report stringlengths 320 1.32M | summary stringlengths 127 13.7k |
|---|---|
In response to concerns raised by the Director of National Intelligence, Admiral Mike McConnell, that the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA), 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801 et seq ., required modernization to meet the current intelligence needs of the nation, a number of bills were introduced in the Senate and the House o... | On August 5, 2007, P.L. 110-55, the Protect America Act of 2007, was signed into law by President Bush, after having been passed by the Senate on August 3 and the House of Representatives on August 4. The measure, introduced by Senator McConnell as S. 1927 on August 1, makes a number of additions and modifications to t... |
The German automotive manufacturer Volkswagen Automotive Group (VW) has admitted to installing a software algorithm in several of its diesel-fueled vehicle engines that acts as a "defeat device": the software detects wh en the vehicle is undergoing official compliance testing and activates certain pollution control dev... | The German automotive manufacturer Volkswagen Automotive Group (VW) has admitted to installing a software algorithm in several of its diesel-fueled vehicle engines that acts as a "defeat device": the software detects when the vehicle is undergoing compliance testing and activates certain pollution control devices to re... |
Charter schools are public schools of choice that are created in accordance with state laws and are publicly funded and tuition free. They are operated according to the terms of charters or contracts granted by public chartering agencies, such as local educational agencies (LEAs) or state boards of education. The terms... | Charter schools are public schools of choice that are created in accordance with state laws and are publicly funded and tuition free. They are operated according to the terms of charters or contracts granted by public chartering agencies. The terms of charters typically provide charter school operators with increased a... |
During the Cold War, the focus of U.S. nuclear policy was deterring or retaliating in responseto a Soviet nuclear attack. U.S. nuclear forces were designed and sized for that contingency. Othercontingencies in which the United States might have used nuclear weapons were much more remote,and would have required far fewe... | The Bush Administration completed its congressionally-mandated Nuclear Posture Review in December 2001. The review led to major changes in U.S. nuclear policy. It found that the Cold Warrelationship with Russia was "very inappropriate" and that this nation must be able to deal with newthreats. It planned to retain Cold... |
Congress has been interested in detecting nuclear weapons and the special materials needed to make them for many years, especially since 9/11. Nuclear detection has many applications for countering nuclear terrorism and nuclear proliferation, such as securing nuclear weapons and materials in U.S., Russian, and other nu... | Detection of nuclear weapons and special nuclear material (SNM, plutonium, and certain types of uranium) is crucial to thwarting nuclear proliferation and terrorism and to securing weapons and materials worldwide. Congress has funded a portfolio of detection R&D and acquisition programs, and has mandated inspection at ... |
The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) is the nation's largest domestic food assistance program, serving about 42.2 million recipients in an average month at a federal cost of over $68 billion in FY2017. It is jointly administered by the federal government and the states and provides means-tested benefits... | The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) is the nation's largest domestic food assistance program, serving over 42.1 million recipients in an average month at a federal cost of over $68 billion in FY2017. SNAP is jointly administered by state agencies, which handle most recipient functions, and the federal ... |
Currently, U.S. meat and poultry slaughter facilities and processing plants operate under one of two parallel inspection systems. The one familiar to most people is the federal meat and poultry inspection system administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) Food Safety and Inspection System (FSIS). The ... | Federal law has prohibited state-inspected meat and poultry plants from shipping their products across state lines. The final conference version of H.R. 2419, the omnibus farm bill, amends the Federal Meat Inspection Act and the Poultry Products Inspection Act to permit such interstate shipment under certain conditions... |
Many voices, domestic and international, have called upon the United States and other industrialized countries to increase foreign assistance to lower- and middle-income countries to address climate change. Proponents maintain that such assistance could help promote climate-friendly and high-growth economic development... | Over the past several decades, the United States has delivered financial and technical assistance for climate change activities in the developing world through a variety of bilateral and multilateral programs. The United States and other industrialized countries committed to such assistance through the United Nations F... |
Advertising has been—and continues to be—transformed as consumers spend more of their time using electronic devices, such as smartphones and tablet computers, to access digital content of many varieties. This shift has given rise to difficult and novel public policy issues. This report examines some of these issues in ... | The United States is the world's largest advertising market. According to one estimate, domestic advertising revenue totaled $219 billion in 2012, accounting for about 1% of U.S. gross domestic product (GDP). Almost every major medium of information, including the press, entertainment, and online services, depends on a... |
The Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR) of the National Science Foundation (NSF) was authorized by Congress in 1978, partly in response to concerns from Congress and from some of those in academia and the scientific community about the geographic distribution of federal research and developm... | The Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR) of the National Science Foundation (NSF) was authorized by Congress in 1978, partly in response to concerns in Congress and the concerns of some in academia and the scientific community about the geographic distribution of federal research and developm... |
E nacted over three decades ago, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in federally funded education programs or activities. Although Title IX bars recipients of federal financial assistance from discriminating on the basis of sex in a wide range of educational progra... | Under Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs or activities, school districts have long been permitted to operate single-sex schools. In 2006, the Department of Education (ED) published Title IX regulations that, for the first time, authori... |
A spate of autumn 2008 news stories reported the downsizing or closure of periodicals and their publishers due to financial challenges: U.S. News & World Report magazine will reduce its paper issues to once per month; Time Inc., which publishes 24 magazines for the U.S. market, has said it will cut 600 jobs, about 6% o... | Recently, financial challenges have compelled a number of publishers of periodicals (e.g., magazines and newspapers) to downsize their operations and to cease printing certain publications. To cite just two examples—Time Inc. has said it will cut 600 jobs, and the century-old Christian Science Monitor newspaper, which ... |
This report examines the Department of Defense (DOD) use of aviation fuel and possibilities to reduce that use by examining related issues and presenting options Congress may choose to consider. DOD, the largest single consumer of energy in the United States, recognizes the need to reduce its reliance on fossil fuel. F... | The Department of Defense (DOD) is a factor in the nation's discussion about national energy security. As the largest single consumer of fuel in the United States, DOD has the potential to make important contributions to the national effort to reduce the use of and reliance on fossil fuel. Aviation fuel makes up the la... |
