用(与堆中地址相同)；如果堆中不存在，则在池中创建该字符串并返回其引用。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573050042052.png\" alt=\"1573050042052\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>Java7之后，方法区中的字符串常量池移动到Java堆中。主要原因：先前字符串常量池存在于永久代中，而永久代的内存极为有限，若频繁调用intern在池中创建字符串会使得字符串常量池被挤爆进而引发java.lang.OutOfMemoryError:PermGen space(永久代发生的异常)。JDK7之后将常量池移出永久代到Java堆中上述异常就会避免</p>\n<h4 id=\"2-GC考点\">2. GC考点<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-GC考点\"></a></h4><p><strong>Java虚拟机的作用(误，视频中没有自己瞎编)可以归结为自动化解决了两个问题。</strong></p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>对象内存分配的问题</strong></li>\n<li><strong>回收分配给对象的内存的问题</strong></li>\n</ol>\n<p><strong>提高码农效率的垃圾回收机制，正因存在此机制，编写代码时才不必担心对象内存的释放问题，将其交由JVM管理</strong></p>\n<h5 id=\"2-1-对象被定义为垃圾的标准\">2.1 对象被定义为垃圾的标准<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-1-对象被定义为垃圾的标准\"></a></h5><ul>\n<li><p>没有被其他对象引用</p>\n<p>当没有被其他对象引用时，该对象就是没用的，对应系统而言就是垃圾，其占据的内存就会被释放，同时此对象也会被销毁。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h5 id=\"2-2-判定对象是否为垃圾的算法\">2.2 判定对象是否为垃圾的算法<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-2-判定对象是否为垃圾的算法\"></a></h5><h6 id=\"2-2-1-引用计数算法\">2.2.1 引用计数算法<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-2-1-引用计数算法\"></a></h6><p><strong>通过判断对象的引用数量来决定对象是否可以被回收</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>通过判断对象的引用数量来决定对象是否可以被回收</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>每个对象实例都有一个引用计数器，被引用则+1，完成引用则-1</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>何引用计数为0的对象实例都可以被当做垃圾收集</p>\n<p>对于引用计数算法，<strong>通过判断对象的引用数量来决定对象是否可以被回收</strong>。在这种机制下，堆中的每个对象实例都有一个引用计数器，当一个对象被创建时，若该对象实例分配给一个引用变量，则+1。当该对象实例的某个引用超过了生命周期或被设置为新值时(表示引用完成)，该对象实例的引用计数器-1。任何引用计数为0的对象实例都可以被当做垃圾收集。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>经过引用计数算法的判断后，当引用计数变为0时，对象就被视为垃圾。</p>\n<p><strong>优点：执行效率高，程序执行受影响较小</strong></p>\n<p>优势是可以很快执行。因为只需过滤出引用计数器为0的对象，将其内存回收即可，可以交织在程序中。由于垃圾回收的时候可以做到几乎不打断程序的执行，因此对程序需要不被长时间打断的实施环境有利。</p>\n<p><strong>缺点：无法检测出循环引用的情况，导致内存泄漏</strong></p>\n<p>由于实现过于简单，容易出现无法检测出循环引用的情况(如父对象对子对象有一个引用，子对象又反过来引用父对象，这样的引用永远不可能为0)</p>\n<p><strong>由于上述缺点，JVM采用可达性分析算法作为垃圾回收算法</strong></p>\n<h6 id=\"2-2-2-可达性分析算法\">2.2.2 可达性分析算法<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-2-2-可达性分析算法\"></a></h6><p><strong>通过判断对象的引用链是否可达来决定对象是否可以被回收</strong></p>\n<p>从离散数学图论中引出，程序将所有引用关系看作一张图，通过一系列名为GC root对象作为起始点，从这些节点开始向下搜索，搜索所走过的路径就被称为引用链(即reference chain)，当一个对象从GC root没有任何引用链相连，从图论上来说即为从GC root到该对象不可达，从而证明该对象不可用，从而被标记为垃圾。</p>\n<p>垃圾回收器会对内存中的整个对象图进行遍历，从GC根(GC root)开始访问，根对象引用的其他对象，回收器将访问到的所有对象标为可达，剩下的即为GC root不可达的对象，也意味着这些对象不会被用到，为垃圾对象。回收器会在接下来的阶段中清除这些对象。</p>\n<p><strong>可以作为GC root的对象：</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><p><strong>虚拟机栈中引用的对象(栈帧中的本地变量表中引用的对象)</strong></p>\n<p>比如说在Java方法中new了一个Object并赋值给了一个局部变量，那么在该局部变量未被销毁之前new出的Object就是GC root</p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>方法区中的常量引用对象</strong></p>\n<p>比如在类中定义一个常量，而该常量保存的是某个对象的地址，那么被保存的对象也成为GC的根对象</p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>方法区中的类静态属性引用的对象</strong></p>\n<p>同第二种情况</p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>本地方法栈中的JNI(Native方法)的引用对象</strong></p>\n<p>调用native方法即被引用的通过非Java语言构建的对象也可以成为GC root</p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>活跃线程的引用对象</strong></p>\n<p>Java万物皆为对象，因此活跃的线程也会成为GC root，只要线程还处于活跃状态。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h5 id=\"2-3-问题一：谈谈你了解的垃圾回收算法\">2.3 问题一：谈谈你了解的垃圾回收算法<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-3-问题一：谈谈你了解的垃圾回收算法\"></a></h5><h6 id=\"2-3-1-标记-清除算法-Mark-and-Sweep\">2.3.1.标记-清除算法(Mark and Sweep)<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-3-1-标记-清除算法-Mark-and-Sweep\"></a></h6><p>将回收分为两个阶段：</p>\n<p><strong>标记：从根集合进行扫描，对存活的对象进行标记(可达性算法)</strong></p>\n<p><strong>清除：对堆内存从头到尾进行线性遍历，回收不可达对象内存</strong></p>\n<p>该算法首先从根集合进行扫描，对存活的对象进行标记。使用可达性算法找到垃圾对象，标记完毕后会对堆内存从头到尾进行线性遍历，如果发现有对象未被标识为可达对象(即为不可达对象/垃圾对象)，就会对此对象占用的内存回收掉并且将原来标记为可达的对象的标识清除掉，以便进行下一次垃圾回收</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573306888282.png\" alt=\"1573306888282\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>如图所示，Mark阶段，BEFGJK均为可达对象，Sweep阶段，ACDHI都被回收掉了。</p>\n<p><strong>不足：碎片化</strong></p>\n<p>由于标记-清除算法不需要对象的移动，并且仅对不存活的对象进行处理。因此，标记-清除之后会产生大量不连续的内存碎片，空间碎片太多可能会导致之后程序在运行过程中需要分配较大对象时无法找到足够的内存而不得不提前触发另一次垃圾回收工作。</p>\n<h6 id=\"2-3-2-复制算法-Coping\">2.3.2 复制算法(Coping)<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-3-2-复制算法-Coping\"></a></h6><ul>\n<li>分为对象面和空闲面</li>\n<li>对象在对象面上创建</li>\n<li>存活的对象被从对象面复制到空闲面</li>\n<li>将对象面所有对象内存清除</li>\n</ul>\n<p>复制算法将可用的内存按容量按一定比例划分为两块或多块，并选择其中一块或两块作为对象面，其他的作为空闲面。对象主要在对象面上创建，当被定义为对象面的块的内存用完时，将还存活着的对象复制到其中一块空闲面，再将已使用过的内存空间一次清理掉。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573308138138.png\" alt=\"1573308138138\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p><strong>适用对象存活率低的场景(年轻代)</strong></p>\n<p>这样，内存分配时就不用考虑内存碎片等复杂情况</p>\n<p><strong>优点：</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><p><strong>解决碎片化问题</strong></p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>顺序分配内存，简单高效</strong></p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>适用于对象存活率低的场景</strong></p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>回收年轻代</strong></p>\n<p>研究证明，年轻代用到的对象每次回收都基本只有10%的对象存活，需要复制的对象很少，因此使用此种算法的效率还不错。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p><strong>缺点：不适用对象存活率高的场景</strong></p>\n<h6 id=\"2-3-3-标记-整理算法-Compacting\">2.3.3 标记-整理算法(Compacting)<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-3-3-标记-整理算法-Compacting\"></a></h6><p><strong>适合老年代</strong></p>\n<p>采用和标记-清除算法类似的方式：</p>\n<p><strong>标记：从根集合进行扫描，对存活的对象进行标记(可达性算法)</strong></p>\n<p><strong>清除：移动所有存活的对象，且按照内存地址次序依次排列，如何将末端内存地址以后的内存全部回收</strong></p>\n<p>在标记-清除算法的基础上进行了对象的移动，因此成本更高，但解决了内存碎片的问题。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573353882049.png\" alt=\"1573353882049\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>先通过可达性算法确定存活对象和可回收的对象，回收时先将存活的对象压缩到内存的一端，再将除此之外的所有内存空间清除 。</p>\n<p><strong>优点：</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>避免内存的不连续行</strong></li>\n<li><strong>不用设置两块内存互换</strong></li>\n<li><strong>适用于存活率高的场景(老年代的回收)</strong></li>\n</ul>\n<h6 id=\"2-3-4-分代收集算法-Generation-Collector\">2.3.4 分代收集算法(Generation Collector)<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-3-4-分代收集算法-Generation-Collector\"></a></h6><p>主流垃圾回收算法</p>\n<ul>\n<li>垃圾回收算法的组合拳</li>\n<li>按照对象生命周期的不同划分区域采用不同的垃圾回收算法</li>\n<li>目的：提高JVM的回收效率</li>\n</ul>\n<p>分代收集算法将堆内存进一步划分，不同对象的生命周期及存活情况是不一样的。将不同生命周期的对象分配到堆中不同的区并对堆内存不同区域采用不同的回收策略，可以提高JVM垃圾回收的效率。</p>\n<p>JDK 7及之前，堆内存一般分为年轻代、老年代和永久代。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573467559221.png\" alt=\"1573467559221\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>JDK 8及以后，取消了永久代。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573467607068.png\" alt=\"1573467607068\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p><strong>年轻代的对象存活率低，采用复制算法。</strong></p>\n<p><strong>老年代的对象存活率高，采用标记-清除算法/标记-整理算法。</strong></p>\n<p>分代收集算法的GC的分类：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>Minor GC</p>\n<p>是发生在年轻代中的垃圾收集动作，采用复制算法。年轻代几乎是所有Java对象出生的地方，即Java对象申请的内存及存放都在年轻代。Java中的大部分对象通常不需要长久的存活，具有朝生夕灭的特性，当一个对象被判定为死亡时，GC就有责任回收掉这部分对象的内存空间。新生代是GC收集垃圾的频繁区域。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>Full GC</p>\n<p>与老年代相关。由于对于老年代的回收一般伴随着年轻代的收集，因此称为Full GC。(下节讲)</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p><strong>年轻代：尽可能快速地收集掉那些生命周期短的对象</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>Eden区</p>\n<p>对象刚被创建时，其内存空间首先被分配到Eden区。若Eden区放不下，新创建的对象也可能会被放到Survivor区甚至是老年代中。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>两个Survivor区</p>\n<p>被定义为from区和to区(不固定，会随着垃圾回收的进行而相互转换)</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>年轻代的目标就是尽可能快速地收集掉那些生命周期短的对象，一般情况下，新生成的对象首先都是放在年轻代中。年轻代的内存一般按照8:1:1的默认比例分为一个Eden区和两个Survivor区。绝大部分对象在Eden区中生成。年轻代中的对象大部分都是朝生夕死的，所以无需按照1:1:1的比例划分内存空间。而是将年轻代内存分为一个较大的Eden区和两块较小的Survivor区。每次使用Eden和其中一块Survivor区，当进行垃圾回收时，将Eden和使用着的Survivor区中存活着的对象一次性复制到还未使用的Survivor中，最后清理掉Eden和使用的Survivor区。当Survivor区不够用时，则需依赖老年代进行分配担保。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573468613656.png\" alt=\"1573468613656\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>年轻代垃圾回收的过程演示：7-2的6‘40s处</p>\n<p>对象在Survivor区每熬过因此Minor GC，其年龄就会被+1。当对象的年龄达到某一值时(默认为15，可以通过参数-XX:MaxTenuringThreshold修改)，就会成为老年代。但也不是一定的，对于一些较大的对象(即需要分配一块较大的连续内存空间的对象)，Eden区和Survivor区装不下的对象，就会进入老年代。Minor GC采用复制算法，使得进行内存分配时无需考虑内存碎片这种复杂情况，只需移动堆顶指针按顺序分配即可，在回收时一次性将某个区清空，简单高效粗暴。</p>\n<p><strong>对象如何晋升到老年代：</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>经历一定的Minor次数依然存活的对象</p>\n<p>对象在新生代每经历一次Minor GC依然存活则年龄+1，当年龄超过一定限制就会放入老年代</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>Survivor区中存放不下的对象</p>\n<p>Survivor区或Eden区中放不下的对象会直接进入老年代。对象优先在Eden中分配，当Eden中没有足够空间分配时会触发一次Minor GC，每次Minor GC结束后，Eden区便会被清空，将Eden区中的内容复制到Survivor区，当Survivor区中放不下时则由分配担保进入老年代中</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>新生成的大对象(-XX:+PretenuerSizeThreshold)</p>\n<p>直接进入老年代中，可通过上述参数控制大对象的大小，超过size立马放入老年代中。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>可以像设置永久代参数一样传入参数调整</p>\n<p><strong>常用的调优参数：</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li>-XX:SurvivorRatio：Eden和其中一个Survivor的比值，默认为8:1</li>\n<li>-XX:NewRatio：老年代和年轻代内存大小的比例。若比例为2，则代表老年代的内存大小是年轻代的2倍。而老年代和年轻代内存大小总和是由-xmx和-xms决定的</li>\n<li>-XX:MaxTenuringThreshold：对象从年轻代晋升到老年代经过GC次数的最大阈值</li>\n</ul>\n<p><strong>老年代：存放生命周期较长的对象</strong></p>\n<p>老年代的内存要比年轻代大得多，大约为2:1。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573471335129.png\" alt=\"1573471335129\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>原因：老年代对象存活率较高，且没有额外空间进行分配担保。</p>\n<p>当触发老年代的垃圾回收时，通常会伴随着年轻代堆内存的回收(即对整个堆进行垃圾回收，所以称为Full GC)</p>\n<p>Major GC和Full GC是等价的，即收集整个GC堆。HotSpot发展多年，外界对各种名词的解读混乱，提及Major GC时，一定要确认是Full GC还是仅仅针对老年代的GC</p>\n<p>Full GC的速度比Minor GC慢得多，一般慢10倍以上，但是执行频率低。</p>\n<p><strong>触发Full GC的条件：</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><p><strong>老年代空间不足</strong></p>\n<p>创建一个新对象，Eden区中放不下会直接保存在老年代中，若老年代空间也不足，就会触发Full GC。避免：不要创建太大的对象</p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>永久代空间不足</strong></p>\n</li>\n<li><p>仅针对JDK 7及以前的版本，当系统中需要加载的类，调用的方法很多同时永久代中没有足够的空间存放类信息和方法信息时，就会触发一次Full GC。JDK 8及以后取消永久代改用元空间代替，降低了Full GC的频率，减少GC的负担，提升其效率(使用元空间替代永久代的目的)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>调用System.gc()</strong></p>\n<p>程序中直接调用System.gc()方法，就会显式直接触发Full GC，同时对老年代和年轻代进行回收。<strong>注意：只是提醒虚拟机在此回收一下，但最后是否回收还是由虚拟机决定。即程序员对是否回收没有控制权</strong></p>\n</li>\n<li><p>CMS GC时出现promotion failed和concurrent mode failure</p>\n<p>对于采用CMS进行老年代GC的程序而言，尤其要注意GC日志中是否有promotion failed和concurrent mode failure这两种情况，当这两种情况出现时会触发Full GC。promotion failed是在进行Minor GC时Survivor区放不下，对象只能放入老年代，而此时老年代也放不下就会造成promotion failed。concurrent mode failure是在执行CMS GC的同时有对象要放入老年代中，而此时老年代空间不足就会造成该情况。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>Minor GC晋升到老年代的平均大小大于老年代的剩余空间</p>\n<p>统计得到的Minor GC晋升到老年代的平均大小大于老年代的剩余空间。这是一种非常复杂的触发情况。HotSpot为了避免由于年轻代对象晋升到老年代导致老年代空间不足的现象，在进行Minor GC时作了一个判断，若之前统计所得的Minor GC晋升到老年代的平均大小大于老年代的剩余空间，就直接触发Full GC</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>使用RMI(远程控制方式)来进行RPC或管理的JDK应用，默认每小时执行1次Full GC</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h5 id=\"2-4-GC的优化\">2.4 GC的优化<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-4-GC的优化\"></a></h5><h6 id=\"2-4-1-Stop-the-World\">2.4.1 Stop-the-World<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-4-1-Stop-the-World\"></a></h6><ul>\n<li>JVM由于要执行GC而停止了应用程序的执行</li>\n<li>任何一种GC算法中都会发生</li>\n<li>大多数的GC优化就是指减少Stop-the-World发生的时间来提高程序性能</li>\n</ul>\n<p>Stop-the-World意味着JVM由于要执行GC而停止了应用程序的执行，并且会发生在任何一种GC算法中。当Stop-the-World发生时，除了GC所处的线程外，所有线程均处于等待状态直到GC任务完成。事实上，GC优化就是指减少Stop-the-World发生的时间从而使系统具有高吞吐低停顿的特点。</p>\n<h6 id=\"2-4-2-Safepoint\">2.4.2 Safepoint<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-4-2-Safepoint\"></a></h6><p>垃圾收集中的安全点(Safepoint)。</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>分析过程中对象引用关系不会发生变化的点</p>\n<p>在可达性分析中要分析哪个对象没有被引用时需在一个快照(听不清)的状态点进行，在该点处，所有的线程都被冻结，不可以出现分析过程中对象引用关系还在不停变换的情况，因此分析结果需要在某个节点具有确定性，该节点便被叫做安全点。程序不是在顺便哪个点就停下来，而是达到安全点才会停顿下来。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>产生安全点的地方：方法调用、循环跳转、异常跳转等。</p>\n<p>产生安全点的地方：方法调用、循环跳转、异常跳转等才会产生安全点。 一旦GC发生，让所有的线程都跑到最近的安全点再停顿下来。若发现线程不在安全点，就恢复线程等其跑到安全点再说。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>安全点的数量适中。安全点的选择既不能太少也不能太多。太少会让GC等待时间长，太多会增加程序运行负荷。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h6 id=\"2-4-3-系统吞吐量\">2.4.3 系统吞吐量<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-4-3-系统吞吐量\"></a></h6><p>吞吐量=运行用户代码时间/(运行用户代码时间+垃圾收集时间)</p>\n<p>即CPU运行用户代码时间与CPU总消耗时间的比值</p>\n<h5 id=\"2-5-常见的垃圾收集器\">2.5 常见的垃圾收集器<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-5-常见的垃圾收集器\"></a></h5><h6 id=\"2-5-1-JVM的运行模式\">2.5.1 JVM的运行模式<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-5-1-JVM的运行模式\"></a></h6><ul>\n<li>Server</li>\n<li>Client</li>\n</ul>\n<p>两种模式的区别：Client启动较快，Server启动较慢。但是启动进入长期运行之后，Server模式的程序运行速度比Client快。因为Server模式启动的JVM是采用的是重量级的虚拟机，对程序采用了更多的优化，而Client模式启动的JVM采用的是轻量级的虚拟机，所以Server启动慢但稳定运行后速度快。</p>\n<p>查询当前JVM运行模式：java -version</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573479512404.png\" alt=\"1573479512404\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<h6 id=\"2-5-2常见的垃圾收集器\">2.5.2常见的垃圾收集器<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-5-2常见的垃圾收集器\"></a></h6><p>垃圾收集器是和具体JVM实现紧密相关</p>\n<p>垃圾收集器之间的联系</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573479725167.png\" alt=\"1573479725167\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>(有连线表明可搭配使用)</p>\n<p><strong>CMS与Parallel Scavenge收集器不兼容的原因：因为Parallel Scavenge(和G1)都未使用传统的GC收集器框架，而是另外的独立实现。其他收集器共用部分框架，因此兼容。</strong></p>\n<h6 id=\"2-5-3-年轻代常见的垃圾收集器\">2.5.3 年轻代常见的垃圾收集器<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-5-3-年轻代常见的垃圾收集器\"></a></h6><ul>\n<li><p>Serial收集器(-XX:+UseSerialGC，复制算法)</p>\n<ul>\n<li>单线程收集，进行垃圾收集时，必须暂停所有工作线程</li>\n<li>简单高效，CLient模式下默认的年轻代收集器</li>\n</ul>\n<p>在程序启动时通过设置-XX:+UseSerialGC使得年轻代使用该垃圾收集器回收。Serial收集器是Java虚拟机中最基本、历史最悠久的收集器。JDK1.3.1之前是Java虚拟机年轻代收集的唯一选择。Serial收集器是采用复制算法的单线程的垃圾收集器。但它单线程的意义并不只是说明它只使用一个CPU或者一条收集线程去完成垃圾收集工作，更重要的是进行垃圾收集时必须暂停其他所有的工作线程直到它收集结束。到目前为止，Serial收集器依然是虚拟机运行在Client模式下的默认年轻代收集器(因为它的简单高效)</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573480545958.png\" alt=\"1573480545958\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>用户(桌面?听不清)应用场景中分配给虚拟机管理的内存一般不会很大，收集几十兆甚至一两百兆的年轻代停顿时间在几十毫秒到最大一百毫秒之间，只要不是频繁的发生，这些停顿是完全可以接受的</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>ParNew收集器(-XX:+UseParNewGC，复制算法)</p>\n<ul>\n<li>多线程收集，其他行为特点同Serial收集器一样</li>\n<li>单核执行效率不如Serial，在多核下执行才有优势</li>\n</ul>\n<p>在程序启动时通过设置-XX:+UseParNewGC使得年轻代使用该垃圾收集器回收。除了多线程收集，其他行为特点同Serial收集器一样。是Server模式下首选的年轻代收集器，在单个CPU环境中不会比Serial收集器有更好的效果。因为存在线程交互开销，随着可用CPU数量的增加，对于GC池系统资源的有效利用还是由好处的。默认开启的收集线程数与CPU数量相同。在CPU数量非常多的情况下可以使用一个叫做<strong>-XX:ParallelGCThreads</strong>的参数来限制垃圾收集的线程数。在Server模式下ParNew收集器是一个非常重要的收集器，因为除Serial外目前只有它可以和CMS收集器配合工作。它使用的也是复制算法。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573481230113.png\" alt=\"1573481230113\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>(参考博客：<a href=\"https://blog.csdn.net/wxy941011/article/details/80653738\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https://blog.csdn.net/wxy941011/article/details/80653738</a>)</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>Parallel Scavenge收集器(-XX:+UseParallelGC，复制算法)</p>\n<ul>\n<li>比起ParNew收集器关注用户线程停顿时间，更关注系统的吞吐量</li>\n<li>在多核执行下才有优势，Server模式下默认的年轻代收集器</li>\n</ul>\n<p>在程序启动时通过设置-XX:+UseParallelGC使得年轻代使用该垃圾收集器回收。Parallel Scavenge收集器与ParNew收集器类似，也采用复制算法和多线程进行垃圾回收，但是相较更关注系统的吞吐量(ParNew收集器关注用户线程停顿时间，停顿时间短适合于用户交互的程序，良好的响应速度能提升用户体验)。高吞吐量就可以高效利用CPU时间，尽可能快地完成任务。主要适合在后台运算而不需要太多交互任务的情况。Parallel Scavenge收集器是虚拟机运行在Server模式下默认的年轻代收集器</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573482027240.png\" alt=\"1573482027240\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p> 若对垃圾收集器运作原理不了解，以至于在优化过程中遇到困难时，可以使用Parallel Scavenge收集器配合自适应调节策略，以及在启动参数中添加-XX:+UseAdaptiveSizePolicy这个参数，会将内存管理的调优任务交给虚拟机完成</p>\n<h6 id=\"2-5-4-常见的老年代的收集器\">2.5.4 常见的老年代的收集器<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-5-4-常见的老年代的收集器\"></a></h6><p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573479725167.png\" alt=\"1573479725167\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>Serial Old收集器(-XX:+UseSerialOldGC，标记-整理算法)</p>\n<ul>\n<li>单线程收集，进行垃圾收集时，必须暂停所有工作线程</li>\n<li>简单高效，CLient模式下默认的老年代收集器</li>\n</ul>\n<p>在程序启动时通过设置-XX:+UseSerialOldGC使得老年代使用该垃圾收集器回收。是Serial收集器的老年版本，同样也是单线程的，使用标记-整理算法。除了采用的算法不是复制算法外，其他特点和年轻代中的Serial收集器一样</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573518120959.png\" alt=\"1573518120959\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n</li>\n<li><p>Parallel Old收集器(-XX:+UseParallelOldGC，标记-整理算法)</p>\n<ul>\n<li>多线程，吞吐量优先</li>\n</ul>\n<p>在程序启动时通过设置-XX:UseParallelOldGC使得老年代使用该垃圾收集器回收。该收集器使用多线程的标记-整理算法去收集。在注重吞吐量及CPU资源敏感的场合都可以优先考虑Parallel Scavenge收集器+Parallel Old收集器。</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573518099869.png\" alt=\"1573518099869\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n</li>\n<li><p>CMS收集器(-XX:+UseConcMarkSweepGC，标记-清除算法)</p>\n<p>占据JVM老年代垃圾收集器的半壁江山，划时代的意义就是垃圾回收线程几乎能与用户线程做到同时工作。”几乎”是因为还是不能做到完全不需要stop-the-world，只是尽可能地缩短了停顿时间。若应用程序对停顿较为敏感并且在应用程序运行时可以提供更大的内存和更多的CPU(即更好的硬件)，那么使用CMS收集器会给你带来好处。若在JVM中有相对较多、存活较长的对象，会更适合使用CMS。</p>\n<p>垃圾回收过程：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>初始标记：stop-the-world</p>\n<p>在该阶段中需要虚拟机停顿正在执行的任务，该过程从垃圾回收的根对象开始，一直扫描到能够和根对象直接关联的对象并做标记。因此，虽然暂停了整个JVM，但很快就完成了。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>并发标记：并发追溯标记，程序不会停顿</p>\n<p>该阶段紧随初始阶段，在初始标记的基础上继续向下追溯标记。并发标记阶段，应用程序的线程和并发标记的线程并发执行，所以用户不会感觉到停顿。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>并发预清理：查找执行并发标记阶段从年轻代晋升到老年代的对象</p>\n<p>并发预清理阶段虚拟机查找执行并发标记阶段从年轻代晋升到老年代的对象，通过重新扫描减少下一阶段重新标记的工作(下一阶段会stop-the-world)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>重新标记：暂停虚拟机，扫描CMS堆中的剩余对象</p>\n<p>这个阶段暂停虚拟机，垃圾收集(垃圾回收)线程扫描CMS堆中的剩余对象。扫描从根对象开始，向下追溯，并处理对象之间的关联(会相对较慢)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>并发清理：清理垃圾对象，程序不会停顿</p>\n<p>清理垃圾对象，该阶段收集线程和应用程序线程并发执行</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>并发重置：重置CMS收集器的数据结构</p>\n<p>该阶段重置CMS收集器的数据结构，等待下一次垃圾回收</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>六个阶段中只有初始标记和重新标记是需要stop-the-world。</p>\n<p>并发标记的过程实际上就是和用户线程同时工作，即一边丢垃圾，一边打扫，这样就会带来一个问题：若垃圾的产生在标记后发生，那么这次垃圾就要等到下次再回收。等到垃圾标记过后，不会和用户线程产生冲突，而清理过程就能和用户线程同时处理</p>\n<p><strong>此垃圾收集器的缺点：采用标记-清除算法，即不会压缩存活的对象，会带来内存空间碎片化的问题。若出现需要分配一个连续且较大的内存空间，则只能触发一次GC</strong></p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573518360171.png\" alt=\"1573518360171\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<h6 id=\"2-5-5-G1收集器\">2.5.5 G1收集器<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-5-5-G1收集器\"></a></h6><p>G1收集器(-XX:+UseG1GC，复制+标记-整理算法)</p>\n<p>既用于年轻代，也用于老年代</p>\n<p>Garbage First收集器的特点：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>并发和并行</p>\n<p>使用多个CPU来缩短stop-the-world的时间，与用户线程并发执行</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>分代收集</p>\n<p>独立管理整个堆，但是采用不同的方式处理新创建的对象(年轻代，采用复制算法)和已经存活一段时间的对象(老年代，采用标记-整理算法)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>空间整合</p>\n<p>基于标记-整理算法，解决了内存碎片的问题</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>可预测的停顿</p>\n<p>能建立可预测的停顿时间模型，能让使用者明确指定在一个长度为m毫秒的时间片段内消耗在垃圾收集上的时间不超过n毫秒(通过设置)。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>Garbage First收集器：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>将整个Java堆内存划分为多个大小相等的Region</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>年轻代和老年代不再物理隔离</p>\n<p>Garbage First收集器将整个Java堆内存划分为多个大小相等的独立区域Region。虽然仍保留新生代和老年代的概念，但年轻代和老年代不再物理隔离，都是一部分可以是不连续的Region的集合，也意味着分配空间时，不需要一个连续内存空间即不需要在JVM启动时决定哪些Region属于老年代哪些属于年轻代。因为随着时间推移，年轻代Region被回收以后就会变为可用状态，这时可以将其分配为老年代。G1收集器是并行stop-the-world收集器，和其他HotSpot GC一样，当一个年轻代GC发生时，整个年轻代都会被回收。G1收集器的老年代不同，在老年代不需要整个老年代进行回收，有一部分Region被调用，G1收集器的年轻代由Eden Region和Survivor Region组成，当一个JVM分配Eden Region失败后就会触发一个年轻代回收，意味着Eden区满了，GC开始释放空间。第一个年轻代收集器会移动所有的重组对象从Eden Region到Survivor Region。这就是Copy出Survivor的过程。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573518577568.png\" alt=\"1573518577568\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<h5 id=\"2-6-GC相关面试题\">2.6 GC相关面试题<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-6-GC相关面试题\"></a></h5><h6 id=\"2-6-1-Object的finalize-方法的作用是否与C-的析构函数作用相同\">2.6.1 Object的finalize()方法的作用是否与C++的析构函数作用相同<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-6-1-Object的finalize-方法的作用是否与C-的析构函数作用相同\"></a></h6><ul>\n<li><p>与C++的析构函数不同，析构函数调用确定，而它的是不确定的</p>\n<p>C++的析构函数调用时机是确定的，在对象离开作用域后，Java中的finalize()方法具有不确定性</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>将未被引用的对象置于F-Queue队列</p>\n<p>当垃圾回收器宣告一个对象死亡时，至少经过两次的标记过程。如果对象在进行可达性分析后发现没有和GC root相连的引用链就会被第一次标记，并且判断是否执行finalize()方法。如果对象覆盖finalize()方法且未被引用过，该对象就会被放置在F-Queue队列并在稍后由一个虚拟机自动建立的低优先级的finalize线程去执行触发finalize()方法</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>方法执行随时可能会被终止</p>\n<p>由于优先级较低，触发该方法后，不承诺等待其运行结束(即方法执行随时可能被终止)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>给予对象最后一次重生的机会</p>\n<p>finalize()方法的作用是为对象创造最后一次逃脱死亡的机会。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>如何使用finalize()方法：</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br><span class=\"line\">4</span><br><span class=\"line\">5</span><br><span class=\"line\">6</span><br><span class=\"line\">7</span><br><span class=\"line\">8</span><br><span class=\"line\">9</span><br><span class=\"line\">10</span><br><span class=\"line\">11</span><br><span class=\"line\">12</span><br><span class=\"line\">13</span><br><span class=\"line\">14</span><br><span class=\"line\">15</span><br><span class=\"line\">16</span><br><span class=\"line\">17</span><br><span class=\"line\">18</span><br><span class=\"line\">19</span><br><span class=\"line\">20</span><br><span class=\"line\">21</span><br><span class=\"line\">22</span><br><span class=\"line\">23</span><br><span class=\"line\">24</span><br><span class=\"line\">25</span><br><span class=\"line\">26</span><br><span class=\"line\">27</span><br><span class=\"line\">28</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"class\"><span class=\"keyword\">class</span> <span class=\"title\">Finalization</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> Finalization finalization;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"meta\">@Override</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">protected</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">finalize</span><span class=\"params\">()</span></span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(<span class=\"string\">\"Finalized\"</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> finalization = <span class=\"keyword\">this</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"function\"><span class=\"keyword\">public</span> <span class=\"keyword\">static</span> <span class=\"keyword\">void</span> <span class=\"title\">main</span><span class=\"params\">(String[] args)</span> </span>{</span><br><span class=\"line\"> Finalization f = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> Finalization();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(<span class=\"string\">\"First print: \"</span> + f);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> f = <span class=\"keyword\">null</span>;</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.gc();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> <span class=\"keyword\">try</span>{<span class=\"comment\">//休息一段时间让上面的垃圾回收线程执行完成</span></span><br><span class=\"line\"> Thread.currentThread().sleep(<span class=\"number\">1000</span>);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> } <span class=\"keyword\">catch</span> (InterruptedException e) {</span><br><span class=\"line\"> e.printStackTrace();</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(<span class=\"string\">\"Second print: \"</span> + f);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> System.out.println(f.finalization);</span><br><span class=\"line\"> }</span><br><span class=\"line\">}</span><br><span class=\"line\"></span><br><span class=\"line\"><span class=\"comment\">//Out:</span></span><br><span class=\"line\">First print: GC.Finalization@<span class=\"number\">74</span>a14482</span><br><span class=\"line\">Finalized</span><br><span class=\"line\">Second print: <span class=\"keyword\">null</span></span><br><span class=\"line\">GC.Finalization@<span class=\"number\">74</span>a14482</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n<p><strong>由于finalize()方法运行的不确定性较大，无法保证各对象的调用顺序，同时运行代价也高昂因此不建议使用</strong></p>\n<h6 id=\"2-6-2-Java中的强引用，软引用，弱引用，虚引用\">2.6.2 Java中的强引用，软引用，弱引用，虚引用<a href=\"post/Java面试#2-6-2-Java中的强引用，软引用，弱引用，虚引用\"></a></h6><p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573561582559.png\" alt=\"1573561582559\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>强引用>软引用>弱引用>虚引用</p>\n<div class=\"article-bounded\"><div class=\"article-table\"><table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th align=\"center\">引用类型</th>\n<th>被垃圾回收时间</th>\n<th>用途</th>\n<th>生存时间</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody><tr>\n<td align=\"center\">强引用</td>\n<td>从来不会</td>\n<td>创建对象的一般状态</td>\n<td>JVM停止运行时终止</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">软引用</td>\n<td>在内存不足时</td>\n<td>对象缓存</td>\n<td>内存不足时终止</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">弱引用</td>\n<td>在垃圾回收时</td>\n<td>对象缓存</td>\n<td>GC运行后终止</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td align=\"center\">虚引用</td>\n<td>Unknown</td>\n<td>标记、哨兵</td>\n<td>Unknown</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody></table></div></div>\n<ul>\n<li><p>强引用(Strong Reference)</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>最普遍的引用：Object obj = new Object();</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>使用强引用，当内存空间不足时，JVM即使抛出OutOfMemoryError终止程序也不会回收具有强引用的对象</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>通过将对象设置为null来弱化引用(或等其超出对象生命周期范围)，使其被回收 </p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li><p>软引用(Soft Reference)</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>对象处在有用但非必须的状态</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>只有当内存空间不足时，GC会回收该引用的对象的内存</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>可以用来实现内存敏感的高速缓存(就无需担心OutOfMemoryError问题。因为软引用会在内存不足时回收同时由于一般情况下内存空间充足，相关对象会一直存在便于复用)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>用法：</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\">String str = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> String(<span class=\"string\">\"abc\"</span>);<span class=\"comment\">//强引用</span></span><br><span class=\"line\">SoftReference<String> softRef = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> SoftReference<String>(str);<span class=\"comment\">//软引用</span></span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<pre><code>**还可配合引用队列使用**</code></pre><ul>\n<li><p>弱引用(Weak Reference)</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>非必须的对象，比软引用更弱一些</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>GC时会被回收</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>被回收的概率不大，因为GC线程的优先级较低</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>适用于引用偶然被使用且不影响垃圾收集的对象</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>用法：</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\">String str = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> String(<span class=\"string\">\"abc\"</span>);<span class=\"comment\">//强引用</span></span><br><span class=\"line\">WeakReference<String> weakRef = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> Weak Reference<String>(str);<span class=\"comment\">//弱引用</span></span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<pre><code>**还可配合引用队列使用**</code></pre><ul>\n<li><p>虚引用(PhantomReference)</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>不会决定对象的生命周期</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>任何时候都可能被垃圾收集器回收</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>跟踪对象被垃圾收集器回收的活动，起哨兵作用(GC在回收一个对象之前，如果发现一个对象具有虚引用，那么在回收之前会首先将该对象的虚引用加入到与之关联的引用队列当中，程序可通过判断引用队列是否已经加入虚引用来了解被引用的对象是否被GC回收)</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>必须和引用队列ReferenceQueue联合使用</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>用法：</p>\n<figure class=\"highlight java\"><div><table><tr><td class=\"gutter\"><pre><span class=\"line\">1</span><br><span class=\"line\">2</span><br><span class=\"line\">3</span><br></pre></td><td class=\"code\"><pre><span class=\"line\">String str = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> String(<span class=\"string\">\"abc\"</span>);<span class=\"comment\">//强引用</span></span><br><span class=\"line\">ReferenceQueue queue = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> ReferenceQueue;<span class=\"comment\">//引用队列</span></span><br><span class=\"line\">PhantomReference ref = <span class=\"keyword\">new</span> PhantomReference(str,queue)</span><br></pre></td></tr></table></div></figure>\n\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<p>引用队列(ReferenceQueue)</p>\n<ul>\n<li>(名义上是一个队列)无实际存储结构，存储逻辑依赖于内部节点之间的关系来表达</li>\n<li>存储关联的且被GC的软引用，弱引用以及虚引用</li>\n</ul>\n<h4 id=\"3-Java异常及常用工具类体系\">3. Java异常及常用工具类体系<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-Java异常及常用工具类体系\"></a></h4><h5 id=\"3-1-异常\">3.1 异常<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-1-异常\"></a></h5><p>异常处理机制主要回答了三个问题：</p>\n<ul>\n<li>What：异常类型回答了什么被抛出</li>\n<li>Where：异常堆栈跟踪回答了在哪里抛出</li>\n<li>Why：异常信息回答了为什么被抛出</li>\n</ul>\n<p>Java的异常体系：</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573562402221.png\" alt=\"1573562402221\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p>Throwable是整个Java异常体系的顶层父类，Error和Exception分别是其的两个子类。