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addTest(test)
Add a TestCase or TestSuite to the suite. | python.library.unittest#unittest.TestSuite.addTest |
addTests(tests)
Add all the tests from an iterable of TestCase and TestSuite instances to this test suite. This is equivalent to iterating over tests, calling addTest() for each element. | python.library.unittest#unittest.TestSuite.addTests |
countTestCases()
Return the number of tests represented by this test object, including all individual tests and sub-suites. | python.library.unittest#unittest.TestSuite.countTestCases |
debug()
Run the tests associated with this suite without collecting the result. This allows exceptions raised by the test to be propagated to the caller and can be used to support running tests under a debugger. | python.library.unittest#unittest.TestSuite.debug |
run(result)
Run the tests associated with this suite, collecting the result into the test result object passed as result. Note that unlike TestCase.run(), TestSuite.run() requires the result object to be passed in. | python.library.unittest#unittest.TestSuite.run |
__iter__()
Tests grouped by a TestSuite are always accessed by iteration. Subclasses can lazily provide tests by overriding __iter__(). Note that this method may be called several times on a single suite (for example when counting tests or comparing for equality) so the tests returned by repeated iterations before TestSuite.run() must be the same for each call iteration. After TestSuite.run(), callers should not rely on the tests returned by this method unless the caller uses a subclass that overrides TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex() to preserve test references. Changed in version 3.2: In earlier versions the TestSuite accessed tests directly rather than through iteration, so overriding __iter__() wasn’t sufficient for providing tests. Changed in version 3.4: In earlier versions the TestSuite held references to each TestCase after TestSuite.run(). Subclasses can restore that behavior by overriding TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex(). | python.library.unittest#unittest.TestSuite.__iter__ |
class unittest.TextTestResult(stream, descriptions, verbosity)
A concrete implementation of TestResult used by the TextTestRunner. New in version 3.2: This class was previously named _TextTestResult. The old name still exists as an alias but is deprecated. | python.library.unittest#unittest.TextTestResult |
class unittest.TextTestRunner(stream=None, descriptions=True, verbosity=1, failfast=False, buffer=False, resultclass=None, warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False)
A basic test runner implementation that outputs results to a stream. If stream is None, the default, sys.stderr is used as the output stream. This class has a few configurable parameters, but is essentially very simple. Graphical applications which run test suites should provide alternate implementations. Such implementations should accept **kwargs as the interface to construct runners changes when features are added to unittest. By default this runner shows DeprecationWarning, PendingDeprecationWarning, ResourceWarning and ImportWarning even if they are ignored by default. Deprecation warnings caused by deprecated unittest methods are also special-cased and, when the warning filters are 'default' or 'always', they will appear only once per-module, in order to avoid too many warning messages. This behavior can be overridden using Python’s -Wd or -Wa options (see Warning control) and leaving warnings to None. Changed in version 3.2: Added the warnings argument. Changed in version 3.2: The default stream is set to sys.stderr at instantiation time rather than import time. Changed in version 3.5: Added the tb_locals parameter.
_makeResult()
This method returns the instance of TestResult used by run(). It is not intended to be called directly, but can be overridden in subclasses to provide a custom TestResult. _makeResult() instantiates the class or callable passed in the TextTestRunner constructor as the resultclass argument. It defaults to TextTestResult if no resultclass is provided. The result class is instantiated with the following arguments: stream, descriptions, verbosity
run(test)
This method is the main public interface to the TextTestRunner. This method takes a TestSuite or TestCase instance. A TestResult is created by calling _makeResult() and the test(s) are run and the results printed to stdout. | python.library.unittest#unittest.TextTestRunner |
run(test)
This method is the main public interface to the TextTestRunner. This method takes a TestSuite or TestCase instance. A TestResult is created by calling _makeResult() and the test(s) are run and the results printed to stdout. | python.library.unittest#unittest.TextTestRunner.run |
_makeResult()
This method returns the instance of TestResult used by run(). It is not intended to be called directly, but can be overridden in subclasses to provide a custom TestResult. _makeResult() instantiates the class or callable passed in the TextTestRunner constructor as the resultclass argument. It defaults to TextTestResult if no resultclass is provided. The result class is instantiated with the following arguments: stream, descriptions, verbosity | python.library.unittest#unittest.TextTestRunner._makeResult |
urllib — URL handling modules Source code: Lib/urllib/ urllib is a package that collects several modules for working with URLs:
urllib.request for opening and reading URLs
urllib.error containing the exceptions raised by urllib.request
urllib.parse for parsing URLs
urllib.robotparser for parsing robots.txt files | python.library.urllib |
urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request Source code: Lib/urllib/error.py The urllib.error module defines the exception classes for exceptions raised by urllib.request. The base exception class is URLError. The following exceptions are raised by urllib.error as appropriate:
exception urllib.error.URLError
The handlers raise this exception (or derived exceptions) when they run into a problem. It is a subclass of OSError.
reason
The reason for this error. It can be a message string or another exception instance.
Changed in version 3.3: URLError has been made a subclass of OSError instead of IOError.
exception urllib.error.HTTPError
Though being an exception (a subclass of URLError), an HTTPError can also function as a non-exceptional file-like return value (the same thing that urlopen() returns). This is useful when handling exotic HTTP errors, such as requests for authentication.
code
An HTTP status code as defined in RFC 2616. This numeric value corresponds to a value found in the dictionary of codes as found in http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses.
reason
This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error.
headers
The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the HTTPError. New in version 3.4.
exception urllib.error.ContentTooShortError(msg, content)
This exception is raised when the urlretrieve() function detects that the amount of the downloaded data is less than the expected amount (given by the Content-Length header). The content attribute stores the downloaded (and supposedly truncated) data. | python.library.urllib.error |
exception urllib.error.ContentTooShortError(msg, content)
This exception is raised when the urlretrieve() function detects that the amount of the downloaded data is less than the expected amount (given by the Content-Length header). The content attribute stores the downloaded (and supposedly truncated) data. | python.library.urllib.error#urllib.error.ContentTooShortError |
exception urllib.error.HTTPError
Though being an exception (a subclass of URLError), an HTTPError can also function as a non-exceptional file-like return value (the same thing that urlopen() returns). This is useful when handling exotic HTTP errors, such as requests for authentication.
code
An HTTP status code as defined in RFC 2616. This numeric value corresponds to a value found in the dictionary of codes as found in http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses.
reason
This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error.
headers
The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the HTTPError. New in version 3.4. | python.library.urllib.error#urllib.error.HTTPError |
code
An HTTP status code as defined in RFC 2616. This numeric value corresponds to a value found in the dictionary of codes as found in http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses. | python.library.urllib.error#urllib.error.HTTPError.code |
headers
The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the HTTPError. New in version 3.4. | python.library.urllib.error#urllib.error.HTTPError.headers |
reason
This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error. | python.library.urllib.error#urllib.error.HTTPError.reason |
exception urllib.error.URLError
The handlers raise this exception (or derived exceptions) when they run into a problem. It is a subclass of OSError.
reason
The reason for this error. It can be a message string or another exception instance.
Changed in version 3.3: URLError has been made a subclass of OSError instead of IOError. | python.library.urllib.error#urllib.error.URLError |
reason
The reason for this error. It can be a message string or another exception instance. | python.library.urllib.error#urllib.error.URLError.reason |
urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components Source code: Lib/urllib/parse.py This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource Locator (URL) strings up in components (addressing scheme, network location, path etc.), to combine the components back into a URL string, and to convert a “relative URL” to an absolute URL given a “base URL.” The module has been designed to match the Internet RFC on Relative Uniform Resource Locators. It supports the following URL schemes: file, ftp, gopher, hdl, http, https, imap, mailto, mms, news, nntp, prospero, rsync, rtsp, rtspu, sftp, shttp, sip, sips, snews, svn, svn+ssh, telnet, wais, ws, wss. The urllib.parse module defines functions that fall into two broad categories: URL parsing and URL quoting. These are covered in detail in the following sections. URL Parsing The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its components, or on combining URL components into a URL string.