Budgeting has been defined as the allocation of scarce resources. It involves choices about how to raise revenues and allocate resources among alternative purposes, locations, and recipients. These choices frequently are made in an environment of competing views about the public interest, leading one scholar to conclud... | During the 110th Congress, the House of Representatives, the Senate, and the George W. Bush Administration have defined terms like congressional earmark, congressionally directed spending item, and earmark, and have provided some direction for how congressionally originated earmarks, according to these definitions, are... |
Agricultural conservation has been a public policy issue for more than 60 years, an issue repeatedly recast as new problems have emerged or old problems have resurfaced. Early conservation efforts were focused on two themes—reducing high levels of soil erosion and providing water to agriculture in quantities and qualit... | Agricultural conservation has been a public policy issue for more than 60 years. Congress has repeatedly taken action on the issue through water and soil legislation, often as part of omnibus farm bills. Early policy decisions were directed at addressing natural resource concerns on the farm, primarily reducing high le... |
On July 29, Secretary of State John Kerry and Secretary of Commerce Penny Pritzker traveled to New Delhi for the 5 th U.S.-India Strategic Dialogue, where they met with newly-seated Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj, among others. In a joint statement, the two sides reviewe... | The United States and India have been pursuing a "strategic partnership" since 2004, and a 5 th Strategic Dialogue session was held in New Delhi in late July 2014. A May 2014 national election seated a new Indian government led by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and new Prime Minister Narendra Modi. ... |
On October 22, 1999, the President signed into law the FY2000 appropriationsact for the U.S. Department of Agriculture and related agencies ( P.L. 106-78 , H.R. 1906 ). P.L. 106-78 contains $60.56 billion in regular(non-emergency) appropriations and $8.7 billion in emergency spending for farmincome and disaster assista... | The FY2000 appropriations bill ( P.L. 106-78 , H.R. 1906 ) for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and related agencies was signed into law on October 22, 1999. P.L. 106-78 contains regular (non-emergency) appropriations of $60.559 billion, which is $2 billion below theAdministration request, but nearly $6 billio... |
This report provides a chronology of events relevant to U.S. relations with North Korea in 2005 and is a continuation of CRS Report RL32743, North Korea: A Chronology of Events, October 2002-December 2004 , by [author name scrubbed], [author name scrubbed], and [author name scrubbed]. The chronology includes significan... | This report provides a chronology of events relevant to U.S. relations with North Korea in 2005 and is a continuation of CRS Report RL32743, North Korea: A Chronology of Events, October 2002-December 2004, by [author name scrubbed], [author name scrubbed], and [author name scrubbed]. The chronology includes significant... |
On August 22, 2008, Federal Reserve Board Chairman Ben S. Bernanke spoke about systemic risk and raised the issue of having the authority to conduct macroprudential oversight. Similarly, Timothy F. Geithner, while president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, also spoke about the need for expanding current prudent... | Recent innovations in finance, while increasing the capacity to borrow and lend, resulted in a large volume of banking transactions occurring outside of traditional banking institutions. Also, even though existing regulators supervise individual banks for safety and soundness, there are risks that do not reside with th... |
The current dispute, as discussed above, has its origins in the 1960s. The new chapter of thislong running discussion is primarily the result of events that have occurred since the Fall of 2004.First, Delta Airlines decided in October 2004 to pull most of its service out of Dallas- Ft. WorthInternational Airport (DFW).... | The history of the Wright Amendment dates back to the 1960s when the now defunct CivilAeronautics Board (CAB) proposed the creation of a single regional airport in the Dallas-Fort Worth(DFW) area. To construct the new airport, the two cities entered into an agreement that required thephasing out of separate existing ai... |
A common theme in controversies over the Endangered Species Act (ESA) is that a conflict is triggered by the need for the same dwindling resources by humans and a listed species. The parties to the debate often have struggled for years over the basic allocation of those resources, from the Tellico River, to prairie gra... | Western states have seen conflicts over natural resources for more than a century, involving issues such as grazing, roads, fences, oil and gas development, urban expansion, spread of invasive species, water rights, timber harvest, and pollution. In many cases, the conflicts involve the protection of endangered and thr... |
Congress and President Bush devoted considerable attention to how the nation can best prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover from natural and human-caused disasters. Events such as the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and Hurricane Katrina of August 2005, prompted Congress and President Bush to require t... | In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Congress and President Bush moved to consolidate numerous federal emergency plans into a single, unified national response plan. The end product of these efforts was the National Response Plan (NRP), which established broad lines of authority for agencies resp... |
Tainted water and unsanitary practices are at the root of many health problems in the developing world and are hindering U.S. and international global health efforts. Congressional interest in combating this problem is strong, evidenced by the passage of P.L. 109-121 , The Senator Paul Simon Water for the Poor Act of 2... | According to a 2012 report released by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), roughly 780 million people around the world lack access to clean drinking water and an estimated 2.5 billion people (roughly 40% of the world's population) are without access to safe sanitation fa... |
M edicaid is a joint federal-state program that finances the delivery of primary and acute medical services, as well as long-term services and supports, to a diverse low-income population, including children, pregnant women, adults, individuals with disabilities, and people aged 65 and older. Medicaid is financed joint... | Medicaid is a federal-state program that finances the delivery of primary and acute medical services, as well as long-term services and supports, to a diverse low-income population, including children, pregnant women, adults, individuals with disabilities, and people aged 65 and older. Medicaid is financed jointly by t... |
Health insurance premiums represent a contractually agreed upon amount to be paid for a defined set of health benefits during a defined period of time (usually a year). Premiums are typically paid in monthly installments by policyholders (individual coverage) and enrollees (group coverage). Premiums may vary for differ... | In general, the premiums charged by health insurance companies represent actuarial estimates of the amount that would be required to cover three main components: (1) the expected cost of the health benefits covered under the plan, (2) the business administrative costs of operating the plan, and (3) a profit. The final ... |
