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Can I substitute decaf coffee for espresso
I'm baking cupcakes and the recipe calls for espresso but I was wondering if I could substitute decaf coffee instead since it's for children. | Yes, probably. I've substituted decaf coffee in a number of recipes that called for regular coffee or espresso, particularly when it might be served to kids. (And frankly, also for myself, because I don't like to consume caffeine late in the day anymore either.)
Some substitution guides will tell you to brew the coff... |
Gratin without a broiler
I've been wondering, is there a way to gratin food (as in cheese gratin) in a gas oven without a broiler?
I'm used to cook using my parents' big electric oven, which had coils in the upper and lower part, so I was able to heat from below as well as gratin from the top.
Now I only have access t... | Okay, as mentioned in the comments, the easiest way is to use a broiler, but if your gas oven doesn't have one.....
When following the instructions for thin crust pizza from Cooks Illustrated (on a pizza stone in my oven), one thing they suggested to help the cheese melt and crisp a bit was to NOT put the pizza on the ... |
What percentage of my chicken legs are bone
I usually buy chicken legs in a pack of four from the supermarket and the packet comes at 1000grams.
This would mean that each leg should be 250 grams.
I am trying to calculate how many calories are in each leg after I cook them. (I cook them on the bone without the skin in ... | 27% is the percentage of raw bone in a chicken leg.
Source: Bone Percentage in Raw Meaty Bones |
Putting raisins (etc) in bread, but avoiding the outside?
I make a simple bread dough in a large bowl, cover with plastic, and let it rest overnight.
In the morning, I want to put some chocolate morsels and raisins in the dough, and then bake it.
No problem but:
On this occasion I want none of the raisins (etc) to com... | Rolling it up with the stuff inside is not only a reasonable way to do this, it's a really common kind of bread. Try searching for "raisin swirl bread" - usually this means cinnamon-raisin swirl bread, with cinnamon sugar along with the raisins, but you don't have to do that part.
You do take air out while shaping it, ... |
What is the difference between tomato juice and passata?
As far as I am aware passata is obtained by crushing tomatoes and then sieving the result without heating. That sounds an awful lot like juice to me. What is the difference (if any) between passata and tomato juice? Under what circumstances could they be substit... | Passata still contains the pulp of the tomato, whereas juice is literally just the juice.
So juice is thin like water whereas passata is thick like crushed tomatoes minus the seeds and skin. You probably wouldn't use tomato juice for making a marinara sauce. |
Do I need a specific pot to cook Japanese-style rice?
So, I've been rather curious lately as to what I'll be needing in order to prepare/cook some Japanese-style rice. I wanted to say sushi rice, but I believe it's prepared a bit differently—or rather, it contains a different set of ingredients (depending).
Anyway, I... | In my experience, rice can be cooked in any pot. I cook quite a lot of Japanese style dishes, and as far as I can tell the rice is cooked in the same way as any other.
For myself, I've done it in good "induction-able" steel pots, as well as huge (navy galley) aluminium pots, and a couple of low-quality stainless steel ... |
What is a casserole (vessel)?
Maybe it's because I'm German speaking, but I'm utterly confused by the concept of the concept of a Casserole.
When I enter "Kasserolle" in the German Amazon I on the one side get dishes that look like that they could get put into the oven. But on the other side I get pots which have a lo... | This is from a UK perspective. A casserole dish is generally round or oval, almost always has a lid, and can go in the oven. It may be made of a variety of materials.
The use that earns the name is cooking dishes consisting of ingredients cut up and in a liquid sauce/gravy, without a topping except possibly dumplings... |
Microwave oven first time use — "10 minutes with water"?
My Samsung ME731K microwave oven just arrived. There is this instruction (in less than perfect English) and I'm not sure how to interpret it.
Before using the your oven first time, oven should be operated with the water during 10 minute and then used.
Does it ... | The directions are in fact asking you to place a bowl of water in the Microwave Oven and run it for 10mins.
The reason is, it allows things to "break-in" and assures that you don't have any direct issues with the device and that all nasty solvents are given proper time to "burn off." This is so you don't end up with na... |
Storing Cooked Food Hot
I have been looking for an answer for the following question everywhere, but could not get hold of any answers.
The question is "At what temperature can I store (keep for serving) cooked meals in its Hot state, and for how long.
Note that the meal portion that I would like to store is for one ... | First of all there's portion size: that should not matter. I'm assuming here that you transfer the food from cooking straight into the oven to keep warm, and not re-heating after cold storage. This means that your food will integrally cool down to the ambient temperature in your oven.
For temperatures there are lots of... |
How to reduce cracking and increase browning in sourdough loaves?
Lately I've been learning how to make these delicious sourdough breads and I have managed to create very flavorful breads but I always get very ugly results...
The picture below is my latest try. Notice how my scores seem totally useless, since the brea... | For the scoring, you didn't score deep enough. You need a lot more depth to allow for enough expansion.
For the browning, you cannot expect much from a sourdough in a home oven. Both the ingredients and the temperature are wrong for a dark crust. The best you can do is to work with washes, milk should brown well, yolk... |
Can you freeze an unbaked sour cream apple pie?
I am concerned the sour cream will separate during freezing. Did not know if I added corn starch if that would help. Any suggestions? | Recipes that contain sour cream (and other dairy products) can be frozen, but they need to be cooked first. You can cook the filling, add it to a a parchment lined pie pan, and then pop in the freezer. Once frozen you can remove from pie shell and place in a freezer bag for a frozen pie shaped disc to add to your pie s... |
Reheating grilled hamburger patties
We grilled a bunch of meats for a large party. Now I have leftover hamburgers, hotdogs, and bratwursts. Note these are still “bare” meat items, not assembled hamburgers etc.
What’s the best way to re-heat a hamburger patty and still have it taste good, not overcooked, and not separa... | If you have a pre-cooked burger patty, I'd suggest heating it in a frying pan / skillet over a high heat, add a splash of water and then cover with a small heat-proof bowl (a cloche), or a lid on your pan. The water will steam the burger back into life, adding moisture and trapping the heat to more thoroughly warm it t... |
What foods to cook in a new cast iron skillet that will help improve the seasoning?
I've never cooked with cast iron before and just picked up a couple Lodge cast iron skillets (6" and 12"). They come preseasoned, but I imagine some additional seasoning is desired.
