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▁Description ▁ ▁The ▁wings pan ▁is ▁ 2 0 – 2 3 mm . ▁The ▁for ew ings ▁are ▁pale ▁fus c ous - b rown ▁with ▁dark ▁fus c ous ▁mark ings . ▁The ▁h ind w ings ▁are ▁grey , ▁t ing ed ▁with ▁och re ous ▁and ▁with ▁a ▁dark er ▁sub term inal ▁line . ▁Ad ult s ▁have ▁been ▁recorded ▁on ▁wing ▁in ▁December . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : M oth s ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 5 ▁Category : M oth s ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Category : Sc op ari inae ▁Category : End em ic ▁fa una ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand <0x0A> </s> ▁Cole op hora ▁k asz abi ▁is ▁a ▁moth ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁Cole op hor idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Mong olia . ▁ ▁The ▁lar va e ▁feed ▁on ▁Car ag ana ▁pyg ma ea ▁and ▁Car ag ana ▁b unge i . ▁They ▁feed ▁on ▁the ▁leaves ▁of ▁their ▁host ▁plant . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁k asz abi ▁Category : M oth s ▁of ▁Mong olia ▁Category : M oth s ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 4 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁J C ▁Ra ul ston ▁Ar bor et um ▁is ▁a ▁ ▁ar bor et um ▁and ▁botan ical ▁garden ▁admin ister ed ▁by ▁North ▁Carolina ▁State ▁University , ▁and ▁located ▁at ▁ 4 4 1 5 ▁B ery l ▁Road , ▁R ale igh , ▁North ▁Carolina . ▁It ▁is ▁open ▁daily ▁to ▁the ▁public ▁without |
▁charge . ▁ ▁History ▁▁ ▁The ▁Ar bor et um ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁by ▁h ort icult ur ist ▁James ▁Ch ester ▁Ra ul ston ▁and ▁named ▁after ▁him . ▁ ▁Plant ▁collections ▁▁ ▁The ▁ar bor et um ▁has ▁a ▁collection ▁of ▁plants ▁from ▁over ▁ 5 0 ▁countries . ▁Its ▁plant ▁collections ▁now ▁include ▁over ▁ 6 , 0 0 0 ▁total ▁tax a ▁of ▁annual s , ▁per enn ial s , ▁bul bs , ▁v ines , ▁ground ▁covers , ▁shr ubs , ▁and ▁trees , ▁with ▁significant ▁collections ▁of : ▁A cer ▁( map le ) ▁A es cul us ▁( bu ck ey e ) ▁Ber ber is ▁( bar berry ) ▁B ux us ▁( box wood ) ▁Cer cis ▁( red bud ) ▁Con if ers ▁I lex ▁( hol ly ) ▁Magn olia ▁( m agn olia ) ▁Mah onia ▁( gra pe hol ly ) ▁N and ina ▁( he aven ly ▁b am bo o ) ▁Qu erc us ▁( o ak ) ▁St y rac aceae ▁( sil ver bell ▁family ) ▁V ib urn um ▁W ister ia ▁ ▁The ▁major ▁gard ens ▁▁ ▁Ann ual ▁Color ▁Tri als ▁— ▁an ▁official ▁All - America ▁Se lections ▁( A AS ) ▁testing ▁site , ▁evalu ating ▁over ▁ 7 0 0 ▁different ▁annual s ▁and ▁tender ▁per enn ial s ▁each ▁year . ▁ ▁Entry ▁Garden ▁— ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 ▁types ▁of |