On January 29, 2008, President George W. Bush signed Executive Order 13,457, "Protecting American Taxpayers from Government Spending on Wasteful Earmarks." The order states that it is the policy of the federal government "to be judicious in the expenditure of taxpayer dollars." In order "[t]o ensure the proper use of t... | On January 29, 2008, President George W. Bush signed Executive Order 13,457, "Protecting American Taxpayers from Government Spending on Wasteful Earmarks." The order states that it is the policy of the federal government "to be judicious in the expenditure of taxpayer dollars." In order "[t]o ensure the proper use of t... |
In 1999, a federal district court judge approved a settlement agreement and consent decree in Pigford v. Glickman , a class action discrimination suit between the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and black farmers. Due to concerns about the large number of applicants who did not obtain a determination on the merit... | On April 14, 1999, Judge Paul L. Friedman of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia approved a settlement agreement and consent decree in Pigford v. Glickman, a class action discrimination suit between the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and black farmers. The suit claimed that the agency had discri... |
This report (1) provides background information and discusses potential issues for Congress on the topic of portsecurity, which has emerged as a significant part of the overall debate on U.S. homelandsecurity. (2) The terroristattacks of September 11, 2001 heightened awareness about the vulnerability to terrorist attac... | The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 heightened awareness about the vulnerability toterrorist attack of all modes of transportation. Port security has emerged as a significant part of theoverall debate on U.S. homeland security. The overarching issues for Congress are providingoversight on current port security ... |
In response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks against the United States, Congress enacted the Authorization for Use of Military Force (2001 AUMF; P.L. 107-40 ; 50 U.S.C. §1541 note) to authorize the use of military force against those who perpetrated or provided support for the attacks. President George W. B... | In response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks against the United States, Congress enacted the Authorization for Use of Military Force (2001 AUMF; P.L. 107-40; 50 U.S.C. §1541 note) to authorize the use of military force against those who perpetrated or provided support for the attacks. Under the authority of... |
Airline passenger screening in the United States has been transformed since the 9/11 terrorist attacks. These transformations fall into two broad categories: new screening technologies, including advanced X-ray systems for screening carry-on items and whole-body scanners, and changes in policies, procedures, and practi... | Until recently, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) had applied relatively uniform methods to screen airline passengers, focusing primarily on advances in screening technology to improve security and efficiency. TSA has recently shifted away from this approach, which assumes a uniform level of risk among a... |
According to the federal Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), in 2007 about 11% of adults (23.7 million) experienced serious psychological distress, such as anxiety and mood disorders, that resulted in functional impairment that impeded one or more major life activities. It is estimated t... | In the past decade, four federal reports have offered insight into the nation's mental health care system and recommended a fundamental transformation of the system. According to these reports, transformation of the mental health care system would require timely incorporation of evidence-based practices in routine prac... |
Nigeria begins 2015 facing highly polarizing—and potentially destabilizing—elections amid a dangerous territorial advance in the northeast by the violent Islamist insurgent group Boko Haram. By some estimates, more than 5,500 people were killed in Boko Haram attacks in 2014, and Boko Haram attacks have already claimed ... | In early February, the Nigerian government controversially delayed its scheduled elections by six weeks, to March 28, based on security concerns, drawing criticism from the political opposition and the Obama Administration, among others. The delay has heightened concerns about tensions around the polls and raised quest... |
A permanent cease-fire agreement between the Angolan government and its long-time military adversary, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) was signed on April 4, 2002. It provides for the demobilization of UNITA forces and for their integration into a unified national military, in accordance ... | A permanent cease-fire agreement between the Angolan government and its long-time military adversary, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) was signed on April 4, 2002. The accord provides for the demobilization of UNITA's forces, and for their integration into a unified national military. Und... |
Budgets for the Department of State and the Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG), as well as U.S. contributions to United Nations (U.N.) International Organizations, and U.N. Peacekeeping, are in the State, Foreign Operations Appropriations in both the House and Senate. Intertwined with the annual appropriations proce... | State Department funding, formerly in the House Science, State, Justice, Commerce (SSJC) Appropriations Subcommittee, is now aligned in both the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees on State-Foreign Operations. In addition to passing annual appropriations, foreign relations authorization legislation is require... |
In the course of developing and executing a response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in suburban Washington, DC, President George W. Bush set restrictive policy on the disclosure of related sensitive information to Congress. In an October 5 memora... | Under the Constitution of the United States, the President is responsible for prosecuting war and directing the armed forces during military conflicts, including attacks upon the nation. Congress is constitutionally empowered to declare war, may otherwise authorize the involvement of American armed forces in military c... |
After the bursting of the housing bubble and the ensuing financial crisis, Congress passed the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Dodd-Frank Act; P.L. 111-203 ), a broad package of reforms that touched on many aspects of the financial system. It was intended to address the problems that led to t... | Title XIV of the Dodd-Frank Act established the ability-to-repay (ATR) requirement. Under the ATR requirement, a lender must determine based on documented and verified information that, at the time a mortgage is made, the borrower has the ability to repay the loan. Lenders that fail to comply with the ATR rule could be... |
This is an outline of two federal statutes: the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). Both evolved out of the shadow of the Supreme Court's Fourth Amendment jurisprudence. The courts play an essential role in both. Congress crafted both to preserve the abilit... | This report provides an overview of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). ECPA consists of three parts. The first, often referred to as Title III, outlaws wiretapping and electronic eavesdropping, except as otherwise provided. The second, the Stored Commu... |
A period of unemployment greatly increases the odds that a worker and members of the worker's family will be counted among the nation's poor. For example, among persons between the ages of 16 and 64 who were unemployed in March 2012, about one in four (27.6%) were poor based on their families' incomes in 2011; among th... | This report examines the antipoverty effects of unemployment insurance benefits during the past recession and the economic recovery. The analysis highlights the impact of the additional and expanded unemployment insurance (UI) benefits available to unemployed workers through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act o... |