urllib.parse.urlparse(urlstring, scheme='', allow_fragments=True)
Parse a URL into six components, returning a 6-item named tuple. This corresponds to the general structure of a URL: scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment. Each tuple item is a string, possibly empty. The components are not broken up into smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single string), and % escapes are not expanded. The delimiters as shown above are not part of the result, except for a leading slash in the path component, which is retained if present. For example: >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
>>> o = urlparse('http://www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
>>> o
ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
>>> o.scheme
'http'
>>> o.port
80
>>> o.geturl()
'http://www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html'
Following the syntax specifications in RFC 1808, urlparse recognizes a netloc only if it is properly introduced by ‘//’. Otherwise the input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to start with a path component. >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
>>> urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
>>> urlparse('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
>>> urlparse('help/Python.html')
ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html', params='',
query='', fragment='')
The scheme argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be used only if the URL does not specify one. It should be the same type (text or bytes) as urlstring, except that the default value '' is always allowed, and is automatically converted to b'' if appropriate. If the allow_fragments argument is false, fragment identifiers are not recognized. Instead, they are parsed as part of the path, parameters or query component, and fragment is set to the empty string in the return value. The return value is a named tuple, which means that its items can be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:
Attribute Index Value Value if not present
scheme 0 URL scheme specifier scheme parameter
netloc 1 Network location part empty string
path 2 Hierarchical path empty string
params 3 Parameters for last path element empty string
query 4 Query component empty string
fragment 5 Fragment identifier empty string
username User name None
password Password None
hostname Host name (lower case) None
port Port number as integer, if present None Reading the port attribute will raise a ValueError if an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the result object. Unmatched square brackets in the netloc attribute will raise a ValueError. Characters in the netloc attribute that decompose under NFKC normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of /, ?, #, @, or : will raise a ValueError. If the URL is decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised. As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few additional methods and attributes that are particularly useful. One such method is _replace(). The _replace() method will return a new ParseResult object replacing specified fields with new values. >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
>>> u = urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
>>> u
ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
>>> u._replace(scheme='http')
ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
Changed in version 3.2: Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities. Changed in version 3.3: The fragment is now parsed for all URL schemes (unless allow_fragment is false), in accordance with RFC 3986. Previously, a whitelist of schemes that support fragments existed. Changed in version 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise ValueError, instead of returning None. Changed in version 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will now raise ValueError.
urllib.parse.parse_qs(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')
Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type application/x-www-form-urlencoded). Data are returned as a dictionary. The dictionary keys are the unique query variable names and the values are lists of values for each name. The optional argument keep_blank_values is a flag indicating whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value indicates that blanks should be retained as blank strings. The default false value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not included. The optional argument strict_parsing is a flag indicating what to do with parsing errors. If false (the default), errors are silently ignored. If true, errors raise a ValueError exception. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method. The optional argument max_num_fields is the maximum number of fields to read. If set, then throws a ValueError if there are more than max_num_fields fields read. The optional argument separator is the symbol to use for separating the query arguments. It defaults to &. Use the urllib.parse.urlencode() function (with the doseq parameter set to True) to convert such dictionaries into query strings. Changed in version 3.2: Add encoding and errors parameters. Changed in version 3.8: Added max_num_fields parameter. Changed in version 3.9.2: Added separator parameter with the default value of &. Python versions earlier than Python 3.9.2 allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separator. This has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default separator.
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')
Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type application/x-www-form-urlencoded). Data are returned as a list of name, value pairs. The optional argument keep_blank_values is a flag indicating whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value indicates that blanks should be retained as blank strings. The default false value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not included. The optional argument strict_parsing is a flag indicating what to do with parsing errors. If false (the default), errors are silently ignored. If true, errors raise a ValueError exception. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method. The optional argument max_num_fields is the maximum number of fields to read. If set, then throws a ValueError if there are more than max_num_fields fields read. The optional argument separator is the symbol to use for separating the query arguments. It defaults to &. Use the urllib.parse.urlencode() function to convert such lists of pairs into query strings. Changed in version 3.2: Add encoding and errors parameters. Changed in version 3.8: Added max_num_fields parameter. Changed in version 3.9.2: Added separator parameter with the default value of &. Python versions earlier than Python 3.9.2 allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separator. This has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default separator.
urllib.parse.urlunparse(parts)
Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by urlparse(). The parts argument can be any six-item iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ? with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).
urllib.parse.urlsplit(urlstring, scheme='', allow_fragments=True)
This is similar to urlparse(), but does not split the params from the URL. This should generally be used instead of urlparse() if the more recent URL syntax allowing parameters to be applied to each segment of the path portion of the URL (see RFC 2396) is wanted. A separate function is needed to separate the path segments and parameters. This function returns a 5-item named tuple: (addressing scheme, network location, path, query, fragment identifier).
The return value is a named tuple, its items can be accessed by index or as named attributes:
Attribute Index Value Value if not present
scheme 0 URL scheme specifier scheme parameter
netloc 1 Network location part empty string
path 2 Hierarchical path empty string
query 3 Query component empty string
fragment 4 Fragment identifier empty string
username User name None
password Password None
hostname Host name (lower case) None
port Port number as integer, if present None Reading the port attribute will raise a ValueError if an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the result object. Unmatched square brackets in the netloc attribute will raise a ValueError. Characters in the netloc attribute that decompose under NFKC normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of /, ?, #, @, or : will raise a ValueError. If the URL is decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised. Changed in version 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise ValueError, instead of returning None. Changed in version 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will now raise ValueError.
urllib.parse.urlunsplit(parts)
Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by urlsplit() into a complete URL as a string. The parts argument can be any five-item iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ? with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).
urllib.parse.urljoin(base, url, allow_fragments=True)
Construct a full (“absolute”) URL by combining a “base URL” (base) with another URL (url). Informally, this uses components of the base URL, in particular the addressing scheme, the network location and (part of) the path, to provide missing components in the relative URL. For example: >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
>>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'
The allow_fragments argument has the same meaning and default as for urlparse(). Note If url is an absolute URL (that is, it starts with // or scheme://), the url’s hostname and/or scheme will be present in the result. For example: >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
... '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'
If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the url with urlsplit() and urlunsplit(), removing possible scheme and netloc parts. Changed in version 3.5: Behavior updated to match the semantics defined in RFC 3986.
urllib.parse.urldefrag(url)
If url contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version of url with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier as a separate string. If there is no fragment identifier in url, return url unmodified and an empty string. The return value is a named tuple, its items can be accessed by index or as named attributes:
Attribute Index Value Value if not present
url 0 URL with no fragment empty string
fragment 1 Fragment identifier empty string See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the result object. Changed in version 3.2: Result is a structured object rather than a simple 2-tuple.
urllib.parse.unwrap(url)
Extract the url from a wrapped URL (that is, a string formatted as <URL:scheme://host/path>, <scheme://host/path>, URL:scheme://host/path or scheme://host/path). If url is not a wrapped URL, it is returned without changes.
Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on character strings only. In practice, it is useful to be able to manipulate properly quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII bytes. Accordingly, the URL parsing functions in this module all operate on bytes and bytearray objects in addition to str objects. If str data is passed in, the result will also contain only str data. If bytes or bytearray data is passed in, the result will contain only bytes data. Attempting to mix str data with bytes or bytearray in a single function call will result in a TypeError being raised, while attempting to pass in non-ASCII byte values will trigger UnicodeDecodeError. To support easier conversion of result objects between str and bytes, all return values from URL parsing functions provide either an encode() method (when the result contains str data) or a decode() method (when the result contains bytes data). The signatures of these methods match those of the corresponding str and bytes methods (except that the default encoding is 'ascii' rather than 'utf-8'). Each produces a value of a corresponding type that contains either bytes data (for encode() methods) or str data (for decode() methods). Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted URLs that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own decoding from bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing methods. The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL parsing functions. The URL quoting functions use their own rules when producing or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation of the individual URL quoting functions. Changed in version 3.2: URL parsing functions now accept ASCII encoded byte sequences Structured Parse Results The result objects from the urlparse(), urlsplit() and urldefrag() functions are subclasses of the tuple type. These subclasses add the attributes listed in the documentation for those functions, the encoding and decoding support described in the previous section, as well as an additional method:
urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl()
Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string. This may differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be normalized to lower case and empty components may be dropped. Specifically, empty parameters, queries, and fragment identifiers will be removed. For urldefrag() results, only empty fragment identifiers will be removed. For urlsplit() and urlparse() results, all noted changes will be made to the URL returned by this method. The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through the original parsing function: >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
>>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
>>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
>>> r1.geturl()
'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
>>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
>>> r2.geturl()
'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
The following classes provide the implementations of the structured parse results when operating on str objects:
class urllib.parse.DefragResult(url, fragment)
Concrete class for urldefrag() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a DefragResultBytes instance. New in version 3.2.
class urllib.parse.ParseResult(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)
Concrete class for urlparse() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a ParseResultBytes instance.
class urllib.parse.SplitResult(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)
Concrete class for urlsplit() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a SplitResultBytes instance.
The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results when operating on bytes or bytearray objects:
class urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes(url, fragment)
Concrete class for urldefrag() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a DefragResult instance. New in version 3.2.
class urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)
Concrete class for urlparse() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a ParseResult instance. New in version 3.2.
class urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)
Concrete class for urlsplit() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a SplitResult instance. New in version 3.2.
