ceaglex/VisualTTS_Chem · Datasets at Hugging Face

text stringlengths 19 206
luB5a39kGkA-084\|We're going to learn how those orbitals relate to the various wave function quantum numbers.
luB5a39kGkA-085\|So that if I give you a set of quantum numbers, you'll be able to tell me the orientation and shape of that orbital.
luB5a39kGkA-086\|So we'll use pictures to describe the orbitals rather than the wave functions themselves.
luB5a39kGkA-087\|The wave functions themselves are a complex mathematical formula.
luB5a39kGkA-088\|What we want to think about is how are the electrons actually distributed about the atom.
luB5a39kGkA-089\|Wave functions and quantum mechanics tell us that with a high, high degree of precision.
luB5a39kGkA-090\|This is a beautiful method to describe atoms.
luB5a39kGkA-095\|So quantum mechanics, incredibly precise, incredibly accurate, and a beautiful description of the atom.
jjOzgw5nAZk-000\|There's another property that we can look at in terms of its periodic nature on the periodic table and see if there's a trend.
jjOzgw5nAZk-001\|And that's electronegativity.
jjOzgw5nAZk-002\|Electronegativity is the general tendency to draw electrons towards yourself.
jjOzgw5nAZk-003\|If you're strongly electronegative, then electrons move towards you in a bond.
jjOzgw5nAZk-004\|Now, electronegativity isn't something that we can do an experiment to measure.
jjOzgw5nAZk-005\|That is, we don't have, as in ionization energy, an obvious experiment-- have the atom, pull off an electron, see how much energy that takes.
jjOzgw5nAZk-006\|For electronegativity, what we do is we look at a bunch of bonds.
jjOzgw5nAZk-007\|You take an element and you see how it bonds to other elements.
jjOzgw5nAZk-008\|And you see, are those bonds polar?
jjOzgw5nAZk-009\|Are the electrons in that bond spending more time around one atom than the other atom?
jjOzgw5nAZk-010\|If one of the atoms tends to draw the electrons towards itself, then that atom is more electronegative.
jjOzgw5nAZk-011\|So you can do this by cataloging hundreds of bonds between different elements and seeing which elements tend to draw the electrons toward themselves.
jjOzgw5nAZk-012\|And it does go in a trend.
jjOzgw5nAZk-013\|You find that electronegativity increases as you go from the bottom corner to the top corner of the periodic table.
jjOzgw5nAZk-016\|And you can judge the strength of the polarity.
jjOzgw5nAZk-017\|Polarity increases.
jjOzgw5nAZk-018\|In fact, it can increase so much that the electronegative element actually ionizes the other element.
jjOzgw5nAZk-019\|It takes the electron to itself all together.
jjOzgw5nAZk-020\|Then you're held together by the extreme of polarity-- one negatively charged atom being attracted to a positively charged atom.
jjOzgw5nAZk-021\|The electronegative element has completely captured an electron from the other element.
jjOzgw5nAZk-022\|That's called an ironic bond.
jjOzgw5nAZk-023\|And what holds it together is a Coulombic interaction-- the positive attracted to the negative.
jjOzgw5nAZk-024\|You can catalog a continuum of bonds by looking at differences in electronegativity.
jjOzgw5nAZk-029\|That's the strongest kind of bond you can have.
jjOzgw5nAZk-030\|You can have intermediate differences in electronegativity.
jjOzgw5nAZk-031\|Here is partially ionic hydrogen chloride where the difference is modest.
jjOzgw5nAZk-035\|That's perfect sharing of electrons.
jjOzgw5nAZk-036\|But for small differences in electronegativity, you'll have covalent bonds.
jjOzgw5nAZk-037\|So covalent, partially covalent, ionic, very ironic-- separated in polarity.
jjOzgw5nAZk-038\|The more polar, the stronger the bond.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-000\|Let's look at some various forms of equilibrium.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-001\|Now equilibrium is when products and reactants have stopped changing in their macroscopic concentrations.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-002\|So A and B and C and D macroscopically aren't changing.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-003\|But of course, A and B is still making C and D.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-004\|But every time it makes some C and D, some of that reacts back to form A and B.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-005\|So macroscopically, there's no change in concentrations.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-006\|But dynamically, the forward and reverse reactions are going on.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-007\|It's just their rates are equivalent.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-011\|Water, liquid water, in equilibrium with water gas.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-012\|Now this doesn't have to be at the boiling point of water.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-013\|There's always an equilibrium between liquid water and gaseous water.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-014\|In this case, the equilibrium vapor pressure of water is just 0.03 of an atmosphere.