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Title XIX of the Social Security Act established Medicaid as a federal-state partnership that finances health care for low-income individuals, including children, families, the aged, and the disabled. Medicaid is an open-ended entitlement program and provided health coverage for an estimated 53.9 million individuals in... | GAO designated Medicaid a high-risk program because of concerns about its size, growth, and inadequate fiscal oversight. The program cost the federal government and states an estimated $383 billion in fiscal year 2010. In addition to regular Medicaid payments to providers, states make supplemental payments, including D... |
According to the State Department, no country poses a more immediate narcotics threat to the United States than Mexico. For over 20 years, the United States has supported the Mexican government in its counternarcotics efforts and has provided assistance to develop and strengthen the Mexican government in its law enforc... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided an update on the status of counternarcotics activities in Mexico, focusing on: (1) the nature of the drug threat from Mexico; (2) the progress that Mexico has made in improving its counternarcotics efforts; (3) issues related to the provision of U.S. counternarcotics as... |
From the start of the CAARS program in 2005 until the course correction in December 2007, DNDO planned the acquisition and deployment of CAARS machines without understanding that they would not fit within existing primary inspection lanes at CBP ports of entry. This occurred because during the first year or more of the... | The Department of Homeland Security's (DHS) Domestic Nuclear Detection Office (DNDO) is charged with developing and acquiring equipment to detect nuclear and radiological materials to support federal efforts to combat nuclear smuggling. Also within DHS, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) has the lead for operating sys... |
In recent years, steep declines have occurred in some of IRS’s compliance programs for individual taxpayers, as have broad declines in its efforts to collect delinquent taxes. These trends have triggered concerns that taxpayers’ motivation to voluntarily comply with their tax obligations could be adversely affected. Ta... | Taxpayers' willingness to voluntarily comply with tax laws depends in part on their confidence that friends, neighbors, and business competitors are paying their fair share of taxes. The Internal Revenue Service's (IRS) programs to ensure compliance and to collect delinquent taxes are viewed by many as critical for mai... |
The Statute provides a legal basis for the current federal labor and management relations program and establishes two sources of official time. Official time for, both, collective bargaining and Federal Labor Relations Authority (FLRA)-related activities, such as negotiations, attendance at impasse proceedings, and par... | Official time is time spent by federal employees performing certain union representational activities, such as negotiations and handling grievances. Employees on official time are treated as if they are in a duty status and are paid accordingly. OPM's estimated total payroll costs, salary and benefits, for fiscal year ... |
The FBI was founded in 1908 to serve as the primary investigative bureau of the Department of Justice. Its mission includes upholding the law by investigating serious federal crimes; protecting the nation from foreign intelligence and terrorist threats; providing leadership and assistance to federal, state, local, and ... | The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is in the process of modernizing its information technology (IT) systems. Replacing much of its 1980s-based technology with modern system applications and a robust technical infrastructure, this modernization is intended to enable the FBI to take an integrated approach--coordin... |
The IQA directed OMB to issue guidelines to federal agencies covered by the Paperwork Reduction Act designed to ensure the “quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity” of information disseminated to the public. The IQA also directed OMB to include in its guidelines requirements for agencies to (1) develop their own i... | The Information Quality Act (IQA) required the Office of Management and Budget to issue guidelines for ensuring the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of information disseminated by federal agencies. As part of our long-term examination of the quality of federal information, under the Comptroller General's au... |
In December 2012, we reported on Border Patrol’s evolving approach for deploying agents along the southwest border. In that report we found that Border Patrol’s 2004 Strategy provided for increasing resources and deploying these resources using an approach that provided for several layers of Border Patrol agents at the... | The southwest border continues to be vulnerable to cross-border illegal activity, with DHS apprehending over 331,000 illegal entrants, and making over 14,000 seizures of drugs in fiscal year 2015. DHS has employed a variety of resources to help secure the border, including personnel, technology—such as cameras and sens... |
The U.S. agricultural sector benefits our economy and the health of our nation. However, if not properly managed, agricultural activities can impair the nation’s water, air, and soil; disrupt habitat for endangered species; and constrain groundwater resources. For example, sediment produced during routine agricultural ... | The Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) assists agricultural producers who install conservation practices, such as planting vegetation along streams and installing waste storage facilities, to address impairments to water, air, and soil caused by agriculture or to conserve water. EQIP is a voluntary program... |
We plan to issue a report with the results from this work in the fall of 2013. AIT systems equipped with ATR software display anomalies that could pose a threat using a generic figure for all passengers. management challenges—into one department.effectively address DHS’s management and mission risks could have serious ... | TSA acquisition programs represent billions of dollars in life cycle costs and support a range of aviation security programs, including technologies used to screen passengers and checked baggage. Within DHS, TSA is responsible for establishing requirements for testing and deploying transportation system technologies. S... |
This report presents the results of our survey of the background and training of key financial management personnel at 34 of the largest private corporations and 19 of the largest state governments in the United States. We asked surveyed organizations for information on the education, work experience, training, and pro... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed the background and training of key financial personnel at 34 of the largest private corporations and 19 of the largest state governments in the United States, focusing on: (1) education, work experience, training, and professional certifications of their key management ... |
The creation of DHS represents enormous leadership challenges, encompassing opportunities in multiple management areas. Sustained and inspired political and career leadership will be essential to successfully implementing the transformation of DHS. Success will also largely depend on its ability to attract and retain t... | The success of the transformation and implementation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is based largely on the degree to which human capital management issues are addressed. Recognizing this, the legislation creating DHS provided it with significant flexibility to design a modern human capital management sys... |