I tried bacon, which took a lot longer than I expec... | To improve seasoning, any frying or searing will help. Frying chicken, searing steak, etc. Anything that has to do with heating oil. The things that can damage the seasoning are acidic mixes, and in long duration. An example: Simmering tomato sauce.
I would also like to add that actually seasoning the pan, and proper h... |
Defrosting individual frozen fish fillets---- in their plastic packets, or not?
The directions in the packet says to remove the plastic packets first before defrosting. But the packet helps to manage the mess and stops fishy water running all over the place. I defrost them by submerging them in room temp. water.
Is t... | If you defrost in water, by all means keep the plastic on. If it weren't wrapped, you'd put it in a baggie anyway and not dump it directly into the water.
The instructions to unwrap are for defrosting in the fridge and to allow the water to run off. Fish is often covered in a thin protective layer of ice, which you wan... |
In Indian cooking, what does it mean when a recipe says "until the oil begins to leave the side of the pan"?
In many Indian recipes I see the phrase "cook until the oil leaves the side of the pan". For example, this recipe says:
Add tomato puree and cook until oil leaves the side.
Similarly, this one says:
[C]ook ... | Since I'm not an expert in Indian cuisine, I can't say this for certain, but I agree with the comments so far that this seems basically equivalent to the separation of the oil from the curry.
To my mind, the wording makes perfect sense, because in some cases with a lot of oil/butter, you can get separation happening ea... |
What non-dairy filler to use in white chocolate style coatings?
Recipes for white chocolate style cake (or ice cream/truffle/...) coatings (the snappy kind, not soft frostings) tend to rely on cocoa butter, shortening, sugar... and milk powder as a filler. Soymilk powders are not available everywhere and make an unrel... | Honestly, I would look at almond flour.
what milk powder gives to the recipe is proteins, sugars, and fats - all of which are present in nuts. This is also why almond milk is totally a thing, there are a lot of similarities.
Two major differences are, there will be an almond flavor instead of a (milder, more "neutral"... |
Appropriate oil to infuse with hot chillies
I have loads of chillies left over from summer so I'm making some infused oils for christmas gifts. The obvious oil to use would be extra virgin olive oil (very expensive for good quality), but I've also found some very reasonably-priced cold-pressed premium extra virgin rap... | Either oil will work just fine for infusing with chillies, at the end of the day just about any cooking oil will work. Infusing oil with chilli won't change its cooking properties, and both those oils will store fine long-term.
If you are going to go for a cold infusion then it's highly recommended that you dry your c... |
Utensil that forms meat into cylinders
I'm making some kebabs, which involves taking a mixture of ground meat and spices, then rolling them into small cylinders. I usually hand roll, but I have to make them in large volume soon and would like them to look a little more like perfect cylinders.
I cannot figure out the n... | Seems like the bamboo mat used for making sushi rolls would be a good choice for this. Line it with heavy plastic wrap or parchment paper, of course. |
Suggestions for easy peanut butter clean-up
I have a family member who sometimes likes to eat peanut butter by itself -- no bread, crackers, etc. For sanitary reasons, we do discourage eating directly from the jar, but that poses a quandary in terms of clean-up. (He also has a habit of not quite finishing, leaving a... | The problem is the fat. You would have the same problem with a spoon full of shortening.
Since fat doesn't normally mix with water the fat makes a film that gets on everything. The solution to fat- or rather to make a solution of fat- you use soap.
You are trying to wash away a very large quantity of fat so it takes a ... |
How should I prepare this smoked ham?
I just got a frozen ham. I have never dealt with a ham before.
If I don't need to eat it now, should I put it in the freezer or refrigerator? The package says "keep refrigerated". Does it mean it can be stored in the refrigerator at a temperature higher than 0°C?
If I want to eat... | Hams are either ready-to-eat or not, thus spoke the USDA. And, by its regulations, a ham that must be cooked has to show cooking and safe handling instructions.
Hams that are not ready-to-eat, but have the appearance of ready-to-eat products, will bear a prominent statement on the principal display panel (label) indi... |
How to prevent the crockpot burning my soups
I love making soups in my crockpot. SO, I make it, starting with the crock on High. After about an hour, I drop it to low (middle setting), and let it cook. (I always cook my meats outside the crock, usually in a wok or skillet, to make sure it is cooked thoroughly.)
Once I... | A crockpot's keep warm setting is not designed to keep food safe and fresh for days, it's really only good for an hour or two at most. What's happening in your case is that the water is evaporating from your food and then drying out inside the pot. Adding water periodically is not an answer as the temperature of the fo... |
Are there any fish bones which are edible without canning or pressure cooking?
As the question states, are there any. I know things like sardines require pressure cooking or canning but what about thuings like anchovies or other, is the bone edible without having to pressure cook? My goal is to get calcium from bones... | Sprat and even larger fish like small jack mackerels (up to 10 cm length) are typically eaten with their spine bones when fried. The fins and heads are removed though. |
How much food to serve 100 people?
I'm catering my own event for 100 people and need to know how much of each meat and side dish I will need. It will be buffet style and there will be a fair mix of men, women, and children.
I will be serving pulled pork, grilled chicken, mac and cheese, baked beans, potato salad, corn... | I worked in an Italian place that occasionally did banquets. This is how we anticipated an adult serving:
Mains (meat / pasta with sauce / fish) 160 grams (or 100 grams of protein per adult, plus 60-ish grams of sauce, garnish, etc - this allows for a bit of extra)
Sides are 1/3 * 2 of mains, since people generally ha... |
How long can chili be cooked in a crockpot
Chili cooked on stove top, had an emergency and moved it to a crockpot, on warm setting. Is it still ok to eat? It's been in the crockpot 7 days.
It was covered and hard to get the lid off. Once the lid came off I stirred it and it was not burned to the bottom.
No power outa... | The keep warm setting on a crockpot is not hot enough to prevent foodborne illnesses, and after 7 days your chili is probably not safe to eat. I would throw it away. Next time put it in your refrigerator if you want to preserve it. |
How do I keep a longer lasting heat?
I'm smoking a turkey for the first time and I've received different tips on how long I should smoke the bird. However, I struggle with getting my heat to stay at 225-250 for more than 2 hours. How do I keep a heat that will last me 8 to 10 hours? | I'm going to assume that you are smoking with charcoal as electric smokers don't really have trouble with fluctuating temperature.