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-015\|So there's 0.03 of an atmosphere of water at 25 degrees C, the equilibrium vapor pressure, over the gas.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-018\|N2O4 and NO2 brown in equilibrium.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-020\|Macroscopically, these all look very static.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-021\|And that's what equilibrium is on the macroscopic scale-- static.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-022\|But on the microscopic scale, NO2 is still converting to N2O4, and N2O4 are breaking down into NO2.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-025\|This color intensity won't change, because as the forward and reverse reactions occur, they balance each other out.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-026\|You could also have heterogeneous equilibrium-- a solid in equilibrium with its aqueous ions.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-028\|So as a little dissolves, a little of the ions precipitate.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-029\|And that dynamic equilibrium exists.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-031\|So various forms of equilibrium, all of them dynamic, but all of them, from a macroscopic sense, appear to be static.
1FpJl_Rg4AY-032\|That's the nature of equilibrium.
PvCyqGnM-j0-000\|Let's look at ionization energies when we're not all atoms.
PvCyqGnM-j0-001\|That is, I have chlorine minus, argon, and potassium plus here, a mixture of atoms and ions.
PvCyqGnM-j0-002\|Can we deduce which of these will have the lowest ionization energy?
PvCyqGnM-j0-012\|Now interestingly, these three all have 18 electrons.
PvCyqGnM-j0-013\|Cl minus, argon, and potassium plus have the same ground state electronic configuration.
PvCyqGnM-j0-014\|They're called isoelectronic, same number of electrons.
PvCyqGnM-j0-016\|Fewer nuclear charges will allow it to expand and be easier to ionize.
PvCyqGnM-j0-017\|So among these three, it's the one with the smallest nuclear charge that's the easiest to ionize.
PvCyqGnM-j0-018\|And that's chlorine.
PvCyqGnM-j0-019\|Chlorine minus easier to ionize than argon or potassium plus.
-tJR8S6uJEI-000\|Let's look at the reaction of oxygen atoms to form oxygen molecules, and think about what happens to the total paramagnetism of the sample.
-tJR8S6uJEI-001\|Paramagnetic oxygen atoms making paramagnetic oxygen molecules.
-tJR8S6uJEI-009\|We're looking at the reaction of action atoms to form oxygen molecules and the total paramagnetism of the sample.
-tJR8S6uJEI-011\|And they're diparamagnetic.
-tJR8S6uJEI-014\|And here the molecular orbitals from these P atomic orbitals.
-tJR8S6uJEI-015\|And you fill them with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 P electrons.
-tJR8S6uJEI-016\|So I'll take these eight P electrons and make eight molecular orbital electrons.
-tJR8S6uJEI-017\|1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
-tJR8S6uJEI-018\|And I find oxygen, the molecule, is also paramagnetic.
-tJR8S6uJEI-019\|So I take atoms, each of which is paramagnetic, and form a paramagnetic molecule.
-tJR8S6uJEI-020\|So the total number of unpaired electrons in the sample decreases.
-tJR8S6uJEI-021\|I'll have twice as many unpaired electrons when I have oxygen atoms as I have oxygen molecules.
-tJR8S6uJEI-022\|So total paramagnetism in this case decreases.
jMj7Vse19_I-000\|Combustion of glucose, the oxidation in your body, releases around 3,000 kilojoules per mole.
jMj7Vse19_I-008\|We're talking about capturing the energy from the combustion of glucose as ATP.
jMj7Vse19_I-010\|How much can be captured as ATP?
jMj7Vse19_I-011\|Well, let's look back.
jMj7Vse19_I-018\|So that's around 40%.
jMj7Vse19_I-019\|Your body operates at about 40% efficiency in transferring the energy from the catabolism of glucose and storing it as ATP.
1yoOSIcsCyI-000\|When we're making molecular orbitals, we'd like to take atomic orbitals that have the right geometry for the problem.
1yoOSIcsCyI-001\|You'll have a tetrahedral arrangement in my molecule, I'd like to have atomic orbitals that point to the vertices of a tetrahedron.
1yoOSIcsCyI-002\|I can do that by a process called hybridisation-- taking a combination of the s and p orbitals on my atom and making new orbitals, hybrid orbitals.
1yoOSIcsCyI-011\|And that electronic configuration will be sp2 now.
1yoOSIcsCyI-012\|sp2 with 3 electrons, and 1 electron left in the p.
1yoOSIcsCyI-015\|So the electronic configuration-- 2 sp3 with 4 electrons.
OCK36oYeAFA-000\|Let's do a calculation involving standard enthalpies of formation and enthalpies of reactions.
OCK36oYeAFA-001\|So I want to calculate the enthalpy of formation for N2O5 gas starting with some information.
OCK36oYeAFA-004\|Because I know enthalpies of formation are the formation of the compound from the elements in their standard states.
OCK36oYeAFA-005\|And this compound contains nitrogen and oxygen.