This report examines the role played by Senators in the selection of nominees to two kinds of lower federal court judgeships. Specifically, the judgeships in question, over which Senators have historically played a role in nominee selection, are those (1) in the U.S. district courts lying geographically within the Sena... | This report examines the role that home state Senators, historically and in the contemporary era, have played in the selection of nominees to U.S. district court and circuit court of appeals judgeships. It also identifies issues that have arisen in recent years over the role of home state Senators in the selection proc... |
As the role of lawyers in most countries has evolved from advocates regulated by local courts and their rules to legal advisors for transactions in economic activities, the increase in cross-border provision of legal services led to the inclusion of such services in the trade agreements and negotiations under the WTO, ... | This report provides a broad overview of the treatment of legal services under the World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements and its potential effect on laws and rules governing the provision of legal services by foreign lawyers in the United States and legal ethics rules. |
In the more than 15 years since gaining independence, Estonia's political scene has been characterized by the creation and dissolution of numerous parties and shifting alliances among them. This has often resulted in politics resembling a game of "musical chairs." Estonian governments have lasted on average only slight... | After restoration of its independence in 1991, following decades of Soviet rule, Estonia made rapid strides toward establishing a democratic political system and a dynamic, free market economy. It achieved two key foreign policy goals when it joined NATO and the European Union in 2004. However, relations with Russia re... |
Dozens of temporary tax provisions expired at the end of 2013, and several other temporary tax provisions are scheduled to expire at the end of 2014. The American Taxpayer Relief Act (ATRA; P.L. 112-240 ), signed into law on January 2, 2013, reduced tax policy uncertainty by permanently extending most of the tax cuts f... | Dozens of temporary tax provisions expired at the end of 2013, and several other temporary tax provisions are scheduled to expire at the end of 2014. Most of the provisions that expired at the end of 2013 have been part of past temporary tax extension legislation. Most recently, many temporary tax provisions were exten... |
CRS Division abbreviation: "FDT" = Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division. For the most controversial FY2001 Foreign Operations issue - internationalfamily planning - Congress increased spending to $425 million. Lawmakers,however, restricted the obligation of funds until after February 15, 2001. OnJanuary 22, 200... | The annual Foreign Operations appropriations bill is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. foreign aid budget and influences executive branch foreign policymaking generally. It contains the largest share -- over two-thirds -- of total U.S. internationalaffairs spending. President Clint... |
The Defense Department announced on June 24, 2009, that an agreement of "mutual benefit" had been concluded with the Kyrgyz government "to continu[e] to work, with them, to supply our troops in Afghanistan, so that we can help with the overall security situation in the region." According to Kyrgyz Foreign Minister Kady... | In February 2009, Kyrgyzstan announced that it was terminating an agreement permitting U.S. forces to upgrade and use portions of the Manas international airport near the capital of Bishkek to support coalition military operations in Afghanistan. U.S. forces faced leaving the airbase by late August 2009. Major U.S. con... |
Early in December 2010, press reports indicated that legislators, especially in the Senate, were seeking to gather support for several water quality bills that could be considered during the post-election, lame duck session of the 111 th Congress, possibly packaged with others dealing with public lands and wildlife pro... | Early in December 2010, press reports indicated that legislators, especially in the Senate, were seeking to gather support for several water quality bills that could be considered during the post-election, lame duck session of the 111th Congress, possibly packaged with others dealing with public lands and wildlife prot... |
In 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court decided District of Columbia v. Heller , in which the Court held that the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects an individual right to possess a firearm, unconnected with service in a militia, and the use of that firearm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defens... | The U.S. Supreme Court in District of Columbia v. Heller held that the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects an individual right to possess a firearm, unconnected with service in a militia, and the use of that firearm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home. It also held tha... |
The size and composition of federal spending directed toward low-income people is a focus of public policy. Particularly in a budget-conscious environment, policy makers want to know what the federal government spends on programs to help needy populations, including the types of assistance provided and the characterist... | The Congressional Research Service (CRS) regularly receives requests about the number, size, and programmatic details of federal benefits and services targeted toward low-income populations, and the characteristics of people who participate. This report attempts to identify and provide information about such programs, ... |
U.S. employers in various industries argue that they need to hire foreign workers to perform low-skilled jobs. A threshold question about importing temporary lower-skilled workers, sometimes referred to as guest workers, is whether U.S. employers need foreign workers for lower-skilled positions, or whether there is a s... | U.S. employers in various industries argue that they need to hire foreign workers to perform lower-skilled jobs, while others maintain that many of these positions could be filled by U.S. workers. Under current law, certain lower-skilled foreign workers, sometimes referred to as guest workers, may be admitted to the Un... |
Successive U.S. Congresses have endorsed close U.S.-Georgia ties and have supported Georgia's continued sovereignty and independence. Congressional engagement has included humanitarian and other assistance to address economic problems in the 1990s, as well as remediation support in the aftermath of the August 2008 Russ... | This report discusses Georgia's October 27, 2013, presidential election and its implications for U.S. interests. The election took place one year after a legislative election that witnessed the mostly peaceful shift of legislative and ministerial power from the ruling party, the United National Movement (UNM), to the G... |
On September 26, 2006, by a vote of 394-22, the House approved a conference agreement on the FY2007 defense appropriations bill, H.R. 5631 . The Senate approved the agreement on September 29 by a vote of 100-0, and the President signed the bill into law, P.L. 109-289 , on the same day. The bill includes a continuing re... | In the week before Congress adjourned for recess on September 30, the House and Senate passed conference agreements on both the FY2007 national defense authorization bill, H.R. 5122, and the FY2007 defense appropriations bill, H.R. 5631. The President signed the appropriations bill into law, P.L. 109-289, on September ... |
Electronic waste (e-waste) is a term that is used loosely to refer to obsolete, broken, or irreparable electronic devices like televisions, computer central processing units (CPUs), computer monitors (flat screen and cathode ray tubes), laptops, printers, scanners, and associated wiring. Rapid technology changes have l... | Electronic waste (e-waste) is a term that is used loosely to refer to obsolete, broken, or irreparable electronic devices like televisions, computer central processing units (CPUs), computer monitors (flat screen and cathode ray tubes), laptops, printers, scanners, and associated wiring. E-waste has become a concern in... |