Plan on needing to add charcoal every couple of hours during the entire smoking period. I start mine at unwholesome hours of the morning and set alarms to get up and stoke the fire. It is n... |
Dents in pizza dough
The other day I went to PapaJohns and noticed that they had a roller that had spikes on it and they rolled it on their dough to make some impressions in the dough.
Last weekend I decided to take a fork and try it and I made dents all over my dough.
I don't normally make dents, what are the dents ... | Bread dough experiences "oven spring". That is, the water in the dough turns to steam and gives some fast, extra lift when the dough is first placed in a hot oven.
For most breads oven spring is a very good thing. For thick, flat breads like focaccia and pizza it is not good thing. The spring, or any other rising, will... |
Is putting pots on the stove without oil or water damaging the pot?
My mother always told me that I shouldn't put pots on the stove without any content, because otherwise they would get damaged. Is this actually true? | Assuming your mom was talking about putting them on the stove while the burner was on, yes, she was right.
It is ok to warm them slightly just prior to adding a little oil. Some people say it helps the subsequent fried foods not to stick. Don't know if that is true, but don't leave the room and let the empty pot get to... |
Gari as subtitutes for tapioca
I used to make a lot of cakes using tapioca flour. Now I've moved to another country and rarely stumbled upon the flour in the supermarket. Last time I found gari which also made from cassava. Can I substitute gari for tapioca? Can I put it in food processor first to make the texture mor... | Most western substitutes call for using Corn Starch instead since the two have similar binding properties. For example see this:
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/tapioca-flour-substitute.html
Garri/Gari may seem closer to home, since it made from Tapioca as well (aka Casava), but it is a different composition than Tapioc... |
How to Sous Vide Chicken Wings?
Please refer to: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VrKHgNXsTYU.
I'd like to mimic the process, but replace the pressure cooker step with a sous vide instead. What's the lowest possible temperature and shortest amount of time I can use the sous vide such that I can chill the wings after th... | The FDA recommends cooking poultry for 15 seconds at 74°C/165 °F
This though, is a ridiculously high temperature. The food safety of chicken and turkey has long been a subject of concern because poultry can harbor Salmonella and other pathogens. There is a big gap, however, between the best scientific information on sa... |
What is this? Fresh Kale looks to have small sprouting seeds, although looks similar to insect eggs
Picked up from farmer's market yesterday. Not sure if organic.
No smell. Slimey texture. Strong grip. A few have started to sprout.
About 4 on this one leaf. Other leafs have none.
Any idea what they could be? | Thanks for the nice picture! They don't look like insect eggs to me. The one at the bottom of the photo, with the little groove/stripe down the middle & the sprout, looks like a seed, not of kale, but maybe some kind of grain. The one nearer the top, by your thumb, not sure. Maybe just strays from the field or the back... |
Do wire oven racks and solid plate oven racks have different functions?
In South Africa, domestic ovens have wire racks and solid plate racks. Does each type have a specific function or can anything be cooked on either type? | This sounds like you might be talking about a european style oven, which generally has 2 types of inserts, wire shelves and solid trays. Wire shelves are used when you want to cook something that is self-contained, like a casserole, baking dish, cookie sheet, etc. The space between the wires allows the free circulation... |
Can I brine meat after cooking it?
I cooked up a bunch of beef to slice into luncheon meat, and did some reading afterwards... and have decided that I want the meat to be brined, so it is more tender and moist, like the storebought stuff.
...except, I already cooked it. I now know that the brining should be done befor... | It won't do anything useful.
Brining works on raw meat by denaturing some of the proteins inside the cells so they gel and hold tightly onto their water. It also gets tasty salt in.
Cooked meat has already had its proteins denatured by heat. Brining will not cause the meat to hold on to any new water.
Basically all it... |
Is it ok to pre-mix dry ingredients a few days before baking?
I've been asked to bake at someone else's house that I'm traveling to. I thought it might be easier to measure all the dry ingredients at home and combine them in airtight plastic bags until ready to use - like a store-bought mix. Is there any reason this m... | The cornbread is probably uncritical, but double-check your recipe for the chocolate cake:
If it is a "mix-all-dry-ingredients / mix-wet-ingredients / combine-and-bake" type of cake (like for muffins), you are ok. But if the cake requires creaming butter and/or eggs with sugar and folding in cocoa and flour at the end,... |
If cookies are made with enough sugar, will they just be chewy caramel?
If one increases the ratio of sugar to flour in the dough of, say, chocolate chip cookies, at what point (if any) will it no longer make chocolate chip cookies and instead be chocolate chips embedded in chewy caramel?
In other words: At what poi... | There are no similarities between the process of making caramel and making cookies.
Pure caramel has one ingredient, sugar. This sugar is cooked on the stove and brought to a high temperature until it changes color.
The process of caramelization consists of heating sugar slowly to around 340 °F (170 °C). As the sugar ... |
Am I supposed to eat frozen cherries directly
I just got a bag of frozen cherries.
Are they supposed to eat directly, or after they are unfrozen, or after I cook them?
I have never eaten frozen berries before, but just fresh berries. | Frozen berries as noted elsewhere have a mushier texture than fresh, so perhaps aren't great for eating in the hand; but they are excellent to pair with plain yogurt. My wife eats plain yogurt with cherries or blueberries directly out of the freezer, not fully thawed, all the time. She usually microwaves them briefly... |
Is this mold on my jack links beef steak?
I've attached a couple of pictures of my just-opened Jack Links beef steak. There are white mushy blobs of something on the inside of the packaging, and when I remove the packaging they mostly stick to the plastic and only in some places do they remain on the beef. They are ge... | That isn't mold, that's fat. There's a good picture of mold on beef in this page. Beef steaks have lots of fat, what's happened is that the fat on the surface of the meat has gotten squished into the plastic and adhered. It doesn't mean your steak isn't safe to eat, if it smells ok you should be fine. |
I have some mesquite smoked brisket and would like to minimize the smoke flavor
I have some mesquite smoked beef brisket that is pretty smokey. Is there anything I can do to neutralize that strong flavor? | Smoke flavor is challenging to work with, but I would think an appropriate barbecue sauce would fit the bill. I wouldn't get anything too salty as I suspect that would worsen the perceived smokiness; but not too sweet because that will just clash with it.
I think a vinegar sauce would be probably best; acidity and b... |
how do i make a regular chocolate syrup get solid?