Nonappropriated fund instrumentalities (NAFI) are federal government entities whose funding does not come from congressional appropriations but rather from their own activities, such as the sales of goods and services. Their receipts and expenditures are not reflected in the federal budget. NAFIs were established to pr... | The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Graduate School provides extensive training opportunities to government employees and others. As a nonappropriated fund instrumentality, the Graduate School relies solely on income from the training it offers. During fiscal year 1999, the federal agencies GAO reviewed had 20 interag... |
The principal source of federal funding for CTE, Perkins IV authorizes federal grant funds for the enhancement of CTE for secondary and postsecondary students. In fiscal year 2008, Congress appropriated $1.2 billion for the improvement of local CTE programs. Education’s Office of Vocational and Adult Education allocate... | The Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act of 2006 (Perkins IV) supports career and technical education (CTE) in high schools and postsecondary institutions, such as community colleges. Perkins IV established student performance measures at the secondary and postsecondary levels for state agencies, such as ... |
Created in 1789, Customs is one of the federal government’s oldest agencies. Customs is responsible for collecting revenue from imports and enforcing customs and related laws. It also processes persons, carriers, cargo, and mail into and out of the United States. In fiscal year 1997, Customs collected about $19 billion... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed selected aspects of the Custom Service's drug enforcement operations, focusing on: (1) how Customs assesses its needs for inspectional personnel and allocates such resources to commercial cargo ports of entry; (2) whether Customs received all the additional inspectional... |
Federal agencies are dependent on computerized (cyber) information systems and electronic data to carry out operations and to process, maintain, and report essential information. The security of these systems and data is vital to public confidence and the nation’s safety, prosperity, and well-being. Virtually all feder... | Cyber-based intrusions and attacks on federal systems are evolving and becoming more sophisticated. GAO first designated information security as a government-wide high-risk area in 1997. This was expanded to include the protection of cyber critical infrastructure in 2003 and protecting the privacy of personally identif... |
Medi-Cal was implemented in 1965, the year the Medicaid statute was enacted. Administered by the California DHS, in fiscal year 1996, Medi-Cal provided a wide range of services to approximately 5.2 million low-income individuals at an estimated cost of about $17.7 billion—about 11 percent of national Medicaid expenditu... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed California's Medicaid Program, Medi-Cal, focusing on: (1) the implementation status of California's managed care expansion, including identifying the primary causes of delays; (2) the degree to which state efforts to educate beneficiaries about their managed care option... |
Land mines in the U.S. inventory are of two distinct types: The first consists of conventional land mines that are hand-emplaced and are termed nonself-destruct, or sometimes “dumb,” because they remain active for years unless disarmed or detonated. They can therefore cause unintended post-conflict and civilian casualt... | The utility of land mines on the modern battlefield has come into question in recent years, largely because of their potential for causing unintended casualties and affecting U.S. forces' maneuverability. These concerns were raised during the Persian Gulf War. U.S. land mines of all types--nonself-destructing and self-... |
In October 1991, DOD implemented the Fund, which consolidated the nine existing industrial and stock funds operated by the military services and DOD, as well as the Defense Finance and Accounting Service (DFAS), the Defense Industrial Plant Equipment Service, the Defense Commissary Agency, the Defense Reutilization and... | Pursuant to a legislative requirement, GAO reviewed the Department of Defense's (DOD) progress in implementing the Defense Business Operations Fund Improvement Plan, focusing on: (1) the policies essential to the Fund's operations; and (2) DOD ongoing efforts to correct problems that hinder Fund operations. GAO found t... |
CT uses ionizing radiation and computers to produce cross-sectional images of internal organs and body structures. MRI uses powerful magnets, radio waves, and computers to create cross-sectional images of internal body tissues. NM uses radioactive materials in conjunction with an imaging modality to produce images that... | The Medicare Improvements for Patients and Providers Act of 2008 (MIPPA) required that beginning January 1, 2012, suppliers that produce the images for Medicare-covered ADI services in office settings, such as physician offices, be accredited by an organization approved by CMS. MIPPA mandated that GAO issue two reports... |
Before September 2001, we and others had demonstrated significant, long- standing vulnerabilities in aviation security, some of which are depicted in figure 1. These included weaknesses in screening passengers and baggage, controlling access to secure areas at airports, and protecting air traffic control computer syste... | In the 2 years since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the security of our nation's civil aviation system has assumed renewed urgency, and efforts to strengthen aviation security have received a great deal of congressional attention. On November 19, 2001, the Congress enacted the Aviation and Transportation ... |
Medicare Part D coverage is provided through private plans sponsored by dozens of health care organizations that may charge premiums, deductibles, and copayments for the drug benefit. All Part D plans must meet federal requirements with respect to the categories of drugs they must cover and the extent of their pharmacy... | Since January 1, 2006, all dual-eligible beneficiaries--individuals with both Medicare and Medicaid coverage--must receive their drug benefit through Medicare's new Part D prescription drug plans (PDP) rather than from state Medicaid programs. GAO analyzed (1) current challenges in identifying and enrolling new dual-el... |
Complaint and appeal procedures are regulated by a patchwork of federal and state law. No federal standards, however, prescribe how complaint and appeal systems are to be structured and administered. For example, the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA), a federal law governing most employer-sponsore... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO examined: (1) what elements are considered important to a system for processing health maintenance organization (HMO) member complaints and appeals; (2) the extent to which HMOs' complaint and appeal system contain these elements; (3) what concerns consumers have regarding HMO c... |
According to 2007 NHIS data, fewer than 40 percent of adults in the United States reported ever having been tested for HIV. In a recent survey by the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, the primary reason people gave for not being tested is that they do not think they are at risk. The second most common reason was that ... | Of the estimated 1.1 million Americans living with HIV, not all are aware of their HIV-positive status. Timely testing of HIV-positive individuals is important to improve health outcomes and to slow the disease's transmission. It is also important that individuals have access to HIV care after being diagnosed, but not ... |
The KMCC currently faces significant cost, schedule, and performance problems, and it is unclear as to when the project will be completed and at what cost. Despite being originally scheduled to open in early 2006, neither LBB-Kaiserslautern nor the Air Force can estimate a completion date for the project because of the... | According to the Air Force, the Kaiserslautern Military Community Center (KMCC), an over 800,000 square-foot facility, is currently the Department of Defense's largest single-facility project under construction. It is intended to provide lodging, dining, shopping, and entertainment for thousands of U.S. military and ci... |