</p>\n<p>从责任角度看：</p>\n<ul>\n<li>Error属于JVM需要负担的责任</li>\n<li>RuntimeException是程序应该负担的责任</li>\n<li>Checked Exception(可检查异常)是Java编译器应该负担的责任</li>\n</ul>\n<h6 id=\"3-1-1-Error和Exception的区别\">3.1.1 Error和Exception的区别<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-1-1-Error和Exception的区别\"></a></h6><p>即从概念角度解析Java的异常处理机制</p>\n<ul>\n<li>Error：程序无法处理的系统错误，编译器不做检查</li>\n<li>Exception：程序可以处理的异常，捕获后可能恢复</li>\n</ul>\n<p><strong>Error是程序无法处理的错误，Exception是可以处理的异常</strong></p>\n<h6 id=\"3-1-2-Exception的分类\">3.1.2 Exception的分类<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-1-2-Exception的分类\"></a></h6><p>RuntimeException：不可预知的，程序应当自行避免</p>\n<p>非RuntimeException：可预知的，从编译器校验的异常(不处理编译时不通过)</p>\n<h6 id=\"3-1-3-常见的Error以及Exception\">3.1.3 常见的Error以及Exception<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-1-3-常见的Error以及Exception\"></a></h6><ul>\n<li><p>Error</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>NoClassDefFoundError：找不到class定义的异常</p>\n<p>原因：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>类依赖的class或jar不存在</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>类文件存在，但是存在不同域中</p>\n<p>对应的class在Java的classpath中不可用或者有多个不同的类加载器重复加载同一个class就可能出现上述问题</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>大小写问题，javac编译的时候无视大小写，可能编译出来的class文件与想要的不一样</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>……</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li><p>StackOverflowError：深递归导致栈被耗尽而抛出的异常</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>OutOfMemoryError：内存溢出异常</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li><p>Exception</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>RuntimeException</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>NullPointerException：空指针引用异常</p>\n<p>应用试图在要求使用对象的地方使用null时抛出该异常。譬如说调用空的对象的实例方法、访问空的对象的属性、计算空对象长度等等。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>ClassCastException：类型强制转换异常</p>\n<p>类型强制转换失败时抛出。A不是B的父类或子类，o是A的实例，当强制将o构造为类B的实例会抛出该异常</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>IllegalArgumentException：传递非法参数异常</p>\n<p>给方法传入不满足要求的参数，无论是不满足参数类型要求还是不满足个数，只要不满足都抛出该异常。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>IndexOutOfBoundsException：下标越界异常</p>\n<p>数组索引值为负数或大于等于数组时抛出该异常。</p>\n</li>\n<li><p>NumberFormatException：数字格式异常</p>\n<p>试图将一个String转换为指定的数字类型，而该字符串确实不满足数字类型要求格式时抛出该异常。</p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li><p>非RuntimeException</p>\n<ul>\n<li>ClassNotFoundException：找不到指定class的异常</li>\n<li>IOException: IO操作异常</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h6 id=\"3-1-4-Java的异常处理机制\">3.1.4 Java的异常处理机制<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-1-4-Java的异常处理机制\"></a></h6><ul>\n<li>抛出异常：创建异常对象，交由运行时系统处理(throws xxxException)</li>\n<li>捕获异常：寻找合适的异常处理器处理异常，否则终止运行(try-catch-finally)</li>\n</ul>\n<blockquote>\n<p><strong>Finally是先于return执行的逻辑</strong></p>\n</blockquote>\n<h5 id=\"3-2-Java集合框架\">3.2 Java集合框架<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-2-Java集合框架\"></a></h5><p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573865002541.png\" alt=\"1573865002541\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<ul>\n<li>List：有序集合，提供了便捷的访问、插入、删除等操作</li>\n<li>Set：不允许包含重复元素的集合，适用于保证元素唯一的场景</li>\n<li>Queue: Java提供的标准队列的实现</li>\n</ul>\n<h6 id=\"3-2-1-List\">3.2.1 List<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-2-1-List\"></a></h6><p>特点：</p>\n<ul>\n<li>有序：存储和取出的顺序一致</li>\n<li>可重复</li>\n<li>可通过索引操作元素</li>\n</ul>\n<p>分类：</p>\n<ul>\n<li>底层是数组：<ul>\n<li>ArrayList：线程不安全，效率高(ArrayList的动态扩容实际上是通过重新创建一个新的数组，赋予新的长度并覆盖掉原有数组实现的)</li>\n<li>Vector：线程安全，效率低</li>\n<li>Vector：线程安全，效率低</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li>底层是链表：<ul>\n<li>LinkedList：线程不安全，效率高</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<blockquote>\n<p>数组的访问速度比链表快，但非尾部的增删涉及元素的移动，因此ArrayList和Vector查询快、增删慢</p>\n<p>而LinkedList查询慢、增删快</p>\n</blockquote>\n<h6 id=\"3-2-2-Set\">3.2.2 Set<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-2-2-Set\"></a></h6><p>特点：</p>\n<ul>\n<li>无序：存储和取出的顺序不一定一致</li>\n<li>元素唯一</li>\n</ul>\n<p>分类：</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>底层是哈希表(HashMap)</p>\n<ul>\n<li>HashSet(保证元素唯一性)——HashMap时讲解<ul>\n<li>equals()</li>\n<li>hashCode()</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n<li><p>底层是二叉树</p>\n<ul>\n<li><p>TreeSet(保证元素排序)</p>\n<p>TreeSet的核心在于排序。若不关心排序，使用HashSet将获得更高的性能；若关心排序则使用TreeSet。用到了两种排序方式：</p>\n<ul>\n<li>comparable接口：基于元素自身实现的Comparable接口的自然排序(需要重写equals、hashCode和compareTo方法)</li>\n<li>comparator接口：基于灵活的Comparator接口的客户化排序(实现Comparator接口的compare方法)</li>\n</ul>\n<p><strong>当客户化排序和自然排序共存时，以客户化排序优先</strong></p>\n</li>\n</ul>\n</li>\n</ul>\n<h6 id=\"3-2-3-List和Set的区别\">3.2.3 List和Set的区别<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-2-3-List和Set的区别\"></a></h6><p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573865453418.png\" alt=\"1573865453418\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<h6 id=\"3-2-4-Map\">3.2.4 Map<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-2-4-Map\"></a></h6><p>用于保存具有映射关系的数据，都是<key,values>形式的。<strong>Map中的key是不可重复的，</strong>key是用于标识集合中的每项数据，values可以重复。由源码可知，Map中的key是通过Set组织,values是通过Collection组织的。</p>\n<p>Map的结构：</p>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573868703055.png\" alt=\"1573868703055\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<p><strong>经典面试题：HashMap、HashTable、ConcurrentHashMap的区别</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><p><strong>HashMap线程不安全，数据结构是数组+链表+红黑树</strong></p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>HashTable线程安全，锁住整个对象，数据结构是数组+链表</strong></p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>ConcurrentHashMap线程安全，CAS+同步锁，数据结构是数组+链表+红黑树</strong></p>\n</li>\n<li><p><strong>HashMap</strong></p>\n<p>put方法的逻辑：</p>\n<ol>\n<li>如果HashMap未被初始化，则先初始化</li>\n<li>对Key求Hash值，然后再计算table的下标</li>\n<li>如果没有碰撞(Table数组中对应的位置还没有相应的键值对)，则将键值对直接放入数组对应位置中</li>\n<li>如果碰撞了，以链表的方式链接到后面</li>\n<li>如果链表长度超过了阈值，就把链表转为红黑树</li>\n<li>如果链表长度低于6，就把红黑树转回链表</li>\n<li>如果节点已经存在(key值已存在)就替换key对应value的旧值</li>\n<li>如果桶满了(容量16*负载因子0.75)，就需要resize(扩容2倍后重排)</li>\n</ol>\n</li>\n<li></li>\n</ul>\n<p><img src=\"C:%5CUsers%5CHP%5CAppData%5CRoaming%5CTypora%5Ctypora-user-images%5C1573869247876.png\" alt=\"1573869247876\" class=\"article-img\"></p>\n<h5 id=\"3-3-Java的IO机制\">3.3 Java的IO机制<a href=\"post/Java面试#3-3-Java的IO机制\"></a></h5><p><strong>面试题：BIO、NIO、AIO的区别</strong></p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>BIO：Block-IO</strong></li>\n<li><strong>NonBlock-IO</strong></li>\n<li><strong>Asynchronous IO</strong></li>\n</ul>\n","prev":{"title":"二叉树的遍历","link":"post/二叉树的遍历"},"next":{"title":"Mybatis(1)","link":"post/Mybatis(1)"},"plink":"http://YIzzzzz.github.io/post/Java面试/"} |
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{"word": "wyr\u017cn\u0105\u0107", "translations": ["\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0430\u044f\u0442\u044c", "\u043e\u0448\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u0438\u0442\u044c", "\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0442\u044c", "\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0438\u0442\u044c", "\u0432\u043c\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u044c", "\u0432\u044b\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0442\u044c"], "conj": {"present_perfect": {"polish_form": "Czas przysz\u0142y prosty", "russian_form": "\u041d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f", "conj": {"ja": "wyr\u017cn\u0119", "ty": "wyr\u017cniesz", "on/ona/ono": "wyr\u017cnie", "my": "wyr\u017cniemy", "wy": "wyr\u017cniecie", "oni/one": "wyr\u017cn\u0105"}}, "past": {"polish_form": "Czas przesz\u0142y", "russian_form": "\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f", "conj": {"ja (m)": "wyr\u017cn\u0105\u0142em", "ja (f)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142am", "ty (m)": "wyr\u017cn\u0105\u0142e\u015b", "ty (f)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142a\u015b", "on": "wyr\u017cn\u0105\u0142", "ona": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142a", "ono": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142o", "my (m)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119li\u015bmy", "my (f)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142y\u015bmy", "wy (m)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119li\u015bcie", "wy (f)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142y\u015bcie", "oni": "wyr\u017cn\u0119li", "one": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142y"}}, "subjunctive": {"polish_form": "Tryb przypuszczaj\u0105cy", "russian_form": "\u0421\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435", "conj": {"ja (m)": "wyr\u017cn\u0105\u0142bym", "ja (f)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142abym", "ty (m)": "wyr\u017cn\u0105\u0142by\u015b", "ty (f)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142aby\u015b", "on": "wyr\u017cn\u0105\u0142by", "ona": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142aby", "ono": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142oby", "my (m)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119liby\u015bmy", "my (f)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142yby\u015bmy", "wy (m)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119liby\u015bcie", "wy (f)": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142yby\u015bcie", "oni": "wyr\u017cn\u0119liby", "one": "wyr\u017cn\u0119\u0142yby"}}, "imperative": {"polish_form": "Tryb rozkazuj\u0105cy", "russian_form": "\u0418\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432", "conj": {"ty": "wyr\u017cnij", "on/ona/ono": "niech wyr\u017cnie", "my": "wyr\u017cnijmy", "wy": "wyr\u017cnijcie", "oni/one": "niech wyr\u017cn\u0105"}}}} |
{"textgrid.poem.32359": {"metadata": {"author": {"name": "Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim", "birth": "N.A.", "death": "N.A."}, "title": "37. Auf den Sanktulus", "genre": "verse", "period": "N.A.", "pub_year": 1755, "urn": "N.A.", "language": ["de:0.99"], "booktitle": "N.A."}, "text": null, "poem": {"stanza.1": {"line.1": {"text": "Dem Alter nah, und schwach an Kr\u00e4ften,", "tokens": ["Dem", "Al\u00b7ter", "nah", ",", "und", "schwach", "an", "Kr\u00e4f\u00b7ten", ","], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["ART", "NN", "ADJD", "$,", "KON", "ADJD", "APPR", "NN", "$,"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.2": {"text": "Entschl\u00e4gt sich Sanktulus der Welt", "tokens": ["Ent\u00b7schl\u00e4gt", "sich", "Sank\u00b7tu\u00b7lus", "der", "Welt"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["VVFIN", "PRF", "NE", "ART", "NN"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.3": {"text": "Und allen weltlichen Gesch\u00e4ften,", "tokens": ["Und", "al\u00b7len", "welt\u00b7li\u00b7chen", "Ge\u00b7sch\u00e4f\u00b7ten", ","], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["KON", "PIAT", "ADJA", "NN", "$,"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.4": {"text": "Von denen keins ihm mehr gef\u00e4llt.", "tokens": ["Von", "de\u00b7nen", "keins", "ihm", "mehr", "ge\u00b7f\u00e4llt", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["APPR", "PRELS", "PIS", "PPER", "ADV", "VVPP", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.5": {"text": "Die kleine tr\u00fcbe Neige Leben", "tokens": ["Die", "klei\u00b7ne", "tr\u00fc\u00b7be", "Nei\u00b7ge", "Le\u00b7ben"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["ART", "ADJA", "ADJA", "NN", "NN"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.6": {"text": "Ist er in seinem Gott gemeint,", "tokens": ["Ist", "er", "in", "sei\u00b7nem", "Gott", "ge\u00b7meint", ","], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["VAFIN", "PPER", "APPR", "PPOSAT", "NN", "VVPP", "$,"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.7": {"text": "Der geistlichen Beschauung zu ergeben;", "tokens": ["Der", "geist\u00b7li\u00b7chen", "Be\u00b7schau\u00b7ung", "zu", "er\u00b7ge\u00b7ben", ";"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["ART", "ADJA", "NN", "PTKZU", "VVINF", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.penta"}, "line.8": {"text": "Ist weder Vater mehr, noch B\u00fcrger mehr, noch Freund.", "tokens": ["Ist", "we\u00b7der", "Va\u00b7ter", "mehr", ",", "noch", "B\u00fcr\u00b7ger", "mehr", ",", "noch", "Freund", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["VAFIN", "KON", "NN", "ADV", "$,", "ADV", "NN", "ADV", "$,", "ADV", "NN", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-+-+", "measure": "alexandrine.iambic.hexa"}, "line.9": {"text": "Zwar sagt man, da\u00df ein trauter Knecht", "tokens": ["Zwar", "sagt", "man", ",", "da\u00df", "ein", "trau\u00b7ter", "Knecht"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["ADV", "VVFIN", "PIS", "$,", "KOUS", "ART", "ADJA", "NN"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.10": {"text": "Des Abends durch die Hintert\u00fcre", "tokens": ["Des", "A\u00b7bends", "durch", "die", "Hin\u00b7ter\u00b7t\u00fc\u00b7re"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["ART", "NN", "APPR", "ART", "NN"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.11": {"text": "Manch h\u00fcbsches M\u00e4dchen zu ihm f\u00fchre.", "tokens": ["Manch", "h\u00fcb\u00b7sches", "M\u00e4d\u00b7chen", "zu", "ihm", "f\u00fch\u00b7re", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["PIAT", "ADJA", "NN", "APPR", "PPER", "VVFIN", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.12": {"text": "Doch, b\u00f6se Welt, wie ungerecht!", "tokens": ["Doch", ",", "b\u00f6\u00b7se", "Welt", ",", "wie", "un\u00b7ge\u00b7recht", "!"], "token_info": ["word", "punct", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["KON", "$,", "ADJA", "NN", "$,", "PWAV", "ADJD", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.13": {"text": "Ihm so was \u00fcbel auszulegen!", "tokens": ["Ihm", "so", "was", "\u00fc\u00b7bel", "aus\u00b7zu\u00b7le\u00b7gen", "!"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["PPER", "ADV", "PWS", "ADJD", "VVINF", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.14": {"text": "Auch das geschieht blo\u00df der Beschauung wegen.", "tokens": ["Auch", "das", "ge\u00b7schieht", "blo\u00df", "der", "Be\u00b7schau\u00b7ung", "we\u00b7gen", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["ADV", "PDS", "VVFIN", "ADV", "ART", "NN", "APPR", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.penta"}}, "stanza.2": {"line.1": {"text": "Dem Alter nah, und schwach an Kr\u00e4ften,", "tokens": ["Dem", "Al\u00b7ter", "nah", ",", "und", "schwach", "an", "Kr\u00e4f\u00b7ten", ","], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["ART", "NN", "ADJD", "$,", "KON", "ADJD", "APPR", "NN", "$,"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.2": {"text": "Entschl\u00e4gt sich Sanktulus der Welt", "tokens": ["Ent\u00b7schl\u00e4gt", "sich", "Sank\u00b7tu\u00b7lus", "der", "Welt"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["VVFIN", "PRF", "NE", "ART", "NN"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.3": {"text": "Und allen weltlichen Gesch\u00e4ften,", "tokens": ["Und", "al\u00b7len", "welt\u00b7li\u00b7chen", "Ge\u00b7sch\u00e4f\u00b7ten", ","], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["KON", "PIAT", "ADJA", "NN", "$,"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.4": {"text": "Von denen keins ihm mehr gef\u00e4llt.", "tokens": ["Von", "de\u00b7nen", "keins", "ihm", "mehr", "ge\u00b7f\u00e4llt", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["APPR", "PRELS", "PIS", "PPER", "ADV", "VVPP", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.5": {"text": "Die kleine tr\u00fcbe Neige Leben", "tokens": ["Die", "klei\u00b7ne", "tr\u00fc\u00b7be", "Nei\u00b7ge", "Le\u00b7ben"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["ART", "ADJA", "ADJA", "NN", "NN"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.6": {"text": "Ist er in seinem Gott gemeint,", "tokens": ["Ist", "er", "in", "sei\u00b7nem", "Gott", "ge\u00b7meint", ","], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["VAFIN", "PPER", "APPR", "PPOSAT", "NN", "VVPP", "$,"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.7": {"text": "Der geistlichen Beschauung zu ergeben;", "tokens": ["Der", "geist\u00b7li\u00b7chen", "Be\u00b7schau\u00b7ung", "zu", "er\u00b7ge\u00b7ben", ";"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["ART", "ADJA", "NN", "PTKZU", "VVINF", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.penta"}, "line.8": {"text": "Ist weder Vater mehr, noch B\u00fcrger mehr, noch Freund.", "tokens": ["Ist", "we\u00b7der", "Va\u00b7ter", "mehr", ",", "noch", "B\u00fcr\u00b7ger", "mehr", ",", "noch", "Freund", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["VAFIN", "KON", "NN", "ADV", "$,", "ADV", "NN", "ADV", "$,", "ADV", "NN", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-+-+", "measure": "alexandrine.iambic.hexa"}, "line.9": {"text": "Zwar sagt man, da\u00df ein trauter Knecht", "tokens": ["Zwar", "sagt", "man", ",", "da\u00df", "ein", "trau\u00b7ter", "Knecht"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["ADV", "VVFIN", "PIS", "$,", "KOUS", "ART", "ADJA", "NN"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.10": {"text": "Des Abends durch die Hintert\u00fcre", "tokens": ["Des", "A\u00b7bends", "durch", "die", "Hin\u00b7ter\u00b7t\u00fc\u00b7re"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word"], "pos": ["ART", "NN", "APPR", "ART", "NN"], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.11": {"text": "Manch h\u00fcbsches M\u00e4dchen zu ihm f\u00fchre.", "tokens": ["Manch", "h\u00fcb\u00b7sches", "M\u00e4d\u00b7chen", "zu", "ihm", "f\u00fch\u00b7re", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["PIAT", "ADJA", "NN", "APPR", "PPER", "VVFIN", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.12": {"text": "Doch, b\u00f6se Welt, wie ungerecht!", "tokens": ["Doch", ",", "b\u00f6\u00b7se", "Welt", ",", "wie", "un\u00b7ge\u00b7recht", "!"], "token_info": ["word", "punct", "word", "word", "punct", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["KON", "$,", "ADJA", "NN", "$,", "PWAV", "ADJD", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.13": {"text": "Ihm so was \u00fcbel auszulegen!", "tokens": ["Ihm", "so", "was", "\u00fc\u00b7bel", "aus\u00b7zu\u00b7le\u00b7gen", "!"], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["PPER", "ADV", "PWS", "ADJD", "VVINF", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.tetra"}, "line.14": {"text": "Auch das geschieht blo\u00df der Beschauung wegen.", "tokens": ["Auch", "das", "ge\u00b7schieht", "blo\u00df", "der", "Be\u00b7schau\u00b7ung", "we\u00b7gen", "."], "token_info": ["word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "word", "punct"], "pos": ["ADV", "PDS", "VVFIN", "ADV", "ART", "NN", "APPR", "$."], "meter": "-+-+-+-+-+-", "measure": "iambic.penta"}}}}} |
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"url": "https://www.free404.com/",
"desc": "Try my best"
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"20090130\n6月1日的地铁站\n我们在轨道上停下来\n修理故障的推进器\n时间下午三点，太阳在我左手边\n一些锈掉的螺丝和一只灰色的鸟\n同时摘下它们的帽子\n我们掏出怀表\n互相为对方拍照\n\n“等我老了我将无法记得这些”\n\n我把一颗螺丝又吞了回去。\n\n小王子站在我们的工具箱上\n抬起头，要我们为他画一个同伴\n时间仿佛过了很久——\n一只绵羊咬着青草\n从漆黑的箱子走出\n\n你将赶赴下一个目的地\n我们挥手，告别潮湿的月球\n我独自回到双脚下沉的沙地\n你变成水星，看见\n我眼中的秘密" |
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"html_lawbox": "<div>\n<center><b>154 U.S. 225 (1894)</b></center>\n<center><h1>UNITED STATES<br>\nv.<br>\nILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD COMPANY.</h1></center>\n<center>No. 331.</center>\n<center><p><b>Supreme Court of United States.</b></p></center>\n<center>Argued March 29, 30, 1894.</center>\n<center>Decided May 26, 1894.</center>\nAPPEAL FROM THE CIRCUIT COURT OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE NORTHERN DISTRICT OF ILLINOIS.\n<p><span class=\"star-pagination\">*227</span> <i>Mr. Solicitor General</i> for appellants.</p>\n<p><span class=\"star-pagination\">*233</span> <i>Mr. Benjamin F. Ayer</i> for the Illinois Central Railroad Company, appellee.</p>\n<p><i>Mr. John S. Miller</i> for the City of Chicago, appellee.</p>\n<p><span class=\"star-pagination\">*232</span> MR. JUSTICE FIELD delivered the opinion of the court.</p>\n<p>This is an appeal on the part of the United States from a decree of the Circuit Court sustaining a demurrer to an information or bill in equity, in which they were complainants and the Illinois Central and other railroad companies were defendants. The information charges that encroachments are made or threatened upon property of the United States, and the object of the information, so far as contended on the present appeal, is to prevent their continuance in the future, as to one particular parcel of property and to preserve it open to the uses for which it was dedicated by the United States. That property consists of land situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, being part of fractional section ten in Chicago, lying between Lake Michigan on the east and block twelve of the plat of Fort Dearborn addition to Chicago on the west.</p>\n<p>The several parties named as defendants appeared to the information, and the Illinois Central Railroad Company and the Michigan Central Railroad Company demurred to it on the ground that it does not state such a case as entitles the United States to the relief prayed for, or show any right of interference on their part, either in law or in equity, respecting the matters referred to, or allege any violation, contemplated or threatened, of any right, legal or equitable, of the United States.</p>\n<p>Upon the hearing of the several cases known and spoken of together as the <i>Lake Front case,</i> before the Circuit Court of the United States at Chicago on the 23d of February, 1888, this demurrer was argued, and was sustained, \"except as to that part of the information which alleges, in substance, that the Illinois Central Railroad Company claims the absolute ownership of, and threatens to take possession of, use and occupy the outer harbor of Chicago,\" the opinion of the court <span class=\"star-pagination\">*234</span> being \"that the general government, upon the showing made by it, has no title to any of the streets or grounds described in said information, and has no standing in court, except so far as it seeks to protect the said harbor against obstructions that would impair the public right of navigation, or interfere with any plan devised by the United States for the development or improvement of the outer harbor.\" 33 Fed. Rep. 730. Afterwards, on the 23d of August, 1890, the attorney of the United States was granted leave to amend the information by striking out whatever related to the outer harbor and the encroachments alleged to have been made, or threatened in the navigable waters of the lake; and, at the same time, an order was entered by the district judge sustaining the demurrer to the information as amended, and directing that it be dismissed, \"without prejudice to the United States, however, to hereafter institute any appropriate action or proceedings for the purpose of enforcing any rights they may have in the navigable waters of the lake or outer harbor of Chicago;\" and thereupon an appeal was prayed and allowed to the Supreme Court.</p>\n<p>From the decree of the Circuit Court in the <i>Lake Front case,</i> rendered in February, 1888, appeals were taken to the Supreme Court of the United States by the Illinois Central Railroad Company and the city of Chicago, and they were argued and decided at its October term, 1892. <i>Illinois Central Railroad</i> v. <i>Illinois,</i> 146 U.S. 387. The United States did not appear and participate in the argument on the appeal. As they were never a party to those suits in the court below and never appealed from the decree, they were dropped as a party in the designation of the title of the case. The questions involving the title and right of the parties embraced in the cases, considered under the general designation of the <i>Illinois Central Railroad Company</i> v. <i>State of Illinois,</i> to the navigable waters of the harbor of Chicago and in the Lake Front property, and the encroachments on the harbor by the railroad company, and the validity of the act of April 16, 1869, granting submerged lands in the harbor, were fully considered and settled as between the State and the city of <span class=\"star-pagination\">*235</span> Chicago, on the one part, and the Illinois Central Railroad Company on the other.</p>\n<p>The appeal now before the court is the one taken by the United States from the decree of the Circuit Court rendered on the 23d of August, 1890, sustaining the demurrer to the information. The amendment allowed to the information consisted in striking out that part to which the demurrer was not sustained, and was made in order that the demurrer might go to the entire information. The only contention now urged by the Solicitor General, on behalf of the appellants, is that the information is good to the extent that it seeks to restrain the appellees from diverting the public ground designated as such, on the plat of the Fort Dearborn addition to the city of Chicago from the supposed public casement to which it was dedicated. The Solicitor General states that on this branch of the case the information proceeds upon the theory that the United States, being the owners of the land in question, and having dedicated it to a public purpose, are entitled to enjoin its diversion from that public purpose to private uses. It will, therefore, be unnecessary for the disposition of the appeal to consider any other position originally taken by the United States in the information.