In 2013, then-Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta warned that "budget uncertainty could prompt the most significant military readiness crisis in more than a decade." Four years later, observers are debating whether a readiness crisis has indeed come to pass, disagreeing on how ready the U.S. military currently is, and de... | Many defense observers and government officials, including some Members of Congress, are concerned that the U.S. military faces a readiness crisis. The Department of Defense has used readiness as a central justification for its FY2017 and FY2018 funding requests. Yet what makes the U.S. military ready is debated. This ... |
Omnibus appropriations acts have become a significant feature of the legislative process in recent years as Congress and the President have resorted more frequently to their use to bring action on the regular appropriations cycle to a close. Following a discussion of pertinent background information, this report review... | Omnibus appropriations acts have become a significant feature of the legislative process in recent years as Congress and the President have used them more frequently to bring action on the regular appropriations cycle to a close. Following a discussion of pertinent background information, this report reviews the recent... |
On October 4, 2006, the President signed into law the FY2007 Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act ( P.L. 109-295 , H.R. 5441 ), which has a provision (Section 546) extending the deadline requiring U.S. citizens traveling by land or sea between the United States and the Caribbean (as well as Canada, Mexico... | With some 34 million people and 16 independent nations sharing an African ethnic heritage, the Caribbean is a diverse region that includes some of the hemisphere's richest and poorest nations. The region consists of 13 island nations, from the Bahamas in the north to Trinidad and Tobago in the south; Belize, which is g... |
The 114 th Congress is likely to face numerous water resource issues as it conducts oversight and deliberates on authorizations and appropriations related to federal water resource development, management, and protection. Such issues include how to make investment decisions in the face of fiscal constraints; how to mai... | The 114th Congress faces many water resource development, management, and protection issues. Congressional actions shape reinvestment in aging federal infrastructure (e.g., dams, locks, and levees) and federal and nonfederal investment in new infrastructure, such as water supply augmentation, hydropower projects, navig... |
Congress has enacted laws requiring individuals and facilities to take measures to protect environmental quality and public health by limiting potentially harmful emissions and discharges, and remediating damage. Enforcement of federal pollution control laws in the United States occurs within a highly diverse, complex,... | As a result of enforcement actions and settlements for noncompliance with federal pollution control requirements, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that, during FY2013, regulated entities committed to invest an estimated $7.0 billion for judicially mandated actions and equipment to control polluti... |
Managing stormwater is one of the biggest and most expensive problems facing cities across the United States. Stormwater is in part a water quantity problem, and for decades the focus of local governments and public works officials was on how to engineer solutions to move rainwater rapidly away from urban areas to avoi... | For decades, stormwater, or runoff, was considered largely a problem of excess rainwater or snowmelt impacting communities. Prevailing engineering practices were to move stormwater away from cities as rapidly as possible to avoid potential damages from flooding. More recently, these practices have evolved and come to r... |
Wireless communications devices—including mobile telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), pagers, and automobile-based services such as OnStar—are ubiquitous. Many of the services provided by these devices require data on the user's location, whether it is to connect a phone call or dispatch emergency services w... | Wireless communications devices such as cell phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs) are ubiquitous. Some consumers, already deluged with unwanted commercial messages, or "spam," via computers that access the Internet by traditional wireline connections, are concerned that such unsolicited advertising is expandin... |
On February 11, 2013, NASA launched Landsat 8, a remote sensing satellite jointly operated by the U.S. Geological Survey and NASA. Landsat 8 is the latest in a series of Earth-observing satellites that began on July 23, 1972, with the launch of Landsat 1. Landsat has been used in a wide variety of applications, includi... | On February 11, 2013, NASA launched Landsat 8, a remote sensing satellite jointly operated by the U.S. Geological Survey and NASA. Landsat 8 is the latest in a series of Earth-observing satellites that began on July 23, 1972, with the launch of Landsat 1. Landsat has been used in a wide variety of applications, includi... |
The legal framework for international civil aviation rights dates back to the 1919 Convention for the Regulation of Aerial Navigation (Paris Convention), which was a part of the Paris Peace Conference. The hallmark aviation principle recognized by the Paris Convention is that every nation has absolute and exclusive sov... | Much of the law regarding civil aviation has been developed through a combination of domestic laws and international agreements between the United States and other nations. In 1992, the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) introduced the "Open Skies" initiative and began negotiating and entering into modern... |
The debate in Congress over whether and how to address possible future climate change is intensifying. Often, the role of the U.S. agriculture sector is invoked in this debate. Agriculture is a source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which many scientists agree are contributing to observed climate change. Agriculture... | The agriculture sector is a source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which many scientists agree are contributing to observed climate change. Agriculture is also a "sink" for sequestering carbon, which might offset GHG emissions by capturing and storing carbon in agricultural soils. The two key types of GHG emissions ... |
In the past, Congress has regularly acted to extend expired or expiring temporary tax provisions. Collectively, these temporary tax provisions are often referred to as "tax extenders." Of the 33 temporary tax provisions that had expired at the end of 2016 and extended retroactively through 2017, three are individual in... | Three individual temporary tax provisions expired in 2017. In the past, Congress has regularly acted to extend expired or expiring temporary tax provisions. Collectively, these temporary tax provisions are often referred to as "tax extenders." Most recently, Congress addressed tax extenders in the Bipartisan Budget Act... |
O n December 15, 2016, USDA published in the Federal Register a final rule, "Enhancing Retailer Standards in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)." This final rule followed USDA-FNS's proposed rule earlier in the year: On February 17, 2016, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) Food and Nutritio... | The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), the largest of the U.S Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) domestic food assistance programs, provides benefits to eligible participants; these benefits are redeemable for SNAP-eligible foods at SNAP-authorized retailers. SNAP-authorized retailers are stores and ot... |