Under the Defense Environmental Restoration Program, DOD is authorized to identify, investigate, and clean up environmental contamination and other hazards at FUDS. The environmental restoration program was established by section 211 of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA), which amended the ... | The Department of Defense (DOD) estimates that cleaning up contamination and hazards at thousands of properties that it formerly owned or controlled will take more than 70 years and cost as much as $20 billion. These formerly used defense sites (FUDS), which can range in size from less than an acre to many thousands of... |
Federal operations and facilities have been disrupted by a range of events, including the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001; the Oklahoma City bombing; localized shutdowns due to severe weather conditions, such as hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma in 2005; and building-level events, such as asbestos contaminati... | To ensure that essential government services are available in emergencies, federal agencies are required to develop continuity of operations (COOP) plans. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), is responsible for providing guidance to agencies on developing suc... |
In 1987, the Congress directed FAA to choose three states to participate in a state block grant pilot program. While many states already had existing state airport capital improvement programs and staff in place to fund development and safety projects at small airports, the block grant program transferred the responsib... | GAO discussed the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) state block grant pilot program, which is part of its Airport Improvement Program (AIP). GAO noted that: (1) the 7 states in the pilot program are providing a board range of services to small airports and performing many functions that FAA formerly performed, su... |
In February 2011, Boeing won the competition to develop the Air Force’s next generation aerial refueling tanker aircraft, the KC-46. Boeing was awarded a fixed price incentive (firm target) contract for development because KC-46 development was considered to be a relatively low-risk effort to integrate military technol... | Aerial refueling—when aircraft refuel while airborne—allows the U.S. military to fly farther, stay airborne longer, and transport more weapons, equipment, and supplies. The Air Force initiated the KC-46 program to replace its aging KC-135 aerial refueling fleet. Boeing was awarded a fixed price incentive contract with ... |
Title IV-E of the Social Security Act provides for states to obtain federal reimbursement for the costs of their Foster Care programs. While states may provide foster care services to a range of children outlined by state laws and regulations, they may only claim Title IV-E Foster Care funds for children meeting eligib... | Each year, hundreds of thousands of the nations most vulnerable children are removed from their homes and placed in foster care. While states are primarily responsible for providing safe and stable out-of-home care for these children, Title IV-E of the Social Security Act provides federal financial support. The Admini... |
DOD invests in power sources such as batteries, fuel cells, and capacitors to support the warfighting effort by powering weapon systems and equipment. DOD’s power source investment is expected to rise because of an increased reliance on advanced weapon systems and equipment an ongoing efforts to develop new technologie... | Virtually all Department of Defense (DOD) weapon systems and equipment rely on power sources, such as batteries. In response to a mandate in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010, GAO determined (1) DOD's approximate investment in power sources, (2) the extent to which DOD coordinates its power so... |
The President’s fiscal year 2000 budget, which was submitted to the Congress on February 1, 1999, included nearly $2.8 billion for the Census Bureau to perform the 2000 decennial census. This original budget request reflected the bureau’s plan to gather information based in part on using statistical estimation for nonr... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on the Bureau of the Census' fiscal year (FY) 2000 budget, focusing on: (1) an overall analysis of the key changes in assumptions resulting in the $1.7 billion request increase; (2) details on the components of this increase and which changes, according to t... |
The Klamath River Basin, spanning the southern Oregon and northern California borders, covers over 15,000 square miles. The Klamath River originates in the Upper Basin, fed by Oregon’s Upper Klamath Lake, a large, shallow body of water composed of flows from the Sprague, Williamson, and Wood Rivers. The river subsequen... | Drought conditions along the Oregon and California border since 2000 have made it difficult for the Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) to meet Klamath Project irrigation demands and Klamath River flow requirements for threatened salmon. To augment river flows and avoid jeopardizing the salmon's existence, Reclamation ... |
The Social Security Administration (SSA) manages two major federal disability programs that provide cash benefits to people with long-term disabilities: the Disability Insurance (DI) and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programs. The DI program was enacted in 1954 and provides monthly cash benefits to severely disabl... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO: (1) reviewed the Social Security Administration's (SSA) efforts to redesign its disability claims process; and (2) identified actions that SSA could take to better ensure future progress. GAO noted that: (1) even with its scaled-back plan, SSA has been unable to keep its redesi... |
The 89 recommendations in the panel report are largely consistent with our past work and recommendations. I will now discuss each of the seven areas the panel reviewed, the general thrust of the panel’s recommendations, and our views on them. The first area the panel reviewed was commercial practices. According to the ... | A growing portion of federal spending is related to buying services such as administrative, management, and information technology support. Services accounted for about 60 percent of total fiscal year 2006 procurement dollars. The Services Acquisition Reform Act (SARA) of 2003 established an Acquisition Advisory Panel ... |
Beginning January 1, 2014, PPACA required most citizens and legal residents of the United States to maintain health insurance that qualifies as minimum essential coverage for themselves and their dependents or pay a tax penalty. Most Medicaid coverage and private health insurance coverage purchased through the exchange... | Due to changes in income and other factors, it is likely that under PPACA many low-income individuals will transition between Medicaid and subsidized exchange coverage. Federal regulations require that state Medicaid agencies and exchanges coordinate to facilitate these transitions, including transferring individuals' ... |
NARA’s mission is to ensure “ready access to essential evidence” for the public, the President, Congress, and the courts. NARA is to make the permanently valuable records of the government—in all media—available for reference and research. In addition to the best known documents, such as the Declaration of Independence... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on the preservation of electronic records, focusing on the: (1) challenges that confront the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and federal agencies as a result of their increased reliance on electronic media; (2) status of selected agencies... |
EPA administers and oversees grants primarily through the Office of Grants and Debarment, 10 program offices in headquarters, and program offices and grants management offices in EPA’s 10 regional offices. Figure 1 shows EPA’s key offices involved in grants activities for headquarters and the regions. The management of... | The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has long faced problems managing its grants, which constitute over one-half of the agency's annual budget, or about $4 billion. EPA uses grants to implement its programs to protect human health and the environment and awards grants to thousands of recipients, including state an... |