luB5a39kGkA-084|We're going to learn how those orbitals relate to the various wave function quantum numbers.

luB5a39kGkA-085|So that if I give you a set of quantum numbers, you'll be able to tell me the orientation and shape of that orbital.

luB5a39kGkA-086|So we'll use pictures to describe the orbitals rather than the wave functions themselves.

luB5a39kGkA-087|The wave functions themselves are a complex mathematical formula.

luB5a39kGkA-088|What we want to think about is how are the electrons actually distributed about the atom.

luB5a39kGkA-089|Wave functions and quantum mechanics tell us that with a high, high degree of precision.

luB5a39kGkA-090|This is a beautiful method to describe atoms.

luB5a39kGkA-095|So quantum mechanics, incredibly precise, incredibly accurate, and a beautiful description of the atom.

jjOzgw5nAZk-000|There's another property that we can look at in terms of its periodic nature on the periodic table and see if there's a trend.

jjOzgw5nAZk-001|And that's electronegativity.

jjOzgw5nAZk-002|Electronegativity is the general tendency to draw electrons towards yourself.

jjOzgw5nAZk-003|If you're strongly electronegative, then electrons move towards you in a bond.

jjOzgw5nAZk-004|Now, electronegativity isn't something that we can do an experiment to measure.

jjOzgw5nAZk-005|That is, we don't have, as in ionization energy, an obvious experiment-- have the atom, pull off an electron, see how much energy that takes.

jjOzgw5nAZk-006|For electronegativity, what we do is we look at a bunch of bonds.

jjOzgw5nAZk-007|You take an element and you see how it bonds to other elements.

jjOzgw5nAZk-008|And you see, are those bonds polar?

jjOzgw5nAZk-009|Are the electrons in that bond spending more time around one atom than the other atom?

jjOzgw5nAZk-010|If one of the atoms tends to draw the electrons towards itself, then that atom is more electronegative.

jjOzgw5nAZk-011|So you can do this by cataloging hundreds of bonds between different elements and seeing which elements tend to draw the electrons toward themselves.

jjOzgw5nAZk-012|And it does go in a trend.

jjOzgw5nAZk-013|You find that electronegativity increases as you go from the bottom corner to the top corner of the periodic table.

jjOzgw5nAZk-016|And you can judge the strength of the polarity.

jjOzgw5nAZk-017|Polarity increases.

jjOzgw5nAZk-018|In fact, it can increase so much that the electronegative element actually ionizes the other element.

jjOzgw5nAZk-019|It takes the electron to itself all together.

jjOzgw5nAZk-020|Then you're held together by the extreme of polarity-- one negatively charged atom being attracted to a positively charged atom.

jjOzgw5nAZk-021|The electronegative element has completely captured an electron from the other element.

jjOzgw5nAZk-022|That's called an ironic bond.

jjOzgw5nAZk-023|And what holds it together is a Coulombic interaction-- the positive attracted to the negative.

jjOzgw5nAZk-024|You can catalog a continuum of bonds by looking at differences in electronegativity.

jjOzgw5nAZk-029|That's the strongest kind of bond you can have.

jjOzgw5nAZk-030|You can have intermediate differences in electronegativity.

jjOzgw5nAZk-031|Here is partially ionic hydrogen chloride where the difference is modest.

jjOzgw5nAZk-035|That's perfect sharing of electrons.

jjOzgw5nAZk-036|But for small differences in electronegativity, you'll have covalent bonds.

jjOzgw5nAZk-037|So covalent, partially covalent, ionic, very ironic-- separated in polarity.

jjOzgw5nAZk-038|The more polar, the stronger the bond.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-000|Let's look at some various forms of equilibrium.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-001|Now equilibrium is when products and reactants have stopped changing in their macroscopic concentrations.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-002|So A and B and C and D macroscopically aren't changing.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-003|But of course, A and B is still making C and D.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-004|But every time it makes some C and D, some of that reacts back to form A and B.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-005|So macroscopically, there's no change in concentrations.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-006|But dynamically, the forward and reverse reactions are going on.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-007|It's just their rates are equivalent.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-011|Water, liquid water, in equilibrium with water gas.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-012|Now this doesn't have to be at the boiling point of water.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-013|There's always an equilibrium between liquid water and gaseous water.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-014|In this case, the equilibrium vapor pressure of water is just 0.03 of an atmosphere.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-015|So there's 0.03 of an atmosphere of water at 25 degrees C, the equilibrium vapor pressure, over the gas.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-018|N2O4 and NO2 brown in equilibrium.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-020|Macroscopically, these all look very static.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-021|And that's what equilibrium is on the macroscopic scale-- static.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-022|But on the microscopic scale, NO2 is still converting to N2O4, and N2O4 are breaking down into NO2.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-025|This color intensity won't change, because as the forward and reverse reactions occur, they balance each other out.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-026|You could also have heterogeneous equilibrium-- a solid in equilibrium with its aqueous ions.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-028|So as a little dissolves, a little of the ions precipitate.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-029|And that dynamic equilibrium exists.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-031|So various forms of equilibrium, all of them dynamic, but all of them, from a macroscopic sense, appear to be static.