▁tender ▁per enn ial s , ▁mostly ▁tropical . ▁ ▁Fin ley - Not ting ham ▁Rose ▁Garden ▁— ▁over ▁ 2 0 0 ▁ros es ▁representing ▁over ▁ 1 2 0 ▁tax a , ▁including ▁hy brid ▁te as , ▁hy brid ▁mus k ▁ros es , ▁David ▁Austin ▁ros es , ▁and ▁clim bing ▁ros es . ▁ ▁Japanese ▁Garden ▁— ▁Japanese ▁plants ▁with ▁a ▁ra ked - stone ▁Z en ▁garden ; ▁plants ▁include ▁A cer ▁pal mat um ▁‘ K iy oh ime ’ , ▁A cer ▁pal mat um ▁‘ Se iry u ’ , ▁Ch ama ec y par is ▁obt usa ▁‘ N ana ▁G rac ilis ’ , ▁L ager st ro emia ▁fa ur iei , ▁N and ina ▁dom est ica ▁f . ▁cap ill aris ▁cultiv ars , ▁and ▁P inus ▁ta eda ▁‘ N ana ’ . ▁ ▁Klein - Pr ing le ▁White ▁Garden ▁— ▁white - flow ered ▁plants ▁and ▁plants ▁with ▁gray , ▁white , ▁or ▁silver ▁fol i age , ▁inspired ▁by ▁the ▁famous ▁White ▁Garden ▁at ▁S iss ing h urst ▁Castle ▁Garden ; ▁plants ▁include ▁ ▁A cer ▁pal mat um , ▁L ager st ro emia ▁‘ N atch ez ’ , ▁Magn olia ▁× ▁lo eb ner i ▁‘ M err ill ’ , ▁St y ra x ▁jap onic us ▁‘ E mer ald ▁P ag oda ’ , ▁and ▁V ib urn um ▁‘ M oh awk ’ . ▁ ▁L |
ath ▁House ▁— ▁over ▁ 7 0 0 ▁kinds ▁of ▁sh ade - lo ving ▁plants , ▁including ▁A can th us ▁sp inos us , ▁Corn us ▁controvers a ▁' Var ieg ata ', ▁Far f ug ium ▁jap onic um ▁' A ure om ac ul atum ', ▁Gent iana ▁sap on aria , ▁H yd range a ▁macro ph yl la ▁‘ P ia ’ , ▁Pier is ▁japon ica ▁‘ S ho jo ’ , ▁and ▁Tro chod end ron ▁ar al io ides . ▁ ▁M ixed ▁Border ▁— ▁a ▁large ▁border ▁plant ing ▁( 3 0 0 ▁× ▁ 1 5 ▁feet ) ▁( 9 1 ▁× ▁ 4 . 6 ▁m ) ▁of ▁trees , ▁shr ubs , ▁ground co vers , ▁per enn ial s , ▁and ▁bul bs ; ▁plants ▁include ▁Cam ps is ▁grand if l ora ▁' Mor ning ▁Cal m ', ▁Ch ama ec y par is ▁th yo ides ▁' R ub icon ', ▁C lem atis ▁' B et ty ▁Cor ning ', ▁Corn us ▁ser ice a ▁' Sil ver ▁and ▁Gold ', ▁and ▁Ham am el is ▁× ▁inter media ▁‘ J el ena ’ . ▁ ▁Model ▁Gard ens ▁— ▁home ▁demonstr ation ▁gard ens . ▁ ▁Parad ise ▁Garden ▁— ▁for ▁the ▁sens es ▁of ▁sight , ▁sound , ▁taste , ▁touch , ▁and ▁sm ell ; ▁plants ▁include ▁Alo ys ia ▁tri ph yl la , ▁C ory lus ▁av ell ana ▁‘ Cont |
ort a ’ , ▁H osta ▁‘ Sum ▁and ▁Sub st ance ’ , ▁and ▁Z izi ph us ▁ju j uba ▁‘ In erm is ’ . ▁ ▁Per enn ial ▁Border ▁— ▁nearly ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁plants ▁in ▁a ▁large ▁border ▁plant ing ▁( 4 5 0 ▁× ▁ 1 8 ▁feet ) ▁( 1 4 0 ▁× ▁ 5 . 