</p>\n<p>As early as 1804 a military post was established by the United States south of Chicago River, upon the southwest fractional quarter of section ten, and was subsequently occupied by troops until its sale many years afterwards. In 1819 Congress passed an act authorizing the sale by the Secretary of War, under the direction of the President, of such military sites belonging to the United States as may have been found or had become useless for military purposes. And the Secretary of War was authorized, on the payment of the consideration agreed upon into the Treasury of the United States, to execute and deliver all needful instruments conveying the same in fee. And the act declared that the jurisdiction which had been specially ceded to the United States for military purposes, by a State, over such site or sites should thereafter cease. Act of March 3, 1819, c. 88, 3 Stat. 520. Subsequently, in 1824, upon the request of the Secretary of War, the southwest <span class=\"star-pagination\">*236</span> quarter of this fractional section ten, containing about fifty-seven acres, and on which Fort Dearborn was situated, was reserved from sale for military purposes by the Commissioner of the General Land Office. The land thus reserved continued to be used for military purposes until 1837. In that year, under the direction of the Secretary of War, it was laid off by his authority into blocks, lots, streets, alleys, and public ground, as an addition to the municipality of Chicago, and called the \"Fort Dearborn addition to Chicago,\" and in June, 1839, a plat thereof was made and acknowledged by his agent and attorney and recorded in the recorder's office of the county of Cook. On that plat a part of the ground situated between Lake Michigan on the east and block twelve on the west is designated as \"public ground forever to remain vacant of buildings.\" [146 U.S. 392, Map A.] It bears also a further declaration in these words, viz.: \"The public ground between Randolph and Madison Streets and fronting upon Lake Michigan is not to be occupied with buildings of any description.\" Subsequently, and for some years, several lots designated and shown on the plat were reserved from sale and remained in the military occupation of the government, but eventually, in 1845, or soon afterwards, all of them were sold and conveyed by the United States to divers persons \"by and according to said plat and with reference to the same.\"</p>\n<p>The statute of Illinois of February 27, 1833, then in force for the making and recording of town plats, (Rev. Stat. of Ill. \u00a7 833, p. 599,) provided that every donation or grant to the public, marked or noted as such on the plat, should be deemed in law a sufficient conveyance to vest the fee simple title, and that \"the land intended to be for streets, alleys, ways, commons, or other public uses, in any town or city, or addition thereto, shall be held in the corporate name thereof in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.\" The plat in such cases had all the force of an express grant and operated to convey all the title and interest of the United States in the property for the uses and purposes intended. <i>Zinc Company</i> v. <i>La Salle,</i> 117 Illinois, 411, 414, 415; <i>Chicago</i> v. <i>Rumsey,</i> 87 Illinois, 348; <i>Gebhardt</i> v. <span class=\"star-pagination\">*237</span> <i>Reeves,</i> 75 Illinois, 301; <i>Canal Trustees</i> v. <i>Havens,</i> 11 Illinois, 554.</p>\n<p>It is stated in the information that the United States never parted with the title to the streets, alleys, and public grounds designated and marked on the plat, and that they still own the same in fee simple \"with the rights and privileges, riparian and otherwise, pertaining to such ownership, subject to the use and enjoyment of the same by the public.\"</p>\n<p>But we do not think this position is tenable. A title to some of the streets may have continued in the government so long as the title to any of the adjoining lots remained with it, but not afterwards without disregard of the statutory regulations of the State and its provisions for the transfer of the title. When a resort is made by individuals or the government to the mode provided by the statute of a State where real property is situated, for the transfer of its title, the effect and conditions prescribed by the statute will apply, and such operation given to the instrument of conveyance as is there designated. The language of the statute is clear, \"that the land intended for streets, alleys, ways, commons, or other public uses in any town or city or addition thereto shall be held in the corporate name thereof, in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.\"</p>\n<p>The interest in and control of the United States over the streets, alleys, and commons ceased with the record of the plat and the sale of the adjoining lots. Their proprietary interest passed, in the lots sold, to the respective vendees, subject to the jurisdiction of the local government, and the control over the streets, alleys, and grounds passed by express designation of the state law to the corporate authorities of the city.</p>\n<p>In 1854, the validity of the survey and plat made of Fort Dearborn reservation was recognized by Congress in an act for the relief of one John Baptiste Beaubien, Act of August 11, 1854, c. 172, 10 Stat. 805, by which the Commissioner of the General Land Office was authorized to issue a patent or patents to Beaubien for certain lots designated and numbered on the survey and plat of the Fort Dearborn addition to Chicago, <span class=\"star-pagination\">*238</span> made under the order of the Secretary of War. And it is averred, as already stated, in the information that all the lots were sold and conveyed by the United States to divers persons \"by and according to the said plat and with reference to the same.\"</p>\n<p>It was the intention of the government to have a plat made conformably to the provisions of the statute, and it is plain, from its inspection, that all the essential requisites were followed. Nor is any reason suggested why a different effect should be given to the plat and its record in this case from that of similar plats made and recorded by other land proprietors. And if, as we have already said, the government, charged with the duty of disposing of a tract of public land within a State, chooses to proceed under the provisions of a particular statute of that State, it is clear that the same legal effect should be given to its proceeding as in case of an individual proprietor. The effect of the recording of the plat in this case was therefore to vest in the city of Chicago the legal title to the streets, alleys, and public ground in Fort Dearborn addition, and after its execution and record and sale of the abutting property the United States retained no interest in them, legal or equitable. That interest was as completely extinguished as if made by an unconditional conveyance in the ordinary form.</p>\n<p>Again, the sale of the lots was, in law, an effectual dedication of the streets and public grounds for municipal uses, and, as observed by counsel, the purchasers of the lots acquired a special interest in the streets and public grounds on which their lots abutted, and the United States could make no disposition of them after the sale inconsistent with the use to which they had been dedicated.</p>\n<p>The only parties interested in the public use for which the ground was dedicated are the owners of lots abutting on the ground dedicated, and the public in general. The owners of abutting lots may be presumed to have purchased in part consideration of the enhanced value of the property from the dedication, and it may be conceded they have a right to invoke, through the proper public authorities, the protection <span class=\"star-pagination\">*239</span> of the property in the use for which it was dedicated. The only party interested, outside of abutting owners, is the general public, and the enforcement of any rights which such public may have is vested only in the parties clothed with the execution of such trust, who are in this case the corporate authorities of the city, as a subordinate agency of the State, and not the United States.</p>\n<p>The United States possess no jurisdiction to control or regulate, within a State, the execution of trusts or uses created for the benefit of the public, or of particular communities or bodies therein. The jurisdiction in such cases is with the State or its subordinate agencies. The case of <i>New Orleans</i> v. <i>The United States,</i> 10 Pet. 662, furnishes an illustration of this doctrine. In that case the United States filed a bill in the District Court for an injunction to restrain the city of New Orleans from selling a portion of the public quay, or levee, lying on the bank of the Mississippi River in front of the city, or of doing any other act which would invade the rightful dominion of the United States over the land or their possession of it. The United States acquired title to the land by the French treaty of 1803. By it Louisiana was ceded to the United States, and it was shown that the land had been appropriated to public uses ever since the occupation of the province by France. It was contended that the title to the land, as well as the domain over it during the French and Spanish governments, were vested in the sovereign, and that the United States by the treaty of cession of the province of Louisiana had succeeded to the previous rights of France and Spain. The land and buildings thereon had been used by both governments for various public purposes. The United States had erected a building on it for a custom-house, in which, also, their courts were held.</p>\n<p>It was argued on behalf of the city that the sovereignty of France and Spain over the property, before the cession, existed solely for the purpose of enforcing the uses to which it was appropriated, and that this right and obligation vested in the State of Louisiana, and did not continue in the United States after the State was formed. It was therefore contended that <span class=\"star-pagination\">*240</span> the United States could neither take the property, nor dispose of it or enforce the public use to which it had been appropriated. A decree was rendered in the District Court in favor of the United States, and an injunction granted as prayed, but on appeal to the Supreme Court it was reversed, and it was held that the bill could not be maintained by the United States because they had no interest in the property. Upon the question whether any interest in the property passed to the United States under the treaty of cession, the court said, speaking through Mr. Justice McLean:</p>\n<p>\"In the second article of the treaty, `all public lots and squares, vacant lands, and all public buildings, fortifications, barracks, and other edifices, which are not private property,' were ceded. And it is contended, as the language of this article clearly includes the ground in controversy, whether it be considered a public square or vacant land, the entire right of the sovereign of Spain passed to the United States.</p>\n<p>\"The government of the United States, as was well observed in the argument, is one of limited powers. It can exercise authority over no subjects, except those which have been delegated to it. Congress cannot, by legislation, enlarge the Federal jurisdiction, nor can it be enlarged under the treaty-making power.</p>\n<p>\"If the common in contest, under the Spanish crown, formed a part of the public domain or the crown lands, and the king had power to alienate it, as other lands, there can be no doubt that it passed under the treaty to the United States, and they have a right to dispose of it the same as other public lands. But if the King of Spain held the land in trust for the use of the city, or only possessed a limited jurisdiction over it, principally, if not exclusively, for police purposes, was this right passed to the United States under the treaty?</p>\n<p>\"That this common, having been dedicated to the public use, was withdrawn from commerce, and from the power of the king rightfully to alien it has already been shown; and also, that he had a limited power over it for certain purposes. Can the Federal government exercise this power? If it can, this court has the power to interpose an injunction or interdict <span class=\"star-pagination\">*241</span> to the sale of any part of the common by the city if they shall think that the facts authorize such an interposition.</p>\n<p>\"It is insisted that the Federal government may exercise this authority under the power to regulate commerce.</p>\n<p>\"It is very clear that, as the treaty cannot give this power to the Federal government, we must look for it in the Constitution, and that the same power must authorize a similar exercise of jurisdiction over every other quay in the United States. A statement of the case is a sufficient refutation of the argument.</p>\n<p>\"Special provision is made in the Constitution for the cession of jurisdiction from the States over places where the Federal government shall establish forts or other military works. And it is only in these places, or in the Territories of the United States, where it can exercise a general jurisdiction.</p>\n<p>\"The State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union on the same footing as the original States. Her rights of sovereignty are the same, and, by consequence, no jurisdiction of the Federal government, either for purposes of police or otherwise, can be exercised over this public ground, which is not common to the United States. It belongs to the local authority to enforce the trust and prevent what they shall deem a violation of it by the city authorities.</p>\n<p>\"All powers which properly appertain to sovereignty, which have not been delegated to the Federal government, belong to the States and the people.\"</p>\n<p>The decree of the District Court was accordingly ordered to be reversed and annulled.</p>\n<p>This doctrine of the Supreme Court in the New Orleans case is decisive of the question pending before us in the present case and must control the decision.</p>\n<p>It was also held in <i>Illinois Central Railroad</i> v. <i>Illinois,</i> that the ownership in fee of the streets, alleys, ways, commons, and other public ground on the east front of the city bordering upon Lake Michigan, in fractional section ten, was a good title, the reason assigned being that by the statute of Illinois the making, acknowledging, and recording <span class=\"star-pagination\">*242</span> of plats operated to vest the title in the city in trust for the public uses to which the grounds were applicable. 146 U.S. 387, 462.</p>\n<p>It follows from these views that the United States have no just claim to maintain their contention to control or interfere with any portion of the public ground designated in the plat of the Fort Dearborn reservation. The decree dismissing the information will therefore be</p>\n<p><i>Affirmed.</i></p>\n<p>MR. JUSTICE BREWER, with whom concurred MR. JUSTICE BROWN, dissenting.</p>\n<p>I am unable to concur in the views expressed by the court in this case. I agree that the United States have no governmental interest or control over the premises in question; that as a sovereign they have no right to maintain this suit; that by the act of dedication they parted with the title, and that, in accordance with the statute of the State in respect to dedication, the fee passed to the city of Chicago, to \"be held in the corporate name thereof, in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.\" I agree that the only rights which the United States have are those which any other owner of real estate would have under a like dedication; but I think the law is that he who grants property to a trustee, to be held in trust for a specific purpose, retains such an interest as gives him a right to invoke the interposition of a court of equity to prevent the use of that property for any other purpose. Can it be that, if the government, believing that the Congressional Library has become too large for convenient use in this city, donates half of it to the city of Chicago, to be kept and maintained as a public library, that city can, after accepting the donation for the purposes named, give away the books to the various lawyers for their private libraries, and the government be powerless to restrain such disposition? Do the donors of libraries or the grantors of real estate in trust for specific purposes, though parting with the title, lose all right to invoke the aid of a court of equity to <span class=\"star-pagination\">*243</span> compel the use of their donations and grants for the purposes expressed in the gift or deed? I approve the opinion of the Supreme Court of Iowa, in the case of <i>Warren</i> v. <i>The Mayor of Lyons City,</i> 22 Iowa, 351, 355, 357. In that case the plaintiffs had years before platted certain land as a site for a city, and on the plat filed by them there was a dedication of a piece of ground as a \"public square.\" After the city had been built up on that site the authorities, for the purposes of gain, and under the pretended authority of an act of the legislature, attempted to subdivide the public square into lots and to lease them to individuals for private uses. A bill was filed by the dedicators to restrain such diversion of the use, and a decree in their favor was affirmed by the Supreme Court. I quote from the opinion:</p>\n<p>\"Nothing can be clearer than that if a grant is made for a specific, limited, and defined purpose, the subject of the grant cannot be used for another, and that the grantor retains still such an interest therein as entitles him in a court of equity to insist upon the execution of the trust as originally declared and accepted. <i>Williams</i> v. <i>First Presbyterian Society,</i> 1 Ohio St. 478; <i>Barclay</i> v. <i>Howell's Lessee,</i> 6 Pet. 498; <i>Webb</i> v. <i>Moler,</i> 8 Ohio, 548; <i>Brown</i> v. <i>Manning,</i> 6 Ohio, 298.\"</p>\n<p>And again, after picturing the injustice which in many cases would result by permitting such a diversion, the court adds:</p>\n<p>\"Such a doctrine would enable the State at pleasure to trifle with the rights of individuals, and we can scarcely conceive of a doctrine which would more effectually check every disposition to give for public or charitable purposes. No, it must be, that if the right vested in the city for a particular purpose the legislature cannot vest it for another; that, when the dedicator declared his purpose by the plat, the land cannot be sold or used for another and different one; that while the corporation took the premises as trustee, it took them with the obligations attached as well as the rights conferred; that while the legislature might give the control and management of these squares and parks to the several municipal corporations, it cannot authorize their sale and use for a purpose foreign to the object of the grant.</p>\n<p><span class=\"star-pagination\">*244</span> \"Without quoting, we cite the following cases: <i>Trustees of Watertown</i> v. <i>Cowen,</i> 4 Paige, 510; 2 Stra. 1004; <i>Commonwealth</i> v. <i>Alberger,</i> 1 Whart. 469; <i>Pomeroy</i> v. <i>Mills,</i> 3 Vermont, 279; <i>Abbott</i> v. <i>Same,</i> 3 Vermont, 521; <i>Adams</i> v. <i>S. & W.R.R. Co.,</i> 11 Barb. 414; <i>Fletcher</i> v. <i>Peck,</i> 6 Cranch, 87; <i>Godfrey</i> v. <i>City of Alton,</i> 12 Illinois, 29; Sedgwick's Constitutional and Statute Law, 343, 344; <i>Haight</i> v. <i>City of Keokuk,</i> 4 Iowa, 199; <i>Grant</i> v. <i>City of Davenport,</i> 18 Iowa, 179; <i>Le Clercq</i> v. <i>Trustees of Gallipolis,</i> 7 Ohio, 217; <i>Common Council of Indianapolis</i> v. <i>Cross,</i> 7 Indiana, 9; <i>Rowans, Executor,</i> v. <i>Portland,</i> 8 B. Mon. 232; <i>Augusta</i> v. <i>Perkins,</i> 3 B. Mon. 437.\"</p>\n<p>I do not care to add more, but for these reasons withhold my assent to the opinion.</p>\n<p>I am authorized to say that MR. JUSTICE BROWN concurs in this dissent.</p>\n<p>The CHIEF JUSTICE, having been of counsel in the court below, took no part in the consideration and decision of this case on appeal.</p>\n</div>",
"time_retrieved": "2010-04-28T09:12:49",
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"html_with_citations": "<div>\n<center><b><span class=\"citation no-link\"><span class=\"volume\">154</span> <span class=\"reporter\">U.S.</span> <span class=\"page\">225</span></span> (1894)</b></center>\n<center><h1>UNITED STATES<br>\nv.<br>\nILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD COMPANY.</h1></center>\n<center>No. 331.</center>\n<center><p><b>Supreme Court of United States.</b></p></center>\n<center>Argued March 29, 30, 1894.</center>\n<center>Decided May 26, 1894.</center>\nAPPEAL FROM THE CIRCUIT COURT OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE NORTHERN DISTRICT OF ILLINOIS.\n<p><span class=\"star-pagination\">*227</span> <i>Mr. Solicitor General</i> for appellants.</p>\n<p><span class=\"star-pagination\">*233</span> <i>Mr. Benjamin F. Ayer</i> for the Illinois Central Railroad Company, appellee.</p>\n<p><i>Mr. John S. Miller</i> for the City of Chicago, appellee.</p>\n<p><span class=\"star-pagination\">*232</span> MR. JUSTICE FIELD delivered the opinion of the court.</p>\n<p>This is an appeal on the part of the United States from a decree of the Circuit Court sustaining a demurrer to an information or bill in equity, in which they were complainants and the Illinois Central and other railroad companies were defendants. The information charges that encroachments are made or threatened upon property of the United States, and the object of the information, so far as contended on the present appeal, is to prevent their continuance in the future, as to one particular parcel of property and to preserve it open to the uses for which it was dedicated by the United States. That property consists of land situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, being part of fractional section ten in Chicago, lying between Lake Michigan on the east and block twelve of the plat of Fort Dearborn addition to Chicago on the west.</p>\n<p>The several parties named as defendants appeared to the information, and the Illinois Central Railroad Company and the Michigan Central Railroad Company demurred to it on the ground that it does not state such a case as entitles the United States to the relief prayed for, or show any right of interference on their part, either in law or in equity, respecting the matters referred to, or allege any violation, contemplated or threatened, of any right, legal or equitable, of the United States.</p>\n<p>Upon the hearing of the several cases known and spoken of together as the <i>Lake Front case,</i> before the Circuit Court of the United States at Chicago on the 23d of February, 1888, this demurrer was argued, and was sustained, \"except as to that part of the information which alleges, in substance, that the Illinois Central Railroad Company claims the absolute ownership of, and threatens to take possession of, use and occupy the outer harbor of Chicago,\" the opinion of the court <span class=\"star-pagination\">*234</span> being \"that the general government, upon the showing made by it, has no title to any of the streets or grounds described in said information, and has no standing in court, except so far as it seeks to protect the said harbor against obstructions that would impair the public right of navigation, or interfere with any plan devised by the United States for the development or improvement of the outer harbor.\" 33 Fed. Rep. 730. Afterwards, on the 23d of August, 1890, the attorney of the United States was granted leave to amend the information by striking out whatever related to the outer harbor and the encroachments alleged to have been made, or threatened in the navigable waters of the lake; and, at the same time, an order was entered by the district judge sustaining the demurrer to the information as amended, and directing that it be dismissed, \"without prejudice to the United States, however, to hereafter institute any appropriate action or proceedings for the purpose of enforcing any rights they may have in the navigable waters of the lake or outer harbor of Chicago;\" and thereupon an appeal was prayed and allowed to the Supreme Court.</p>\n<p>From the decree of the Circuit Court in the <i>Lake Front case,</i> rendered in February, 1888, appeals were taken to the Supreme Court of the United States by the Illinois Central Railroad Company and the city of Chicago, and they were argued and decided at its October term, 1892. <i>Illinois Central Railroad</i> v. <i>Illinois,</i> <span class=\"citation\" data-id=\"93449\"><a href=\"/opinion/93449/illinois-central-r-co-v-illinois/\"><span class=\"volume\">146</span> <span class=\"reporter\">U.S.</span> <span class=\"page\">387</span></a></span>. The United States did not appear and participate in the argument on the appeal. As they were never a party to those suits in the court below and never appealed from the decree, they were dropped as a party in the designation of the title of the case. The questions involving the title and right of the parties embraced in the cases, considered under the general designation of the <i>Illinois Central Railroad Company</i> v. <i>State of Illinois,</i> to the navigable waters of the harbor of Chicago and in the Lake Front property, and the encroachments on the harbor by the railroad company, and the validity of the act of April 16, 1869, granting submerged lands in the harbor, were fully considered and settled as between the State and the city of <span class=\"star-pagination\">*235</span> Chicago, on the one part, and the Illinois Central Railroad Company on the other.</p>\n<p>The appeal now before the court is the one taken by the United States from the decree of the Circuit Court rendered on the 23d of August, 1890, sustaining the demurrer to the information. The amendment allowed to the information consisted in striking out that part to which the demurrer was not sustained, and was made in order that the demurrer might go to the entire information. The only contention now urged by the Solicitor General, on behalf of the appellants, is that the information is good to the extent that it seeks to restrain the appellees from diverting the public ground designated as such, on the plat of the Fort Dearborn addition to the city of Chicago from the supposed public casement to which it was dedicated. The Solicitor General states that on this branch of the case the information proceeds upon the theory that the United States, being the owners of the land in question, and having dedicated it to a public purpose, are entitled to enjoin its diversion from that public purpose to private uses. It will, therefore, be unnecessary for the disposition of the appeal to consider any other position originally taken by the United States in the information.</p>\n<p>As early as 1804 a military post was established by the United States south of Chicago River, upon the southwest fractional quarter of section ten, and was subsequently occupied by troops until its sale many years afterwards. In 1819 Congress passed an act authorizing the sale by the Secretary of War, under the direction of the President, of such military sites belonging to the United States as may have been found or had become useless for military purposes. And the Secretary of War was authorized, on the payment of the consideration agreed upon into the Treasury of the United States, to execute and deliver all needful instruments conveying the same in fee. And the act declared that the jurisdiction which had been specially ceded to the United States for military purposes, by a State, over such site or sites should thereafter cease. Act of March 3, 1819, c. 88, 3 Stat. 520. Subsequently, in 1824, upon the request of the Secretary of War, the southwest <span class=\"star-pagination\">*236</span> quarter of this fractional section ten, containing about fifty-seven acres, and on which Fort Dearborn was situated, was reserved from sale for military purposes by the Commissioner of the General Land Office. The land thus reserved continued to be used for military purposes until 1837. In that year, under the direction of the Secretary of War, it was laid off by his authority into blocks, lots, streets, alleys, and public ground, as an addition to the municipality of Chicago, and called the \"Fort Dearborn addition to Chicago,\" and in June, 1839, a plat thereof was made and acknowledged by his agent and attorney and recorded in the recorder's office of the county of Cook. On that plat a part of the ground situated between Lake Michigan on the east and block twelve on the west is designated as \"public ground forever to remain vacant of buildings.