URL Quoting The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it safe for use as URL components by quoting special characters and appropriately encoding non-ASCII text. They also support reversing these operations to recreate the original data from the contents of a URL component if that task isn’t already covered by the URL parsing functions above.
urllib.parse.quote(string, safe='/', encoding=None, errors=None)
Replace special characters in string using the %xx escape. Letters, digits, and the characters '_.-~' are never quoted. By default, this function is intended for quoting the path section of a URL. The optional safe parameter specifies additional ASCII characters that should not be quoted — its default value is '/'. string may be either a str or a bytes object. Changed in version 3.7: Moved from RFC 2396 to RFC 3986 for quoting URL strings. “~” is now included in the set of unreserved characters. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to deal with non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the str.encode() method. encoding defaults to 'utf-8'. errors defaults to 'strict', meaning unsupported characters raise a UnicodeEncodeError. encoding and errors must not be supplied if string is a bytes, or a TypeError is raised. Note that quote(string, safe, encoding, errors) is equivalent to quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe). Example: quote('/El Niño/') yields '/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'.
urllib.parse.quote_plus(string, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None)
Like quote(), but also replace spaces with plus signs, as required for quoting HTML form values when building up a query string to go into a URL. Plus signs in the original string are escaped unless they are included in safe. It also does not have safe default to '/'. Example: quote_plus('/El Niño/') yields '%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'.
urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(bytes, safe='/')
Like quote(), but accepts a bytes object rather than a str, and does not perform string-to-bytes encoding. Example: quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef') yields 'a%26%EF'.
urllib.parse.unquote(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')
Replace %xx escapes with their single-character equivalent. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method. string may be either a str or a bytes object. encoding defaults to 'utf-8'. errors defaults to 'replace', meaning invalid sequences are replaced by a placeholder character. Example: unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/') yields '/El Niño/'. Changed in version 3.9: string parameter supports bytes and str objects (previously only str).
urllib.parse.unquote_plus(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')
Like unquote(), but also replace plus signs with spaces, as required for unquoting HTML form values. string must be a str. Example: unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/') yields '/El Niño/'.
urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(string)
Replace %xx escapes with their single-octet equivalent, and return a bytes object. string may be either a str or a bytes object. If it is a str, unescaped non-ASCII characters in string are encoded into UTF-8 bytes. Example: unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF') yields b'a&\xef'.
urllib.parse.urlencode(query, doseq=False, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)
Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which may contain str or bytes objects, to a percent-encoded ASCII text string. If the resultant string is to be used as a data for POST operation with the urlopen() function, then it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it would result in a TypeError. The resulting string is a series of key=value pairs separated by '&' characters, where both key and value are quoted using the quote_via function. By default, quote_plus() is used to quote the values, which means spaces are quoted as a '+' character and ‘/’ characters are encoded as %2F, which follows the standard for GET requests (application/x-www-form-urlencoded). An alternate function that can be passed as quote_via is quote(), which will encode spaces as %20 and not encode ‘/’ characters. For maximum control of what is quoted, use quote and specify a value for safe. When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the query argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second is a value. The value element in itself can be a sequence and in that case, if the optional parameter doseq evaluates to True, individual key=value pairs separated by '&' are generated for each element of the value sequence for the key. The order of parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter tuples in the sequence. The safe, encoding, and errors parameters are passed down to quote_via (the encoding and errors parameters are only passed when a query element is a str). To reverse this encoding process, parse_qs() and parse_qsl() are provided in this module to parse query strings into Python data structures. Refer to urllib examples to find out how the urllib.parse.urlencode() method can be used for generating the query string of a URL or data for a POST request. Changed in version 3.2: query supports bytes and string objects. New in version 3.5: quote_via parameter.
See also
RFC 3986 - Uniform Resource Identifiers
This is the current standard (STD66). Any changes to urllib.parse module should conform to this. Certain deviations could be observed, which are mostly for backward compatibility purposes and for certain de-facto parsing requirements as commonly observed in major browsers.
RFC 2732 - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL’s.
This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.
RFC 2396 - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax
Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both Uniform Resource Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).
RFC 2368 - The mailto URL scheme.
Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.
RFC 1808 - Relative Uniform Resource Locators
This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an absolute and a relative URL, including a fair number of “Abnormal Examples” which govern the treatment of border cases.
RFC 1738 - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)
This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs. | python.library.urllib.parse |
class urllib.parse.DefragResult(url, fragment)
Concrete class for urldefrag() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a DefragResultBytes instance. New in version 3.2. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.DefragResult |
class urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes(url, fragment)
Concrete class for urldefrag() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a DefragResult instance. New in version 3.2. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes |
class urllib.parse.ParseResult(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)
Concrete class for urlparse() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a ParseResultBytes instance. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.ParseResult |
class urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)
Concrete class for urlparse() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a ParseResult instance. New in version 3.2. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes |
urllib.parse.parse_qs(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')
Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type application/x-www-form-urlencoded). Data are returned as a dictionary. The dictionary keys are the unique query variable names and the values are lists of values for each name. The optional argument keep_blank_values is a flag indicating whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value indicates that blanks should be retained as blank strings. The default false value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not included. The optional argument strict_parsing is a flag indicating what to do with parsing errors. If false (the default), errors are silently ignored. If true, errors raise a ValueError exception. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method. The optional argument max_num_fields is the maximum number of fields to read. If set, then throws a ValueError if there are more than max_num_fields fields read. The optional argument separator is the symbol to use for separating the query arguments. It defaults to &. Use the urllib.parse.urlencode() function (with the doseq parameter set to True) to convert such dictionaries into query strings. Changed in version 3.2: Add encoding and errors parameters. Changed in version 3.8: Added max_num_fields parameter. Changed in version 3.9.2: Added separator parameter with the default value of &. Python versions earlier than Python 3.9.2 allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separator. This has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default separator. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.parse_qs |
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')
Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type application/x-www-form-urlencoded). Data are returned as a list of name, value pairs. The optional argument keep_blank_values is a flag indicating whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value indicates that blanks should be retained as blank strings. The default false value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not included. The optional argument strict_parsing is a flag indicating what to do with parsing errors. If false (the default), errors are silently ignored. If true, errors raise a ValueError exception. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method. The optional argument max_num_fields is the maximum number of fields to read. If set, then throws a ValueError if there are more than max_num_fields fields read. The optional argument separator is the symbol to use for separating the query arguments. It defaults to &. Use the urllib.parse.urlencode() function to convert such lists of pairs into query strings. Changed in version 3.2: Add encoding and errors parameters. Changed in version 3.8: Added max_num_fields parameter. Changed in version 3.9.2: Added separator parameter with the default value of &. Python versions earlier than Python 3.9.2 allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separator. This has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default separator. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.parse_qsl |
urllib.parse.quote(string, safe='/', encoding=None, errors=None)
Replace special characters in string using the %xx escape. Letters, digits, and the characters '_.-~' are never quoted. By default, this function is intended for quoting the path section of a URL. The optional safe parameter specifies additional ASCII characters that should not be quoted — its default value is '/'. string may be either a str or a bytes object. Changed in version 3.7: Moved from RFC 2396 to RFC 3986 for quoting URL strings. “~” is now included in the set of unreserved characters. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to deal with non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the str.encode() method. encoding defaults to 'utf-8'. errors defaults to 'strict', meaning unsupported characters raise a UnicodeEncodeError. encoding and errors must not be supplied if string is a bytes, or a TypeError is raised. Note that quote(string, safe, encoding, errors) is equivalent to quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe). Example: quote('/El Niño/') yields '/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.quote |
urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(bytes, safe='/')
Like quote(), but accepts a bytes object rather than a str, and does not perform string-to-bytes encoding. Example: quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef') yields 'a%26%EF'. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes |
urllib.parse.quote_plus(string, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None)
Like quote(), but also replace spaces with plus signs, as required for quoting HTML form values when building up a query string to go into a URL. Plus signs in the original string are escaped unless they are included in safe. It also does not have safe default to '/'. Example: quote_plus('/El Niño/') yields '%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.quote_plus |
class urllib.parse.SplitResult(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)
Concrete class for urlsplit() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a SplitResultBytes instance. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.SplitResult |
class urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)
Concrete class for urlsplit() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a SplitResult instance. New in version 3.2. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes |
urllib.parse.unquote(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')
Replace %xx escapes with their single-character equivalent. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method. string may be either a str or a bytes object. encoding defaults to 'utf-8'. errors defaults to 'replace', meaning invalid sequences are replaced by a placeholder character. Example: unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/') yields '/El Niño/'. Changed in version 3.9: string parameter supports bytes and str objects (previously only str). | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.unquote |
urllib.parse.unquote_plus(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')
Like unquote(), but also replace plus signs with spaces, as required for unquoting HTML form values. string must be a str. Example: unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/') yields '/El Niño/'. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.unquote_plus |
urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(string)
Replace %xx escapes with their single-octet equivalent, and return a bytes object. string may be either a str or a bytes object. If it is a str, unescaped non-ASCII characters in string are encoded into UTF-8 bytes. Example: unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF') yields b'a&\xef'. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes |
urllib.parse.unwrap(url)
Extract the url from a wrapped URL (that is, a string formatted as <URL:scheme://host/path>, <scheme://host/path>, URL:scheme://host/path or scheme://host/path). If url is not a wrapped URL, it is returned without changes. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.unwrap |
urllib.parse.urldefrag(url)