I'm using Santa Cruz ORGANIC Mint Chocolate flavored syrup and I put it in an icecube tray with 1 raspberry with each one and I put it in the freezer and a bit later I took it out and it was a paste. Do you know how I could change that? | Everything has its own texture when frozen solid. A ball of rubber will never feel the same as a ball of iron, even though they are both in the solid phase. Similarly, if what you are envisioning is the same texture as frozen water, that won't happen with your syrup.
If what you have is a "paste" in the Nutella-like s... |
Wheat-free bread with added gluten?
I would like to make wheat-free bread but add gluten (can't eat the high fructans content of the wheat, but can eat gluten). I can't find any recipes that do this. Anyone got any pointers? I was thinking of using standard gluten-free (and therefore wheat-free) flour, then adding whe... | I've never found wheat gluten flour that was higher than 80% gluten which is what I use, adding some when I make bread with rye flour. But if you can't eat wheat due to high fructans content, would you still be able to digest the fructan in the other 20%? You wouldnt be adding much gluten flour so the small amount of f... |
Mug cakes in the oven?
I'm planning a party and want to make multiple mug cakes, but since I need to make about 100 and don't have a microwave that big I was wondering if I could make them in the oven and if there were oven safe mugs. I've been looking but they all seem to say dishwasher and microwave safe but nothing... | A microwave has a very different mechanism of heating than an oven, and recipes for the two are not interchangeable. The results of making microwave-optimized cakes in the oven will be unpredictable. And this will be a much larger problem than having the right mugs.
A better option would be to find a recipe for muffin... |
Why use a kettle to heat water?
Whenever I need to heat up water for a French press or hot chocolate, I do it in the microwave. Is there a good reason to use a kettle instead of the microwave to heat water? | I think the primary considerations are convenience (how much effort is it to set up and use the system?) and time spent (how long does the system take to heat the water?).
A standard electric stove can have 2500W elements, and most of this energy will go into a kettle sitting on the element and thus heat the water. Eve... |
Macronutrients and cooking temperature of beans?
For other foods, the cooking temperature seems to make a difference to which macronutrients are extracted, and subsequently, to the taste of the final product. For instance, the temperature is strictly controlled in home beer brews to maximise the extraction of sugars, ... | This is going to be a bit of a Zen answer (as usual for me).
I would venture that it doesn't matter. Normally, when you're making a bean stew or a chili bean casserole, you won't be discarding the liquid anyway. When you're eating the final dish, it doesn't matter to you if the protein is in the bean or the liquid, as ... |
How to understand "for immediate consumption" term?
Recently1 I have found some products that has "for immediate consumption after opening" notice instead of the usual "store in cold place and consume within 48-72 hours after opening" (the usual "keep in a cold place" / "store in fridge" usually follows in both cases)... | It's not generally about food safety or even quality. That phrase refers to the type of license the seller of the food item has. So the phrase has a legal meaning, which may have nothing to do with the food.
In some jurisdictions, grocery stores have different regulations and zoning than restaurants. So, one way to dif... |
Will yeast activate with equal
I would like to use my artificial sweetener Equal to make yeast rolls. Will the yeast activate? I've never tried anything like this before. I would like to know before I invest in the time, effort and waste of ingredients. | The yeast will work just fine in a dough with artificial sweetener. Sugar is actually inhibiting the yeast, not helping it (that's why you cannot make yeast dough that's too sweet). Simply put the yeast in the dough as usual and work it.
If by "activate" you mean you are making a preferment, you don't have to do it at... |
Identifying Cast Iron Skillet - with weird pattern
My mother gave me an old skillet she had, and to me, it looked like a normal cast iron. I wanted to 'clean' it the way I normally clean and season my other pans, by scrubbing it with chain mail scrubber, then heating it up and oiling it. On the back of the skillet it ... | I am not an expert on cast iron, but I believe this just means that it's a machine-milled piece, instead of one cast from a mold. There's nothing better or worse about it as far as I know as far as performance goes, I think it just means that it's a relatively newer piece, since pans made from casting tend to be older.... |
Why does dough and its ingredients need to be cold?
Recipes keep repeating on how the ingredients you add (at least in pie crust dough) should be cold. A quote:
If your dough gets too warm, send it back into the fridge to chill out. When you take it back out, it should roll more easily.
Why is temperature so importa... | It's not drastically important in making it workable, it's more important in the texture of the finished result.
When you roll out pastry dough, you are created interleaving layers of fat and the flour/water mix. When you cook it, the fat melts, leaving pockets in the dough, causing it to form flaky layers. This result... |
Question about roasting green beans and cherry tomatoes
I have a question about something new I want to try for Thanksgiving.
Everyone things we're making too many casseroles and asked me to do something different. I decided to try to replace the green been casserole. I had some roasted green beans and cherry tomatoe... | I would roast the tomatoes until they're nearly at the desired caramelisation, and meanwhile blanch the beans. Then pop the beans in with the tomatoes for 5-10 minutes at the end so they can get to know each other. |
How shall I arrange my slowly-eating plan and preserve a box of 5Lb frozen eggs over a long period?
I have a box of 5Lb of frozen eggs with citric acid, where
1 Lb is 9 large eggs
Unopened product should be used within 3 days of thrawing.
Unused portion should be kept refrigerated and used within 24 hours of
openi... | I would thaw one pound, and make something with it that I can freeze. For example. I bake quiches in leek and chard season - each quiche uses three eggs. They freeze beautifully once cooked (I slice them into servings before I freeze them) and it's easy to remove one slice, warm it in the microwave, and enjoy. So make ... |
My dough is cracking (not crumbling) and more water does not help
I am following this Serious Eats pie crust recipe. It's the second time already where I struggle with the dough folding stage. The dough is too crumbly when I take it out of the processor. When I (gradually) add water it stops being crumbly but then it... | The serious eats article that accompanies this recipe does a good job of explaining what you are trying to accomplish.
You are trying to have wheat gluten that is interspersed with pockets of fat. The fat pockets are tender, the gluten is flaky. Perfect balance.
They dough that you have doesn't have any gluten developm... |
Beef Barley Soup with too much wine
I put too much red wine in and it tastes like tomato and wine. I need more of the rich beef flavor back but it is a little salty, will low salt beef stock fix it? | Simmer it a while first. Red wine mellows a lot with cooking. A beef base like Better Than Bouillon can add more beef flavor without diluting the stew.