In March 2014, a regional director of the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB or Board) ruled that scholarship football players at Northwestern University are employees for purposes of the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), and ordered an election to determine support for the College Athletes Players Association (CA... | In late January 2014, a group of students who play football for Northwestern University filed a representation petition with the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). The students are seeking to be represented by the College Athletes Players Association (CAPA), a newly created labor organization. CAPA contends that co... |
Obesity is a condition that has been deemed an epidemic in the United States. Results of a survey by the National Center for Health Statistics found that in the years 2003 to 2004, an estimated 66% of U.S. adults were either overweight or obese. The American Obesity Association estimates that approximately 127 million ... | The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) provides broad nondiscrimination protection for individuals with disabilities. However, to be covered under the statute, an individual must first meet the definition of an individual with a disability. Questions have been raised as to whether and to what extent obesity is a dis... |
The ability of unauthorized aliens to claim federal refundable tax credits has received considerable scrutiny. In a July 2011 study, the Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) reported that individuals who were not authorized to work in the United States received $4.2 billion by claiming the refundab... | In 2011, the Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) reported that individuals who were not authorized to work in the United States received $4.2 billion by claiming the refundable portion of the child tax credit—the additional child tax credit (ACTC). The ACTC is available to working families with ch... |
This is a comparison of the law of the United States (U.S.) and United Kingdom (UK) relating to the authority to investigate terrorism. It focuses primarily upon the procedures for conducting searches and seizures including the interception of communications, arresting and detaining suspected terrorists, and control or... | This is a comparison of the laws of the United Kingdom and of the United States that govern criminal and intelligence investigations of terrorist activities. Both systems rely upon a series of statutory authorizations: in the case of the United States primarily the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act and the Electron... |
Congress first mandated that the former Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) implement an automated entry and exit data system that would track the arrival and departure of every alien in §110 of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA; P.L. 104-208 ). The objective for a... | Congress first mandated that the former Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) implement an automated entry and exit data system that would track the arrival and departure of every alien in §110 of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA). The objective was, in part, to dev... |
Waste discharges from municipal sewage treatment plants into rivers and streams, lakes, and estuaries and coastal waters are a significant source of water quality problems throughout the country. States report that municipal discharges are the second leading source of water quality impairment in all of the nation's wat... | The Clean Water Act prescribes performance levels to be attained by municipal sewage treatment plants in order to prevent the discharge of harmful wastes into surface waters. The act also provides financial assistance so that communities can construct treatment facilities to comply with the law. The availability of fun... |
The Office of Management and Budget traces its origin to 1921. Established as the Bureau of the Budget (BOB) within the Treasury Department by the Budget and Accounting Act, 1921 (42 Stat. 20), it functioned under the supervision of the President. Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1939 (53 Stat. 1423) transferred the bureau... | The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) is located within the Executive Office of the President (EOP). As a staff agency to the President, OMB acts on the President's behalf in preparing the President's annual budget proposal, overseeing the executive branch, and helping steer the President's policy actions and agend... |
The dollar amounts allocated to health care in the budget of the Department of Defense (DOD) have more than doubled since FY2001, growing from about $17 billion to over $44.8 billion in FY2009. DOD projections for health care indicate that even further growth can be realistically anticipated, perhaps reaching $64 billi... | The Obama Administration's Fiscal Year 2010 budget submission does not include any proposals to increase fees or copayments for Tricare beneficiaries. Previously, the FY2007, FY2008, and FY2009 budget submissions had proposed increases in Tricare enrollment fees, deductibles, and pharmacy co-payments for retired benefi... |
The federal government supports adoption in two primary ways: federal grants to state governments and tax benefits for individual taxpayers that help offset the costs of adopting a child. This report focuses on federal adoption tax benefits, which consist of an adoption tax credit and an income tax exclusion for employ... | The federal government supports adoption in two primary ways: federal grants to state governments and tax benefits for individual taxpayers that help offset the costs of adopting a child. This report focuses on federal adoption tax benefits, which consist of an adoption tax credit and an income tax exclusion for employ... |
Congress's role and operation in national politics is fundamentally shaped by the design and structure of the governing institutions in the Constitution. One of the key principles of the Constitution is separation of powers. The doctrine is rooted in a political philosophy that aims to keep power from consolidating in ... | Congress's role and operation in national politics is fundamentally shaped by the design and structure of the governing institution in the Constitution. One of the key principles of the Constitution is separation of powers. The doctrine is rooted in a political philosophy that aims to keep power from consolidating in a... |
Program eligibility requirements and payment limits are central to how various U.S. farm programs operate. These requirements fundamentally address various equity concerns and reflect the goals of government intervention in agriculture. They determine who receives federal farm program payments and how much they receive... | Current U.S. farm program participants—whether individuals or multi-person legal entities—must meet specific eligibility requirements to receive benefits under certain farm programs. Some requirements are common across most programs while others are specific to individual programs. In addition, program participants are... |
"Toxic" drywall, formaldehyde emissions, mold, asbestos, lead-based paint, radon, PCBs in caulk, and many other indoor pollution problems have concerned scientists, federal policy makers, and regulators during the last 30 years. Some problems have been resolved, others remain of concern, and new indoor pollution proble... | "Toxic" drywall, formaldehyde emissions, mold, asbestos, lead-based paint, radon, PCBs in caulk, and many other indoor pollution problems have concerned federal policy makers and regulators during the last 30 years. Some problems have been resolved, others remain of concern, and new indoor pollution problems continuall... |
I n United States v. Windsor , the U.S. Supreme Court held that Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was unconstitutional, finding, in part, that it violated the Constitution's equal protection and substantive due process guarantees. Section 3 had required that marriage be defined as the union of one man and... | This report addresses eligibility for Social Security spousal benefits for individuals in a same-sex marriage. Key Takeaways Under the Social Security Act, eligibility for spousal benefits depends on the applicant's marital status as defined by the laws of the state as interpreted by the courts of that state in which t... |