The HCFAC program was established under HIPAA to (1) coordinate federal, state, and local law enforcement efforts to control fraud and abuse associated with health plans; (2) conduct investigations, audits, evaluations, and inspections of delivery and payment for health care in the United States; (3) facilitate the enf... | GAO has designated Medicare and Medicaid as high-risk programs partly because their size, scope, and complexity make them vulnerable to fraud. Congress established the HCFAC program and provided funding to HHS and DOJ to help reduce fraud and abuse in Medicare and Medicaid. GAO was asked to examine how HHS and DOJ are ... |
Created in 1961, the Peace Corps is mandated by statute to help meet developing countries’ need for trained manpower while promoting mutual understanding between Americans and other peoples. Volunteers commit to 2-year assignments in host communities where they work on projects such as teaching English, strengthening f... | About 7,000 Peace Corps volunteers now serve in 70 countries, often living in areas with limited access to reliable communications, police, or medical services. Moreover, as Americans, they may be viewed as relatively wealthy and hence good targets for criminal activity. The Peace Corps has reported rising numbers of a... |
Although a number of companies manufacture various non-lethal weapons, such as stun guns, the only company that manufactures Tasers is Taser International in Scottsdale, Arizona. First developed in the 1970s for use by police departments, Tasers differ from stun guns in that they can be fired from a distance and do not... | Emerging domestic and international threats have generated a growing interest in the use of less-than-lethal weapons by government and law enforcement agencies and other entities such as commercial airlines. One such weapon--the Taser--is a hand-held weapon that delivers an electric shock via two stainless steel barbs,... |
The natural gas and electricity industries perform three primary functions in delivering energy to consumers: (1) producing the basic energy commodity, (2) transporting the commodity through pipelines or over power lines, and (3) distributing the commodity to the final consumer. Historically, many local utilities in th... | Since the 1970s, the natural gas and electricity industries have each undergone a shift toward greater competition, referred to as restructuring. This restructuring has moved these industries from regulated monopolies to markets in which competitors vie for market share and wholesale prices are largely determined by su... |
SBA is charged with providing support to the nation’s small businesses, including those in urban and rural areas. Its support takes several forms. First, it ensures access to credit, primarily by guaranteeing loans through various loan guarantee programs. Second, it provides entrepreneurial assistance through partnersh... | The Small Business Administration (SBA) and the Rural Development offices of the U.S. Department of Agriculture both work in rural areas to foster economic development by promoting entrepreneurship and community development. This report discusses (1) the complementary nature of some SBA and Rural Development programs a... |
In August 2014, we reported that, on the basis of our review of land-use agreement data for fiscal year 2012, VA does not maintain reliable data on the total number of land-use agreements and VA did not accurately estimate the revenues those agreements generate. According to the land- use agreement data provided to us ... | VA manages one of the nation's largest federal property portfolios. To manage these properties, VA uses land-use authorities that allow VA to enter into various types of agreements for the use of its property in exchange for revenues or in-kind considerations. GAO was asked to examine VA's use of land-use agreements. T... |
Under SAFETEA-LU, FTA’s primary source of funding for new fixed- guideway capital projects or extensions to existing fixed-guideway-transit systems was the Capital Investment Grant program. Within the Capital Investment Grant program, project sponsors typically applied for funding as either a New Starts or Small Starts... | FTA provides funds to transit project sponsors to build new or extensions to existing fixed-guideway transit systems through the Capital Investment Grant program. This program funds New, Small, and Very Small Starts projects—funds that are based partly on the project's total estimated cost. For example, for New Starts,... |
Human trafficking occurs worldwide and often involves transnational criminal organizations, violations of labor and immigration codes, and government corruption. Although their circumstances vary, fraud, force, or coercion typically distinguishes trafficking victims from people who are smuggled. Moreover, most traffick... | Human trafficking is a worldwide form of exploitation in which men, women, and children are bought, sold, and held against their will in involuntary servitude. In addition to the tremendous personal damage suffered by individual trafficking victims, this global crime has broad societal repercussions, such as fueling cr... |
Through its disability compensation program, VA pays monthly benefits to veterans with service-connected disabilities. Under VA’s BDD program, any member of the armed forces who has seen active duty—including those in the National Guard or Reserves—may apply for VA disability benefits prior to discharge. The program al... | Through the Benefits Delivery at Discharge (BDD) program, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) collaborates with the Department of Defense (DOD) to streamline access to veterans' disability benefits by allowing some servicemembers to file a claim and undergo a single collaborative exam process prior to discharge. BD... |
On October 6, 2015, the Bureau released the first version of its 2020 Census Operational Plan, which is intended to outline the design decisions that drive how the 2020 Decennial Census will be conducted— and which are expected to dramatically change how the Bureau conducts the Decennial Census. This plan outlines 350 ... | The U.S. Census Bureau (which is part of the Department of Commerce) plans to significantly change the methods and technology it uses to count the population with the 2020 Decennial Census. The Bureau's redesign of the census relies on the acquisition and development of many new and modified systems. Several of the key... |
To encourage the sharing of federal health care resources, the Veterans Administration and Department of Defense Health Resources Sharing and Emergency Operations Act authorizes VA medical centers and DOD military treatment facilities (MTF) to enter into sharing agreements to buy, sell, and barter medical and support s... | Medication errors and adverse drug reactions are a significant concern for the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and the Department of Defense (DOD) because their large beneficiary populations receive many prescriptions. Each agency has taken steps to reduce the risk of medication errors, such as making patients' med... |
The Department of Labor required states to implement WIA’s major provisions by July 1, 2000, although six states began implementation a year earlier in July 1999. The act authorizes three separate funding streams for adults, dislocated workers, and youth. WIA’s appropriation for fiscal year 2002 was $950 million for ad... | The administration has twice proposed reducing the Workforce Investment Act's (WIA) budget, citing large amounts of states' unspent funds carried over from the prior year. However, in light of current economic conditions, state and local workforce officials have expressed a need for more funds, not less. GAO was asked ... |