You might find that the stew is better the next day. So I would simmer it for an hour or so today, refrigerate it overnight, and then consider beef broth or base tomorr... |
Can I bake a cake in a toaster oven without temperature control?
I live in a place with no easy access to an oven. If I wanted to bake a cake, could I do this with an appliance like this? | In general, yes. But it's going to take a bit of effort and monitoring.
Your results may not be ideal (in particular don't expect the highest rising cake or the most even doneness), but it is possible to bake a cake in something like that. There are three main issues:
The device you linked looks like it doesn't have... |
Dark grey residue from newly purchased stainless steel kitchen items?
I have had this happen a few times now. What happens is that I purchase a new kitchen item made of stainless steel. When cleaning it, I find out that there is some kind of dark grey residue that comes off of it. The items that have done this are sup... | It could be stainless steel and abrasive residue created from polishing.
Method for Removal:
Hand wiping with alkaline cleaners, followed by hot water rinsing.
May require multiple applications until wipe testing results are satisfactory.
http://www.ispeboston.org/files/july_2010_tech_talk.pdf |
Can I refrigerate homemade puff pastry made ahead of time?
Puff pastry is similar to croissant dough. When I made homemade croissants for the first time, a few weeks ago, they were OK but I could have done better. I have a recipe to use with puff pastry but I won't have a chance to redo the puff, if I make it from scr... | Classic puff pastry absolutely needs a final resting and cooling time in the fridge before you use it for your croissants, palmiers, danishes....
Most recipes give a minimum rest of 30-60 minutes after the last "fold", but overnight in the fridge is absolutely fine. I'm not sure whether storing it for two days might ha... |
How can I keep streusel topping from getting soggy?
I make this Sweet potato casserole for Thanksgiving, it has a streusel like topping. Usually I can bake this at the destination, but this year I need to bake at home and take. I have a baking dish that has a heat resistant plastic cover and an insulated carrier. I kn... | Assuming that you want to serve the casserole hot and the streusel crispy, keep the casserole and the streusel separate until almost serving time.
This means you will have to bake the streusel on a cookie sheet until crisp and ready, then let them cool uncovered and transport them in a separate container.
Your casserol... |
Can I substitute two percent milk for low fat milk and bourbon in a cake recipe?
I'm making Banana-Nut Pound Cake and the recipe calls for low-fat milk or bourbon. I don't have these two ingredients. Can I substitute 2% milk instead? | While seeing the recipe might help (feel free to edit your answer to add the recipe and method), I feel pretty safe saying that you will be fine making this substitution.
It's likely that the fat percentage in the milk is to reduce the calorie content, not because it changes the final product. A one percent fat differe... |
Can you eat the head and guts of anchovies?
I read that you shouldn't eat fish guts and other parts because
(a) fish guts have the fish stool, maybe poisonous, and (b) fish guts can affect the flavour.
I bought some dried small anchovies and some slightly bigger ones (though still small compared to most fish). The sma... | Just eat them
No need to do anything special with them, they're a tasty snack. Heads, bones, fins, all is good. They wouldn't be sold as snack foods if they weren't fully fit for consumption.
How do you use Asian dried anchovies? |
Is rice vinegar bad for my non-stick rice cooker?
I have a rice cooker with a detachable bowl with non-stick (I presume teflon) coating on the inside. It looks something like this:
When cooking sticky ("sushi") rice, after the cooking is done, you are supposed to add rice vinegar to finish the rice. Is it safe to add... | It should be fine. The acidity of the vinegar would be an issue if it were to come into contact and react with bare metal. Non-stick cookware is fine for, say, making tomato sauces, etc, which means the coating in not especially reactive to acidity, which makes rice vinegar okay.
As a confirming point, when I was wal... |
Shortcrust tart stopped working
I have a tart recipe that has a shortcrust base that I have done several times. On the first attempts, everything was okay with the base - the "dough" was crumbly but could be rolled and kept its shape relatively well.
Now I tried making it and the "dough" turns out very crumbly, more l... | If your dough is very dry and crumbly, it needs more water.
Add a few mL to the dough when adding the beaten egg. |
How can I tell if my grill pan is preseasoned?
I bought this grill pan, and someone told me it may be preseasoned. It doesn't say anything in the description. How can I be sure? | Per the information on starfrit.com , there is no mention of the pan being pre-seasoned. But there is also no mention of needing to do so.
From the maintenance tab on the linked page:
Before you cook
Remove all labels and packaging materials.
Before using your new cookware, wash thoroughly in hot soapy water using a... |
How does ambient humidity of flour storage influence dough?
Cooking lore places a lot of importance on air humidity for doughs. When a dough fails, people quickly point that out as a possible factor, that happens on our site too.
Is it really true? I don't doubt that the actual flour moisture content changes, but i... | I used to disbelieve the idea, as it has all the qualities of a nice myth. Turns out that I was wrong. And also, that the story behind it is more complicated than the myth makes us believe.
A nice example can be found on scientific papers published in the area of commercial food technology, like this one. An important... |
How long to roast a whole goose?
My wife brought a fresh, unfrozen whole 11.71 Lb goose for us to roast for thanksgiving. How long should I roast it for?
I've found conflicting advice online:
BBC/Gordon Ramsay say 10 mins @ 240C/450F then 20 mins/Kg for medium rare and 32 mins/Kg @ 190C/375F for more well done
Food ... | First of all, cooking times are always only guidelines. The rule is always, "Cook it until it's done". The USDA suggests a finished internal temperature of 165 F (74 C).
USDA recommends cooking whole duck or goose to a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F as measured using a food thermometer. Check the internal... |
Time estimate for reaching 155F for baking 9lb Turkey breast?
I have a 9lb turkey breast to bake. I've learned that I want the internal temp to register between 155-165 on an instant-read thermometer inserted into the deepest part of the breast when it's done. Anyone know approximately how long that might take and w... | 325 will take 3-4 hours and please wait until it reaches 160 in the center of the thickest part of the meat before taking it out. Let it rest for 20-30 under tin foil before cutting. |
Fixing too much corn starch
I put way too much corn starch into a "random sauce": I was just mixing random things together to dip my carrots in. It includes whey, honey, and other random things. It was too thin and I used at least 1/2 a box of corn starch. It is still too thin, but that is far more easily edible th... | Corn starch is a thickener, but not right out of the box. It needs to be heated to gelatinize, which also gets rid of the chalky taste.