\" [146 U.S. 392, Map A.] It bears also a further declaration in these words, viz.: \"The public ground between Randolph and Madison Streets and fronting upon Lake Michigan is not to be occupied with buildings of any description.\" Subsequently, and for some years, several lots designated and shown on the plat were reserved from sale and remained in the military occupation of the government, but eventually, in 1845, or soon afterwards, all of them were sold and conveyed by the United States to divers persons \"by and according to said plat and with reference to the same.\"</p>\n<p>The statute of Illinois of February 27, 1833, then in force for the making and recording of town plats, (Rev. Stat. of Ill. \u00a7 833, p. 599,) provided that every donation or grant to the public, marked or noted as such on the plat, should be deemed in law a sufficient conveyance to vest the fee simple title, and that \"the land intended to be for streets, alleys, ways, commons, or other public uses, in any town or city, or addition thereto, shall be held in the corporate name thereof in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.\" The plat in such cases had all the force of an express grant and operated to convey all the title and interest of the United States in the property for the uses and purposes intended. <i>Zinc Company</i> v. <i>La Salle,</i> 117 Illinois, 411, 414, 415; <i>Chicago</i> v. <i>Rumsey,</i> 87 Illinois, 348; <i>Gebhardt</i> v. <span class=\"star-pagination\">*237</span> <i>Reeves,</i> 75 Illinois, 301; <i>Canal Trustees</i> v. <i>Havens,</i> 11 Illinois, 554.</p>\n<p>It is stated in the information that the United States never parted with the title to the streets, alleys, and public grounds designated and marked on the plat, and that they still own the same in fee simple \"with the rights and privileges, riparian and otherwise, pertaining to such ownership, subject to the use and enjoyment of the same by the public.\"</p>\n<p>But we do not think this position is tenable. A title to some of the streets may have continued in the government so long as the title to any of the adjoining lots remained with it, but not afterwards without disregard of the statutory regulations of the State and its provisions for the transfer of the title. When a resort is made by individuals or the government to the mode provided by the statute of a State where real property is situated, for the transfer of its title, the effect and conditions prescribed by the statute will apply, and such operation given to the instrument of conveyance as is there designated. The language of the statute is clear, \"that the land intended for streets, alleys, ways, commons, or other public uses in any town or city or addition thereto shall be held in the corporate name thereof, in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.\"</p>\n<p>The interest in and control of the United States over the streets, alleys, and commons ceased with the record of the plat and the sale of the adjoining lots. Their proprietary interest passed, in the lots sold, to the respective vendees, subject to the jurisdiction of the local government, and the control over the streets, alleys, and grounds passed by express designation of the state law to the corporate authorities of the city.</p>\n<p>In 1854, the validity of the survey and plat made of Fort Dearborn reservation was recognized by Congress in an act for the relief of one John Baptiste Beaubien, Act of August 11, 1854, c. 172, 10 Stat. 805, by which the Commissioner of the General Land Office was authorized to issue a patent or patents to Beaubien for certain lots designated and numbered on the survey and plat of the Fort Dearborn addition to Chicago, <span class=\"star-pagination\">*238</span> made under the order of the Secretary of War. And it is averred, as already stated, in the information that all the lots were sold and conveyed by the United States to divers persons \"by and according to the said plat and with reference to the same.\"</p>\n<p>It was the intention of the government to have a plat made conformably to the provisions of the statute, and it is plain, from its inspection, that all the essential requisites were followed. Nor is any reason suggested why a different effect should be given to the plat and its record in this case from that of similar plats made and recorded by other land proprietors. And if, as we have already said, the government, charged with the duty of disposing of a tract of public land within a State, chooses to proceed under the provisions of a particular statute of that State, it is clear that the same legal effect should be given to its proceeding as in case of an individual proprietor. The effect of the recording of the plat in this case was therefore to vest in the city of Chicago the legal title to the streets, alleys, and public ground in Fort Dearborn addition, and after its execution and record and sale of the abutting property the United States retained no interest in them, legal or equitable. That interest was as completely extinguished as if made by an unconditional conveyance in the ordinary form.</p>\n<p>Again, the sale of the lots was, in law, an effectual dedication of the streets and public grounds for municipal uses, and, as observed by counsel, the purchasers of the lots acquired a special interest in the streets and public grounds on which their lots abutted, and the United States could make no disposition of them after the sale inconsistent with the use to which they had been dedicated.</p>\n<p>The only parties interested in the public use for which the ground was dedicated are the owners of lots abutting on the ground dedicated, and the public in general. The owners of abutting lots may be presumed to have purchased in part consideration of the enhanced value of the property from the dedication, and it may be conceded they have a right to invoke, through the proper public authorities, the protection <span class=\"star-pagination\">*239</span> of the property in the use for which it was dedicated. The only party interested, outside of abutting owners, is the general public, and the enforcement of any rights which such public may have is vested only in the parties clothed with the execution of such trust, who are in this case the corporate authorities of the city, as a subordinate agency of the State, and not the United States.</p>\n<p>The United States possess no jurisdiction to control or regulate, within a State, the execution of trusts or uses created for the benefit of the public, or of particular communities or bodies therein. The jurisdiction in such cases is with the State or its subordinate agencies. The case of <i>New Orleans</i> v. <i>The United States,</i> <span class=\"citation\" data-id=\"86005\"><a href=\"/opinion/86005/new-orleans-v-united-states/\"><span class=\"volume\">10</span> <span class=\"reporter\">Pet.</span> <span class=\"page\">662</span></a></span>, furnishes an illustration of this doctrine. In that case the United States filed a bill in the District Court for an injunction to restrain the city of New Orleans from selling a portion of the public quay, or levee, lying on the bank of the Mississippi River in front of the city, or of doing any other act which would invade the rightful dominion of the United States over the land or their possession of it. The United States acquired title to the land by the French treaty of 1803. By it Louisiana was ceded to the United States, and it was shown that the land had been appropriated to public uses ever since the occupation of the province by France. It was contended that the title to the land, as well as the domain over it during the French and Spanish governments, were vested in the sovereign, and that the United States by the treaty of cession of the province of Louisiana had succeeded to the previous rights of France and Spain. The land and buildings thereon had been used by both governments for various public purposes. The United States had erected a building on it for a custom-house, in which, also, their courts were held.</p>\n<p>It was argued on behalf of the city that the sovereignty of France and Spain over the property, before the cession, existed solely for the purpose of enforcing the uses to which it was appropriated, and that this right and obligation vested in the State of Louisiana, and did not continue in the United States after the State was formed. It was therefore contended that <span class=\"star-pagination\">*240</span> the United States could neither take the property, nor dispose of it or enforce the public use to which it had been appropriated. A decree was rendered in the District Court in favor of the United States, and an injunction granted as prayed, but on appeal to the Supreme Court it was reversed, and it was held that the bill could not be maintained by the United States because they had no interest in the property. Upon the question whether any interest in the property passed to the United States under the treaty of cession, the court said, speaking through Mr. Justice McLean:</p>\n<p>\"In the second article of the treaty, `all public lots and squares, vacant lands, and all public buildings, fortifications, barracks, and other edifices, which are not private property,' were ceded. And it is contended, as the language of this article clearly includes the ground in controversy, whether it be considered a public square or vacant land, the entire right of the sovereign of Spain passed to the United States.</p>\n<p>\"The government of the United States, as was well observed in the argument, is one of limited powers. It can exercise authority over no subjects, except those which have been delegated to it. Congress cannot, by legislation, enlarge the Federal jurisdiction, nor can it be enlarged under the treaty-making power.</p>\n<p>\"If the common in contest, under the Spanish crown, formed a part of the public domain or the crown lands, and the king had power to alienate it, as other lands, there can be no doubt that it passed under the treaty to the United States, and they have a right to dispose of it the same as other public lands. But if the King of Spain held the land in trust for the use of the city, or only possessed a limited jurisdiction over it, principally, if not exclusively, for police purposes, was this right passed to the United States under the treaty?</p>\n<p>\"That this common, having been dedicated to the public use, was withdrawn from commerce, and from the power of the king rightfully to alien it has already been shown; and also, that he had a limited power over it for certain purposes. Can the Federal government exercise this power? If it can, this court has the power to interpose an injunction or interdict <span class=\"star-pagination\">*241</span> to the sale of any part of the common by the city if they shall think that the facts authorize such an interposition.</p>\n<p>\"It is insisted that the Federal government may exercise this authority under the power to regulate commerce.</p>\n<p>\"It is very clear that, as the treaty cannot give this power to the Federal government, we must look for it in the Constitution, and that the same power must authorize a similar exercise of jurisdiction over every other quay in the United States. A statement of the case is a sufficient refutation of the argument.</p>\n<p>\"Special provision is made in the Constitution for the cession of jurisdiction from the States over places where the Federal government shall establish forts or other military works. And it is only in these places, or in the Territories of the United States, where it can exercise a general jurisdiction.</p>\n<p>\"The State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union on the same footing as the original States. Her rights of sovereignty are the same, and, by consequence, no jurisdiction of the Federal government, either for purposes of police or otherwise, can be exercised over this public ground, which is not common to the United States. It belongs to the local authority to enforce the trust and prevent what they shall deem a violation of it by the city authorities.</p>\n<p>\"All powers which properly appertain to sovereignty, which have not been delegated to the Federal government, belong to the States and the people.\"</p>\n<p>The decree of the District Court was accordingly ordered to be reversed and annulled.</p>\n<p>This doctrine of the Supreme Court in the New Orleans case is decisive of the question pending before us in the present case and must control the decision.</p>\n<p>It was also held in <i>Illinois Central Railroad</i> v. <i>Illinois,</i> that the ownership in fee of the streets, alleys, ways, commons, and other public ground on the east front of the city bordering upon Lake Michigan, in fractional section ten, was a good title, the reason assigned being that by the statute of Illinois the making, acknowledging, and recording <span class=\"star-pagination\">*242</span> of plats operated to vest the title in the city in trust for the public uses to which the grounds were applicable. <span class=\"citation\" data-id=\"93449\"><a href=\"/opinion/93449/illinois-central-r-co-v-illinois/\"><span class=\"volume\">146</span> <span class=\"reporter\">U.S.</span> <span class=\"page\">387</span></a></span>, 462.</p>\n<p>It follows from these views that the United States have no just claim to maintain their contention to control or interfere with any portion of the public ground designated in the plat of the Fort Dearborn reservation. The decree dismissing the information will therefore be</p>\n<p><i>Affirmed.</i></p>\n<p>MR. JUSTICE BREWER, with whom concurred MR. JUSTICE BROWN, dissenting.</p>\n<p>I am unable to concur in the views expressed by the court in this case. I agree that the United States have no governmental interest or control over the premises in question; that as a sovereign they have no right to maintain this suit; that by the act of dedication they parted with the title, and that, in accordance with the statute of the State in respect to dedication, the fee passed to the city of Chicago, to \"be held in the corporate name thereof, in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.\" I agree that the only rights which the United States have are those which any other owner of real estate would have under a like dedication; but I think the law is that he who grants property to a trustee, to be held in trust for a specific purpose, retains such an interest as gives him a right to invoke the interposition of a court of equity to prevent the use of that property for any other purpose. Can it be that, if the government, believing that the Congressional Library has become too large for convenient use in this city, donates half of it to the city of Chicago, to be kept and maintained as a public library, that city can, after accepting the donation for the purposes named, give away the books to the various lawyers for their private libraries, and the government be powerless to restrain such disposition? Do the donors of libraries or the grantors of real estate in trust for specific purposes, though parting with the title, lose all right to invoke the aid of a court of equity to <span class=\"star-pagination\">*243</span> compel the use of their donations and grants for the purposes expressed in the gift or deed? I approve the opinion of the Supreme Court of Iowa, in the case of <i>Warren</i> v. <i>The Mayor of Lyons City,</i> 22 Iowa, 351, 355, 357. In that case the plaintiffs had years before platted certain land as a site for a city, and on the plat filed by them there was a dedication of a piece of ground as a \"public square.\" After the city had been built up on that site the authorities, for the purposes of gain, and under the pretended authority of an act of the legislature, attempted to subdivide the public square into lots and to lease them to individuals for private uses. A bill was filed by the dedicators to restrain such diversion of the use, and a decree in their favor was affirmed by the Supreme Court. I quote from the opinion:</p>\n<p>\"Nothing can be clearer than that if a grant is made for a specific, limited, and defined purpose, the subject of the grant cannot be used for another, and that the grantor retains still such an interest therein as entitles him in a court of equity to insist upon the execution of the trust as originally declared and accepted. <i>Williams</i> v. <i>First Presbyterian Society,</i> 1 Ohio St. 478; <i>Barclay</i> v. <i>Howell's Lessee,</i> 6 Pet. 498; <i>Webb</i> v. <i>Moler,</i> 8 Ohio, 548; <i>Brown</i> v. <i>Manning,</i> 6 Ohio, 298.\"</p>\n<p>And again, after picturing the injustice which in many cases would result by permitting such a diversion, the court adds:</p>\n<p>\"Such a doctrine would enable the State at pleasure to trifle with the rights of individuals, and we can scarcely conceive of a doctrine which would more effectually check every disposition to give for public or charitable purposes. No, it must be, that if the right vested in the city for a particular purpose the legislature cannot vest it for another; that, when the dedicator declared his purpose by the plat, the land cannot be sold or used for another and different one; that while the corporation took the premises as trustee, it took them with the obligations attached as well as the rights conferred; that while the legislature might give the control and management of these squares and parks to the several municipal corporations, it cannot authorize their sale and use for a purpose foreign to the object of the grant.</p>\n<p><span class=\"star-pagination\">*244</span> \"Without quoting, we cite the following cases: <i>Trustees of Watertown</i> v. <i>Cowen,</i> 4 Paige, 510; 2 Stra. 1004; <i>Commonwealth</i> v. <i>Alberger,</i> 1 Whart. 469; <i>Pomeroy</i> v. <i>Mills,</i> 3 Vermont, 279; <i>Abbott</i> v. <i>Same,</i> 3 Vermont, 521; <i>Adams</i> v. <i>S. & W.R.R. Co.,</i> 11 Barb. 414; <i>Fletcher</i> v. <i>Peck,</i> 6 Cranch, 87; <i>Godfrey</i> v. <i>City of Alton,</i> 12 Illinois, 29; Sedgwick's Constitutional and Statute Law, 343, 344; <i>Haight</i> v. <i>City of Keokuk,</i> 4 Iowa, 199; <i>Grant</i> v. <i>City of Davenport,</i> 18 Iowa, 179; <i>Le Clercq</i> v. <i>Trustees of Gallipolis,</i> 7 Ohio, 217; <i>Common Council of Indianapolis</i> v. <i>Cross,</i> 7 Indiana, 9; <i>Rowans, Executor,</i> v. <i>Portland,</i> 8 B. Mon. 232; <i>Augusta</i> v. <i>Perkins,</i> 3 B. Mon. 437.\"</p>\n<p>I do not care to add more, but for these reasons withhold my assent to the opinion.</p>\n<p>I am authorized to say that MR. JUSTICE BROWN concurs in this dissent.</p>\n<p>The CHIEF JUSTICE, having been of counsel in the court below, took no part in the consideration and decision of this case on appeal.</p>\n</div>",
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"html": "<p class=\"case_cite\">154 U.S. 225</p>\n <p class=\"case_cite\">14 S.Ct. 1015</p>\n <p class=\"case_cite\">38 L.Ed. 971</p>\n <p class=\"parties\">UNITED STATES<br>v.<br>ILLINOIS CENT. R. CO. et al.</p>\n <p class=\"docket\">No. 331.</p>\n <p class=\"date\">May 26, 1894.</p>\n <div class=\"prelims\">\n <p class=\"indent\">[Statement of Case from pages 225-227 intentionally omitted]</p>\n <p class=\"indent\">Sol. Gen. Maxwell, for the United States.</p>\n <p class=\"indent\">[Argument of Counsel from pages 227-233 intentionally omitted]</p>\n <p class=\"indent\">B. F. Ayers, for Railroad Cos.</p>\n <p class=\"indent\">John S. Miller, for city of Chicago.</p>\n <p class=\"indent\">Mr. Justice FIELD delivered the opinion of the court.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p1\">\n <span class=\"num\">1</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">This is an appeal on the part of the United States from a decree of the circuit court sustaining a demurrer to an information or bill in equity, in which they were complainants, and the Illinois Central and other railroad companies were defendants. The information charges that encroachments are made or threatened upon property of the United States; and the object of the information, so far as contended on the present appeal, is to prevent their continuance in the future, as to one particular parcel of property, and to preserve it open to the uses for which it was dedicated by the United States. That property consists of land situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, being part of fractional section 10 in Chicago, lying between Lake Michigan, on the east, and block 12 of the plat of Ft. Dearborn addition to Chicago, on the west.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p2\">\n <span class=\"num\">2</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">The several parties named as defendants appeared to the information, and the Illinois Central Railroad Company and the Michigan Central Railroad Company demurred to it on the ground that it does not state such a case as entitles the United States to the relief prayed, or show any right of interference on their part, either in law or in equity, respecting the matters referred to, or allege any violation, contemplated or threatened, of any right, legal or equitable, of the United States.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p3\">\n <span class=\"num\">3</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">Upon the hearing of the several cases known and spoken of together as the Lake-Front Case before the circuit court of the United States at Chicago on the 23d of February, 1888, this demurrer was argued, and was sustained, 'except as to that part of the information which alleges, in substance, that the Illinois Central Railroad Company claims the absolute ownership of, and threatens to take possession of, use, and occupy, the outer harbor of Chicago;' the opinion of the court being 'that the general government, upon the showing made by it, has no title to any of the streets or grounds described in said information, and has no standing in court, except so far as it seeks to protect the said harbor against obstructions that would impair the public right of navigation, or interfere with any plan devised by the United States for the development or improvement of the outer harbor.' 33 Fed. 730. Afterwards, on the 23d of August, 1890, the attorney of the United States was granted leave to amend the information by striking out whatever related to the outer harbor, and the encroachments alleged to have been made or threatened in the navigable waters of the lake; and at the same time an order was entered by the district judge sustaining the demurrer to the information, as amended, and directing that it be dismissed, 'without prejudice to the United States, however, to hereafter institute any appropriate action or proceedings for the purpose of enforcing any rights they may have in the navigable waters of the lake or outer harbor of Chicago,' and thereupon an appeal was prayed and allowed to the supreme court.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p4\">\n <span class=\"num\">4</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">From the decree of the circuit court in the Lake-Front Case, rendered in February, 1888, appeals were taken to the supreme court of the United States by the Illinois Central Railroad Company and the city of Chicago, and they were argued and decided at its October term, 1892. 146 U. S. 387, 13 Sup. Ct. 110. The United States did not appear and participate in the argument on the appeal. As they were never a party to those suits in the court below, and never appealed from the decree, they were dropped as a party in the designation of the title of the case. The questions involving the title and right of the parties embraced in the cases, considered under the general designation of the Illinois Cent. R. Co. v. Illinois, to the navigable waters of the harbor of Chicago, and in the lake front property, and the encroachments on the harbor by the railroad company, and the validity of the act of April 16, 1869, granting submerged lands in the harbor, were fully considered and settled, as between the state and the city of Chicago, on the one part, and the Illinois Central Railroad Company, on the other.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p5\">\n <span class=\"num\">5</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">The appeal now before the court is the one taken by the United States from the decree of the circuit court rendered on the 23d of August, 1890, sustaining the demurrer to the information. The amendment allowed to the information consisted in striking out that part to which the demurrer was not sustained, and was made in order that the demurrer might go to the entire information. The only contention now urged by the solicitor general on behalf of the appellants is that the information is good to the extent that it seeks to restrain the appellees from diverting the public ground, designated as such, on the plat of the Ft. Dearborn addition to the city of Chicago, from the supposed public easement to which it was dedicated. The solicitor general states that, on this branch of the case, the information proceeds upon the theory that the United States, being the owners of the land in question, and having dedicated it to a public purpose, are entitled to enjoin its diversion from that public purpose to private uses. It will therefore be unnecessary, for the disposition of the appeal, to consider any other position originally taken by the United States in the information.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p6\">\n <span class=\"num\">6</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">As early as 1804 a military post was established by the United States south of Chicago river, upon the southwest fractional quarter of section 10, and was subsequently occupied by troops until its sale, many years afterwards. In 1819, congress passed an act authorizing the sale by the secretary of war, under the direction of the president, of such military sites belonging to the United States as may have been found, or had become, useless for military purposes; and the secretary of war was authorized, on the payment of the consideration agreed upon into the treasury of the United States, to execute and deliver all needful instruments conveying the same in fee. And the act declared that the jurisdiction which had been specially ceded to the United States for military purposes, by a state, over such site or sites, should thereafter cease. 3 Stat. 520. Subsequently, in 1824, upon the request of the secretary of war, the southwest quarter of this fractional section 10, containing about 57 acres, and on which Ft. Dearborn was situated, was reserved from sale, for military purposes, by the commissioner of the general land office. The land thus reserved continued to be used for military purposes until 1837. In that year, under the direction of the secretary of war, it was laid off, by his authority, into blocks, lots, streets, alleys, and public ground, as an addition to the municipality of Chicago, and called the 'Fort Dearborn Addition to Chicago;' and in June, 1839, a plat thereof was made and acknowledged by his agent and attorney, and recorded in the recorder's office of the county of Cook. On that plat a part of the ground situated between Lake Michigan, on the east, and block 12, on the west, is designated as 'Public ground, forever to remain vacant of buildings.' It bears also a further declaration, in these words, viz. 