5 ▁m ), ▁with ▁color ▁scheme ▁based ▁upon ▁a ▁plan ▁by ▁Ger tr ude ▁J ek yll . ▁ ▁South all ▁Memorial ▁Garden ▁— ▁a ▁hem lock ▁tree ▁gro ve , ▁with ▁mixed ▁plant ings ▁and ▁an ▁open ▁grass y ▁area ▁for ▁gather ings . ▁ ▁X er ic ▁Garden ▁— ▁plants ▁from ▁Mexico ▁and ▁the ▁American ▁South west , ▁including ▁Ag ave , ▁Das yl ir ion , ▁E chin oc act us , ▁H esper alo e , ▁N ol ina , ▁Op unt ia , ▁and ▁Yu cca . ▁ ▁Winter ▁Garden ▁— ▁plants ▁at ▁their ▁best ▁in ▁winter , ▁including ▁C rypt om eria , ▁Ch ama ec y par is , ▁Corn us ▁offic inal is ▁' K into ki ', ▁Ed gew orth ia ▁ch rys anth a , ▁Ep im ed ium , ▁Ham am el is , ▁H elle bor us ▁× ▁hy brid us , ▁I lex , ▁I ris ▁un gu icular is , ▁Pr un us ▁m ume ▁' R ose ▁G low ', ▁and ▁Yu cca . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁J C ▁Ra ul |
ston ▁Ar bor et um ▁website ▁ ▁Ph oto ▁Walk ing ▁Tour ▁of ▁J C ▁Ra ul ston ▁Ar bor et um ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁botan ical ▁gard ens ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Ar bor eta ▁in ▁North ▁Carolina ▁Category : B ot an ical ▁gard ens ▁in ▁North ▁Carolina ▁Category : N orth ▁Carolina ▁State ▁University ▁Category : P arks ▁in ▁R ale igh , ▁North ▁Carolina ▁Category : 1 9 7 6 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁North ▁Carolina <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Battle ▁of ▁J iny ang ▁() ▁was ▁fought ▁between ▁the ▁el ite ▁families ▁of ▁the ▁State ▁of ▁Jin , ▁the ▁house ▁of ▁Z ha o ▁and ▁the ▁house ▁of ▁Z hi ▁( 智 ), ▁in ▁the ▁Spring ▁and ▁Aut umn ▁period ▁of ▁China . ▁The ▁other ▁houses ▁of ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han ▁first ▁participated ▁in ▁the ▁battle ▁in ▁al liance ▁with ▁the ▁Z hi , ▁but ▁later ▁defect ed ▁to ▁al ly ▁with ▁Z ha o ▁to ▁anni h il ate ▁the ▁Z hi ▁house . ▁This ▁event ▁was ▁a ▁catal yst ▁to ▁the ▁Tri partition ▁of ▁Jin ▁in ▁ 4 3 4 ▁BC , ▁the ▁forming ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁states ▁of ▁Z ha o , ▁Wei , ▁and ▁Han , ▁and ▁the ▁start ▁to ▁the ▁W arring ▁States ▁period . ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁battle ▁described ▁in ▁the ▁Song ▁D ynast y ▁history ▁comp end ium ▁Z iz hi ▁T ong j ian . ▁ ▁Background ▁By ▁ 4 9 0 ▁BC , ▁after ▁the ▁destruction |