CDC partners with the National Institutes of Health to publish Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories, which provides guidance on biosafety principles and practices for protecting laboratory personnel, the public, and the environment from exposure to biological agents for each biosafety level. BSL-3 l... | Recent safety lapses at high-containment laboratories raise questions about how federal departments and agencies manage high-risk biological agents. DOD and CDC both conduct research on high-risk biological agents at their respective laboratories. Biosafety and biosecurity practices in these laboratories are intended t... |
Russia possesses the world’s largest declared chemical weapons stockpile, which is stored at seven sites across the country (see fig. 1). When declared in 1998, the Russian stockpile included 32,500 metric tons of nerve agents and 7,500 metric tons of blister agents. As of March 2006, Russia had destroyed about 1,158 m... | Until destroyed, Russia's stockpile of chemical weapons remains a proliferation threat, vulnerable to theft and diversion. Since 1992, Congress has authorized the Department of Defense (DOD) to provide more than $1 billion for the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program to help the Russian Federation construct a che... |
The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is responsible for the administration and oversight of federal funding to states for services to foster children under title IV-E of the Social Security Act. The states are responsible for administering foster care programs, which are supported in part with federal fund... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed how well kinship care is serving foster children, focusing on the: (1) quality of care that children in kinship care receive compared with that received by other foster children, as measured by a caseworker's assessment of a caregiver's parenting skills, the extent to w... |
Agricultural inspections at U.S. ports of entry had been the responsibility of USDA since 1913. Following the events of September 11, 2001, the Congress passed the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which combined the inspection activities of the Department of the Treasury’s Customs Service, the Department of Justice’s Imm... | U.S. agriculture generates over $1 trillion in annual economic activity, but concerns exist about the sector's vulnerability to a natural or deliberate introduction of foreign livestock, poultry, and crop pests and disease. Under the Agricultural Quarantine Inspection (AQI) program, international passengers and cargo a... |
Best management practices refer to the processes, practices, and systems identified in public and private organizations that performed exceptionally well and are widely recognized as improving an organization’s performance and efficiency in specific areas. Successfully identifying and applying best practices can reduce... | GAO reviewed best management practices to make government operations more efficient and less costly, focusing on those approaches adopted by the Department of Defense (DOD) that other federal agencies could use to improve their operations. GAO found that: (1) best management practices refer to the processes, practices,... |
A forced transfer occurs when a plan participant has separated from an employer, but still has vested savings in the employer’s 401(k) plan and the plan sponsor decides not to allow the savings to remain in the plan. Prior to the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA), plans could, in the ab... | Millions of employees change jobs each year and some leave their savings in their former employers' 401(k) plans. If their accounts are small enough and they do not instruct the plan to do otherwise, plans can transfer their savings into an IRA without their consent. GAO was asked to examine implications for 401(k) pla... |
For the past several decades, the United States has enjoyed relatively inexpensive and plentiful energy supplies, relying primarily on market forces to determine the energy mix that provides the most reliable and least expensive sources of energy—primarily oil, natural gas, and coal. In 1973, oil cost about $15 per bar... | For decades, the nation has benefited from relatively inexpensive energy, but it has also grown reliant on fossil fuels--oil, natural gas, and coal. Periodic imported oil supply disruptions have led to price shocks, yet the nation's dependence on imported energy is greater than ever. Fossil fuel emissions of carbon dio... |
The low priority assigned to increasing revenue results, in part, from the importance or emphasis given to other values and concerns, especially protecting resources and providing goods and services. Language in federal statutes implies that maximizing revenue should not be the overriding criterion in managing national... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO discussed the barriers and opportunities for generating revenue on lands managed by the Forest Service. GAO noted that: (1) legislative and administrative decisions and judicial interpretations of statutory requirements have required the agency to shift its emphasis from uses th... |
When disasters such as floods, tornadoes, or earthquakes strike, state and local governments are called upon to help citizens cope. Assistance from FEMA may be provided if the President, at a state governor’s request, declares that an emergency or disaster exists and that federal resources are required to supplement st... | GAO discussed the Federal Emergency Management Agency's (FEMA) public disaster assistance program. GAO noted that: (1) FEMA program criteria are ambiguous; (2) criteria clarifications are needed to determine which damaged facilities should be restored and the eligibility of nonprofit facilities' services for assistance... |
Body armor for law enforcement applications includes ballistic-resistant and stab-resistant body armor—usually worn in the form of a vest—that provides coverage and protection primarily for the torso. Ballistic-resistant body armor protects against bullet penetrations and the blunt trauma associated with bullet impacts... | Since 1987, body armorin the form of ballistic-resistant and stab-resistant vestshas reportedly saved the lives of over 3,000 law enforcement officers nationwide. Recognizing body armors value, the Department of Justice (DOJ)through its Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) and its National Institute of Justice (NIJ)... |
Between 1988 and 1995, the Department of Defense (DOD), acting under special legislative authorities, conducted four rounds of base realignments and closures (BRAC). According to DOD’s calculations, when all BRAC actions from those rounds are completed, no later than 2001, DOD will have reduced its domestic military ba... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed: (1) the Department of Defense's (DOD) progress in completing action on military base realignments and closures (BRAC) recommendations and transferring unneeded base property to other users; (2) the precision of DOD's estimates of BRAC costs and savings; (3) environment... |
In 2000, in response to calls from Congress, SEC directed U.S. stock and options markets to change from quoting equity securities and options in fractions of a dollar, such as 1/16th, to quoting in decimals. Proponents of this change believed decimal pricing would make stock prices easier for investors to understand, a... | In 2001, U.S. stock and options markets, which had previously quoted prices in fractions, began quoting in decimals. Since then, various positive and negative effects have been attributed to the transition to decimal pricing. As part of this transition, the major stock markets chose one penny ($.01) as the minimum pric... |
As our past work has found, climate-related and extreme weather impacts on physical infrastructure such as buildings, roads, and bridges, as well as on federal lands, increase federal fiscal exposures. Infrastructure is typically designed to withstand and operate within historical climate patterns. However, according t... | Certain types of extreme weather events have become more frequent or intense according to the United States Global Change Research Program, including prolonged periods of heat, heavy downpours, and, in some regions, floods and droughts. While it is not possible to link any individual weather event to climate change, th... |