If url contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version of url with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier as a separate string. If there is no fragment identifier in url, return url unmodified and an empty string. The return value is a named tuple, its items can be accessed by index or as named attributes:
Attribute Index Value Value if not present
url 0 URL with no fragment empty string
fragment 1 Fragment identifier empty string See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the result object. Changed in version 3.2: Result is a structured object rather than a simple 2-tuple. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.urldefrag |
urllib.parse.urlencode(query, doseq=False, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)
Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which may contain str or bytes objects, to a percent-encoded ASCII text string. If the resultant string is to be used as a data for POST operation with the urlopen() function, then it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it would result in a TypeError. The resulting string is a series of key=value pairs separated by '&' characters, where both key and value are quoted using the quote_via function. By default, quote_plus() is used to quote the values, which means spaces are quoted as a '+' character and ‘/’ characters are encoded as %2F, which follows the standard for GET requests (application/x-www-form-urlencoded). An alternate function that can be passed as quote_via is quote(), which will encode spaces as %20 and not encode ‘/’ characters. For maximum control of what is quoted, use quote and specify a value for safe. When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the query argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second is a value. The value element in itself can be a sequence and in that case, if the optional parameter doseq evaluates to True, individual key=value pairs separated by '&' are generated for each element of the value sequence for the key. The order of parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter tuples in the sequence. The safe, encoding, and errors parameters are passed down to quote_via (the encoding and errors parameters are only passed when a query element is a str). To reverse this encoding process, parse_qs() and parse_qsl() are provided in this module to parse query strings into Python data structures. Refer to urllib examples to find out how the urllib.parse.urlencode() method can be used for generating the query string of a URL or data for a POST request. Changed in version 3.2: query supports bytes and string objects. New in version 3.5: quote_via parameter. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.urlencode |
urllib.parse.urljoin(base, url, allow_fragments=True)
Construct a full (“absolute”) URL by combining a “base URL” (base) with another URL (url). Informally, this uses components of the base URL, in particular the addressing scheme, the network location and (part of) the path, to provide missing components in the relative URL. For example: >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
>>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'
The allow_fragments argument has the same meaning and default as for urlparse(). Note If url is an absolute URL (that is, it starts with // or scheme://), the url’s hostname and/or scheme will be present in the result. For example: >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
... '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'
If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the url with urlsplit() and urlunsplit(), removing possible scheme and netloc parts. Changed in version 3.5: Behavior updated to match the semantics defined in RFC 3986. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.urljoin |
urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl()
Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string. This may differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be normalized to lower case and empty components may be dropped. Specifically, empty parameters, queries, and fragment identifiers will be removed. For urldefrag() results, only empty fragment identifiers will be removed. For urlsplit() and urlparse() results, all noted changes will be made to the URL returned by this method. The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through the original parsing function: >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
>>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
>>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
>>> r1.geturl()
'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
>>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
>>> r2.geturl()
'http://www.Python.org/doc/' | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl |
urllib.parse.urlparse(urlstring, scheme='', allow_fragments=True)
Parse a URL into six components, returning a 6-item named tuple. This corresponds to the general structure of a URL: scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment. Each tuple item is a string, possibly empty. The components are not broken up into smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single string), and % escapes are not expanded. The delimiters as shown above are not part of the result, except for a leading slash in the path component, which is retained if present. For example: >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
>>> o = urlparse('http://www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
>>> o
ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
>>> o.scheme
'http'
>>> o.port
80
>>> o.geturl()
'http://www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html'
Following the syntax specifications in RFC 1808, urlparse recognizes a netloc only if it is properly introduced by ‘//’. Otherwise the input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to start with a path component. >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
>>> urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
>>> urlparse('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
>>> urlparse('help/Python.html')
ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html', params='',
query='', fragment='')
The scheme argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be used only if the URL does not specify one. It should be the same type (text or bytes) as urlstring, except that the default value '' is always allowed, and is automatically converted to b'' if appropriate. If the allow_fragments argument is false, fragment identifiers are not recognized. Instead, they are parsed as part of the path, parameters or query component, and fragment is set to the empty string in the return value. The return value is a named tuple, which means that its items can be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:
Attribute Index Value Value if not present
scheme 0 URL scheme specifier scheme parameter
netloc 1 Network location part empty string
path 2 Hierarchical path empty string
params 3 Parameters for last path element empty string
query 4 Query component empty string
fragment 5 Fragment identifier empty string
username User name None
password Password None
hostname Host name (lower case) None
port Port number as integer, if present None Reading the port attribute will raise a ValueError if an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the result object. Unmatched square brackets in the netloc attribute will raise a ValueError. Characters in the netloc attribute that decompose under NFKC normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of /, ?, #, @, or : will raise a ValueError. If the URL is decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised. As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few additional methods and attributes that are particularly useful. One such method is _replace(). The _replace() method will return a new ParseResult object replacing specified fields with new values. >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
>>> u = urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
>>> u
ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
>>> u._replace(scheme='http')
ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
params='', query='', fragment='')
Changed in version 3.2: Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities. Changed in version 3.3: The fragment is now parsed for all URL schemes (unless allow_fragment is false), in accordance with RFC 3986. Previously, a whitelist of schemes that support fragments existed. Changed in version 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise ValueError, instead of returning None. Changed in version 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will now raise ValueError. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.urlparse |
urllib.parse.urlsplit(urlstring, scheme='', allow_fragments=True)
This is similar to urlparse(), but does not split the params from the URL. This should generally be used instead of urlparse() if the more recent URL syntax allowing parameters to be applied to each segment of the path portion of the URL (see RFC 2396) is wanted. A separate function is needed to separate the path segments and parameters. This function returns a 5-item named tuple: (addressing scheme, network location, path, query, fragment identifier).
The return value is a named tuple, its items can be accessed by index or as named attributes:
Attribute Index Value Value if not present
scheme 0 URL scheme specifier scheme parameter
netloc 1 Network location part empty string
path 2 Hierarchical path empty string
query 3 Query component empty string
fragment 4 Fragment identifier empty string
username User name None
password Password None
hostname Host name (lower case) None
port Port number as integer, if present None Reading the port attribute will raise a ValueError if an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the result object. Unmatched square brackets in the netloc attribute will raise a ValueError. Characters in the netloc attribute that decompose under NFKC normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of /, ?, #, @, or : will raise a ValueError. If the URL is decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised. Changed in version 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise ValueError, instead of returning None. Changed in version 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will now raise ValueError. | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.urlsplit |
urllib.parse.urlunparse(parts)
Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by urlparse(). The parts argument can be any six-item iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ? with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent). | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.urlunparse |
urllib.parse.urlunsplit(parts)
Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by urlsplit() into a complete URL as a string. The parts argument can be any five-item iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ? with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent). | python.library.urllib.parse#urllib.parse.urlunsplit |
urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs Source code: Lib/urllib/request.py The urllib.request module defines functions and classes which help in opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world — basic and digest authentication, redirections, cookies and more. See also The Requests package is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface. The urllib.request module defines the following functions:
urllib.request.urlopen(url, data=None, [timeout, ]*, cafile=None, capath=None, cadefault=False, context=None)
Open the URL url, which can be either a string or a Request object. data must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to the server, or None if no such data is needed. See Request for details. urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes Connection:close header in its HTTP requests. The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). This actually only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections. If context is specified, it must be a ssl.SSLContext instance describing the various SSL options. See HTTPSConnection for more details. The optional cafile and capath parameters specify a set of trusted CA certificates for HTTPS requests. cafile should point to a single file containing a bundle of CA certificates, whereas capath should point to a directory of hashed certificate files. More information can be found in ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(). The cadefault parameter is ignored. This function always returns an object which can work as a context manager and has the properties url, headers, and status. See urllib.response.addinfourl for more detail on these properties. For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a http.client.HTTPResponse object slightly modified. In addition to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains the same information as the reason attribute — the reason phrase returned by server — instead of the response headers as it is specified in the documentation for HTTPResponse. For FTP, file, and data URLs and requests explicitly handled by legacy URLopener and FancyURLopener classes, this function returns a urllib.response.addinfourl object. Raises URLError on protocol errors. Note that None may be returned if no handler handles the request (though the default installed global OpenerDirector uses UnknownHandler to ensure this never happens). In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a *_proxy environment variable like http_proxy is set), ProxyHandler is default installed and makes sure the requests are handled through the proxy. The legacy urllib.urlopen function from Python 2.6 and earlier has been discontinued; urllib.request.urlopen() corresponds to the old urllib2.urlopen. Proxy handling, which was done by passing a dictionary parameter to urllib.urlopen, can be obtained by using ProxyHandler objects.
The default opener raises an auditing event urllib.Request with arguments fullurl, data, headers, method taken from the request object. Changed in version 3.2: cafile and capath were added. Changed in version 3.2: HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if ssl.HAS_SNI is true). New in version 3.2: data can be an iterable object. Changed in version 3.3: cadefault was added. Changed in version 3.4.3: context was added. Deprecated since version 3.6: cafile, capath and cadefault are deprecated in favor of context. Please use ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain() instead, or let ssl.create_default_context() select the system’s trusted CA certificates for you.
urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
Install an OpenerDirector instance as the default global opener. Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call OpenerDirector.open() instead of urlopen(). The code does not check for a real OpenerDirector, and any class with the appropriate interface will work.
urllib.request.build_opener([handler, ...])