1FpJl_Rg4AY-032|That's the nature of equilibrium.

PvCyqGnM-j0-000|Let's look at ionization energies when we're not all atoms.

PvCyqGnM-j0-001|That is, I have chlorine minus, argon, and potassium plus here, a mixture of atoms and ions.

PvCyqGnM-j0-002|Can we deduce which of these will have the lowest ionization energy?

PvCyqGnM-j0-012|Now interestingly, these three all have 18 electrons.

PvCyqGnM-j0-013|Cl minus, argon, and potassium plus have the same ground state electronic configuration.

PvCyqGnM-j0-014|They're called isoelectronic, same number of electrons.

PvCyqGnM-j0-016|Fewer nuclear charges will allow it to expand and be easier to ionize.

PvCyqGnM-j0-017|So among these three, it's the one with the smallest nuclear charge that's the easiest to ionize.

PvCyqGnM-j0-018|And that's chlorine.

PvCyqGnM-j0-019|Chlorine minus easier to ionize than argon or potassium plus.

-tJR8S6uJEI-000|Let's look at the reaction of oxygen atoms to form oxygen molecules, and think about what happens to the total paramagnetism of the sample.

-tJR8S6uJEI-001|Paramagnetic oxygen atoms making paramagnetic oxygen molecules.

-tJR8S6uJEI-009|We're looking at the reaction of action atoms to form oxygen molecules and the total paramagnetism of the sample.

-tJR8S6uJEI-011|And they're diparamagnetic.

-tJR8S6uJEI-014|And here the molecular orbitals from these P atomic orbitals.

-tJR8S6uJEI-015|And you fill them with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 P electrons.

-tJR8S6uJEI-016|So I'll take these eight P electrons and make eight molecular orbital electrons.

-tJR8S6uJEI-017|1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

-tJR8S6uJEI-018|And I find oxygen, the molecule, is also paramagnetic.

-tJR8S6uJEI-019|So I take atoms, each of which is paramagnetic, and form a paramagnetic molecule.

-tJR8S6uJEI-020|So the total number of unpaired electrons in the sample decreases.

-tJR8S6uJEI-021|I'll have twice as many unpaired electrons when I have oxygen atoms as I have oxygen molecules.

-tJR8S6uJEI-022|So total paramagnetism in this case decreases.

jMj7Vse19_I-000|Combustion of glucose, the oxidation in your body, releases around 3,000 kilojoules per mole.

jMj7Vse19_I-008|We're talking about capturing the energy from the combustion of glucose as ATP.

jMj7Vse19_I-010|How much can be captured as ATP?

jMj7Vse19_I-011|Well, let's look back.

jMj7Vse19_I-018|So that's around 40%.

jMj7Vse19_I-019|Your body operates at about 40% efficiency in transferring the energy from the catabolism of glucose and storing it as ATP.

1yoOSIcsCyI-000|When we're making molecular orbitals, we'd like to take atomic orbitals that have the right geometry for the problem.

1yoOSIcsCyI-001|You'll have a tetrahedral arrangement in my molecule, I'd like to have atomic orbitals that point to the vertices of a tetrahedron.

1yoOSIcsCyI-002|I can do that by a process called hybridisation-- taking a combination of the s and p orbitals on my atom and making new orbitals, hybrid orbitals.

1yoOSIcsCyI-011|And that electronic configuration will be sp2 now.

1yoOSIcsCyI-012|sp2 with 3 electrons, and 1 electron left in the p.

1yoOSIcsCyI-015|So the electronic configuration-- 2 sp3 with 4 electrons.

OCK36oYeAFA-000|Let's do a calculation involving standard enthalpies of formation and enthalpies of reactions.

OCK36oYeAFA-001|So I want to calculate the enthalpy of formation for N2O5 gas starting with some information.

OCK36oYeAFA-004|Because I know enthalpies of formation are the formation of the compound from the elements in their standard states.

OCK36oYeAFA-005|And this compound contains nitrogen and oxygen.