▁of ▁the ▁houses ▁of ▁F an ▁( <0xE8> <0x8C> <0x83> ) ▁and ▁Zh ong hang ▁( 中 行 ), ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁State ▁of ▁Jin , ▁then ▁the ▁largest ▁state ▁in ▁China , ▁was ▁cont ested ▁by ▁four ▁el ite ▁families : ▁Z hi , ▁Wei , ▁Z ha o , ▁and ▁Han . ▁With ▁multiple ▁military ▁vict ories ▁under ▁his ▁bel t , ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ▁( or ▁Z hi ▁Bo ▁Y ao ▁ 智 <0xE4> <0xBC> <0xAF> <0xE7> <0x91> <0xA4> ) ▁of ▁the ▁house ▁of ▁Z hi ▁ex ert ed ▁the ▁most ▁influence ▁in ▁the ▁Jin ▁court ▁– ▁all ▁dec isions ▁of ▁the ▁state ▁had ▁to ▁pass ▁through ▁him . ▁He ▁also ▁controlled ▁the ▁most ▁territory ▁within ▁the ▁state . ▁The ▁reign ing ▁du ke ▁of ▁Jin , ▁Duke ▁A i , ▁was ▁power less ▁to ▁rest rain ▁him . ▁So ▁Z hi ▁Y ao , ▁in ▁his ▁pride , ▁began ▁to ▁demand ▁lands ▁from ▁the ▁other ▁three ▁houses . ▁The ▁houses ▁of ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han ▁rel uct antly ▁comp lied ▁to ▁e va de ▁Z hi ' s ▁wr ath , ▁but ▁Z ha o ▁X i ang zi ▁( <0xE8> <0xB6> <0x99> <0xE8> <0xA5> <0x84> 子 ) ▁refused ▁to ▁c ede ▁the ▁territ ories ▁of ▁Lin ▁( <0xE8> <0x97> <0xBA> ) ▁and ▁Ga ol ang ▁( <0xE7> <0x9A> <0x8B> <0xE7> <0x8B> <0xBC> ), ▁both ▁in ▁modern - day ▁L ishi , ▁to ▁Z hi . ▁Z hi , ▁in ▁ret ribution , ▁formed ▁a ▁secret ▁al liance ▁with |
▁the ▁houses ▁of ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han ▁to ▁attack ▁Z ha o . ▁ ▁Z ha o ▁X i ang zi ▁sus pected ▁an ▁attack ▁from ▁Z hi , ▁since ▁he ▁had ▁heard ▁that ▁Z hi ▁sent ▁en vo ys ▁to ▁Han ▁and ▁Wei ▁three ▁times , ▁but ▁never ▁to ▁Z ha o . ▁After ▁reject ing ▁suggestions ▁to ▁move ▁to ▁Z hang zi ▁or ▁Hand an ▁out ▁of ▁concern ▁for ▁the ▁people ▁there , ▁Z ha o ▁X i ang zi ▁asked ▁his ▁minister ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan ▁( 張 <0xE5> <0xAD> <0x9F> <0xE8> <0xAB> <0x87> ) ▁where ▁he ▁could ▁prepare ▁his ▁defence , ▁and ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan ▁suggested ▁J iny ang ▁because ▁J iny ang ▁had ▁been ▁well - g overn ed ▁for ▁gener ations . ▁Z ha o ▁agreed , ▁and ▁sum mon ed ▁Yan ling ▁Sh eng ▁( <0xE5> <0xBB> <0xB6> <0xE9> <0x99> <0xB5> 生 ) ▁to ▁lead ▁the ▁army ▁carri ages ▁and ▁caval ry ▁ahead ▁to ▁J iny ang , ▁Z ha o ▁himself ▁to ▁follow ▁later . ▁Once ▁in ▁J iny ang , ▁Z ha o ▁X i ang zi , ▁following ▁the ▁suggestions ▁of ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan , ▁issued ▁orders ▁to ▁ref ill ▁the ▁gran aries ▁and ▁the ▁tre as uries , ▁repair ▁walls , ▁make ▁ar rows , ▁and ▁m elt ▁co pper ▁pill ars ▁for ▁metal . ▁By ▁virtue ▁of ▁past ▁govern ance , ▁the ▁tre as uries , ▁gran aries , ▁and ▁ar sen als ▁were ▁filled ▁within ▁three |