'The public ground between Randolph and Madison streets, and fronting upon Lake Michigan, is not to be occupied with buildings of any description.' Subsequently, and for some years, several lots designated and shown on the plat were reserved from sale, and remained in the military occupation of the government; but eventually, in 1845, or soon afterwards, all of them were sold and conveyed by the United States to divers persons, 'by and according to said plat, and with reference to the same.'</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p7\">\n <span class=\"num\">7</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">The statute of Illinois of February 27, 1833, then in force, for the making and recording of town plats (Rev. St. Ill. 1833, p. 599), provided that every donation or grant to the public, marked or noted as such on the plat, should be deemed in law a sufficient conveyance to vest the fee-simple title, and that 'the land intended to be for streets, alleys, ways, commons, or other public uses, in any town or city, or addition thereto, shall be held in the corporate name thereof in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.' The plat, in such cases, had all the force of an express grant, and operated to convey all the title and interest of the United States in the property, for the uses and purposes intended. Zinc Co. v. City of La Salle, 117 Ill. 411, 414, 415, 2 N. E. 406, and 8 N. E. 81; City of Chicago v. Rumsey, 87 Ill 348; Gebhardt v. Reeves, 75 Ill. 301; Canal Trustees v. Haven, 11 Ill. 554.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p8\">\n <span class=\"num\">8</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">It is stated in the information that the United States never parted with the title to the streets, alleys, and public grounds designated and marked on the plat, and that they still own the same in fee simple, 'with the rights and privileges, riparian and otherwise, pertaining to such ownership, subject to the use and enjoyment of the same by the public.'</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p9\">\n <span class=\"num\">9</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">But we do not think this position is tenable. A title to some of the streets may have continued in the government so long as the title to any of the adjoining lots remained with it, but not afterwards, without disregard of the statutory regulations of the state, and its provisions for the transfer of the title. When a resort is made by individuals or the government to the mode provided by the statute of a state where real property is situated, for the transfer of its title, the effect and conditions prescribed by the statute will apply, and such operation given to the instrument of conveyance as is there designated. The language of the statute is clear,—'that the land intended for streets, alleys, ways, commons, or other public uses in any town or city or addition thereto shall be held in the corporate name thereof, in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.'</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p10\">\n <span class=\"num\">10</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">The interest in and control of the United States over the streets, alleys, and commons ceased with the record of the plat, and the sale of the adjoining lots. Their proprietary interest passed, in the lots sold, to the respective vendees, subject to the jurisdiction of the local government; and the control over the streets, alleys, and grounds passed, by express designation of the state law, to the corporate authorities of the city.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p11\">\n <span class=\"num\">11</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">In 1854 the validity of the survey and plat made of Ft. Dearborn reservation was recognized by congress in an act for the relief of one John Baptiste Beaubien (10 Stat. c. 172, p. 805), by which the commissioner of the general land office was authorized to issue a patent or patents to Beaubien for certain lots designated and numbered on the survey and plat of the Ft. Dearborn addition to Chicago, made under the order of the secretary of war; and it is averred, as already stated, in the information, that all the lots were sold and conveyed by the United States to divers persons 'by and according to the said plat, and with reference to the same.'</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p12\">\n <span class=\"num\">12</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">It was the intention of the government to have a plat made conformably to the provisions of the statute, and it is plain, from its inspection, that all the essential requisites were followed. Nor is any reason suggested why a different effect should be given to the plat and its record, in this case, from that of similar plats made and recorded by other land proprietors. And if, as we have already said, the government, charged with the duty of disposing of a tract of public land within a state, chooses to proceed under the provisions of a particular statute of that state, it is clear that the same legal effect should be given to its proceeding as in case of an individual proprietor. The effect of the recording of the plat in this case was therefore to vest in the city of Chicago the legal title to the streets, alleys, and public ground in Ft. Dearborn addition; and after its execution and record, and sale of the abutting property, the United States retained no interest in them, legal or equitable. That interest was as completely extinguished as if made by an unconditional conveyance in the ordinary form.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p13\">\n <span class=\"num\">13</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">Again, the sale of the lots was in law an effectual dedication of the streets and public grounds for municipal uses; and, as observed by counsel, the purchasers of the lots acquired a special interest in the streets and public grounds on which their lots abutted, and the United States could make no disposition of them after the sale inconsistent with the use to which they had been dedicated.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p14\">\n <span class=\"num\">14</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">The only parties interested in the public use for which the ground was dedicated are the owners of lots abutting on the ground dedicated, and the public in general. The owners of abutting lots may be presumed to have purchased in part consideration of the enhanced value of the property from the dedication; and it may be conceded they have a right to invoke, through the proper public authorities, the protection of the property in the use for which it was dedicated. The only party interested, outside of abutting owners, is the general public; and the enforcement of any rights which such public may have is vested only in the parties clothed with the execution of such trust, who are in this case the corporate authorities of the city, as a subordinate agency of the state, and not the United States.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p15\">\n <span class=\"num\">15</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">The United States possess no jurisdiction to control or regulate, within a state, the execution of trusts or uses created for the benefit of the public, or of particular communities or bodies therein. The jurisdiction in such cases is with the state, or its subordinate agencies. The case of New Orleans v. U. S., 10 Pet. 662, furnishes an illustration of this doctrine. In that case the United States filed a bill in the district court for an injunction to restrain the city of New Orleans from selling a portion of the public quay or levee lying on the bank of the Mississippi river, in front of the city, or of doing any other act which would invade the rightful dominion of the United States over the land, or their possession of it. The United States acquired title to the land by the French treaty of 1803. By it, Louisiana was ceded to the United States, and it was shown that the land had been appropriated to public uses ever since the occupation of the province by France. It was contended that the title to the land, as well as the domain over it, during the French and Spanish governments, were vested in the sovereign, and that the United States, by the treaty of cession of the province of Louisiana, had succeeded to the previous rights of France and Spain. The land and buildings thereon had been used by both governments for various public purposes. The United States had erected a building on it for a customhouse, in which, also, their courts were held.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p16\">\n <span class=\"num\">16</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">It was argued on behalf of the city that the sovereignty of France and Spain over the property before the cession existed solely for the purpose of enforcing the uses to which it was appropriated, and that this right and obligation vested in the state of Louisiana, and did not continue in the United States after the state was formed. It was therefore contended that the United States could neither take the property, nor dispose of it, or enforce the public use to which it had been appropriated. A decree was rendered in the district court in favor of the United States, and an injunction granted as prayed; but on appeal to the supreme court it was reversed, and it was held that the bill could not be maintained by the United States, because they had no interest in the property. Upon the question whether any interest in the property passed to the United States under the treaty of cession, the court said, speaking through Mr. Justice McLean:</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p17\">\n <span class=\"num\">17</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'In the second article of the treaty, 'all public lots and squares, vacant lands, and all public buildings, fortifications, barracks, and other edifices, which are not private property,' were ceded; and it is contended, as the language of this article clearly includes the ground in controversy, whether it be considered a public square or vacant land, the entire right of the sovereign of Spain passed to the United States.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p18\">\n <span class=\"num\">18</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'The government of the United States, as was well observed in the argument, is one of limited powers. It can exercise authority over no subjects, except those which have been delegated to it. Congress cannot by legislation enlarge the federal jurisdiction, nor can it be enlarged under the treaty-making power.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p19\">\n <span class=\"num\">19</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'If the common in contest, under the Spanish crown, formed a part of the public domain, or the crown lands, and the king had power to alien it, as other lands, there can be no doubt that it passed under the treaty to the United States, and they have a right to dispose of it the same as other public lands. But if the king of Spain held the land in trust for the use of the city, or only possessed a limited jurisdiction over it,—principally, if not exclusively, for police purposes,—was this right passed to the United States under the treaty?</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p20\">\n <span class=\"num\">20</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'That this common, having been dedicated to the public use, was withdrawn from commerce, and from the power of the king rightfully to alien it, has already been shown, and also, that he had a limited power over it, for certain purposes. Can the federal government exercise this power? If it can, this court has the power to interpose an injunction or interdict to the sale of any part of the common by the city, if they shall think that the facts authorize such an interposition.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p21\">\n <span class=\"num\">21</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'It is insisted that the federal government may exercise this authority under the power to regulate commerce.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p22\">\n <span class=\"num\">22</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'It is very clear that, as the treaty cannot give this power to the federal government, we must look for it in the constitution, and that the same power must authorize a similar exercise of jurisdiction over every other quay in the United States. A statement of the case is a sufficient refutation of the argument.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p23\">\n <span class=\"num\">23</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'Special provision is made in the constitution for the cession of jurisdiction from the states over places where the federal government shall establish forts or other military works, and it is only in these places, or in the territories of the United States, where it can exercise a general jurisdiction.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p24\">\n <span class=\"num\">24</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'The state of Louisiana was admitted into the Union on the same footing as the original states. Her rights of sovereignty are the same, and, by consequence, no jurisdiction of the federal government, either for purposes of police or otherwise, can be exercised over this public ground, which is not common to the United States. It belongs to the local authority to enforce the trust, and prevent what they shall deem a violation of it by the city authorities.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p25\">\n <span class=\"num\">25</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'All powers which properly appertain to sovereignty, which have not been delegated to the federal government, belong to the states and the people.'</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p26\">\n <span class=\"num\">26</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">The decree of the district court was accordingly ordered to be reversed and annulled.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p27\">\n <span class=\"num\">27</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">This doctrine of the supreme court in the New Orleans Case is decisive of the question pending before us in the present case, and must control the decision.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p28\">\n <span class=\"num\">28</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">It was also held in the Lake-Front Case that the ownership in fee of the streets, alleys, ways, commons, and other public ground on the east front of the city bordering upon Lake Michigan, in fractional section 10, was a good title; the reason assigned being that by the statute of Illinois the making, acknowledging, and recording of plats operated to vest the title in the city in trust for the public uses to which the grounds were applicable. 146 U. S. 387-462, 13 Sup. Ct. 110.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p29\">\n <span class=\"num\">29</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">It follows from these views that the United States have no just claim to maintain their contention to control or interfere with any portion of the public ground designated in the plat of the Ft. Dearborn reservation. The decree dismissing the information will therefore be affirmed, and it is so ordered.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p30\">\n <span class=\"num\">30</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">Mr. Chief Justice FULLER, having been of counsel in the court below, took no part in the consideration and decision of this case on appeal.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p31\">\n <span class=\"num\">31</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">Mr. Justice BREWER, dissenting.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p32\">\n <span class=\"num\">32</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">I am unable to concur in the views expressed by the court in this case. I agree that the United States have no governmental interest or control over the premises in question; that as a sovereign they have no right to maintain this suit; that by the act of dedication they parted with the title; and that, in accordance with the statute of the state in respect to dedication, the fee passed to the city of Chicago, to 'be held in the corporate name thereof, in trust to and for the uses and purposes set forth and expressed or intended.' I agree that the only rights which the United States have are those which any other owner of real estate would have under a like dedication; but I think the law is that he who grants property to a trustee, to be held in trust for a specific purpose, retains such an interest as gives him a right to invoke the interposition of a court of equity to prevent the use of that property for any other purpose. Can it be that if the government, believing that the congressional library has become too large for convenient use in this city, donates half of it to the city of Chicago, to be kept and maintained as a public library, that city can, after accepting the donation for the purposes named, give away the books to the various lawyers for their private libraries, and the government be powerless to restrain such disposition? Do the donors of libraries, or the grantors of real estate in trust for specific purposes, though parting with the title, lose all right to invoke the aid of a court of equity to compel the use of their donations and grants for the purposes expressed in the gift or deed? I approve the opinion of the supreme court of Iowa in the case of Warren v. Mayor of Lyons City, 22 Iowa, 351, 355, 357. In that case the plaintiffs had, years before, platted certain land as a site for a city, and on the plat filed by them there was a dedication of a piece of ground as a 'public square.' After the city had been built up on that site, the authorities, for the purposes of gain, and under the pretended authority of an act of the legislature, attempted to subdivide the public square into lots, and to lease them to individuals for private uses. A bill was filed by the dedicators to restrain such diversion of the use, and a decree in their favor was affirmed by the supreme court. I quote from the opinion:</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p33\">\n <span class=\"num\">33</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'Nothing can be clearer than that if a grant is made for a specific, limited, and defined purpose, the subject of the grant cannot be used for another, and that the grantor retains still such an interest therein as entitles him, in a court of equity, to insist upon the execution of the trust as originally declared and accepted. Williams v. Society, 1 Ohio St. 478; Barclay v. Howell, 6 Pet. 499; Webb v. Moler, 8 Ohio, 548; Brown v. Manning, 6 Ohio, 298.'</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p34\">\n <span class=\"num\">34</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">And again, after picturing the injustice which in many cases would result by permitting such a diversion, the court adds:</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p35\">\n <span class=\"num\">35</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'Such a doctrine would enable the state, at pleasure, to trifle with the rights of individuals; and we can scarcely conceive of a doctrine which would more effectually check every disposition to give for public or charitable purposes. No; it must be that, if the right vested in the city for a particular purpose, the legislature cannot vest it for another; that, when the dedicator declared his purpose by the plat, the land cannot be sold or used for another and different one; that, while the corporation took the premises as trustee, it took them with the obligations attached, as well as the rights conferred; that, while the legislature might give the control and management of these squares and parks to the several municipal corporations, it cannot authorize their sale and use for a purpose foreign to the object of the grant.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p36\">\n <span class=\"num\">36</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">'Without quoting, we cite the following cases: Trustees of Watertown v. Cowen, 4 Paige, 510; Lade v. Shepherd, 2 Stra. 1004; Com. v. Alberger, 1 Whart. 469; Pomeroy v. Mills, 3 Vt. 279; Abbott v. Same, Id. 521; Adams v. Railroad Co., 11 Barb. 414; Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cranch, 87; Godfrey v. City of Alton, 12 Ill. 29; Sedg. St. & Const. Law, 343, 344; Haight v. City of Keokuk, 4 Iowa, 199; Grant v. City of Davenport, 18 Id. 179; Le Clercq v. Trustees of Gallipolis, 7 Ohio, 217; Common Council v. Cross, 7 Ind. 9; Rowan's Ex'rs, v. Town of Portland, 8 B. Mon. 232; Trustees of Augusta v. Perkins, 3 B. Mon. 437.'</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p37\">\n <span class=\"num\">37</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">I do not care to add more, but for these reasons withhold my assent to the opinion.</p>\n </div>\n <div class=\"num\" id=\"p38\">\n <span class=\"num\">38</span>\n <p class=\"indent\">I am authorized to say that Mr. Justice BROWN concurs in this dissent.</p>\n </div>\n ",
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except:","time":20000,"points":true,"pointsMultiplier":1,"choices":[{"answer":"can form chains of almost unlimited length","correct":false},{"answer":"Can form single, double and triple bonds","correct":false},{"answer":"Can bond only with other Carbons","correct":true},{"answer":"Can form both small and large compunds","correct":false}],"image":"http://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/lecturequizuploads/6b7a6846-4e67-468a-80dd-ca7b74ba8f5c_opt","imageMetadata":{"id":"6b7a6846-4e67-468a-80dd-ca7b74ba8f5c","resources":""},"resources":"","video":{"id":"","startTime":0,"endTime":0,"service":"youtube","fullUrl":""},"questionFormat":0},{"type":"quiz","question":"This is the monomer of","time":10000,"points":true,"pointsMultiplier":1,"choices":[{"answer":"Carbohydrates","correct":false},{"answer":"Lipids","correct":true},{"answer":"Proteins","correct":false},{"answer":"Nucleic 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{"brief":"Reajah","long":"Meaning: \"Reajah\", the name of three Israelites. Usage: Reaia, Reaiah. Source: from \"H7200\" and \"H3050\"; \"Jah has seen\"; "}
|
{"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions.json?page=48\u0026state=open","first":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions.json?state=open","last":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions.json?page=51\u0026state=open","next":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions.json?page=49\u0026state=open","prev":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions.json?page=47\u0026state=open"},"data":[{"type":"petition","id":173426,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/173426.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Change the law so neighbours can't play loud music at anytime not just after 11","background":"In todays world people don't just work 9 till 5 and require sleep at various hrs of the day. Police have no powers to intervene before 11pm or after 7am. People have been forced to move and made ill from being forced to put up with music played unacceptably loud within flats.","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-21T21:48:14.970Z","updated_at":"2017-01-31T23:11:57.154Z","open_at":"2016-11-29T19:08:41.815Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-24T19:21:32.931Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"John Kernohan","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":173335,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/173335.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Please, Contract BAE to develop a Harrier III.","background":"The Harrier was the ONLY V/STOL jet IN THE WORLD. Instead of capitalising on a technological monopoly, the British Government sold the country out and our industry out to the Americans. Now we buy their exorbitant £100+ Million a piece F-35 STOVL jet with a program cost of $1.5 Trillion. Shameful.","additional_details":"The cost to develop a Harrier III from the Harrier II, I am absolutely certain, would have been a fraction of the disastrous, bug ridden JSF program. The Unit cost too, I am certain, would have been been fractional. It's a matter of national pride too. What do we have left that we can be proud of? Concorde? Harrier? The world wanted these things. But no. Scrap it and buy American or EU... 'REDUCE F-35 ORDER AND REINVEST THE REMAINING *Billions* INTO A SYMBOL OF NATIONAL PRIDE: The Harrier III'.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-21T11:25:16.879Z","updated_at":"2017-01-31T22:30:48.798Z","open_at":"2016-12-20T12:35:11.543Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-21T11:37:28.892Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Ephraim Amin","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":173306,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/173306.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Start to pay off the UK's Debt.","background":"We are all told as young people not to spend money which you don't have, so why should the UK government do it. It's not only getting bigger, but is effecting our NHS which should be run like the US government, to fix this tax the rich more, the poor shouldn't have to pay for the rich and vice versa","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-20T23:05:39.258Z","updated_at":"2017-01-24T10:05:52.966Z","open_at":"2016-11-25T13:02:32.820Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-20T23:18:25.541Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"James Myatt","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":173030,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/173030.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Cease/cut aid to Sierra Leone until the government amend protest laws.","background":"Cease/cut aid to Sierra Leone until the government amend protest laws....","additional_details":"The Government of Sierra Leone cracks down heavily on peaceful protests. It has become illegal to protest the injustices in the country without a police clearance. This is contrary to democracy and free speech. We, the people, hardly ever get the police clearance to voice our concerns. When we do, our voices are highly censored. We face hot water canons, live ammunition and police batons if we dare to protest without a police clearance. \r\nThe UK Government gives a significant amount of aid to the Sierra Leonean government on the basis of it practicing democratic principles. Denying us the right to protest is undemocratic in every aspect. Cutting aid funds until they revisit those provisions that suppress free speech will force them into a civil dialogue with the people they ought to serve.