On July 21, 2010, Title VIII of the Dodd-Frank Act, the Payment, Clearing, and Settlement Supervision Act of 2010 , became effective upon enactment. Title VIII authorizes the Federal Reserve, in coordination with other federal agencies, to supervise and regulate the infrastructure that enables financial intermediaries ... | The U.S. financial system processes millions of transactions each day representing daily transfers of trillions of dollars, securities, and other assets to facilitate purchases and payments. Concerns had been raised, even prior to the recent financial crisis, about the vulnerability of the U.S. financial system to infr... |
The political unrest and transitions that have swept through several countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) since early 2011—often referred to as the "Arab Spring" or "Arab Awakening"—have prompted the United States, along with the broader international community, to discuss approaches and take actions to... | U.S. interest in deepening economic ties with certain countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) has increased in light of the political unrest and transitions that have swept the region since early 2011. Policymakers in Congress and the Obama Administration are discussing ways that U.S. trade and investment ... |
As the 80 million baby boomers approach retirement, many are concerned they will not have sufficient savings to sustain their standard of living throughout retirement. Few, however, have focused on another risk to their retirement security—the potential cost of financing often expensive long-term care services. The cos... | As the 80 million baby boomers approach retirement, many are concerned they will not have sufficient savings to sustain their standard of living in retirement. Few, however, may be focused on another risk to their retirement security—the potential cost of financing often expensive long-term care services and supports (... |
As Congress considers tax reform, an important and challenging component is the tax treatment of the corporation. Some proposals would cut the corporate rate by broadening the base, with an overall revenue-neutral treatment of the corporate sector, while others would propose raising or reducing revenues. The traditiona... | Interest in corporate tax reform that lowers the rate and broadens the base has developed in the past several years. Some discussions by economists in opinion pieces have suggested there is an urgent need to lower the corporate tax rate, but not necessarily to broaden the tax base, an approach that presents some diffic... |
T he House of Representatives has several different parliamentary procedures through which it can bring legislation to the chamber floor. Which will be used in a given situation depends on many factors, including the type of measure being considered, its cost, the amount of political or policy controversy surrounding i... | The House of Representatives has several different parliamentary procedures through which it can bring legislation to the chamber floor. Which of these will be used in a given situation depends on many factors, including the type of measure being considered, its cost, the amount of political or policy controversy surro... |
RS21558 -- Genetically Engineered Soybeans: Acceptance and Intellectual Property Rights Issues in SouthAmerica Updated October 17, 2003 The United States is the world's leading producer and exporter of soybeans. However, South American soybean production and tradehas expanded rapidly during the past 15 years, greatly i... | U.S. soybean growers and trade officials charge that Argentina and Brazil -- the UnitedStates' two major export competitors in international soybean markets -- gain an unfair trade advantage by routinelysavinggenetically-engineered (GE), Roundup Ready (RR) soybean seeds from the previous harvest (a practice prohibitedi... |
Technological advancement and the proliferation of the smartphone have reshaped the commercial landscape, providing consumers new ways to access the retail marketplace. On-demand companies are one such innovation, and underpinning on-demand commerce is the gig economy , the collection of markets that match service prov... | The gig economy is the collection of markets that match providers to consumers on a gig (or job) basis in support of on-demand commerce. In the basic model, gig workers enter into formal agreements with on-demand companies (e.g., Uber, TaskRabbit) to provide services to the company's clients. Prospective clients reques... |
Surface transportation authorization acts authorize spending on federal highway and mass transit programs, surface transportation safety and research, and some rail programs. The most recent multi-year authorization for federal surface transportation programs, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation E... | The federal government's highway, mass transit, and surface transportation safety programs are periodically authorized in a multi-year surface transportation reauthorization bill. The most recent reauthorization act, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU or... |
T he North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) entered into force on January 1, 1994, establishing a free trade area as part of a comprehensive economic and trade agreement among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Currently, the United States is renegotiating the agreement. However, repeated threats from Presiden... | The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) entered into force on January 1, 1994, establishing a free trade area as part of a comprehensive economic and trade agreement among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Currently, the United States is renegotiating the agreement. However, repeated threats by President T... |
The potential outcome of the resignation of long-time Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak is unknown and any ramifications for the oil and natural gas sectors are uncertain. This paper examines the impact of a disruption of Egypt's oil and natural gas sector or a complete halt to exports of either oil or natural gas and c... | The change in Egypt's government will likely not have a significant direct impact on the global oil and natural gas markets. There may be some short-term movements in price, mostly caused by perceived instability in the marketplace, but these would most likely be temporary. However, prolonged instability that raises th... |
A question of the privileges of the House is a formal declaration by a Member of the House asserting that a situation has arisen that affects "the rights of the House collectively, its safety, dignity, and the integrity of its proceedings." When making the declaration, the Member submits a resolution providing detail o... | A question of the privileges of the House is a formal declaration by a Member of the House asserting that a situation has arisen affecting "the rights of the House collectively, its safety, dignity and the integrity of its proceedings." Once a question of the privileges of the House is raised, the Speaker must, at some... |
The 113th Congress, in exercising both its legislative and oversight responsibilities, faces numerous international trade and finance policy issues. They are important to Congress because they can affect the health of the U.S. economy, the success of U.S. businesses and their workers, and the standard of living of Amer... | The U.S. Constitution grants authority over the regulation of foreign commerce to Congress, which it exercises through oversight of trade policy, including the consideration of legislation to approve trade agreements and authorize trade programs. Policy issues cover such areas as: U.S. trade negotiations; tariff and no... |