Return an OpenerDirector instance, which chains the handlers in the order given. handlers can be either instances of BaseHandler, or subclasses of BaseHandler (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without any parameters). Instances of the following classes will be in front of the handlers, unless the handlers contain them, instances of them or subclasses of them: ProxyHandler (if proxy settings are detected), UnknownHandler, HTTPHandler, HTTPDefaultErrorHandler, HTTPRedirectHandler, FTPHandler, FileHandler, HTTPErrorProcessor. If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the ssl module can be imported), HTTPSHandler will also be added. A BaseHandler subclass may also change its handler_order attribute to modify its position in the handlers list.
urllib.request.pathname2url(path)
Convert the pathname path from the local syntax for a path to the form used in the path component of a URL. This does not produce a complete URL. The return value will already be quoted using the quote() function.
urllib.request.url2pathname(path)
Convert the path component path from a percent-encoded URL to the local syntax for a path. This does not accept a complete URL. This function uses unquote() to decode path.
urllib.request.getproxies()
This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL mappings. It scans the environment for variables named <scheme>_proxy, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy information from Mac OSX System Configuration for Mac OS X and Windows Systems Registry for Windows. If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred. Note If the environment variable REQUEST_METHOD is set, which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment variable HTTP_PROXY (uppercase _PROXY) will be ignored. This is because that variable can be injected by a client using the “Proxy:” HTTP header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use ProxyHandler explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in lowercase (or at least the _proxy suffix).
The following classes are provided:
class urllib.request.Request(url, data=None, headers={}, origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None)
This class is an abstraction of a URL request. url should be a string containing a valid URL. data must be an object specifying additional data to send to the server, or None if no such data is needed. Currently HTTP requests are the only ones that use data. The supported object types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables of bytes-like objects. If no Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding header field has been provided, HTTPHandler will set these headers according to the type of data. Content-Length will be used to send bytes objects, while Transfer-Encoding: chunked as specified in RFC 7230, Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files and other iterables. For an HTTP POST request method, data should be a buffer in the standard application/x-www-form-urlencoded format. The urllib.parse.urlencode() function takes a mapping or sequence of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format. It should be encoded to bytes before being used as the data parameter. headers should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if add_header() was called with each key and value as arguments. This is often used to “spoof” the User-Agent header value, which is used by a browser to identify itself – some HTTP servers only allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed to scripts. For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as "Mozilla/5.0
(X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127 Firefox/2.0.0.11", while urllib’s default user agent string is "Python-urllib/2.6" (on Python 2.6). An appropriate Content-Type header should be included if the data argument is present. If this header has not been provided and data is not None, Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded will be added as a default. The next two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of third-party HTTP cookies: origin_req_host should be the request-host of the origin transaction, as defined by RFC 2965. It defaults to http.cookiejar.request_host(self). This is the host name or IP address of the original request that was initiated by the user. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, this should be the request-host of the request for the page containing the image. unverifiable should indicate whether the request is unverifiable, as defined by RFC 2965. It defaults to False. An unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the option to approve. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic fetching of the image, this should be true. method should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that will be used (e.g. 'HEAD'). If provided, its value is stored in the method attribute and is used by get_method(). The default is 'GET' if data is None or 'POST' otherwise. Subclasses may indicate a different default method by setting the method attribute in the class itself. Note The request will not work as expected if the data object is unable to deliver its content more than once (e.g. a file or an iterable that can produce the content only once) and the request is retried for HTTP redirects or authentication. The data is sent to the HTTP server right away after the headers. There is no support for a 100-continue expectation in the library. Changed in version 3.3: Request.method argument is added to the Request class. Changed in version 3.4: Default Request.method may be indicated at the class level. Changed in version 3.6: Do not raise an error if the Content-Length has not been provided and data is neither None nor a bytes object. Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding instead.
class urllib.request.OpenerDirector
The OpenerDirector class opens URLs via BaseHandlers chained together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors.
class urllib.request.BaseHandler
This is the base class for all registered handlers — and handles only the simple mechanics of registration.
class urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler
A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses are turned into HTTPError exceptions.
class urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler
A class to handle redirections.
class urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cookiejar=None)
A class to handle HTTP Cookies.
class urllib.request.ProxyHandler(proxies=None)
Cause requests to go through a proxy. If proxies is given, it must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies. The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment variables <protocol>_proxy. If no proxy environment variables are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained from the registry’s Internet Settings section, and in a Mac OS X environment proxy information is retrieved from the OS X System Configuration Framework. To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary. The no_proxy environment variable can be used to specify hosts which shouldn’t be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with :port appended, for example cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080. Note HTTP_PROXY will be ignored if a variable REQUEST_METHOD is set; see the documentation on getproxies().
class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr
Keep a database of (realm, uri) -> (user, password) mappings.
class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm
Keep a database of (realm, uri) -> (user, password) mappings. A realm of None is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm fits.
class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth
A variant of HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm that also has a database of uri -> is_authenticated mappings. Can be used by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication credentials immediately instead of waiting for a 401 response first. New in version 3.5.
class urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. If passwd_mgr also provides is_authenticated and update_authenticated methods (see HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects), then the handler will use the is_authenticated result for a given URI to determine whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request. If is_authenticated returns True for the URI, credentials are sent. If is_authenticated is False, credentials are not sent, and then if a 401 response is received the request is re-sent with the authentication credentials. If authentication succeeds, update_authenticated is called to set is_authenticated True for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its super-URIs will automatically include the authentication credentials. New in version 3.5: Added is_authenticated support.
class urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
Handle authentication with the remote host. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a ValueError when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.
class urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
Handle authentication with the proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported.
class urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported.
class urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
Handle authentication with the remote host. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to Handle. This Handler method will raise a ValueError when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or Basic. Changed in version 3.3: Raise ValueError on unsupported Authentication Scheme.
class urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
Handle authentication with the proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported.
class urllib.request.HTTPHandler
A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.
class urllib.request.HTTPSHandler(debuglevel=0, context=None, check_hostname=None)
A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs. context and check_hostname have the same meaning as in http.client.HTTPSConnection. Changed in version 3.2: context and check_hostname were added.
class urllib.request.FileHandler
Open local files.
class urllib.request.DataHandler
Open data URLs. New in version 3.4.
class urllib.request.FTPHandler
Open FTP URLs.
class urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler
Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays.
class urllib.request.UnknownHandler
A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.
class urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor
Process HTTP error responses.
Request Objects The following methods describe Request’s public interface, and so all may be overridden in subclasses. It also defines several public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed request.
Request.full_url
The original URL passed to the constructor. Changed in version 3.4. Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter. Getting full_url returns the original request URL with the fragment, if it was present.
Request.type
The URI scheme.
Request.host
The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port separated by a colon.
Request.origin_req_host
The original host for the request, without port.
Request.selector
The URI path. If the Request uses a proxy, then selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.
Request.data
The entity body for the request, or None if not specified. Changed in version 3.4: Changing value of Request.data now deletes “Content-Length” header if it was previously set or calculated.
Request.unverifiable
boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined by RFC 2965.
Request.method
The HTTP request method to use. By default its value is None, which means that get_method() will do its normal computation of the method to be used. Its value can be set (thus overriding the default computation in get_method()) either by providing a default value by setting it at the class level in a Request subclass, or by passing a value in to the Request constructor via the method argument. New in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.4: A default value can now be set in subclasses; previously it could only be set via the constructor argument.
Request.get_method()
Return a string indicating the HTTP request method. If Request.method is not None, return its value, otherwise return 'GET' if Request.data is None, or 'POST' if it’s not. This is only meaningful for HTTP requests. Changed in version 3.3: get_method now looks at the value of Request.method.
Request.add_header(key, val)
Add another header to the request. Headers are currently ignored by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the list of headers sent to the server. Note that there cannot be more than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite previous calls in case the key collides. Currently, this is no loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining the same functionality using only one header.
Request.add_unredirected_header(key, header)
Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.
Request.has_header(header)
Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both regular and unredirected).
Request.remove_header(header)
Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular and unredirected headers). New in version 3.4.
Request.get_full_url()
Return the URL given in the constructor. Changed in version 3.4. Returns Request.full_url
Request.set_proxy(host, type)
Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The host and type will replace those of the instance, and the instance’s selector will be the original URL given in the constructor.
Request.get_header(header_name, default=None)
Return the value of the given header. If the header is not present, return the default value.
Request.header_items()
Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request headers.
Changed in version 3.4: The request methods add_data, has_data, get_data, get_type, get_host, get_selector, get_origin_req_host and is_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed. OpenerDirector Objects OpenerDirector instances have the following methods:
OpenerDirector.add_handler(handler)
handler should be an instance of BaseHandler. The following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains (note that HTTP errors are a special case). Note that, in the following, protocol should be replaced with the actual protocol to handle, for example http_response() would be the HTTP protocol response handler. Also type should be replaced with the actual HTTP code, for example http_error_404() would handle HTTP 404 errors.