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-18T18:57:51.765Z","updated_at":"2016-11-24T21:49:38.132Z","open_at":"2016-11-24T16:59:31.594Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-18T23:28:46.378Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Bahiyya Hawanatu Kamara","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":172969,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/172969.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Change the rules give children detained by police at school access to legal aid","background":"Call for change to access legal aid so children can get justice against the actions of the police working in co-ordination with local authorities to secretly wrongfully detain innocent children at school, revoking their rights \u0026 right to their parents and misusing their data without any wrongdoing.","additional_details":"In the light of police action to pre-plan with local authorities to detain an innocent 12 old child at school, the consequences of the event and negative impact to the child’s future education and misuse of data which may affect the child’s future, the system needs to change. Currently there is no protection for innocent children, due to the unfair system the public authorities’ access public money to engage legal experts to defend their actions. Children’s rights matter, legal aid is required.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-18T11:11:12.671Z","updated_at":"2017-01-31T22:52:57.174Z","open_at":"2016-11-21T17:34:15.125Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-20T11:38:02.585Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Katrina Osman","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":172929,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/172929.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Regulate \u0026 cap the rent prices in London (RRR)","background":"It's time for the government to take responsibility and stop ignoring their broken system. They should regulate and cap rent prices for rooms at the maximum of £550pcm. We want Responsibility, Regulation and Results (RRR).","additional_details":"Amongst all of the city wonders London is known for its extremely high living costs - not to mention the extortionate prices private landlords are charging tenants. \r\n\r\nDue to inflation and low wages some Londoners are forced to work more than one job solely to pay the rent. \r\n A lot of these landlords are illegally renting rooms and do not declare the income they are receiving from tenants and are charging tenants anything from £500-£850 for box rooms that can only fit a bed- this need to change!","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-17T22:39:16.426Z","updated_at":"2016-11-29T23:06:33.898Z","open_at":"2016-11-23T11:52:38.000Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-17T23:06:46.834Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Uhuru Lambert","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":172826,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/172826.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Make Business Studies, Life Skills and Politics mandatory at Secondary School.","background":"In school there is no direct focus on skills that children need to truly succeed in life. Business Studies is taken an optional subject when really we should be teaching our children how to be entrepreneurial, this would help children gain essential critical thinking skills to help them grow.","additional_details":"There is so much opportunity that is potentially being wasted by not equipping children with the skills and knowledge to get on in life. Children should have a knowledge of politics, business, how to get a mortgage. Children should know who the Prime Minister of this country is and how laws are made. If we want our country to be set up for success we should invest in our children as they will invest in the country themselves.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-17T11:57:41.015Z","updated_at":"2017-01-07T15:20:35.926Z","open_at":"2016-11-21T21:29:15.952Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-17T15:29:55.369Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Daniel Smith","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":172713,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/172713.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Stop stereotyping teenagers by making national citizen service compulsory","background":"We are a group of teenagers who feel like we are stereotyped frequently, such as being followed in shops, being stopped and searched in groups, seen as criminals and thugs, this makes us feel on edge and ashamed to be called a teenager. We feel our aim will make society a better place, aged 16-18.","additional_details":"Our research found that often terms used to describe teenagers were \"hoodies, louts, heartless, evil, frightening, scum, monsters, inhumane and threatening.\" ","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-16T12:51:28.239Z","updated_at":"2016-12-07T13:35:25.592Z","open_at":"2016-12-05T18:37:29.997Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-30T12:36:32.072Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Josh Penney, George Bevan","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":172468,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/172468.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Total life Ban if caught using hand held mobile phone","background":"If caught using a hand held mobile phone for talking or texting you should be given a total life time ban from driving.","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-14T12:25:55.031Z","updated_at":"2017-01-11T00:19:18.866Z","open_at":"2016-11-21T15:21:37.344Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-14T23:24:25.116Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"David Small","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":172282,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/172282.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Repeal the Health and Social Care Bill.","background":"This bill has signed the death knell for the NHS as we knew it. It has allowed private companies to cherry pick via tender the most lucrative parts of the system. This can not be allowed to continue. The NHS should be there for all. ","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-12T09:50:56.578Z","updated_at":"2016-11-25T20:16:52.842Z","open_at":"2016-11-17T17:16:44.103Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-13T09:21:38.275Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"David Baptist ","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":171675,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/171675.json"},"attributes":{"action":"The prohibition of vehicle drivers smoking whilst driving","background":"Drivers concentration must be affected by smoking whilst driving.Observation over many years show drivers smoking are often using one hand to control the vehicle- lighting up and extinguishing the cigarette must further affects drivers concentration ","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-07T19:21:52.786Z","updated_at":"2017-01-30T23:43:21.061Z","open_at":"2016-11-16T14:58:02.777Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-13T22:30:40.265Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Dr Albert Rooms","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":171623,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/171623.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Government should not allow pilots to work on Christmas day","background":"This is a petition to bring to attention pilots who fly thousands of miles away from their families on the most precious day of the year for many people! \r\n\r\nHelp me petition government to put a ban to flying on Christmas day!","additional_details":"I am surrounded by pilots, many of whom complain about working in Christmas day. The banks shut, so why shouldn't pilots have a \"pilot day\"? \r\n\r\nI call on government to help pilots and their families spend their day together. \r\n\r\nIf pilots are being forced to fly on Christmas day, their families should be rewarded with free flights and accommodation to enable the families to be together. \r\n\r\nPlease call on government to make this a possibility!","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-07T05:04:03.050Z","updated_at":"2016-12-20T22:35:24.998Z","open_at":"2016-11-17T16:57:23.109Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-07T12:00:18.429Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Chris Tutton ","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":171005,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/171005.json"},"attributes":{"action":"I would like the Government to reinstate Child Support Agency!","background":"We need a government run Child Support Agency as the so called Child Maintenance Service is not meeting the correct criteria. Causing a high level of financial suffering for the parent who is raising the child/children. The absent parent is not being forced to supply correct financial information.","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-02T14:55:05.261Z","updated_at":"2017-01-25T17:49:22.155Z","open_at":"2016-11-03T17:52:33.049Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-02T18:43:11.868Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Lara-Louise Whelan ","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":170894,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/170894.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Small business should not pay employer's NI for employees of state pension age","background":"Employees or Self-Employed of state pension age do not pay NI contributions so why should Employers? I spoke to David Cameron about this and he was intending to look into it but this did not happen due to the EU referendum result","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-11-01T13:31:15.474Z","updated_at":"2016-12-15T12:12:51.726Z","open_at":"2016-12-15T12:12:51.725Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-12-07T10:28:38.357Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Jennifer Goldsmith","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":170818,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/170818.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Make a legal requirement for new Vehicles to have automatic emergency braking","background":"To help prevent accidents and deaths on the road by making it a legal requirement for new cars, vans and trucks to have automatic emergency braking systems ","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-31T20:32:15.039Z","updated_at":"2016-11-04T16:17:03.807Z","open_at":"2016-11-04T16:17:03.806Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-01T13:29:15.942Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Dean Woodhouse ","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":170585,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/170585.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Hold a referendum on Oxfordshire's membership of the European Union","background":"In the 2016 EU Referendum Oxfordshire voted to stay in the EU 70% to 30% but now risk being dragged out of the EU like Scotland and having a vote on the membership is in no way subverting democracy ","additional_details":"Oxford is a city who's economy is reliant on the EU and dragging them out would be completely undemocratic ","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-29T01:04:02.705Z","updated_at":"2017-02-01T13:19:02.254Z","open_at":"2016-11-09T14:32:05.016Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-07T01:20:59.685Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Toby Webb ","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":170542,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/170542.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Negotiate a bespoke reciprocal visa agreement between the UK and the EU","background":"Now the UK voted to leave the EU we will lose the freedom of movement right. This will cease once we leave and will mean we have to apply for a visa to go to the EU on holiday as we are third country nationals. The EU has plans to introduce a £50 holiday visa for citizens of third countries.","additional_details":"This £50 charge is quite expensive for a holiday visa and will deter people going abroad. The only option could be a reciprocal visa agreement between the UK and the EU/EEA. This could mean that UK citizens can travel to the EU, for 180 days, for free. This however, is only possible if we allow all EU nationals coming to the UK the same agreements. We could also include reciprocal emergency healthcare in this visa agreement. This will make it easier for full single market access.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-28T17:31:48.341Z","updated_at":"2016-11-12T10:07:08.786Z","open_at":"2016-11-01T18:56:45.761Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-28T17:52:06.708Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Andrew McSpain","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":170033,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/170033.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Put 5 pence on national Insurance contributions to fund our N.H.S.","background":"Everyone can afford 5pence to save our N.HS dont sit there do something\r\n","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-21T19:03:40.954Z","updated_at":"2016-10-28T05:12:13.729Z","open_at":"2016-10-26T11:06:21.848Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-22T06:52:02.359Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"mrs carole watts","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169994,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169994.json"},"attributes":{"action":"All councils and H/A should offer any new build properties to existing tenants","background":"all councils and associations should offer new build properties to existing tenants who have lived in older properties for over 10 years and are up to date with the rent accounts in order for them to be able to upgrade and older properties offered to new tenants ","additional_details":"Social housing tenants are stuck now if you want to move it's pretty much a no go unless you have exceptional circumstances you could do mutual exchange but if you are in a older house there's little Chance as most want new builds if councils were to offer new builds to existing long term tenants it would mean that if they wanted to upgrade or move area the choice is there new tenants to be offered the older properties ","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-21T11:19:13.074Z","updated_at":"2016-10-27T23:42:45.616Z","open_at":"2016-10-27T09:18:15.903Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-21T16:00:20.658Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Tracy Nealon ","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169983,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169983.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Make all retail and commercial premises prominently display their street numbers","background":"Most shops and commercial premises fail to display their street numbers at all, making it very difficult to find them by address. This adds to high street congestion, pollution and potential for accidents by distracted drivers. Prominently displaying their street number should be a legal requirement","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-21T08:09:05.856Z","updated_at":"2017-01-30T14:59:13.295Z","open_at":"2016-10-27T08:56:09.720Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-22T15:40:46.821Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Paul Sydney Woodman","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169917,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169917.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Dedicate more funds to the development of the city of Birmingham.","background":"Too much of the British economy is centered around London. To counter this I suggest dedicating funds to the improvement and expansion of the city of Birmingham as it already has a substantial population, and has the potential to become a new economic and financial hub, strengthening the economy.","additional_details":"The city of San Francisco in the U.S is a major tourist attraction and financial hub, yet it is smaller than Birmingham. If the government was too attract more buisnesses to the area, build more attractions and increase the amount of tall buildings to make it appear more of a global city, then I believe we would see a similar effect. Expanding the airport to fly directly to more cities would also bolster this effect. This would generate far more revenue and give Britain a substantial 2nd city.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-20T12:30:22.750Z","updated_at":"2016-11-08T15:38:19.848Z","open_at":"2016-10-26T12:20:38.296Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-20T13:14:26.046Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Matt Gaston","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169888,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169888.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Add an extra voting option to the next election of \"Electoral Reform!\"","background":"Every year I vote for an less popular party as a type of \"rebel\" vote. This is the only way I feel heard. Now is the time to allow the public to express their concerns about the way OUR government is elected! Brexit has given us a new opportunity to concentrate on The UK! Let us be heard! ","additional_details":"http://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-20T09:10:15.936Z","updated_at":"2017-02-04T13:49:56.672Z","open_at":"2016-10-25T16:26:21.149Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-20T23:25:56.736Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Gemma Banks","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169719,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169719.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Require manufacturers \u0026 suppliers to label reduction in size/volume of a product","background":"Since the economic downturn in 2009, manufacturers \u0026 suppliers of food \u0026 other consumer goods such as washing liquids have been reducing the size or volume of products whilst maintaining the same selling price or increasing it. This results in the consumer paying more money for less goods.","additional_details":"Often the reductions are so subtle, that a consumer is unaware that anything has changed. This practice is misleading \u0026 unfair \u0026 it is time that manufacturers \u0026 suppliers are required to clearly mark a reduction in size or volume. This practice has made the weekly shop much more expensive \u0026 by labelling the reduction in size, consumers will be better informed to look at alternative products that may offer better value for money. See examples in this Daily Mail article: https://goo.gl/0aUpQF","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-18T13:02:58.726Z","updated_at":"2017-01-07T15:20:25.878Z","open_at":"2016-10-25T16:32:10.651Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-21T15:23:44.268Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Amir Boroumand","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169665,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169665.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Introduce a TV License Discount for Full Time Students","background":"This petition calls on the government to take advantage of the TV license freeze ending in March 2017 to introduce a reduced rate TV license for full time students living in single occupancy rooms. By introducing a reduced rate, more students would consider buying a license.","additional_details":"Unlike a typical home where only one license is needed, students staying in halls of residence are required to purchase an individual license for their room. For example, if a hall has 8 rooms on it, each student is currently required to purchase their own license for just one room at full cost. This is a large amount of money and it is unfair to charge students so much more despite them being on limited budgets. By introducing a reduced rate for single rooms, more students would pay the fee.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-17T20:02:03.894Z","updated_at":"2016-10-24T16:39:57.221Z","open_at":"2016-10-24T16:39:57.220Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-17T20:17:53.248Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"David Birch","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169564,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169564.json"},"attributes":{"action":"let Pubs And clubs to sell THC Infused Drinks as a safer alternative to Alcohol","background":"Amend the misuse of Drugs act and Psychoactive Substance Bill To allow Pubs And clubs to sell THC Infused Drinks as a safer alternative to Alcohol.\r\nI Believe this will reduce the level of drink related crime and is well known to be much less physically harmful than alcohol","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-16T18:48:17.199Z","updated_at":"2017-01-30T15:33:38.849Z","open_at":"2016-12-02T19:10:31.520Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-11-29T16:12:34.466Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Oliver Wilson","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169244,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169244.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Allow heating in education to be on in all colder months through more funding","background":"I myself am a student of 16 with asthma. Throught my whole time in education I , along with all my peers , have suffered through the lack of heating. Simply wrapping up warm doesn't work, as breathing in cold air causes illnesses , leading to absents. Please help change this. ","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-13T06:22:54.927Z","updated_at":"2017-01-30T23:43:22.129Z","open_at":"2016-10-14T17:20:18.166Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-13T07:09:34.499Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Alexandra Cheney ","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":169094,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/169094.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Introduce a plan of anti-ransomware measures","background":"Ransomware computer viruses target more and more ordinary UK citizens and organizations. Viruses like described here: http://myspybot.com/odin-virus/ cause huge damages. Millions flow away into cyber criminals' pockets. We want to know what is being done to protect us.","additional_details":"Plenty of things an be done:\r\n\r\n - Government can strengthen cryptocurrencies related laws. For example, make Bitcoin exchange companies keep records of their users. \r\n\r\n- Government can cooperate with security professionals to develop decryption tools.\r\n\r\n- Government can introduce stronger online data protection policies. Organizations should create backups of their data.\r\n\r\n- Government can raise awareness that we should stop paying to hackers. Make paying immoral and maybe illegal.\r\n\r\n","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-11T16:20:05.530Z","updated_at":"2016-11-30T17:03:47.603Z","open_at":"2016-10-14T15:05:46.536Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-11T16:58:10.040Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Madeline Dickson","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":168878,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/168878.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Outlaw sale of electronics with firmware reflashing code that can be reflashed","background":"For security, require electronic devices with \"reflashable\" or other alterable firmware to have the section of code that performs the reflashing, and one that correctly downloads the current reflashable firmware contents, stored in Read Only Memory that is electronically impossible to alter.","additional_details":"Cyber attacks against hardware have begun to take the form of reflashing attacks which modify the firmware of the targeted device.\r\n\r\nIf the device's capability to be reflashed can itself be removed or tampered with by reflashing, attack code can make itself undetectable and impossible to remove, requiring the entire electronic device to be thrown away.\r\n\r\nThe proposal would obstruct this form of attack as fixed unchangable code would exist allow reflashing and reporting of flash memory contents.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-09T17:13:51.786Z","updated_at":"2016-10-17T14:16:15.270Z","open_at":"2016-10-14T16:52:37.506Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-10T00:10:34.103Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Mark Green","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":168806,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/168806.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Stop live music venues being closed by house buyers who chose to live there.","background":"Fewer venues are open for musicians to play in because of home owners who complain AFTER buying. The venue is then closed. Buyers should sign an acknowledgment of the venue as part of the buying process.","additional_details":"Musicians have few places left to play. This will be to the detriment of our potentially rich live music future and will effect tourism and local culture. When all music venues are gone, the same people who complained about noise will bemoan it's loss. ","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-08T13:09:32.609Z","updated_at":"2016-10-14T17:02:38.073Z","open_at":"2016-10-14T17:02:38.072Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-10T11:14:42.880Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Claire Brewer","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":168705,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/168705.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Ban weapons using nanotechnology before they are able to be produced","background":"Nanotechnology could be reality in the next few years and, while there are many benefits of this, the potential of nanotech weapons is too great a threat to humanity to be allowed, these weapons must be banned before they can be produced to prevent the devistation that could arise from their use","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-06T23:04:27.101Z","updated_at":"2017-01-18T18:28:09.484Z","open_at":"2016-10-13T18:19:28.276Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-07T20:33:20.297Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Rhys-Lee Prescott","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":168670,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/168670.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Make it compulsory for schools to set up sports teams for both genders.","background":"\"Rugby is for boys,\" \"Netball is for girls.\" \r\nGender inequality in sport exists in schools, clubs and at the elite level.