If you tried to cook your random sauce now, you'd get a very thick mass that could easily be a prop in a bad sci-fi or horror movie, but not a dipping sauce. And the sheer amount of st... |
Thawed Turkey Worried About Bacteria
So this is my first time doing the turkey, and I am kind of freaking out. It's a 11 pound bird that I purchased and froze last Friday.
Monday evening, I took it out of the freezer and moved it to the fridge. I have a feeling I should have done this much earlier, but I goofed up.
Be... | As long as the turkey stayed reasonably cold throughout its hour outside the fridge, you should be fine. Safety regs usually state that meat should not be at room temperature for more than 2 hours throughout its 'lifetime'. As you defrosted in the fridge and then under cold running water for an hour, and assuming you p... |
I forgot the milk in the mac and cheese
Help! I made my mac and cheese last night; the cheese sauce was not creamy, I poured it into the noodles. This morning I realized I forgot to add the milk when heating the sauce. Can someone help me find a fix? Can I warm the milk and put in the casserole dish before i bake ... | You can't just warm the milk and add it, but you could warm the mac and cheese mix and stir the milk in to combine. You'd want to transfer it to a bowl to do that, then back into the baking dish. You should be fine. |
Using applesauce to sub for butter in biscuits
I know that the general rule is that you can use half the amount of butter or oil a recipe calls for and replace the other half with applesauce. My question is, can you do this for baked goods that are very butter dependent, such as biscuits? By biscuits I mean American S... | Adding butter to biscuits or bread is what allows for that flakiness in the crust and that creamy texture in the bread itself. Lard would give you the same effect -- it's pretty much the saturated fat that makes the biscuit taste so great. Substituting applesauce for the butter won't give you the same results. It will ... |
Suitable alternative to cast iron pan for sweet potato cornbread
I'm making sweet potato cornbread and the recipe calls for a cast iron pan to be use. What is a good alternative to it? Could I use a thin metal pan? | Hi Lisa and welcome to Seasoned Advice! What you don't want is a thin pan. You will run the risk of burning, especially on the bottom. But it's not all bad news.
Cast iron is thick and while it will take longer to heat up than a thin pan, it will provide a more even heat.
Another thing to consider is that a dark pan us... |
How to make hamburger buns as fluffy as in McDonald's?
I make buns and they comes out soft, but not as fluffy and light as the ones they have in McDonald's. Is there any specific ingredient or technique I should use to achieve the desired fluffiness?
Here's the recipe I use:
3/4 cup water
2 large eggs
1 tbsp olive oi... | The light commercial white bread structure is very different from homemade doughs. I'm learning how to achieve it, so here are some pointers:
The main objective is to make your gluten work really hard: it has to hold up twice as much air as your regular homemade bread.
Autolyse your flour first, just mix it with the wa... |
Prime Rib versus New York Strip Roast
i recently cooked a bone-in, 6 lb Prime Rib roast using the "5 minute per lb @ 500F then closed oven for 2 hours" method and it came out absolutely PERFECT! mediuam rare and delicious.
http://allrecipes.com/recipe/221958/chef-johns-perfect-prime-rib/
i have a boneless, 11 pound N... | I know many people say the same thing over and over for questions like this, but: Probe thermometer. They aren't expensive. You can set them for a temperature so that you pull your roast at exactly the doneness you want. (Well, generally pull it a few degrees below that, and let it coast upward while it rests.)
Heat... |
How can I pit cherries easily and neatly?
I would like to make a recipe I have found for Cherry Clafoutis. But, I have never had any luck pitting cherries. I leave a lot of the cherry flesh attached to the pits, or I just rough the cherries up way too much.
Any tricks? | This is one of the rare cases where I tolerate unitaskers in my kitchen:
A hand-held cherry pitter like in the photo below (or a similar model) needs little space in a drawer and works for olives as well. Unless you plan to pit cherries by the bushel, it is totally sufficient.
(Source)
For a more "hacky" aporoach, som... |
Dutch oven bread - bottom always burns
When I bake bread in my dutch oven, to get the bread crust a darker brown and where it should be, the bottom will burn. I've used several recipes and different ovens with the same problem outcome. The dutch oven is as high as I can put it in the oven, which helps but it's still b... | I've had the same issue at home, with a very hard or burnt crust bottom:
I've made the following adjustments through experimentation. This will help greatly, but might not fix the problem entirely. I routinely preheat my empty dutch oven in the oven set to 500F with the lid on. When baking, I take it down a notch to 47... |
"1 cup, drained" - does that mean measure before or after draining?
I know this is similar to other questions like "1 cup chopped nuts" vs "1 cup nuts, chopped", but I wasn't sure about whether it applies to things that have liquid.
I was trying to make the pumpkin pie from America's Test Kitchen, and it calls for "1 ... | Drain them first. Your concerns are spot-on, and if you measured and then drained them, you would end up with less than 1 cup of yams. Generally, you can tell be cause the recipe called for 1 cup of drained yams, not 1 cup of yams in their sauce.
Drain them, but double check that you won't need the liquid for anythin... |
Should I get masticating or a citrus juicer?
I am looking to start juicing, but I can't decide which juicer to get.
Since I am a beginner, I am thinking of taking a citrus juicer, but yet again maybe it is better to take masticating juicer because I heard it is better and it can juice more than just citrus fruit.
I pa... | I have owned both a citrus juicer, a masticating juicer, and a traditional centrifugal juicer, for a few years now.
My feedback:
Citrus juicer
I have an industrial strength one (this one: http://www.israel-catalog.com/houseware/hadarit-zaksenberg-citrus-juice-squeezer). It's large and heavy, but it is sturdy, and with... |
I'm making cook n serve vanilla pudding can I add vanilla extract to it to make it taste more vanilla? it's for boston cream puffs.
I'm making Boston Cream puffs. Can I add vanilla extract to the vanilla cook and serve pudding to make it taste more vanilla? | Sure you can. However, there is a limit to how much vanilla flavor tastes good, and without more information there's no telling you when that limit would be reached; in fact, the existing vanilla pudding may already be there.
You can test this by adding a smidge of vanilla to a spoon of pudding and then tasting it. How... |
Why don't we need to ice-bathe all leftovers before refrigeration?
I'm considering picking up an immersion heater for Christmas and reading up on that led me eventually to Douglas Baldwin's sous vide website (http://www.douglasbaldwin.com/sous-vide.html). In the safety section of the guide he is quite firm about the ... | if you cool your
food too slowly or store it for too long, then these active bacteria
can multiply and make you sick. To keep these spores from becoming
active bacteria, you must quickly cool your food – still sealed in its
pouch – in ice water that is at least half ice until it’s cold all the
way through.