The U.S. military routinely uses contracted support in contingency operations. Military forces will often be significantly augmented with contracted support because of the continual introduction of high- technology equipment, coupled with force structure and manning limitations, and the high pace of operations. Accordi... | DOD has relied extensively on contractors for operations in Iraq and Afghanistan over the past decade. At the height of Operation Iraqi Freedom, the number of contractors exceeded the number of military personnel, and a similar situation is occurring in Afghanistan. In January 2011, the Secretary of Defense issued a me... |
The DTV transition has been in progress for over two decades. With a firm date established in law, all full-power television broadcasters will cease broadcasting their analog signal by February 17, 2009. There are numerous benefits to transitioning to digital-only broadcast signals, such as enabling better quality tele... | The Digital Television Transition and Public Safety Act of 2005, requires all full-power television stations in the United States to cease analog broadcasting by February 17, 2009, known as the digital television (DTV) transition. Prior to the transition date, the television broadcast industry must take a series of act... |
Title XIX of the Social Security Act establishes Medicaid as a joint federal- state program to finance health care for certain low-income, aged, or disabled individuals. Medicaid is an open-ended entitlement program, under which the federal government is obligated to pay its share of expenditures for covered services p... | Medicaid, a joint federal-state program, financed the health care for about 59 million low-income people in fiscal year 2006. States have considerable flexibility in deciding what medical services and individuals to cover and the amount to pay providers, and the federal government reimburses a portion of states' expend... |
Transnational criminal organizations use subterranean, aerial, and maritime smuggling methods to try to avoid the security measures designed to address traditional overland smuggling routes. These smuggling methods—which are further described below—include but are not limited to, illicit cross-border tunnels, ultraligh... | As DHS has increased the security of overland smuggling routes, transnational criminal organizations have adapted their techniques to smuggle drugs and humans through alternative methods. These methods include cross-border tunnels, ultralight aircraft, panga boats, and recreational maritime vessels. While these methods... |
The following information provides details about our agents’ experiences and observations entering the United States from Mexico at border crossings in California and Texas and at two crossings in Arizona. California: On February 9, 2006, two agents entered California from Mexico on foot. One of the agents presented as... | Currently, U.S. citizens are not required to present a passport when entering the United States from countries in the Western Hemisphere. However, U.S. citizens are required to establish citizenship to a CBP officer's satisfaction. On its Web site, U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) advises U.S. citizens that an ... |
The NAS consists of a wide assortment of technologies operated by FAA, other federal agencies, such as DOD, and industry participants such as airlines. Technology transfer may be defined as the process by which technology or knowledge developed by one entity is applied and used by another. Technology transfer may invol... | The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is developing and implementing a broad transformation of the national airspace system known as the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen). NextGen is a complex undertaking that requires new technologies and supporting infrastructure and involves the activities of s... |
Over the past two decades—from 1991 through 2012—there was a substantial increase in the number of FLSA lawsuits filed, with most of the increase occurring in the period from fiscal year 2001 through 2012. As shown in figure 1, in 1991, 1,327 lawsuits were filed; in 2012, that number had increased over 500 percent to 8... | The FLSA sets federal minimum wage and overtime pay requirements applicable to millions of U.S. workers and allows workers to sue employers for violating these requirements. Questions have been raised about the effect of FLSA lawsuits on employers and workers and about WHD's enforcement and compliance assistance effort... |
Under the DERP, DOD is authorized to identify, investigate and clean up environmental contamination and other hazards at FUDS as well as active installations. To that end, DOD has established restoration goals and identified over 31,000 sites that are eligible for cleanup, including more than 21,000 sites on active ins... | Under the Defense Environmental Restoration Program (DERP), the Department of Defense (DOD) has charged the Army Corps of Engineers (the Corps) with cleaning up 4,700 formerly used defense sites (FUDS) and active sites that were under its jurisdiction when they were initially contaminated. The 661-acre Spring Valley si... |
The Department of Defense’s military compensation package includes a collection of pays and benefits used to retain and recruit active duty servicemembers, including basic pay, allowances for housing and subsistence, and federal tax advantages. In addition, servicemembers can be provided with compensation for specific ... | DOD uses S&I pay programs to compensate and incentivize servicemembers for occupations that are dangerous, less desirable, or require special skills. Senate Report 114-49 included a provision for GAO to review the effectiveness of DOD's S&I pay programs. This report assesses (1) trends in DOD obligations for S&I pay pr... |
Major real property-holding agencies and OMB have made progress toward strategically managing federal real property. In April 2007, we found that in response to the President’s Management Agenda (PMA) real property initiative and a related executive order, agencies covered under the executive order had, among other thi... | In January 2003, GAO designated federal real property as a high-risk area because of long-standing problems with excess and underutilized property, deteriorating facilities, unreliable real property data, over-reliance on costly leasing, and security challenges. In January 2009, GAO found that agencies have taken some ... |
TRICARE has three options for its eligible beneficiaries: TRICARE Prime, a program in which beneficiaries enroll and receive care in a managed network similar to a health maintenance organization (HMO); TRICARE Extra, a program in which beneficiaries receive care from a network of preferred providers; and TRICARE Stand... | During 2002, in testimony to the House Armed Services Committee, Subcommittee on Personnel, beneficiary groups described problems with access to care from TRICARE's civilian providers, and providers testified about their dissatisfaction with the TRICARE program, specifying low reimbursement rates and administrative bur... |
Many categories of legal immigrants are currently eligible for SSI and AFDC benefits. SSI provides benefits to three groups of needy individuals: aged (65 years old and older), blind, and disabled. AFDC provides benefits to needy families with children. Immigrants eligible for assistance include those classified by the... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed the effect of proposed welfare reform legislation on legal immigrant welfare recipients, focusing on: (1) legal immigrants' and citizens' use of the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) programs; (2) the numbers of legal ... |