<protocol>_open() — signal that the handler knows how to open protocol URLs. See BaseHandler.<protocol>_open() for more information.
http_error_<type>() — signal that the handler knows how to handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code type. See BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>() for more information.
<protocol>_error() — signal that the handler knows how to handle errors from (non-http) protocol.
<protocol>_request() — signal that the handler knows how to pre-process protocol requests. See BaseHandler.<protocol>_request() for more information.
<protocol>_response() — signal that the handler knows how to post-process protocol responses. See BaseHandler.<protocol>_response() for more information.
OpenerDirector.open(url, data=None[, timeout])
Open the given url (which can be a request object or a string), optionally passing the given data. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of urlopen() (which simply calls the open() method on the currently installed global OpenerDirector). The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). The timeout feature actually works only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections).
OpenerDirector.error(proto, *args)
Handle an error of the given protocol. This will call the registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given arguments (which are protocol specific). The HTTP protocol is a special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the specific error handler; refer to the http_error_<type>() methods of the handler classes. Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of urlopen().
OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages: The order in which these methods are called within each stage is determined by sorting the handler instances. Every handler with a method named like <protocol>_request() has that method called to pre-process the request.
Handlers with a method named like <protocol>_open() are called to handle the request. This stage ends when a handler either returns a non-None value (ie. a response), or raises an exception (usually URLError). Exceptions are allowed to propagate. In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named default_open(). If all such methods return None, the algorithm is repeated for methods named like <protocol>_open(). If all such methods return None, the algorithm is repeated for methods named unknown_open(). Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of the parent OpenerDirector instance’s open() and error() methods. Every handler with a method named like <protocol>_response() has that method called to post-process the response. BaseHandler Objects BaseHandler objects provide a couple of methods that are directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived classes. These are intended for direct use:
BaseHandler.add_parent(director)
Add a director as parent.
BaseHandler.close()
Remove any parents.
The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes derived from BaseHandler. Note The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining <protocol>_request() or <protocol>_response() methods are named *Processor; all others are named *Handler.
BaseHandler.parent
A valid OpenerDirector, which can be used to open using a different protocol, or handle errors.
BaseHandler.default_open(req)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs. This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. It should return a file-like object as described in the return value of the open() of OpenerDirector, or None. It should raise URLError, unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for example, MemoryError should not be mapped to URLError). This method will be called before any protocol-specific open method.
BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the given protocol. This method, if defined, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. Return values should be the same as for default_open().
BaseHandler.unknown_open(req)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no specific registered handler to open it. This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. Return values should be the same as for default_open().
BaseHandler.http_error_default(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors. It will be called automatically by the OpenerDirector getting the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances. req will be a Request object, fp will be a file-like object with the HTTP error body, code will be the three-digit code of the error, msg will be the user-visible explanation of the code and hdrs will be a mapping object with the headers of the error. Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of urlopen().
BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
nnn should be a three-digit HTTP error code. This method is also not defined in BaseHandler, but will be called, if it exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code nnn occurs. Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP errors. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same as for http_error_default().
BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of the given protocol. This method, if defined, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. req will be a Request object. The return value should be a Request object.
BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses of the given protocol. This method, if defined, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. req will be a Request object. response will be an object implementing the same interface as the return value of urlopen(). The return value should implement the same interface as the return value of urlopen().
HTTPRedirectHandler Objects Note Some HTTP redirections require action from this module’s client code. If this is the case, HTTPError is raised. See RFC 2616 for details of the precise meanings of the various redirection codes. An HTTPError exception raised as a security consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL.
HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs, newurl)
Return a Request or None in response to a redirect. This is called by the default implementations of the http_error_30*() methods when a redirection is received from the server. If a redirection should take place, return a new Request to allow http_error_30*() to perform the redirect to newurl. Otherwise, raise HTTPError if no other handler should try to handle this URL, or return None if you can’t but another handler might. Note The default implementation of this method does not strictly follow RFC 2616, which says that 301 and 302 responses to POST requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a GET, and the default implementation reproduces this behavior.
HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
Redirect to the Location: or URI: URL. This method is called by the parent OpenerDirector when getting an HTTP ‘moved permanently’ response.
HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
The same as http_error_301(), but called for the ‘found’ response.
HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
The same as http_error_301(), but called for the ‘see other’ response.
HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
The same as http_error_301(), but called for the ‘temporary redirect’ response.
HTTPCookieProcessor Objects HTTPCookieProcessor instances have one attribute:
HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar
The http.cookiejar.CookieJar in which cookies are stored.
ProxyHandler Objects
ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)
The ProxyHandler will have a method <protocol>_open() for every protocol which has a proxy in the proxies dictionary given in the constructor. The method will modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling request.set_proxy(), and call the next handler in the chain to actually execute the protocol.
HTTPPasswordMgr Objects These methods are available on HTTPPasswordMgr and HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm objects.
HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(realm, uri, user, passwd)
uri can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. realm, user and passwd must be strings. This causes (user, passwd) to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for realm and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given.
HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(realm, authuri)
Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any. This method will return (None, None) if there is no matching user/password. For HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm objects, the realm None will be searched if the given realm has no matching user/password.
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects This password manager extends HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials should always be sent.
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password(realm, uri, user, passwd, is_authenticated=False)
realm, uri, user, passwd are as for HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(). is_authenticated sets the initial value of the is_authenticated flag for the given URI or list of URIs. If is_authenticated is specified as True, realm is ignored.
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password(realm, authuri)
Same as for HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm objects
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated(self, uri, is_authenticated=False)
Update the is_authenticated flag for the given uri or list of URIs.
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated(self, authuri)
Returns the current state of the is_authenticated flag for the given URI.
AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed(authreq, host, req, headers)
Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair, and re-trying the request. authreq should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, host specifies the URL and path to authenticate for, req should be the (failed) Request object, and headers should be the error headers. host is either an authority (e.g. "python.org") or a URL containing an authority component (e.g. "http://python.org/"). In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, "python.org" and "python.org:80" are fine, "joe:password@python.org" is not).
HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed(authreq, host, req, headers)
authreq should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, host should be the host to authenticate to, req should be the (failed) Request object, and headers should be the error headers.
HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
HTTPHandler Objects
HTTPHandler.http_open(req)
Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on req.has_data().
HTTPSHandler Objects
HTTPSHandler.https_open(req)
Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on req.has_data().
FileHandler Objects
FileHandler.file_open(req)
Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name is 'localhost'. Changed in version 3.2: This method is applicable only for local hostnames. When a remote hostname is given, an URLError is raised.
DataHandler Objects
DataHandler.data_open(req)
Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in the URL itself. The data URL syntax is specified in RFC 2397. This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don’t mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this implementation will raise an ValueError in that case.
FTPHandler Objects
FTPHandler.ftp_open(req)
Open the FTP file indicated by req. The login is always done with empty username and password.
CacheFTPHandler Objects CacheFTPHandler objects are FTPHandler objects with the following additional methods:
CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout(t)
Set timeout of connections to t seconds.
CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns(m)
Set maximum number of cached connections to m.
UnknownHandler Objects
UnknownHandler.unknown_open()
Raise a URLError exception.
HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response(request, response)
Process HTTP error responses. For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately. For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the http_error_<type>() handler methods, via OpenerDirector.error(). Eventually, HTTPDefaultErrorHandler will raise an HTTPError if no other handler handles the error.
HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response(request, response)
Process HTTPS error responses. The behavior is same as http_response().
Examples In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package. This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300 bytes of it. >>> import urllib.request
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
... print(f.read(300))
...
b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">\n\n<head>\n
<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />\n
<title>Python Programming '
Note that urlopen returns a bytes object. This is because there is no way for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte stream it receives from the HTTP server. In general, a program will decode the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses the appropriate encoding. The following W3C document, https://www.w3.org/International/O-charset, lists the various ways in which an (X)HTML or an XML document could have specified its encoding information. As the python.org website uses utf-8 encoding as specified in its meta tag, we will use the same for decoding the bytes object. >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
... print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
...
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm
It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the context manager approach. >>> import urllib.request
>>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
>>> print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm
In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a CGI and reading the data it returns to us. Note that this example will only work when the Python installation supports SSL. >>> import urllib.request
>>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
... data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"
The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is: #!/usr/bin/env python
import sys
data = sys.stdin.read()
print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)
Here is an example of doing a PUT request using Request: import urllib.request
DATA = b'some data'
req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA,method='PUT')
with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
pass
print(f.status)
print(f.reason)
Use of Basic HTTP Authentication: import urllib.request
# Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
user='klem',
passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
# ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html')
build_opener() provides many handlers by default, including a ProxyHandler. By default, ProxyHandler uses the environment variables named <scheme>_proxy, where <scheme> is the URL scheme involved. For example, the http_proxy environment variable is read to obtain the HTTP proxy’s URL. This example replaces the default ProxyHandler with one that uses programmatically-supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy authorization support with ProxyBasicAuthHandler. proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
# This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html')
Adding HTTP headers: Use the headers argument to the Request constructor, or: import urllib.request
req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
# Customize the default User-Agent header value:
req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
r = urllib.request.urlopen(req)
OpenerDirector automatically adds a User-Agent header to every Request. To change this: import urllib.request
opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
opener.open('http://www.example.com/')
Also, remember that a few standard headers (Content-Length, Content-Type and Host) are added when the Request is passed to urlopen() (or OpenerDirector.open()). Here is an example session that uses the GET method to retrieve a URL containing parameters: >>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
The following example uses the POST method instead. Note that params output from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen as data: >>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> data = data.encode('ascii')
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy, overriding environment settings: >>> import urllib.request
>>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
>>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
>>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
... f.read().decode('utf-8')
...