H... |
What counts as "anaerobic" re: botulism?
I've always heard that C. botulinum needs an "anaerobic" environment to grow. But what exactly counts as that?
Presumably stuff like sous vide bags. Or oil (like in herbs under oil). Seems fairly clear.
But then I read this in a 2011 Harold McGee column (http://www.curiousco... | Anaerobic simply means "absence of air."
Any liquid food environment basically counts as "anaerobic." Yes, there may be some dissolved gases and exchange of air may happen near the surface of a liquid like water, but deeper in an undisturbed liquid, there's often not enough air to prevent botulism growth. Some basica... |
Why is this Surume Ika (Japanese Flying Squid) discolored? (Ingredient for Ika Somen.)
I've been very interested in making Ika Somen. I found both a recipe online, and a recipe in "Pass the recipe", by Hiroko Nomura. Today I bought a Surume Ika (squid) from the local Japanese market. When I've purchased squid in th... | Just killed squid is white, but while death processes continue after defrosting internal organs and inner skin get reddish. It's still possible to eat it even for sashimi though it will be not tasty enough but absolutely fine for cooking.
At least this is according some japanese Q&A sites like this one http://oshiete.g... |
Iodized or sea salt
In cooking, should I chose iodized or sea salt? I have no particular health or thyroid concerns, but I'm not particularly sure on what the difference of the flavor can either of the two bring. | Some people can taste iodine in salt (not pleasant), and for some purposes (like brining), iodized salt is not recommended.
I use non-iodized table salt for some purposes, and kosher salt (which is non-iodized by definition) for others. Kosher salt is just salt with larger crystals than table salt.
There is no culinar... |
What are the ingredients that make vegan meat taste like real meat?
I tried making a vegan burger in my kitchen before, and it turned out all right. However, when I taste a vegan burger or a vegan hot dog at restaurants or in frozen foods, it seems much closer to the real taste.
So I was wondering, what are the ingred... | The meaty taste is Umami. It is the flavour of monosodium glutamate, in the same way that salty is the flavour of salt.
Both mushrooms and tomatoes of the right variety are quite rich in it, as is yeast extract. You can also just buy the stuff commercially.
Don't worry about the stigma attached to it, it's not actually... |
Chef's knife for someone who uses it harshly
I have a loved one who uses their chef's knife in ways that really taxes the knife: prying stuff open, chopping hard straight up and down, etc. As you might imagine, this person's knives quickly dull and bend in ways that create safety issues, and s/he is often getting smal... | A so called Western Deba/Yo Deba could be what that person needs - this is a very heavy version of a chef knife, explicitly designed to deal with things like "half frozen food", "small bones" (commonly found descriptions in catalogs).
Do not confuse with the true japanese style deba (single bevelled and thick as a cook... |
Hazelnut oil as a sub for olive oil
I'm looking to make a pea purée but all I have is hazelnut oil. I know olive oil is the standard. Would hazelnut oil give it too much of a nutty taste? | I have found that hazelnut oil (I use roasted hazelnut oil) is a more-than-adequate replacement for olive oil. I use it in cooking, on salads, in baking and in making purées and pâtés. It does lend a nutty flavor, but it is such that it enhances rather than overwhelms the base flavor(s). If by some chance you do find i... |
Why use an acid when doing a scallops dish?
I'm trying to understand more about balancing a dish and I was wondering, why would you add some acidity to a seared scallops dish? | Shellfish is usually somewhat sweet in flavour. Acidity is the natural balance to sweetness. |
How can I get my flavorings to flavor my carnitas all the way through the pork?
So, I've been trying for a while to mimic taqueria carnitas at home with my slow cooker. I initially tried a recipe that had you put some water in and then cook in its own juices, with seasoning; that was good, but it was a bit dry, and th... | One of your possible answers is pretty close to what I think is the correct one. To flavor carnitas all the way through, put them back in the braising liquid that has been reduced since cooking the pork. You can create a kind of glaze out of the braising liquid, and toss the shredded pork in that (defat the braising li... |
Do relish recipes typically include vinegar?
I'm designing a sandwich and I want to include a fruit relish as a topping. Are there methods that don't include pickling? | Fruit relishes (including salsas, chutneys, and plain sauces like applesauce) can be made without vinegar. But they almost always include some extra acid - if not vinegar, then usually citrus juice.
The acidity balances the sweetness of the fruit, and it preserves the color.
So you can make a fruit relish, substitute ... |
How can I fix brownies that I accidentally added ketchup and pepper to?
When whisking eggs with flour, I accidentally added about 3 tablespoons of ketchup (I know, I know - I was making pizza at the same time and mixed up the two doughs). I also added ground pepper. I'm afraid I messed everything up irrevocably - the ... | Perhaps your brownies could be saved, and even improved, by the addition of a caramel layer on the top, creating a salted caramel and chocolate version. Simply boil sugar with a small amount of water until it's a deep golden amber color, take off the heat and whisk in several tablespoons of heavy cream and several of ... |
What effect will this have on my french fries?
While making french fries earlier I began to wonder what would happen if I changed my process in a few ways.
My current method:
Peel potatoes and cut into thin slices
Pan fry until golden
Simple enough. But I was wondering what would happen if I did the following after ... | Adjustment |
Over easy eggs sticking in copper pan
I was given a new copper pan and tried to cook my over easy eggs in the pan without butter, as it says in the ads.
However, the eggs stuck in the pan horribly. I usually use butter to cook even in my other not stick pan and they come out fine. What am I doing wrong? | Eggs are very hard to get right on a non-teflon pan, but do-able. First, you need oil or butter. I don't care what the infomercials say, I've never been able to fry eggs on a metal pan without oil.
Second you need to get the heat right. Oil forms a barrier between the pan and the egg, and also conducts heat better, wh... |
How to prepare an easy and fast snack rich in protein?
I'm going to the gym, usually, everyday. I'm looking for a simple and easy snack, something that I can carry with me to work, to the office, and would help me to recover from my workout. :)
I know some recipes rich in carbohydrates but none rich in proteins :(
(Be... | A real quick search brings up a list of high-protein snacks that are easy to make up.