Before originating a residential mortgage loan, a lender assesses the risk of making the loan through a process called underwriting, in which the lender generally examines the borrower’s credit history and capacity to pay back the mortgage and obtains a valuation of the property to be used as collateral for the loan. L... | Real estate appraisals have come under increased scrutiny in the wake of the recent mortgage crisis. Title XI of the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989 created an oversight structure for appraisals and appraisers that involves state, federal, and private entities. This structure includ... |
The history of the C-27J is complex and involves several government agencies and private contractors. To meet the Army’s combat zone airlift supply mission, in 2007 a joint Army and Air Force program office awarded a contract for C-27Js to a company called Global Military Aircraft Systems—a partnership between L-3 Comm... | The Air Force is transferring 14 C-27J aircraft to the Coast Guard. Once modified into surveillance aircraft, the C-27Js will be a part of the Coast Guard's fixed-wing aircraft fleet. In 2007, the Coast Guard established a baseline of aircraft quantities and costs known as the program of record. This baseline establish... |
Federal agencies, including DOD, can choose among numerous contract types to acquire products and services. One of the characteristics that varies across contract types is the amount and nature of the fee that agencies offer to the contractor for achieving or exceeding specified objectives or goals. Of all the contract... | Collectively, the Department of Defense (DOD) gives its contractors the opportunity to earn billions of dollars through monetary incentives--known as award fees and incentive fees. These fees are intended to motivate excellent contractor performance in areas deemed critical to an acquisition program's success, with awa... |
Research and innovation play an important role in addressing issues associated with building, maintaining, operating, and using the U.S. highway system. Highway research is an essential national investment because it helps address broad issues related to highway planning, safety, traffic operations, pavement durability... | The 2005 Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users authorized the Department of Transportation to establish a highway research program to address future challenges facing the U.S. highway system. In 2006, the Second Strategic Highway Research Program was established to conduct... |
The Asset Forfeiture Program has three primary goals: (1) to punish and deter criminal activity by depriving criminals of property used or acquired through illegal activities; (2) to enhance cooperation among foreign, federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies through the equitable sharing of assets recovered t... | Every year, federal law enforcement agencies seize millions of dollars in assets in the course of investigations. The AFF was established to receive the proceeds of forfeiture and holds more than $1 billion in assets. DOJ uses the proceeds from forfeitures primarily to cover the costs of forfeiture activities. DOJ also... |
Boeing and TRW disclosed the key results and limitations of Integrated Flight Test 1A in written reports released between August 13, 1997, and April 1, 1998. The contractors explained in a report issued 60 days after the June 1997 test that the test achieved its primary objectives, but that some sensor abnormalities we... | The Department of Defense (DOD) awarded contracts to three companies in 1990 to develop and test exoatmospheric kill vehicles. One of the contractors--Boeing North American--subcontracted with TRW to develop software for the kill vehicle. In 1998, Boeing became the Lead System Integrator for the National Missile Defens... |
Although definitions vary, including definitions used by federal agencies, many experts generally agree that bullying involves intent to cause harm, repetition, and an imbalance of power. The pioneering research of Dr. Dan Olweus in Norway has defined being bullied or victimized as when a student “is exposed, repeatedl... | Millions of youths are estimated to be subject to bullying in U.S. schools. GAO was asked to address (1) what is known about the prevalence of school bullying and its effects on victims, (2) approaches selected states and local school districts are taking to combat school bullying, (3) legal options federal and selecte... |
VA’s efforts to assist Gulf War veterans began in 1992 with the implementation of the Persian Gulf Registry Health Examination Program. In 1993 and 1997, respectively, the Congress passed legislation giving Gulf War veterans special eligibility (priority care) for VA health care and allowing VA expanded authority to tr... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on the Department of Veterans Affairs' (VA) provision of health care services to Gulf War veterans, focusing on: (1) the number of veterans VA and the Department of Defense (DOD) report as suffering from Gulf War-related illnesses and the criteria used to id... |
Health Center Program grantees are private, nonprofit community-based organizations or, less commonly, public organizations such as public health department clinics. Health centers funded through HRSA’s Health Center Program are typically managed by an executive director, a financial officer, and a clinical director, a... | Under the Health Center Program, HRSA provides grants to eligible health centers. HRSA is responsible for overseeing over 1,100 health center grantees to ensure their compliance with Health Center Program requirements. GAO was asked to examine HRSAs oversight. This report (1) describes HRSAs oversight process and (2)... |
In the 124 years since the first national park, Yellowstone, was created, the national park system has grown to include 369 park units. In all, these units cover more than 80 million acres of land, an area larger than the state of Colorado. The mix of park units is highly diverse and includes more than 20 types; these ... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed internal threats to the national parks' resources, focusing on the: (1) National Park Service's (NPS) information on the number and types of internal threats; (2) damage these threats have caused; (3) change in the severity of these threats over the past decade; and (4)... |
Medicare, the federal health insurance program that serves the nation’s elderly, certain disabled individuals and individuals with end-stage renal disease, had total program expenditures of $565 billion in 2011, making it one of the largest federal programs. The Medicare program is administered by CMS and consists of f... | More than 48 million Medicare cards display the SSN, which increases Medicare beneficiaries vulnerability to identity theft. GAO was asked to review the options and associated costs for removing SSNs from the Medicare card. This report (1) describes the various options for removing the SSN from Medicare cards; (2) exa... |
The two largest federal school meals programs, the National School Lunch Program, established in 1946, and the School Breakfast Program, permanently established in 1975, aim to address problems of hunger, food insecurity, and poor nutrition by providing nutritious meals to children in schools. Although federal requirem... | The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 required USDA to update nutrition standards for school lunches and breakfasts and add standards for other food sold in schools, known as competitive foods. In response, USDA set new nutrition requirements, including limits on calories, sodium, and fats. Previously, GAO reported... |
Over the past several years, we reported that serious breakdowns in management processes, systems, and controls have resulted in substantial waste and inefficiency in DOD’s excess property reutilization program. Our June 2002 testimony and our November 2003 report documented instances where DOD sold to the public items... | GAO's previous work found problems in security controls over sensitive excess military equipment that resulted in lost and stolen items, some of which were sold to the public, and significant waste and inefficiency in the Department of Defense (DOD) excess property reutilization program. GAO was asked to perform follow... |