\r\nAll pupils should be encouraged to take part in any sport. How hard is it to set up a rugby team for boys and a rugby team for girls? \r\nYou can make a change!","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-10-06T15:44:36.373Z","updated_at":"2017-01-30T10:01:53.196Z","open_at":"2016-10-10T14:56:08.091Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-06T16:06:37.279Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Dara Wilson","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":168119,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/168119.json"},"attributes":{"action":"All cyclists to have a basic third party insurance cover.","background":"There are more and more people using bicycles these days and accidents happen. So what happens when a cyclist hits you or your vehicle and the blame is no them? Nothing because they are an uninsured vehicle, It's time for change. ","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-09-29T16:18:40.296Z","updated_at":"2017-01-23T10:17:04.613Z","open_at":"2016-10-03T16:21:00.238Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-09-29T17:06:00.651Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Robert Wood","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":167273,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/167273.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Close or take drastic measures to improve the 111 nhs service.","background":"The NHS 111 service continually provide incorrect information and put people's lives at risk and put extra strain on the hospitals, doctors and the ambulance service. They also don't listen to what the problem is , they read a computer screen.","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-09-16T16:25:34.864Z","updated_at":"2016-10-22T09:43:07.942Z","open_at":"2016-09-19T14:23:58.111Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-09-16T20:01:07.768Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Alfred james webster","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":167247,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/167247.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Require by law Landlords/Ladies to change mattresses between different tenants.","background":"Hi. I'm just another student in the London renting market. Yep, that open sewer of real estate. Thanks to not being provided a new mattress when I moved in to a property, I have had both fleas and bedbugs. I am asking that the government require new mattresses for new tenants.","additional_details":"When I moved into a property two years ago my mattress had been left in the shed for a \"few\" days whilst work was done on my room. Instead of receiving a new mattress I got the old one from the previous tenant, plus some new friends - fleas! \r\nThis year, I moved into a property and discovered the old mattress was infested with bed bugs! Thanks previous tenant! \r\nWhilst it may be expensive to replace mattresses, no tenant should have to live through bug infestations.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-09-16T09:02:14.073Z","updated_at":"2016-09-16T16:39:47.209Z","open_at":"2016-09-16T16:39:47.208Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-09-16T09:25:13.181Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"James Newman","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":167004,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/167004.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Standardise ID requirements for all public and quasi-public bodies","background":"At present any public authority (or quasi public authority such as a utility company or railway) can randomly select what ID requirements are needed from members of the public to interact with them. Surely this could be standardised for all such institutions through very simple legislation.","additional_details":"For instance some PAs (eg the Bank of England if you want to exchange old bank notes) will accept a driver's licence as proof over address, others (eg my local authority issuing a parking permit) will only accept a utility bill less than 3 months old and not if it is copied from an on-line bill. NB this is NOT a request for introduction of compulsory ID cards.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-09-13T16:24:30.624Z","updated_at":"2017-01-31T01:13:50.474Z","open_at":"2016-10-10T10:32:48.878Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-05T05:49:34.243Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Tim Price","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":166473,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/166473.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Ban group interviews for all job applicants in the UK","background":"In the harsh times we live in, employment and specifically, unemployment is one of the most painful things a person can face.\r\nThe indignity of group interviews where people are made to beg around a table for jobs, is unfair.\r\nWe need to empower jobseekers, not crush them and ban group interviews.","additional_details":"Group interviews are by many seen as a lazy recruitment practise, to root out 'unworthy' candidates quickly.\r\nIn many cases, I find group interviews to be discriminatory and unfair to certain demographics.\r\nPaid employment is and should be for everyone.\r\nOne of the major flaws with group interviews is that introverted personality types are left out in the cold. \r\nWe need to introduce a fairer system that forces employers to evenly and fairly judge ALL potential job candidates.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-09-06T21:20:31.688Z","updated_at":"2016-12-13T12:03:14.328Z","open_at":"2016-09-08T16:38:03.135Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-09-06T21:49:28.329Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Andrew Stinton","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":166192,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/166192.json"},"attributes":{"action":"To ban electronic cigarettes in all public places in England.","background":"They have not been around long enough for scientist to say whether electronic cigarettes cause harm to individuals. Young people are using them as a fashion accessory, not to give up smoking. ","additional_details":"There are a couple of young people in my office at work, who compares the different flavors they have tried and how much they like them. This is not encouraging them to give up.\r\n\r\nThere is nothing worse than seeing someone smoking them in a public place, the substance coming out of them is absolutely disgusting.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-09-02T18:08:15.725Z","updated_at":"2016-11-04T08:56:14.779Z","open_at":"2016-09-09T15:29:21.738Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-09-08T18:06:20.774Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Christine Crangle","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":166136,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/166136.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Remove from doctors working within the NHS the right to strike.","background":"I am a patient with two incurable deteriorating brain conditions. I have waited for six months for three appointments all of which are likely to be cancelled. I have followed the negotiations closely and have very reluctantly come to the conclusion that the BMA are being highly irresponsible.","additional_details":"Three reasons:\r\n1) In May of this year the BMA representative described the new contract as a deal \"All sides can sign up to\" and that \"Doctors can be confident in this new contract\". They now say the contract is so bad there have to be massive damaging strikes.\r\n2)There has been a large drop in support for the BMA's militant stance. Of the 54,000 members only a minority 21540 voted to reject the new contract. This is down from 98% at the start of the dispute. A responsible union would re-ballot its members.\r\n3) The BMA have consistently refused to take action such as legal action which would not damage patients and would win their dispute. ","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-09-02T06:47:17.365Z","updated_at":"2016-10-09T21:29:10.624Z","open_at":"2016-09-08T13:28:58.118Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-09-04T19:06:18.501Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"David Stuart Johnston","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":166069,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/166069.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Allow workers to continue to sacrifice their salaries in exchange for safer cars","background":"The Daily Mail have reported today that \"The Treasury’s proposed rules could come into force next April and would effectively kill off tax benefits worth thousands of pounds a year for company car drivers. Under the plans, workers would be taxed . . .\"\r\n\r\n\r\n","additional_details":"Salary sacrifice schemes are the only way some people would ever be able to drive a nice car - you see far fewer \"old bangers\" on the road nowadays. These schemes must be hugely beneficial to car manufacturers and all associated industries.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-09-01T10:30:19.384Z","updated_at":"2016-09-19T22:06:24.463Z","open_at":"2016-09-05T18:11:18.711Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-09-05T11:39:43.473Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Sandra Isitt","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":165937,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/165937.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Anti Flash Hoods to be Mandatory Under SOLAS Regs","background":"Ammend SOLAS Regulations to make the issue of Anti Flash Hoods a mandatory requirement as part of ships fire fighting equipment","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-30T09:50:35.372Z","updated_at":"2017-02-04T02:36:28.933Z","open_at":"2016-09-01T13:54:16.780Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-31T14:00:23.133Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Robert George Ide","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":165904,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/165904.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Ask this Government to consider issuing a medal to all serving armed forces.","background":"I consider anyone serving their country for security and safety reasons should be acknowledged by means of a medal of service for their dedication and support to make this a safer and better World for us all to live and work in as a show of appreciation.","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-29T15:54:23.496Z","updated_at":"2017-01-31T20:21:47.798Z","open_at":"2016-09-27T11:03:30.068Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-09-26T01:15:03.616Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Herbert Crossman","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":165820,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/165820.json"},"attributes":{"action":"An annual National Sports Day to grow participation in sport \u0026 physical activity","background":"One day a year should be designated a National Sports Day (#sportsday). Saturday 27th August 2016 saw the #IAmTeamGB campaign hold free events around the country to encourage people to participate in sport and physical activity. This should become a government supported annual national event.","additional_details":"In December 2015 Tracey Crouch MP Minister for Sport, Tourism and Heritage launched 'Sporting Future: A New Strategy for an Active Nation', encouraging sport and physical activity as a national priority. Shortly after, Jennie Price Chief Executive, Sport England launched the new 2016-2021 strategy 'Sport England: Towards An Active Nation'.\r\n\r\nWe need an annual National Sports Day to bring these strategies to life and to capitalise on Team GB \u0026 Paralympics GB's potential to inspire the nation.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-27T20:06:47.796Z","updated_at":"2017-01-31T20:20:27.253Z","open_at":"2016-08-30T12:00:49.498Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-27T20:50:10.745Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Nigel Collier","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":165660,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/165660.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Ban all HGVs from the third lane of all motorways","background":"Motorway expansion was meant to increase traffic flow but, with lorries using lanes 1 2 and 3, traffic bunches up causing congestion ","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-25T05:50:20.706Z","updated_at":"2016-12-20T09:44:15.000Z","open_at":"2016-08-25T14:16:15.785Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-25T11:37:06.558Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Darren Berry","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":165243,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/165243.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Make ALL schools teach kids the dangers of the railway.","background":"We all know that the railway is a dangerous place, however people still do not understand this and are running across the tracks at stations, laying on the tracks or even playing chicken at level crossings.\r\n\r\nLast year 332 people died after trespassing onto the railway tracks in the UK. \r\n","additional_details":"Now kids think it's right to play on the railway and ignore all the safety rules displayed around the tracks. \r\n\r\nIf schools teach kids that it's dangerous to play on or around the railway then the figures might go down and there will be less deaths.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-19T14:32:45.983Z","updated_at":"2016-08-25T20:41:11.804Z","open_at":"2016-08-25T16:24:02.704Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-20T15:35:10.599Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Matthew Wright","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":164913,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/164913.json"},"attributes":{"action":"make it mandatory to show on ALL products:\r\n- manufacturer\r\n- origin","background":"Please make it mandatory for all products sold in the UK to display\r\n- manufacturer name\r\n- country of origin\r\nthis should apply to products sold under supermarkets' name as well.\r\nfor example \r\nfridge from electronic shop chain named Sandstorm does not show manufacturer and its country of origin!","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-15T10:37:10.555Z","updated_at":"2017-01-07T15:20:15.845Z","open_at":"2016-10-25T16:43:18.876Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-10-21T10:26:43.048Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Piotr Malek","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":164843,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/164843.json"},"attributes":{"action":"An NHS research investment donation app for mobile phones and computers.","background":"Well I have ulcerative colitis and every time I go to hospital I notice there are a lot of people who would like to be able to do more and feel as if they can do nothing at least with a app people can send money to invest in research in areas where they would like to see improvements in research. ","additional_details":"I don't feel evidence is something needed in this case. Good people invest in good things and this is one of them.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-14T09:50:24.135Z","updated_at":"2016-10-28T04:58:50.295Z","open_at":"2016-08-17T09:05:21.317Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-16T17:26:22.779Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Dean Parry","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":164708,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/164708.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Address the rise in incidences of dangerous driving on UK roads.","background":"There is a lack of deterrent for dangerous drivers on UK roads. Speeding, illegal manoeuvring and blatant disregard for the Highway Code seem to have become common-place. The UK needs to rethink it's reliance on speed cameras, speed humps, etc. and begin enforcing speed and dangerous driving laws. ","additional_details":"","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-12T12:43:39.764Z","updated_at":"2017-01-11T00:19:04.387Z","open_at":"2016-08-15T15:35:31.224Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-12T13:42:05.809Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"A G Burke","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":164653,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/164653.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Make all drivers carrying passengers for reward take the DVSA Practical \u0026 CPC","background":"At present it is optional if licensing authorities make new hackney/ph drivers take a dvsa test. I call for all drivers present and new of any licensing borough to ensure all drivers complete a dvsa practical, hazard perception \u0026 cpc. All other professional drivers have to and only equal they do to.","additional_details":"Road safety is becoming harder to tackle across the UK, if we lead the way in Europe on how to maintain road safety by ensuring all drivers who drive for hire \u0026 reward take the steps as bus \u0026 lorry drivers have then we are one step closer to ensuring safety of passengers in any Taxi/PH vehicle \u0026 other road users for social, domestic, pleasure, commercial \u0026 business use too. Where the public are concerned this is vital for road safety and passenger reassurance that drivers are trained correctly.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-11T18:24:35.218Z","updated_at":"2016-11-30T18:19:42.589Z","open_at":"2016-08-16T12:07:26.760Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-13T12:09:41.789Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Jamal Thornton","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":164587,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/164587.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Add safeguards to §111A (Enterprise \u0026 Regulatory Reform Act 2013) for employees.","background":"The current laws regarding 'Settlement Agreements' or 'Without Prejudice Conversations' or 'Protected Conversations' or 'Off the record Conversations' are shockingly lacking in safeguards for the employee.\r\n\r\nThey can be sprung upon an employee as a way of getting rid of them without red tape.","additional_details":"They are being used currently by employers as a way to place 'no other options decisions' on the employee and there is not enough safeguarding process to resolve relationship issues through other steps first. Much like you can't go to tribunal without a certificate from ACAS, employers should not be allowed to have these types of conversation without all possible other avenues exhausted first.\r\n\r\nI'm not suggesting that the option shouldn't be there, it should just be limited to the final ones.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-10T23:05:43.931Z","updated_at":"2016-08-12T19:19:22.655Z","open_at":"2016-08-12T16:22:31.823Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-12T11:57:24.979Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"Daniel Roy Rowe","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}},{"type":"petition","id":164560,"links":{"self":"https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/164560.json"},"attributes":{"action":"Automate all trains so there are no longer drivers or manual door openers.","background":"It is ludicrous in 2016 that huge swathes of the country should be held to ransom by union action over something as silly as who controls the doors - personnel are paid far too much to press a button and move a lever. The technology has existed since the 70s to automate all of this.","additional_details":"In 2016 Train Drivers hold the country to ransom whenever they want a pay bump, or even more favourable conditions. The average transport for London driver earns £55k, in the south, the average is £39k. No part of their job requires a human. It's time for progress, guarantee these people jobs until retirement, hire no new drivers - and slowly automate away the skill gap so that the current drivers don't suffer, but that no drivers can come along to make the rest of the country suffer.","state":"open","signature_count":8,"created_at":"2016-08-10T17:38:39.929Z","updated_at":"2017-01-29T21:55:57.142Z","open_at":"2016-08-17T16:27:34.705Z","closed_at":null,"government_response_at":null,"scheduled_debate_date":null,"debate_threshold_reached_at":null,"rejected_at":null,"debate_outcome_at":null,"moderation_threshold_reached_at":"2016-08-17T11:42:08.453Z","response_threshold_reached_at":null,"creator_name":"David Gladwin","rejection":null,"government_response":null,"debate":null}}]} |
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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],
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"summary": {
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},
"titles": [
{
"as": "introduced",
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"type": "official"
}
],
"updated_at": "2013-02-02T18:43:15-05:00"
} |
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{"id": "35988750", "header": "Hà Nội: Một vụ nổ lớn trên phố Kim Mã khiến 3 người bị thương nặng", "datetime": "2020-08-10T15:31:33.000+07:00", "summary": "Sáng nay (10/8), vào lúc 9h30, tại số nhà 531 đường Kim Mã (phường Phúc Khánh, Ba Đình, Hà Nội) đã diễn ra một vụ nổ lớn.", "content": "Theo ghi nhận nguồn tin từ các hộ dân xung quanh, tiếng nổ phát ra từ ngôi nhà số 531 rất lớn, cảm nhận rõ. Kéo theo tiếng động lớn là âm thanh các vách kính vỡ kéo xuống mặt đường. Vào thời điểm xảy ra vụ việc, tấm kính vỡ đã rơi trúng một xe taxi đang di chuyển tại con phố này. Tài xế không bị thương và trên xe không có hành khách.Tuy nhiên, vụ nổ trên cũng khiến 3 người trong căn nhà 531 bị bỏng nặng. Vụ nổ cũng khiến giao thông tại phố Kim Mã tắc nghẽn.Ngay khi có thông tin, lực lượng chức năng đã có mặt để xử lý vụ việc. Đặc biệt, thu dọn các mảnh vỡ để đảm bảo an toàn giao thông. Trao đổi nhanh với Báo Gia đình và Xã hội, đại diện Công an phường Phúc Khánh cho biết, nguyên nhân của vụ việc là do nổ bình gas tại số nhà 531 dẫn đến mặt kính trước tòa nhà sập đổ ra đường.Liên hệ với Bệnh viện Giao thông Vận tải, đại diện Khoa Cấp cứu thông tin: \"Sáng nay, chúng tôi đã tiếp nhận 3 bệnh nhân liên quan đến vụ nổ bình gas trên phố Kim Mã. Trong đó, có 1 bệnh nhân tiên lượng nặng phải chuyển gấp sang Viện Bỏng Trung ương. 2 bệnh nhân còn lại được gia đình yêu cầu chuyển sang điều trị tại đây\".Ngôi nhà số 531 nằm tại tuyến phố trung tâm, ngày thường có các quán xôi, trà đá vỉa hè bán ngay cạnh. Tuy nhiên, do ảnh hưởng từ dịch COVID-19, các quán này tạm đóng nên giảm nguy cơ về thương vong. ", "topic": "Pháp luật", "tag": ["Vụ Nổ Lớn", "Kim Mã", "Đường Kim Mã", "Phúc Khánh", "Phố Kim Mã", "Bình gas", "Bị thương nặng", "Số nhà", "Ngôi nhà số", "Taxi", "Vụ nổ", "Tiếng nổ", "Ba Đình", "Vách kính", "Công an phường Phúc Khánh", "Trúng", "Tấm kính", "Kéo xuống", "Tiếng động", "Mảnh vỡ"], "link": "http://giadinh.net.vn/xa-hoi/ha-noi-mot-vu-no-lon-tren-pho-kim-ma-khien-3-nguoi-bi-thuong-nang-20200810142623898.htm"} |
{"18":{"dur":7,"text":">> The main facts and figures on this topic\n-- an important topic for us, I think -- are"},"26":{"dur":4,"text":"all in the paper, and I am not going to run\nthrough the paper in order, as it were. I"},"31":{"dur":4,"text":"want to focus on the implications of it for\nus as we go forward. It links very much back"},"35":{"dur":4,"text":"to the earlier discussion about how we make\nall this practical and concrete and get on"},"40":{"dur":5,"text":"with doing it.\nThere is of course the welcome confirmation"},"45":{"dur":7,"text":"that another year of headline preservation\nof the health spend, in real terms, is there,"},"52":{"dur":4,"text":"unlike most of the rest of the public sector,\nand there are some very graphic charts that"},"57":{"dur":5,"text":"we all saw about that. The big news in this,\nas David mentioned earlier, is the creation"},"62":{"dur":12,"text":"of the integration transformation fund of\nnearly \u00a34 billion that is being put together."},"75":{"dur":6,"text":"There is \u00a31.7 billion of that which is already\nin the system, where health is in one form"},"81":{"dur":5,"text":"or another supporting the social care system\nin its various activities. However, there"},"87":{"dur":5,"text":"is an additional \u00a32.1 billion -- a little\nbit next year and then a lot of '15\/'16 -- which"},"93":{"dur":5,"text":"needs to be found from existing sources through\nsavings to make that fund a reality. And it"},"98":{"dur":6,"text":"is that which will concentrate our minds,\nI think, as we go forward."},"104":{"dur":6,"text":"We talked about clarity in a large part of\nthe rest of the agenda. The details of exactly"},"111":{"dur":3,"text":"how this fund is going to work, what the basis\nof it is going to be, which section it is"},"115":{"dur":4,"text":"all going to be organised under is still very\nmuch being worked through, in detail, between"},"119":{"dur":8,"text":"the two departments concerned: NHS England\nand the Local Government Association. Contrary"},"128":{"dur":4,"text":"to the simplistic assumption in this paper,\nwhich was right at the time we wrote it but"},"132":{"dur":4,"text":"seems now to be not quite as clear, it is\nnot a foregone conclusion that the money will"},"137":{"dur":5,"text":"simply go straight across and be held by the\nlocal authority. It is much more open than"},"143":{"dur":3,"text":"that. The one clear thing is that it will\nbe pooled money which needs to be managed"},"146":{"dur":6,"text":"within the local health economy by the CCGs,\nthe local authorities concerned and, indeed,"},"153":{"dur":4,"text":"the Health and Wellbeing Board as the unit\nthat brings all that together."},"158":{"dur":4,"text":"There is now, I think, a shared determination\nthat the routing of the funding should be"},"162":{"dur":4,"text":"through the CCGs. That is not an administrative\nmatter, that is quite an important part of"},"167":{"dur":4,"text":"making sure the ownership of this and the\nability to influence the way in which the"},"171":{"dur":11,"text":"money is spent and the outcomes reflects the\nlocus of the CCG as the local representation"},"183":{"dur":5,"text":"of clinical leadership in the health service.\nThat is important. I would say, though, that"},"188":{"dur":5,"text":"until we get complete crystal clarity on how\nthe mechanism of this is going to go, the"},"193":{"dur":4,"text":"precise answer to how the accountabilities\nget exercised in all of this, who exactly"},"198":{"dur":5,"text":"is responsible for what, what the line of\nsight is through the system will remain to"},"203":{"dur":5,"text":"be clarified.\nWhatever the legal niceties, the one thing"},"208":{"dur":5,"text":"we do know is that there are two salient questions\nthat we need to address with some urgency."},"214":{"dur":5,"text":"The first of those is: what are we going to\ndo with a fund of \u00a33.8 billion which will"},"219":{"dur":5,"text":"really make a difference in local health economies?