The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment settings: >>> import urllib.request
>>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
>>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
... f.read().decode('utf-8')
...
Legacy interface The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module urllib (as opposed to urllib2). They might become deprecated at some point in the future.
urllib.request.urlretrieve(url, filename=None, reporthook=None, data=None)
Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file. If the URL points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless filename is supplied. Return a tuple (filename, headers) where filename is the local file name under which the object can be found, and headers is whatever the info() method of the object returned by urlopen() returned (for a remote object). Exceptions are the same as for urlopen(). The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a generated name). The third argument, if present, is a callable that will be called once on establishment of the network connection and once after each block read thereafter. The callable will be passed three arguments; a count of blocks transferred so far, a block size in bytes, and the total size of the file. The third argument may be -1 on older FTP servers which do not return a file size in response to a retrieval request. The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario: >>> import urllib.request
>>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
>>> html = open(local_filename)
>>> html.close()
If the url uses the http: scheme identifier, the optional data argument may be given to specify a POST request (normally the request type is GET). The data argument must be a bytes object in standard application/x-www-form-urlencoded format; see the urllib.parse.urlencode() function. urlretrieve() will raise ContentTooShortError when it detects that the amount of data available was less than the expected amount (which is the size reported by a Content-Length header). This can occur, for example, when the download is interrupted. The Content-Length is treated as a lower bound: if there’s more data to read, urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is available, it raises the exception. You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is stored in the content attribute of the exception instance. If no Content-Length header was supplied, urlretrieve can not check the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it. In this case you just have to assume that the download was successful.
urllib.request.urlcleanup()
Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by previous calls to urlretrieve().
class urllib.request.URLopener(proxies=None, **x509)
Deprecated since version 3.3. Base class for opening and reading URLs. Unless you need to support opening objects using schemes other than http:, ftp:, or file:, you probably want to use FancyURLopener. By default, the URLopener class sends a User-Agent header of urllib/VVV, where VVV is the urllib version number. Applications can define their own User-Agent header by subclassing URLopener or FancyURLopener and setting the class attribute version to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition. The optional proxies parameter should be a dictionary mapping scheme names to proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies off completely. Its default value is None, in which case environmental proxy settings will be used if present, as discussed in the definition of urlopen(), above. Additional keyword parameters, collected in x509, may be used for authentication of the client when using the https: scheme. The keywords key_file and cert_file are supported to provide an SSL key and certificate; both are needed to support client authentication. URLopener objects will raise an OSError exception if the server returns an error code.
open(fullurl, data=None)
Open fullurl using the appropriate protocol. This method sets up cache and proxy information, then calls the appropriate open method with its input arguments. If the scheme is not recognized, open_unknown() is called. The data argument has the same meaning as the data argument of urlopen(). This method always quotes fullurl using quote().
open_unknown(fullurl, data=None)
Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.
retrieve(url, filename=None, reporthook=None, data=None)
Retrieves the contents of url and places it in filename. The return value is a tuple consisting of a local filename and either an email.message.Message object containing the response headers (for remote URLs) or None (for local URLs). The caller must then open and read the contents of filename. If filename is not given and the URL refers to a local file, the input filename is returned. If the URL is non-local and filename is not given, the filename is the output of tempfile.mktemp() with a suffix that matches the suffix of the last path component of the input URL. If reporthook is given, it must be a function accepting three numeric parameters: A chunk number, the maximum size chunks are read in and the total size of the download (-1 if unknown). It will be called once at the start and after each chunk of data is read from the network. reporthook is ignored for local URLs. If the url uses the http: scheme identifier, the optional data argument may be given to specify a POST request (normally the request type is GET). The data argument must in standard application/x-www-form-urlencoded format; see the urllib.parse.urlencode() function.
version
Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object. To get urllib to tell servers that it is a particular user agent, set this in a subclass as a class variable or in the constructor before calling the base constructor.
class urllib.request.FancyURLopener(...)
Deprecated since version 3.3. FancyURLopener subclasses URLopener providing default handling for the following HTTP response codes: 301, 302, 303, 307 and 401. For the 30x response codes listed above, the Location header is used to fetch the actual URL. For 401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP authentication is performed. For the 30x response codes, recursion is bounded by the value of the maxtries attribute, which defaults to 10. For all other response codes, the method http_error_default() is called which you can override in subclasses to handle the error appropriately. Note According to the letter of RFC 2616, 301 and 302 responses to POST requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a GET, and urllib reproduces this behaviour. The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for URLopener. Note When performing basic authentication, a FancyURLopener instance calls its prompt_user_passwd() method. The default implementation asks the users for the required information on the controlling terminal. A subclass may override this method to support more appropriate behavior if needed. The FancyURLopener class offers one additional method that should be overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:
prompt_user_passwd(host, realm)
Return information needed to authenticate the user at the given host in the specified security realm. The return value should be a tuple, (user,
password), which can be used for basic authentication. The implementation prompts for this information on the terminal; an application should override this method to use an appropriate interaction model in the local environment.
urllib.request Restrictions
Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP (versions 0.9 and 1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs. Changed in version 3.4: Added support for data URLs. The caching feature of urlretrieve() has been disabled until someone finds the time to hack proper processing of Expiration time headers. There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in the cache. For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local file but the file can’t be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using the FTP protocol. This can sometimes cause confusing error messages. The urlopen() and urlretrieve() functions can cause arbitrarily long delays while waiting for a network connection to be set up. This means that it is difficult to build an interactive Web client using these functions without using threads. The data returned by urlopen() or urlretrieve() is the raw data returned by the server. This may be binary data (such as an image), plain text or (for example) HTML. The HTTP protocol provides type information in the reply header, which can be inspected by looking at the Content-Type header. If the returned data is HTML, you can use the module html.parser to parse it. The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a file and a directory. This can lead to unexpected behavior when attempting to read a URL that points to a file that is not accessible. If the URL ends in a /, it is assumed to refer to a directory and will be handled accordingly. But if an attempt to read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found or is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path is treated as a directory in order to handle the case when a directory is specified by a URL but the trailing / has been left off. This can cause misleading results when you try to fetch a file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP code will try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory listing for the unreadable file. If fine-grained control is needed, consider using the ftplib module, subclassing FancyURLopener, or changing _urlopener to meet your needs. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib The urllib.response module defines functions and classes which define a minimal file-like interface, including read() and readline(). Functions defined by this module are used internally by the urllib.request module. The typical response object is a urllib.response.addinfourl instance:
class urllib.response.addinfourl
url
URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a redirect was followed.
headers
Returns the headers of the response in the form of an EmailMessage instance.
status
New in version 3.9. Status code returned by server.
geturl()
Deprecated since version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of url.
info()
Deprecated since version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of headers.
code
Deprecated since version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of status.
getstatus()
Deprecated since version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of status. | python.library.urllib.request |
class urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. If passwd_mgr also provides is_authenticated and update_authenticated methods (see HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects), then the handler will use the is_authenticated result for a given URI to determine whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request. If is_authenticated returns True for the URI, credentials are sent. If is_authenticated is False, credentials are not sent, and then if a 401 response is received the request is re-sent with the authentication credentials. If authentication succeeds, update_authenticated is called to set is_authenticated True for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its super-URIs will automatically include the authentication credentials. New in version 3.5: Added is_authenticated support. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler |
AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed(authreq, host, req, headers)
Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair, and re-trying the request. authreq should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, host specifies the URL and path to authenticate for, req should be the (failed) Request object, and headers should be the error headers. host is either an authority (e.g. "python.org") or a URL containing an authority component (e.g. "http://python.org/"). In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, "python.org" and "python.org:80" are fine, "joe:password@python.org" is not). | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed |
class urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler |
AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed(authreq, host, req, headers)
authreq should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, host should be the host to authenticate to, req should be the (failed) Request object, and headers should be the error headers. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed |
class urllib.request.BaseHandler
This is the base class for all registered handlers — and handles only the simple mechanics of registration. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.BaseHandler |
BaseHandler.add_parent(director)
Add a director as parent. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.BaseHandler.add_parent |
BaseHandler.close()
Remove any parents. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.BaseHandler.close |
BaseHandler.default_open(req)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs. This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. It should return a file-like object as described in the return value of the open() of OpenerDirector, or None. It should raise URLError, unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for example, MemoryError should not be mapped to URLError). This method will be called before any protocol-specific open method. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open |
BaseHandler.http_error_default(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors. It will be called automatically by the OpenerDirector getting the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances. req will be a Request object, fp will be a file-like object with the HTTP error body, code will be the three-digit code of the error, msg will be the user-visible explanation of the code and hdrs will be a mapping object with the headers of the error. Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of urlopen(). | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.BaseHandler.http_error_default |
BaseHandler.parent
A valid OpenerDirector, which can be used to open using a different protocol, or handle errors. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent |
BaseHandler.unknown_open(req)
This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no specific registered handler to open it. This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. Return values should be the same as for default_open(). | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.BaseHandler.unknown_open |
urllib.request.build_opener([handler, ...])