According to FAA officials, FAA’s medical certification requirement was established to prevent or mitigate the effect of various medical conditions that present an undue risk to the safety of pilots, passengers, or others. While most general aviation accidents are attributed to pilot error involving a loss of aircraft ... | FAA developed its medical standards and pilot's medical-certification process to identify pilot applicants with medical conditions that may pose a risk to flight safety. The Pilot's Bill of Rights (P.L. 112-153) mandated GAO to assess FAA's medical certification standards, process, and forms. This report addresses: (1)... |
The federal Food Stamp Program is intended to help low-income individuals and families obtain a more nutritious diet by supplementing their income with benefits to purchase nutritious food such as meat, dairy, fruits, and vegetables, but not items such as soap, tobacco, or alcohol. The Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) ... | Every year, food stamp recipients exchange hundreds of millions of dollars in benefits for cash instead of food with retailers across the country, a practice known as trafficking. From 2000 to 2005, the Food Stamp Program has grown from $15 billion to $29 billion in benefits. During this period of time, the U.S. Depart... |
Medicaid enrollees across various eligibility categories may have access to private health insurance for a number of reasons. For example, some adults may be covered by employer-sponsored private health insurance even though they also qualify for Medicaid. Children similarly may be eligible for Medicaid while also bein... | In fiscal year 2013, Medicaid—jointly financed by states and the federal government—provided health care coverage to over 70 million individuals at a total cost of about $460 billion. Congress generally established Medicaid as the health care payer of last resort, meaning that if enrollees have another source of health... |
In an effort to promote and achieve various U.S. foreign policy objectives, Congress has expanded trade preference programs in number and scope over the past 3 decades. The purpose of these programs is to foster economic development through increased trade with qualified beneficiary countries while not harming U.S. dom... | U.S. trade preference programs promote economic development in poorer nations by providing duty-free export opportunities in the United States. The Generalized System of Preferences, Caribbean Basin Initiative, Andean Trade Preference Act, and African Growth and Opportunity Act unilaterally reduce U.S. tariffs for many... |
DON is a major component of the Department of Defense (DOD), consisting of the Navy and the Marine Corps. It is a large and complex organization, whose primary mission is to organize, train, maintain, and equip combat-ready naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression by would-be foes, preserving freedom ... | The Department of the Navy (DON), a major component of the Department of Defense (DOD), has launched its Next Generation Enterprise Network (NGEN) program to replace the Navy Marine Corps Intranet (NMCI) program. NGEN capabilities, such as secure transport of voice and data, data storage, and e-mail, are to be incremen... |
IRS’s operating divisions develop annual plans to guide audit decisions in terms of the number of returns to be audited. SB/SE audit plans strive to balance the number of audits in any fiscal year across all types of tax returns (e.g., individual income tax returns) and taxpayers (e.g., individual wage earners, small b... | IRS audits small businesses and self-employed individuals to ensure compliance with tax laws. Audits can help improve reporting compliance and reduce the tax gap—the difference between taxes owed and those voluntarily paid on time, which is estimated at $385 billion annually after late payments and enforcement actions.... |
Until 1993, most forces based in the United States were not assigned to a single geographic command. Due to their location, these forces had limited opportunities to train jointly with the overseas-based forces they would joint in time of crisis or war. The lack of a joint headquarters to oversee the forces of the four... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on Department of Defense (DOD) efforts to improve joint operations, focusing on: (1) the U.S. Atlantic Command's (USACOM) actions to establish itself as the joint force trainer, provider, and integrator of most continental U.S.-based forces; (2) views on the... |
DOE’s LGP was designed to address the fundamental impediment for investors that stems from the high risks of clean energy projects, including technology risk—the risk that the new technology will not perform as expected—and execution risk—the risk that the borrower will not perform as expected. Companies can face obsta... | The Department of Energys (DOE) Loan Guarantee Program (LGP) was created by section 1703 of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 to guarantee loans for innovative energy projects. Currently, DOE is authorized to make up to $34 billion in section 1703 loan guarantees. In February 2009, the American Recovery and Reinvestment A... |
The fiscal year 2005 expenditure plan satisfied or partially satisfied the conditions specified in DHS’s appropriations act. Specifically, the plan, including related program documentation and program officials’ statements, satisfied or provided for satisfying all key aspects of (1) meeting the capital planning and inv... | The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is conducting a multiyear, multibillion-dollar acquisition of a new trade processing system, planned to support the movement of legitimate imports and exports and strengthen border security. By congressional mandate, plans for expenditure of appropriated funds on this system, t... |
The United States, like the European Union and Canada, maintains annual quotas on textile and apparel imports from various supplier countries. When a country’s quota fills up on a certain category of merchandise, that country’s exporters may try to find ways to transship its merchandise through another country whose qu... | U.S. policymakers and industry groups are concerned that some foreign textile and apparel imports are entering the United States fraudulently and displacing U.S. textile and apparel industry workers. Congress mandated GAO to assess U.S. Customs and Border Protection's (CBP) system for monitoring and enforcing textile t... |
The importance of airborne trade to the U.S. economy has steadily increased over the last 20 years, and the international movement of goods by air is critical to many U.S. export industries. The international aviation market is, however, heavily regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which often limit air... | Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed U.S. air cargo airlines' reported problems in doing business abroad, focusing on the: (1) nature of the airlines' problems; (2) actions the affected airlines and the Departments of Transportation (DOT) and State have taken to resolve these problems; (3) extent to which ... |
The AAV is a tracked (non-wheeled) vehicle with the capability to self- deploy—or launch from ships (see figure 1). The AAV has a water speed of approximately six knots, and is usually deployed from within sight of the shore, a factor that poses survivability risks in certain threat environments. According to USMC offi... | The Marine Corps' ACV is intended to transport Marines from ship to shore and provide armored protection on land. It is to potentially replace all or a portion of the decades old AAV fleet, and is expected to eventually offer increased amphibious capability and high water speed. The National Defense Authorization Act f... |
Subsets and Splits
Short Government Reports Sample
Retrieves short reports or summaries from the training dataset, which helps identify potentially incomplete or truncated entries that might need data quality improvement.
Short Government Reports Filtering
Retrieves short reports from the training dataset, providing basic filtering but offering limited analytical value beyond simple length constraints.