Source
Crispy Lentil Energy Bites (8.6 g protein per two bites)
The Best Homemade Granola (8 g protein per half-cup)
No-Bake Quinoa Peanut Butter Crunch Cups (8 g protein per two cups)
Chocolate Peanut Butter Protein Bars (5.8 ... |
pressure cooker overflowing while cooking soup
All my life I've cooked soup in a big, old (over 30 years old) pressure cooker. I'd boil all the vegetables in it, open it to blend them all together, then add cabbage and let it boil anew.
Now, in an attempt to boil the vegetables for less time and, therefore, avoid losi... | Simply put: it's happening because you're now blending the vegetables prior to cooking.
All vegetables are composed of plant cells, which have relatively rigid, fibrous walls composed of various starches; these trap the moisture and nutrients that the plant needs to survive, and provide structure. As you cook (applying... |
How to make creamy hot chocolate
I am trying to make thick hot chocolate. At first I used cocoa powder and cornstarch as the thickener, bringing the milk + cocoa powder + sugar mixture to a boil. It worked but it always tasted burnt (not sure if that was the milk or cocoa) and the cocoa seemed to clump up.
Now I'm usi... | Your chocolate is seizing. There's a nice discussion of exactly what's happening at the molecular level here:
What happened to my melted couverture?
The usual fix for seizing is to add more liquid, but I think you've got so much liquid in there that you can't agitate it well enough to break up the clumps. So you get lu... |
Using sugar when making pizza dough
A lot of the recipes that I've seen on YouTube and different forums have used four main ingredients when making pizza dough - flour, water, yeast, and salt. I'm confused because I though sugar is also a main ingredient since yeast feeds on it. Would y'all recommend always adding sug... | There are plenty of fermentable sugars in the flours commonly used in pizza making. Additional sugar is completely unnecessary. |
Beef broth vs. beef stock
I have a few leftover bones from prime rib but not really enough to make much stock . I have a little extra prime rib meat left over and wondering if I can make soup stock with it too. we don't really want to eat the prime rib after making the stock either. Thanks! | Yes, certainly, but it won't do as much good as you might expect. It takes a surprisingly large amount of meat to add significant beef flavor to beef stock.
If you want to go ahead, be sure to brown the extra meat, to get maximum umami flavor out of it. (You will want to brown the bones, too; I'd roast them in the oven... |
Cooked food / heat and serve meal, long term packaging
How does package food producers such as "Seeds of Change" or "Pacific Foods" package their food to keep for up to 15 months and store without refrigeration? What consumer, or DIY approach, most closely resembles their process?
It seems they use certain natural pr... | The commonest (in my experience - probably variable around the world) consumer DIY approach to this is the one that uses the step that you missed - high temperature (as mentioned by @John Feltz) - namely, pressure canning at 15 PSI (250°F) - in my experience, glass canning jars with metal lids, but flexible packages ar... |
Can bad potato salad be made into something good?
I was lazy the other day at the grocery store and bought potato salad from the deli instead of ingredients to make my own. That was a mistake. Now I have a big tub of bad potato salad.
It is apparent that the water used to boil the potatoes was under seasoned - severel... | Microwave it (or bake in the normal oven in a casserole dish), add salt to taste, perhaps some butter or cream, weird mashed potatoes? Will depend rather on what, exactly is in this "deli potato salad" (which varies IME from potatoes and dressing to potatoes, many crunchy veggies, sometimes eggs, etc., etc. and dressin... |
Melting yellow cheese for savory pancakes or crêpes
Due to differences in cultures I will begin with explaining the terms I am going to use:
Savoury pancake - It is a normal pancake or a crêpe by US standards, but instead of being eaten with jam or similar sweets we instead use non-sweet ingredients like ham and chee... | One simple option is to shred the cheese. The heat moves from the surface of the pancake into the cheese - so a thick slice has to melt all at once, and from the bottom up, and it may not melt in time. Grated or shredded cheese has a lot more surface area, and warms quicker, and traps heat in the air between the shre... |
When making bechamel, why does the roux need to be room temperature?
Most detailed bechamel recipes call for the roux to be brought to room temperature before adding the warm milk. What is the difference between that and pouring in the milk while the roux is still hot?
Also should the roux be a liquidy creamy texture ... | It doesn't need to be room temperature. All combinations of cold, warm or hot roux with cold, warm or hot milk work.
The problem is that the whole process is somewhat finicky, and cooks need some experience until they reach a good match between the speed of pouring and the speed and area-coverage of whisking, so that ... |
Why isn't Almond Milk (and other non-animal based 'milk') considered juice?
As per the title, I consider "Milk" to be the substance secreted by living being to sustain their young, whether they be human, cow, dog, etc...
Almonds do not produce milk to sustain their young, in fact they are simply crushed. This reminds ... | One reason is simple appearance, I think - opaque white liquids or saps have long been called "milky", including nut milks, coconut milk, dandelion or milk thistle saps, and several other white substances. Nut milks get called milk because they look like milk to the eye.
Another reason is that nut milks behave like mi... |
I have some old smoked nuts- can I make anything with them?
They were smoked so they are not rancid. They are just rather flat in flavor. Are there any options for use? They are smoked almonds and brazil nuts. | Chopped coarsely, these could be well used as a textural addition to various kind of mock-minced-meat dishes, eg in a vegetarian bolognese, lasagna sauce, mapo dofu sauce... |
Does baking bread longer dry it out?
I am wondering if baking bread longer results in more dryness of the crumb. It seems like the more "artisan" recipes often push the crust to near the point of burning, presumably for flavor, but does this reduce moisture?
I would assume it does, except I read in "The Science of Goo... | Yes, prolonged baking (or even letting the bread cool down in the turned off oven instead of taking it out) will dry out the bread. I can confirm it from my own experience.
I doubt the idea that the internal temeprature will keep down at 212 F. This is true of water in a bowl, but the moisture within the bread is not ... |
Cooking pizzas using two stones/steel vs one stone/steel in consumer oven
So I use a regular oven to cook my pizzas, and I use a steel platform.
It works great, and the pizza comes out amazing. The throughput is low, so I was wondering if it would be a good investment to get a second steel platform so I can cook two ... | Having 2 stones/steels in the oven is totally workable, the top one would cook a bit faster than the bottom one but that's not a dealbreaker. 2 steels will take longer to get up to temperature than one, whether an hour is enough in your oven is not something I could say. I would suggest you get an infrared thermometer ... |
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