Return an OpenerDirector instance, which chains the handlers in the order given. handlers can be either instances of BaseHandler, or subclasses of BaseHandler (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without any parameters). Instances of the following classes will be in front of the handlers, unless the handlers contain them, instances of them or subclasses of them: ProxyHandler (if proxy settings are detected), UnknownHandler, HTTPHandler, HTTPDefaultErrorHandler, HTTPRedirectHandler, FTPHandler, FileHandler, HTTPErrorProcessor. If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the ssl module can be imported), HTTPSHandler will also be added. A BaseHandler subclass may also change its handler_order attribute to modify its position in the handlers list. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.build_opener |
class urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler
Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler |
CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns(m)
Set maximum number of cached connections to m. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns |
CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout(t)
Set timeout of connections to t seconds. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout |
class urllib.request.DataHandler
Open data URLs. New in version 3.4. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.DataHandler |
DataHandler.data_open(req)
Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in the URL itself. The data URL syntax is specified in RFC 2397. This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don’t mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this implementation will raise an ValueError in that case. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.DataHandler.data_open |
class urllib.request.FancyURLopener(...)
Deprecated since version 3.3. FancyURLopener subclasses URLopener providing default handling for the following HTTP response codes: 301, 302, 303, 307 and 401. For the 30x response codes listed above, the Location header is used to fetch the actual URL. For 401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP authentication is performed. For the 30x response codes, recursion is bounded by the value of the maxtries attribute, which defaults to 10. For all other response codes, the method http_error_default() is called which you can override in subclasses to handle the error appropriately. Note According to the letter of RFC 2616, 301 and 302 responses to POST requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a GET, and urllib reproduces this behaviour. The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for URLopener. Note When performing basic authentication, a FancyURLopener instance calls its prompt_user_passwd() method. The default implementation asks the users for the required information on the controlling terminal. A subclass may override this method to support more appropriate behavior if needed. The FancyURLopener class offers one additional method that should be overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:
prompt_user_passwd(host, realm)
Return information needed to authenticate the user at the given host in the specified security realm. The return value should be a tuple, (user,
password), which can be used for basic authentication. The implementation prompts for this information on the terminal; an application should override this method to use an appropriate interaction model in the local environment. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.FancyURLopener |
prompt_user_passwd(host, realm)
Return information needed to authenticate the user at the given host in the specified security realm. The return value should be a tuple, (user,
password), which can be used for basic authentication. The implementation prompts for this information on the terminal; an application should override this method to use an appropriate interaction model in the local environment. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd |
class urllib.request.FileHandler
Open local files. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.FileHandler |
FileHandler.file_open(req)
Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name is 'localhost'. Changed in version 3.2: This method is applicable only for local hostnames. When a remote hostname is given, an URLError is raised. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.FileHandler.file_open |
class urllib.request.FTPHandler
Open FTP URLs. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.FTPHandler |
FTPHandler.ftp_open(req)
Open the FTP file indicated by req. The login is always done with empty username and password. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.FTPHandler.ftp_open |
urllib.request.getproxies()
This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL mappings. It scans the environment for variables named <scheme>_proxy, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy information from Mac OSX System Configuration for Mac OS X and Windows Systems Registry for Windows. If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred. Note If the environment variable REQUEST_METHOD is set, which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment variable HTTP_PROXY (uppercase _PROXY) will be ignored. This is because that variable can be injected by a client using the “Proxy:” HTTP header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use ProxyHandler explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in lowercase (or at least the _proxy suffix). | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.getproxies |
class urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
Handle authentication with the remote host. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a ValueError when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler |
HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
Retry the request with authentication information, if available. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401 |
class urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cookiejar=None)
A class to handle HTTP Cookies. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor |
HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar
The http.cookiejar.CookieJar in which cookies are stored. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar |
class urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler
A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses are turned into HTTPError exceptions. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler |
class urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)
Handle authentication with the remote host. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to Handle. This Handler method will raise a ValueError when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or Basic. Changed in version 3.3: Raise ValueError on unsupported Authentication Scheme. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler |
HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
Retry the request with authentication information, if available. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401 |
class urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor
Process HTTP error responses. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor |
HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response(request, response)
Process HTTPS error responses. The behavior is same as http_response(). | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response |
HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response(request, response)
Process HTTP error responses. For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately. For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the http_error_<type>() handler methods, via OpenerDirector.error(). Eventually, HTTPDefaultErrorHandler will raise an HTTPError if no other handler handles the error. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response |
class urllib.request.HTTPHandler
A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPHandler |
HTTPHandler.http_open(req)
Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on req.has_data(). | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPHandler.http_open |
class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr
Keep a database of (realm, uri) -> (user, password) mappings. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr |
HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(realm, uri, user, passwd)
uri can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. realm, user and passwd must be strings. This causes (user, passwd) to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for realm and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password |
HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(realm, authuri)
Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any. This method will return (None, None) if there is no matching user/password. For HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm objects, the realm None will be searched if the given realm has no matching user/password. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password |
class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm
Keep a database of (realm, uri) -> (user, password) mappings. A realm of None is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm fits. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm |
class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth
A variant of HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm that also has a database of uri -> is_authenticated mappings. Can be used by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication credentials immediately instead of waiting for a 401 response first. New in version 3.5. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth |
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password(realm, uri, user, passwd, is_authenticated=False)
realm, uri, user, passwd are as for HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(). is_authenticated sets the initial value of the is_authenticated flag for the given URI or list of URIs. If is_authenticated is specified as True, realm is ignored. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password |
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password(realm, authuri)
Same as for HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm objects | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password |
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated(self, authuri)
Returns the current state of the is_authenticated flag for the given URI. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated |
HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated(self, uri, is_authenticated=False)
Update the is_authenticated flag for the given uri or list of URIs. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated |
class urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler
A class to handle redirections. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler |
HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
Redirect to the Location: or URI: URL. This method is called by the parent OpenerDirector when getting an HTTP ‘moved permanently’ response. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 |
HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
The same as http_error_301(), but called for the ‘found’ response. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302 |
HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
The same as http_error_301(), but called for the ‘see other’ response. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303 |
HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)
The same as http_error_301(), but called for the ‘temporary redirect’ response. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307 |
HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs, newurl)
Return a Request or None in response to a redirect. This is called by the default implementations of the http_error_30*() methods when a redirection is received from the server. If a redirection should take place, return a new Request to allow http_error_30*() to perform the redirect to newurl. Otherwise, raise HTTPError if no other handler should try to handle this URL, or return None if you can’t but another handler might. Note The default implementation of this method does not strictly follow RFC 2616, which says that 301 and 302 responses to POST requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a GET, and the default implementation reproduces this behavior. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request |
class urllib.request.HTTPSHandler(debuglevel=0, context=None, check_hostname=None)
A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs. context and check_hostname have the same meaning as in http.client.HTTPSConnection. Changed in version 3.2: context and check_hostname were added. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler |
HTTPSHandler.https_open(req)
Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on req.has_data(). | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler.https_open |
urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
Install an OpenerDirector instance as the default global opener. Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call OpenerDirector.open() instead of urlopen(). The code does not check for a real OpenerDirector, and any class with the appropriate interface will work. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.install_opener |
class urllib.request.OpenerDirector
The OpenerDirector class opens URLs via BaseHandlers chained together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.OpenerDirector |
OpenerDirector.add_handler(handler)
handler should be an instance of BaseHandler. The following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains (note that HTTP errors are a special case). Note that, in the following, protocol should be replaced with the actual protocol to handle, for example http_response() would be the HTTP protocol response handler. Also type should be replaced with the actual HTTP code, for example http_error_404() would handle HTTP 404 errors.
<protocol>_open() — signal that the handler knows how to open protocol URLs. See BaseHandler.<protocol>_open() for more information.
http_error_<type>() — signal that the handler knows how to handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code type. See BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>() for more information.
<protocol>_error() — signal that the handler knows how to handle errors from (non-http) protocol.
<protocol>_request() — signal that the handler knows how to pre-process protocol requests. See BaseHandler.<protocol>_request() for more information.
<protocol>_response() — signal that the handler knows how to post-process protocol responses. See BaseHandler.<protocol>_response() for more information. | python.library.urllib.request#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.add_handler |
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