\nHow are we going to get this integration concept"},"224":{"dur":5,"text":"moving for the maximum benefit for patients\nand, dare I say it, also for the maximum efficiency"},"229":{"dur":4,"text":"for the taxpayer; both of those go hand in\nhand. It is a really serious piece of work"},"234":{"dur":6,"text":"to make concrete what we have been thinking\nand talking about for many months, if not"},"241":{"dur":2,"text":"years.\nSome of that thinking is represented in the"},"243":{"dur":4,"text":"conditions that you can see listed in the\ndocument in front of you, which are things"},"248":{"dur":5,"text":"that, together, the CCGs and the local authorities\nwill have to work their way through. However,"},"253":{"dur":5,"text":"these will be a deeply local set of approaches\nto it that reflect the local circumstances."},"259":{"dur":3,"text":"There is not a one-size-fits-all approach.\nThat is one of the questions that needs to"},"262":{"dur":3,"text":"be answered, and it is the one frankly that\nmost people are perhaps most focused on at"},"266":{"dur":2,"text":"the moment.\nEqually important, if not more important,"},"269":{"dur":3,"text":"though, is that you cannot spend money that\nyou do not have. There is a rather thornier"},"273":{"dur":5,"text":"question that we need to address, which is,\nhow do we generate savings of \u00a32 billion"},"278":{"dur":5,"text":"on top of all the savings we already have\nto generate on an annual basis to keep going."},"283":{"dur":6,"text":"How do we generate that in a way which sustains\nhealthcare and does not cause unintended consequences"},"290":{"dur":3,"text":"of a significant nature. So you will be aware\nof the kind of efficiency level in the system"},"294":{"dur":5,"text":"at the moment, the ask on the system is about\n4% to 5% if you add together the provider"},"299":{"dur":5,"text":"and the commissioner ask at the moment. That\ntrips up to at least 6% to 7% when you put"},"304":{"dur":3,"text":"an additional ask of \u00a32 billion into the\nsystem and, as David has already said, that"},"308":{"dur":4,"text":"is a non-trivial ask; it is not just a small\nadjustment to the percentage savings that"},"312":{"dur":5,"text":"need to be done. That takes us into a whole\ndifferent category of the stretch that is"},"317":{"dur":12,"text":"required.\nThe most obvious conclusion is that you cannot"},"329":{"dur":3,"text":"achieve that through business as usual; you\ncannot do that by salami-slicing; you cannot"},"333":{"dur":7,"text":"do that through incremental gains of one sort\nor another. If you want to invest cash, you"},"340":{"dur":4,"text":"have to generate it and that means effectively\ndisinvesting in other activities of one sort"},"345":{"dur":5,"text":"or another. In the discussion that we have,\nwe cannot pretend we can just generate the"},"350":{"dur":8,"text":"money without making changes. So we are going\nto have to find some clear"},"359":{"dur":5,"text":"strategies for shifting activities, shifting\nresource to create that capacity. Equally"},"365":{"dur":3,"text":"important, having shifted the activity, we\nhave to find a way of taking out the cost"},"368":{"dur":3,"text":"from where it is currently being incurred,\nand there are complexities in that that we"},"372":{"dur":3,"text":"are all familiar with.\nThe second thing that is obvious is that if"},"375":{"dur":4,"text":"we start planning for that when we get to\n'15\/'16, it will be too late to do that because"},"379":{"dur":5,"text":"you cannot do that sort of change on a short-term\nbasis. We have to start planning now if we"},"385":{"dur":4,"text":"are going to free that up for '15\/'16.\nOf course, there is a strong link to the Call"},"389":{"dur":4,"text":"to Action that we talked about earlier. This\nis one of the means by which all of that gets"},"393":{"dur":5,"text":"made concrete. We talked about the Call to\nAction as being a five- to ten-year challenge,"},"398":{"dur":5,"text":"possibly longer than that, in its vision.\nThis brings it very much to a 90-week challenge,"},"403":{"dur":3,"text":"and I think we just have to square up to that\nquite quickly and work out how we are going"},"406":{"dur":4,"text":"to make a reality of that.\nWhat are we going to do about it? To make"},"411":{"dur":4,"text":"sure that every health economy is well prepared\nfor that challenge, we are about to launch"},"415":{"dur":6,"text":"a process of accelerated planning, where CCG\nteams, area teams and other local partners"},"421":{"dur":4,"text":"in health and social care can work together\nto produce strategic plans that address all"},"426":{"dur":6,"text":"of that for the next five years but, crucially,\nsome two-year operating plans: a bit of a"},"432":{"dur":5,"text":"novelty for all of us. These two-year operating\nplans will make very concrete, what are the"},"438":{"dur":5,"text":"steps we are going to do in '14\/'15 and '15\/'16\nto make it real in that short timeframe that"},"443":{"dur":4,"text":"we have? They need to be deeply practical\nplans, and they need to show in some detail"},"448":{"dur":4,"text":"how the various parties to that, wherever\nthey sit in the local health economy, are"},"452":{"dur":3,"text":"going to contribute to it.\nOne of the things we can do to help with that"},"456":{"dur":5,"text":"process is to give some clarity about funding\nfor individual organisations for that two-year"},"462":{"dur":5,"text":"period, because you frankly cannot do two-year\noperating plans without clarity of resource."},"467":{"dur":4,"text":"One of the benefits of the '15\/'16 spending\nreview being there already -- and we know"},"471":{"dur":4,"text":"already about '14\/'15 -- is that we will know\nby the time we get deeply into that planning"},"476":{"dur":4,"text":"process how much money we have, and we can\nmake allocations, subject to the Board agreeing"},"481":{"dur":4,"text":"that when we come to make the formal decisions,\non a two-year basis, to give people the clarity"},"486":{"dur":3,"text":"to plan by.\nWe are going to put in place a programme of"},"489":{"dur":4,"text":"support to commissioners to do this planning,\nbecause it is very clear that this goes beyond"},"494":{"dur":4,"text":"what most health organisations have been able\nto do in the past. We will all be aware from"},"498":{"dur":6,"text":"the authorisation process that the one set\nof criteria that was most frequently a challenge"},"504":{"dur":6,"text":"for CCGs has been the planning set of challenges\nand, therefore, putting an additional complexity"},"511":{"dur":5,"text":"and length, as it were, and challenge into\nthe planning process, we need to put some"},"516":{"dur":9,"text":"support in place to do that.\nAs"},"526":{"dur":4,"text":"you would expect, we are doing this in partnership\nwith the Commissioning Assembly, which of"},"531":{"dur":5,"text":"course is our link between NHS England and\nthe CCGs, to make these things happen in a"},"536":{"dur":5,"text":"joined-up fashion, and we have started that\ndialogue already, with Ros's support and help."},"541":{"dur":4,"text":"We are also in discussion right now with the\nLocal Government Association and with a variety"},"546":{"dur":4,"text":"of arm's-length Bodies, the national partners\nthat we have -- whether that be the Trust"},"551":{"dur":4,"text":"Development Authority, whether it be Monitor\n-- to see how we can make this a truly integrated"},"555":{"dur":4,"text":"piece of planning. If we do it on a pure commissioning\nbasis, you cannot answer half of those questions"},"560":{"dur":3,"text":"that I posed at the beginning. It is really,\nreally important that we have it joined up,"},"564":{"dur":4,"text":"and I think there are some good signs at the\nmoment from the early conversations that David"},"568":{"dur":5,"text":"has had with anyone else who is called David\nin the country, and the follow-up conversations"},"574":{"dur":4,"text":"that we are having with people who are not\ncalled David, just how we might bring all"},"578":{"dur":5,"text":"of that process together into an integrated\nthing. It is the only way we will make it"},"584":{"dur":3,"text":"stick.\nThere is one additional complication, which"},"588":{"dur":4,"text":"is put into paragraph 10, in that, at the\nsame time as delivering all of that, we will"},"592":{"dur":5,"text":"have to make some very substantial savings\nin our admin costs, coming on top of the reductions"},"597":{"dur":4,"text":"of 30% to 50% that we have already absorbed\nin putting this organisation together, and"},"602":{"dur":3,"text":"where we are already trying to make sure that\nwe have that resource in the right place,"},"605":{"dur":2,"text":"in the right measure, and able to tackle the\nchallenge."},"608":{"dur":5,"text":"If you take those two things together, two-year\nplanning with an enormous ask in '15\/'16,"},"614":{"dur":4,"text":"and the need to think about what we do with\nour admin structures, it is a massive test"},"618":{"dur":3,"text":"for a commissioning system that, as David\nhas already said, has only been in existence"},"622":{"dur":4,"text":"for a matter of weeks. We do not have very\nlong to put these plans together, because"},"626":{"dur":4,"text":"we need to start implementing them soon. I\ndo think that if we tackle this with a real"},"630":{"dur":6,"text":"passion, determination and support for each\nother, it will give a real impetus to the"},"637":{"dur":3,"text":"kind of transformation that we have talked\nabout in the Call to Action. It will end up"},"641":{"dur":3,"text":"being a positive thing, albeit a challenging\nthing."},"644":{"dur":19,"text":"That is what I wanted to say by way of introduction.\nI would be keen to get any thoughts and help"},"663":{"dur":3,"text":"that people around the table can bring to\nbear."},"667":{"dur":12,"text":">> Thanks to the Paul for that very clear\nsetting out of the enormity of the challenge,"},"680":{"dur":7,"text":"which I fully accept. However, I would want\nto pay tribute, in a sense, to the recognition"},"688":{"dur":5,"text":"that this gives to the importance of social\ncare in the system, and putting money where"},"693":{"dur":6,"text":"your mouth is, is a very important signal,\nand I welcome greatly the stretch in social"},"700":{"dur":14,"text":"care that we all need, as I say.\nThe impact of cuts in local government is"},"715":{"dur":9,"text":"not evenly spread, and there is a risk, in\na sense. It is not a straightforward replacement"},"724":{"dur":4,"text":"for cuts; that is obviously not what is intended,\nbut there will be places that are definitely"},"729":{"dur":7,"text":"having more of an impact than others, and\nhow our distribution mechanism will assist"},"737":{"dur":4,"text":"or, in fact, potentially not recognise that,\nI am interested in you thoughts on that."},"741":{"dur":4,"text":">> There is a precedent question, which comes\nback to how we are going to do all of this"},"746":{"dur":5,"text":"stuff, which is, who gets to decide the distribution\nof this? That is one of the questions that"},"751":{"dur":4,"text":"we are currently working through. It will\nbe no surprise to you, I guess, to recognise"},"756":{"dur":4,"text":"that we think it would be a good idea if we\ndid that particular exercise. That is not"},"760":{"dur":4,"text":"the case with the current social care transfer\nthat we are required to make, but I do think"},"765":{"dur":4,"text":"it would be important for us to do that as\npart of the allocation discussion, more broadly,"},"769":{"dur":3,"text":"because we need to make sure the total funds\nget to the right places in the right measure,"},"773":{"dur":3,"text":"and we can only do that if we bring together\nthe various strands."},"776":{"dur":5,"text":"That is my aspiration, Moira. I think it is\nreally quite important that that is the way"},"782":{"dur":9,"text":"it gets transacted. As we speak, I would not\nsay that is in the bag yet."},"792":{"dur":7,"text":">> Paul raised the point that I think is critical,\nand I think we as a Board must wait to see"},"799":{"dur":7,"text":"where it comes back. However, I am a simple\nsoul, and accountability has to follow, whether"},"807":{"dur":4,"text":"you are responsible for deciding on where\nthe money is spent and how it is spent, and"},"812":{"dur":5,"text":"the outcomes from it. I will be very keen\nto make sure that we can see that absolutely"},"817":{"dur":8,"text":"direct line of accountability to spend on\noutcomes, and if we are not having that as"},"825":{"dur":5,"text":"a Board of NHS England, then I struggle to\nsee how we can then be accountable for the"},"831":{"dur":4,"text":"spend. That is a point that you would expect\nme to make."},"835":{"dur":10,"text":">> I think in principle putting the money\nbehind driving outcomes based in the community"},"846":{"dur":5,"text":"is our direction of travel and has to be a\nreally, really good thing to do. I like that,"},"852":{"dur":4,"text":"and if accepting the enormity of it drives\nus in the direction we need to do, we need"},"857":{"dur":5,"text":"to understand the implications of that. We\nneed to start acting now; this is not something"},"862":{"dur":5,"text":"we start in 2015 or '16. It is going to afford\nsome real change very quickly."},"868":{"dur":4,"text":"I am almost more worried about the admin bit,\nbecause it is taking more capacity out of"},"872":{"dur":5,"text":"the system. It is taking the capacity to take\nthe capacity out of the system, the brainpower"},"877":{"dur":6,"text":"of the Exec in particular, at a time when\nwe are trying to not only establish where"},"884":{"dur":6,"text":"we are, but accelerate it. This is accelerating\nthe changes we need to do, and I would love"},"891":{"dur":7,"text":"to know what risk assessment -- dare I use\nthe words -- has been put in place, and just"},"898":{"dur":3,"text":"to think that through. Directionally, I love\nit; I think it is great. It is a really good"},"902":{"dur":4,"text":"thing. It will empower Health and Wellbeing\nBoards, it will get people playing nicely"},"906":{"dur":6,"text":"together across the country. If we do it at\nthe same time as getting rid of all the people"},"912":{"dur":3,"text":"who can actually deliver it, it probably will\nnot be quite so good."},"916":{"dur":6,"text":">> I think that is a really good point, and\nI think we should ask for transparency from"},"923":{"dur":4,"text":"the department about what the risk assessment\nwas on the admin cost, so we can look at it"},"927":{"dur":6,"text":"and test it ourselves to see how that is,\nas well as the conclusions they made about"},"934":{"dur":9,"text":"the \u00a33.8 billion. Just to reinforce the point\nthat Paul makes, this \u00a32 billion is on top"},"944":{"dur":5,"text":"of the \u00a34 billion we already have to save.\nYou cannot focus on the \u00a32 billion alone;"},"950":{"dur":7,"text":"you have to do the whole thing. In some of\nthe conversations I have heard, people have"},"957":{"dur":3,"text":"missed that point, which I think is a really\nimportant points, because it is not that we"},"960":{"dur":5,"text":"have \u00a32 billion sitting around somewhere\ndoing nothing, it is tied up in services."},"966":{"dur":2,"text":"The way in which we tackle that is going to\nbe really important. That is the first thing,"},"969":{"dur":4,"text":"just to reinforce how big this is.\nThe second thing is, I am slightly worried"},"974":{"dur":5,"text":"that what will happen is we will get involved\nin a long and detailed conversation about"},"980":{"dur":5,"text":"the technical ways the money flows in the\nsystem, when actually, the real issue is how"},"985":{"dur":6,"text":"we redesign the services. In any planning\nsystem that we have, we need to make sure"},"992":{"dur":7,"text":"that that is forefront in everybody's minds,\nhow we are going to redesign the system. We"},"999":{"dur":3,"text":"have to do the technical things, that is absolutely\nright, but I just think I can see exactly"},"1003":{"dur":6,"text":"where people will go in all that. I think\nthere needs to be a real transparency, openness"},"1009":{"dur":7,"text":"and honesty with the public about what this\nmeans practically. That is why, in a sense,"},"1016":{"dur":6,"text":"it reinforces the whole issue of the Call\nto Action. Had we not done it, we would have"},"1023":{"dur":6,"text":"had to have done it now, I think. It seems\nthat that is really important as far as we"},"1029":{"dur":7,"text":"are concerned.\n>> I am just going to echo what has been by"},"1037":{"dur":6,"text":"David, which is that I go immediately for\nthe implications for what happens on the ground"},"1043":{"dur":9,"text":"in communities. I guess it drives everything\nto a point of, how do we in a sense sign of"},"1052":{"dur":6,"text":"the process of service redesign around individuals\nand communities? If we do not get that right,"},"1059":{"dur":6,"text":"we will end up either fighting about who owns\nwhich bit of the budget, or salami-slicing,"},"1065":{"dur":7,"text":"neither of which will work. For me, the implications\nare about commissioning, actually, and the"},"1073":{"dur":5,"text":"way it drives into the system processes for\nunderstanding what people have, what they"},"1078":{"dur":4,"text":"do not have, what they need, and how we will\nredesign the services to deliver it and how"},"1083":{"dur":7,"text":"we involve them in doing that. We are not\nstarting with a huge amount of technical know-how;"},"1090":{"dur":5,"text":"there is some, but it is not something we\nhave done, so there is a rapid learning curve"},"1096":{"dur":5,"text":"as to how we do that and how we get the sign-offs\nall the way up the line. I have to say it"},"1101":{"dur":6,"text":"would be in error to paint a rosy picture\nof understanding between health and social"},"1107":{"dur":4,"text":"care throughout the country. What this is\nfundamentally about is power, and what this"},"1112":{"dur":3,"text":"forces -- whether we like it or not -- is\na transfer of power, which is not something"},"1116":{"dur":7,"text":"we have done systemically, effectively, efficiently,\nin the past. It is a really serious shift;"},"1123":{"dur":4,"text":"it is almost a paradigm shift forced by the\nmoney."},"1128":{"dur":4,"text":"The other point I wanted to make was that\nI am very worried about the implications of"},"1132":{"dur":5,"text":"the \u00a3300 million. While it is really important\nwe look at the frontline and all that, I am"},"1138":{"dur":4,"text":"really keen to know what the implications\nof the \u00a3300 million are on us almost before"},"1142":{"dur":3,"text":"we start doing the other bit, so we have a\nclear understanding of what we can do and"},"1146":{"dur":7,"text":"what we cannot in the fixed period of time.\n>> Quite blatantly, the aim of this money"},"1153":{"dur":5,"text":"rightly and properly is to support those people\nwho do not need to be in hospital to stay"},"1158":{"dur":4,"text":"at home and to get people who are in hospital\nand are ready to go home, home more quickly."},"1163":{"dur":5,"text":"We know from the work we do out and about\nin the country that actually, whilst often"},"1168":{"dur":4,"text":"this is a social care issue, it can almost\nequally often be a health services issue in"},"1173":{"dur":3,"text":"that the right community services are not\nin place, the right primary care services"},"1176":{"dur":5,"text":"are not in place. I do hope as we move through\nthat the way that this money can be used and"},"1182":{"dur":5,"text":"the way it is looked at on the ground is that\npeople remember that it is sometimes NHS services"},"1188":{"dur":4,"text":"that are needed to support these individuals,\nnot just social care ones."},"1192":{"dur":10,"text":">> I just want to report that we have had\nvery positive discussions so far with Local"},"1203":{"dur":7,"text":"Government Association about this. I guess\nyou might not find that surprising given the"},"1210":{"dur":5,"text":"potential investment that local government\ncan share in from this. I think they have"},"1216":{"dur":10,"text":"been a very honest and serious set of discussions\nwhere local governments -- not just the officials,"},"1226":{"dur":6,"text":"but some of the political infrastructure around\nLocal Government Association -- have recognised"},"1233":{"dur":9,"text":"that this is not a financial transaction,\nbut that it is a really significant step towards"},"1242":{"dur":8,"text":"a shared responsibility, not just to design\nservices differently that will better serve"},"1250":{"dur":8,"text":"local populations, but then to back that up\nnot just with the investment, but with the"},"1259":{"dur":6,"text":"political support that will be needed to bring\nabout some really quite challenging changes."},"1266":{"dur":4,"text":"They will be in the interest of patients in\nthe community, but they will be challenging"},"1270":{"dur":10,"text":"service changes. The potential game changer\nhere is this money draws together NHS leadership"},"1281":{"dur":5,"text":"and political leadership in local government\nto support those changes, whereas, at times"},"1287":{"dur":7,"text":"in the past, I think it is fair to say local\ngovernment has felt able to step back and"},"1294":{"dur":6,"text":"just criticise. I am very hopeful from those\ndiscussions that this could be a step into"},"1300":{"dur":8,"text":"a significantly different quality of collaboration.\n>> I think some really telling points have"},"1309":{"dur":4,"text":"been made in that discussion. Paul, is there\nanything else that you would like to come"},"1313":{"dur":4,"text":"back on, on what you have heard from us?\n>> I do not think so. I have obviously taken"},"1317":{"dur":4,"text":"note of the sentiment of the Board, if I can\nput it that way, and will make sure that gets"},"1321":{"dur":3,"text":"worked into the programme. I have taken onboard\nin particular the admin comments, which clearly"},"1325":{"dur":3,"text":"we will pick up.\n>> Thanks for that; and actually, frankly,"},"1328":{"dur":7,"text":"the capacity issue is I think just quite scary,\nhanging over all of us on top of everything"},"1335":{"dur":1,"text":"else that we are doing."}} |
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"body": "<p>Proposta debatuda en la cita presencial, Debat de les persones grans en el proc\u00e9s participatiu d\u2019elaboraci\u00f3 del PAM 2015 -2016 :\n<br /> \"Formar i motivar a la gent gran perqu\u00e8 incorpori els elements tecnol\u00f2gics que promouen la seva qualitat de vida. A trav\u00e9s dels Centre C\u00edvics i els Casals de la Gent Gran es poden fer xerrades i formacions perqu\u00e8 la gent gran utilitzi les noves tecnologies.\"</p>",
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{
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montivipera_xanthina",
"classification": [
{
"Kingdom": "Animalia"
},
{
"Phylum": "Chordata"
},
{
"Class": "Reptilia"
},
{
"Order": "Squamata"
},
{
"Suborder": "Serpentes"
},
{
"Family": "Viperidae"
},
{
"Genus": "Montivipera"
},
{
"Species": "M. xanthina"
}
],
"text": {
"__SUMMARY__": "Common names: rock viper, coastal viper, Ottoman viper, more.Montivipera xanthina is a venomous viper species found in northeastern Greece and Turkey, as well as certain islands in the Aegean Sea. No subspecies are currently recognized.",
"Description": "Dorsally, it is grey or white with a black zig-zag stripe. Melanistic individuals exist. It has keeled dorsal scales.It usually grows to a total length (body + tail) of 70–95 cm (27.6-37.4 in), but reaches a maximum total length of 130 cm (51.2 in) on certain Greek islands in the Aegean Sea.",
"Behavior": "Very aggressive, this snake will strike without provoking, and most bites inject venom.",
"Behavior-Habitat": "M. xanthina can be found living in humid areas. It favors rocky and \"well-vegetated\" areas for its habitat.",
"Behavior-Prey": "The diet of M. xanthina is thought to consist of rodents and other small mammals and native birds. It may prey on lizards, as well.",
"Common names": "Rock viper, coastal viper, Ottoman viper, Turkish viper, Near East viper, mountain viper.",
"Geographic range": "Extreme northeastern Greece, the Greek islands of Simi, Skiathos, Kos, Kalimnos, Samothraki, Leros, Lipsos, Patmos, Samos, Chios and Lesbos, European Turkey, the western half of Anatolia (inland eastward to Kayseri), and islands (e.g. [[Chalki]) of the Turkish mainland shelf.\nThe type locality given is \"Xanthus\" [southwestern Turkey (Kınık)], and \"Asia Minor.\" Listed as \"Xanthos\" by Schwarz (1936). Nilson and Andrén (1986) restricted the species to \"Xanthos\" [= Xanthus] (Kınık) province Mugla, S. W. Turkish Anatolia\" through lectotype designation.",
"Conservation status": "This species is classified as least concern according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed as such due to its wide distribution, presumed large population, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.\nIt is, however, listed as strictly protected (Appendix II) under the Berne Convention.",
"Taxonomy": "According to Nilson, Andrén and Flärdh (1990), M. bornmuelleri, M. bulgardaghica, M. wagneri and M. xanthina are all closely related and together form the Montivipera xanthina group or complex.",
"See also": "List of viperine species and subspecies\nViperinae by common name\nViperinae by taxonomic synonyms\nSnakebite",
"References": "",
"Further reading": "",
"External links": "Montivipera xanthina at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 18 January 2010.\nMontivipera xanthina at Amphibians and Reptiles of Europe. Accessed 18 January 2010."
}
} |
{
"vorgangId": "50517",
"VORGANG": {
"WAHLPERIODE": "17",
"VORGANGSTYP": "Mündliche Frage",
"TITEL": "Umgang mit dem Vertrag von Almelo und künftige Termine in Zusammenhang mit dem Urananreicherungsunternehmen Urenco",
"AKTUELLER_STAND": "Beantwortet",
"SIGNATUR": "",
"GESTA_ORDNUNGSNUMMER": "",
"PLENUM": {
"PLPR_KLARTEXT": "Mündliche Frage/Schriftliche Antwort",
"PLPR_HERAUSGEBER": "BT",
"PLPR_NUMMER": "17/218",
"PLPR_SEITEN": "27054A - 27054B",
"PLPR_LINK": "http://dipbt.bundestag.de:80/dip21/btp/17/17218.pdf#P.27054"
},
"EU_DOK_NR": "",
"SCHLAGWORT": [
"Kerntechnische Anlage",
"Urananreicherung",
"URENCO"
],
"ABSTRAKT": "Originaltext der Frage(n): \r\n \r\nWelchen Umgang mit dem Vertrag von Almelo wie zum Beispiel reine Auflösung, Ablösung durch anderweitigen Vertrag, Novellierung etc. strebt die Bundesregierung aktuell an – insbesondere für den Fall eines Verkaufs des Anteils der deutschen Uranit GmbH am Urananreicherungsunternehmen Urenco GmbH an ein ausländisches Unternehmen/Konsortium etc. – (bitte mit Begründung), und welche künftigen Termine im Zusammenhang mit der Urenco GmbH, an denen Bundesbehörden teilnehmen werden, sind aktuell festgelegt (also beispielsweise interministerielle Treffen oder Treffen mit der Uranit GmbH, E.ON und RWE oder Sitzungen des Gemeinsamen Ausschusses mit Großbritannien und den Niederlanden; bitte mit Datum)?"
},
"VORGANGSABLAUF": {
"VORGANGSPOSITION": [
{
"ZUORDNUNG": "BT",
"URHEBER": "Mündliche Frage ",
"FUNDSTELLE": "25.01.2013 - BT-Drucksache 17/12162, Nr. 32",
"FUNDSTELLE_LINK": "http://dipbt.bundestag.de:80/dip21/btd/17/121/1712162.pdf"
},
{
"ZUORDNUNG": "BT",
"URHEBER": "Mündliche Frage/Schriftliche Antwort",
"FUNDSTELLE": "30.01.2013 - BT-Plenarprotokoll 17/218, S. 27054A - 27054B",
"FUNDSTELLE_LINK": "http://dipbt.bundestag.de:80/dip21/btp/17/17218.pdf#P.27054",
"PERSOENLICHER_URHEBER": [
{
"VORNAME": "Sylvia",
"NACHNAME": "Kotting-Uhl",
"FUNKTION": "MdB",
"FRAKTION": "BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN",
"AKTIVITAETSART": "Frage",
"SEITE": "27054A"
},
{
"VORNAME": "Hans-Joachim",
"NACHNAME": "Otto",
"FUNKTION": "Parl. Staatssekr.",
"RESSORT": "Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie",
"AKTIVITAETSART": "Antwort",
"SEITE": "27054B"
}
]
}
]
}
}
|
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