The Federal Housing Administration (FHA), an agency of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), insures private mortgage lenders against the possibility that a borrower will default on his or her mortgage. If the borrower does default, and the home goes to foreclosure, FHA will pay the lender the remainin... | The Federal Housing Administration (FHA), an agency of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), insures private mortgage lenders against losses on eligible mortgages. If a borrower defaults on an FHA-insured mortgage, FHA will repay the lender the remaining amount owed. FHA insurance is intended to encour... |
With a population of 105 million people, Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speakingcountry in the world, and the third most populous country in the Western Hemisphere (after theUnited States and Brazil). This gives it a diplomatic weight in the hemisphere as a leader of LatinAmerican countries, and in the world as a ... | This report provides information on the importance of Mexico to U.S. interests andcatalogues the many ways Mexico and the United States interact. The report is a snapshot of thebilateral relationship at the beginning of 2006. It will not be updated on a regular basis. Sharing a 2,000-mile border and extensive interconn... |
Despite measles having been declared eliminated in the United States 15 years ago, there have continued to be occasional outbreaks of the virus that have raised questions about the virus itself, the medications available to prevent its transmission, and the federal government's role in ensuring that vaccine-preventable... | The earliest accounts of measles date back over 1,000 years. This report presents basic information about this infectious disease, its history in the United States, available treatments to prevent individuals from contracting measles, and the federal role in combatting measles—from funding, to research, to the authorit... |
The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides a range of benefits and services to veterans who meet certain eligibility rules; these benefits include medical care, disability compensation and pensions, education, vocational rehabilitation and employment services, assistance to homeless veterans, home loan guarantees... | The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides benefits to veterans who meet certain eligibility criteria. Benefits to veterans range from disability compensation and pensions to hospital and medical care. The VA provides these benefits through three major operating units: the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), th... |
Border and Transportation Security (BTS) is a pivotal function in protecting the American people from terrorists and their instruments of destruction. The issue for Congress is how to achieve desired levels of security, while not compromising other important values in the process. In a series of three reports, a strate... | There is consensus that Border and Transportation Security (BTS) is a pivotal function in protecting the American people from terrorists and their instruments of destruction. The issue for Congress is how to achieve desired levels of security, while not compromising other important values in the process. This report ad... |
Businesses that are incorporated in foreign countries and conduct a large portion of their operations outside of the territorial jurisdiction of the United States may nevertheless cause injury to U.S. persons. For example, a foreign company might manufacture in its home country a machine that another company later dist... | Businesses that are incorporated in foreign countries and conduct a large portion of their operations outside of the territorial jurisdiction of the United States may nevertheless cause injury to U.S. persons. For example, a foreign company might manufacture in its home country a machine that another company later dist... |
The ready availability and rapid adoption of encryption technologies has ignited a discussion on the applicability of the technology and the conditions under which those technologies should be used and made accessible. Information and communications technology (ICT) manufacturers have implemented strong cryptosystems i... | Encryption is a process to secure information from unwanted access or use. Encryption uses the art of cryptography to change information which can be read (plaintext) and make it so that it cannot be read (ciphertext). Decryption uses the same art of cryptography to change that ciphertext back to plaintext. Encryption ... |
Following a major disaster, the financial capacity of a local government may be severely undermined by a decrease in local revenues. The reduction in tax or other revenue can limit the local government's ability to maintain public services or afford many extraordinary but necessary expenditures. Revenue shortfalls can ... | The core purpose of the Community Disaster Loan (CDL) program is to provide financial assistance to local governments that are having difficulty providing government services because of a loss in tax or other revenue following a disaster. The program assists local governments by offering federal loans to compensate for... |
The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) has been identified by both Congress and the Bush Administration as an organization that may help promote the U.S. goal of liberalizing international trade and investment in Asia, and possibly the rest of the world. In addition, because of the unique nature of APEC's members... | There is apparent agreement between Congress and the Bush Administration that the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a potential vehicle for advancing U.S. economic, trade, diplomatic, and security interests both globally and regionally. In particular, APEC offers the United States an organizational counterpoi... |
The federal legislative framework for cybersecurity is complex, with more than 50 statutes addressing various aspects of it either directly or indirectly. Many observers have expressed doubt that the current statutory framework is sufficient to address the growing concerns about the security of cyberspace in the United... | The federal role in cybersecurity has been a topic of discussion and debate for over a decade. Despite significant legislative efforts in the 112th Congress on bills designed to improve the cybersecurity of U.S. critical infrastructure (CI), no legislation on that issue was enacted in that Congress. In an effort to add... |
The 115 th Congress continues its interest in U.S. research and development (R&D) and in evaluating support for federal R&D activities. The federal government has played an important role in supporting R&D efforts that have led to scientific breakthroughs and new technologies, from jet aircraft and the internet to comm... | President Trump's budget request for FY2019 includes approximately $131.0 billion for research and development (R&D), of which $118.056 billion is included in the President's budget and an estimated additional $12.9 billion in nondefense discretionary R&D is requested as part of an addendum to the President's budget. T... |
The President is responsible for appointing individuals to positions throughout the federal government. In some instances, the President makes these appointments using authorities granted to the President alone. Other appointments, generally referred to with the abbreviation PAS, are made by the President with the advi... | The President makes appointments to positions within the federal government, either using authorities granted to the President alone or with the advice and consent of the Senate. There are some 149 full-time leadership positions on 34 federal regulatory and other collegial boards and commissions for which the Senate pr... |
Subsets and Splits
Short Government Reports Sample
Retrieves short reports or summaries from the training dataset, which helps identify potentially incomplete or truncated entries that might need data quality improvement.
Short Government Reports Filtering
Retrieves short reports from the training dataset, providing basic filtering but offering limited analytical value beyond simple length constraints.