▁days , ▁and ▁the ▁walls ▁rep a ired ▁within ▁five . ▁Thus ▁all ▁of ▁J iny ang ▁was ▁prepared ▁for ▁war . ▁ ▁Battle ▁ ▁When ▁the ▁three ▁arm ies ▁of ▁Z hi , ▁Wei , ▁and ▁Han ▁reached ▁J iny ang ▁in ▁ 4 5 5 ▁BC , ▁they ▁laid ▁sie ge ▁to ▁the ▁city , ▁but ▁for ▁three ▁months ▁they ▁could ▁not ▁take ▁the ▁city . ▁They ▁ ▁f anned ▁out ▁and ▁surrounded ▁the ▁city , ▁and ▁a ▁year ▁later ▁di vert ed ▁the ▁flow ▁of ▁the ▁Fen ▁River ▁to ▁in und ate ▁the ▁city . ▁All ▁buildings ▁under ▁three ▁stories ▁high ▁were ▁sub mer ged , ▁and ▁the ▁people ▁of ▁J iny ang ▁were ▁obliged ▁to ▁live ▁in ▁nest - like ▁per ches ▁above ▁the ▁water ▁and ▁hang ▁their ▁k ett les ▁from ▁the ▁sc aff old ing ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁cook . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁third ▁year , ▁supplies ▁had ▁run ▁out ▁for ▁the ▁Z ha o , ▁dise ases ▁broke ▁out , ▁and ▁the ▁popul ace ▁were ▁reduced ▁to ▁e ating ▁each ▁other ' s ▁children . ▁Although ▁the ▁common ▁people ▁remained ▁firm ▁in ▁the ▁defence , ▁the ▁court ▁minister s ' ▁lo y alt ies ▁began ▁to ▁wa ver . ▁Z ha o ▁X i ang zi ▁asked ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan , ▁" O ur ▁prov isions ▁are ▁gone , ▁our ▁strength ▁and ▁resources ▁are ▁exha usted , ▁the ▁officials ▁are ▁star ving ▁and ▁ill , ▁and ▁I ▁fear ▁we ▁can ▁hold ▁out ▁no ▁longer |
. ▁I ▁am ▁going ▁to ▁surrender ▁the ▁city , ▁but ▁to ▁which ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁states ▁should ▁I ▁surrender ?" ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan , ▁much ▁al ar med , ▁persu aded ▁Z ha o ▁not ▁to ▁surrender ▁but ▁instead ▁send ▁him ▁out ▁to ▁negoti ate ▁with ▁the ▁houses ▁of ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han . ▁ ▁The ▁houses ▁of ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han ▁were ▁promised ▁an ▁even ▁split ▁of ▁Z ha o ' s ▁territ ories ▁when ▁the ▁battle ▁was ▁won , ▁however ▁both ▁the ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han ▁leaders ▁were ▁une asy , ▁since ▁they ▁understood ▁that ▁they ▁too ▁would ▁be ▁conquer ed ▁if ▁Z ha o ▁fell ▁to ▁Z hi . ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ' s ▁minister , ▁X i ▁Ci ▁( <0xE9> <0x83> <0xA4> <0xE7> <0x96> <0xB5> ), ▁war ned ▁Z hi ▁that ▁the ▁two ▁houses ▁were ▁going ▁to ▁revol t , ▁since ▁" the ▁men ▁and ▁horses ▁[ of ▁J iny ang ] ▁are ▁e ating ▁each ▁other ▁and ▁the ▁city ▁is ▁soon ▁to ▁fall , ▁yet ▁the ▁l ords ▁of ▁Han ▁and ▁Wei ▁show ▁no ▁signs ▁of ▁joy ▁but ▁instead ▁are ▁wor ried . ▁If ▁those ▁are ▁not ▁reb elli ous ▁signs , ▁then ▁what ▁are ▁they ?" ▁Z hi ▁paid ▁X i ▁Ci ▁no ▁he ed , ▁and ▁instead ▁told ▁the ▁l ords ▁of ▁Han ▁and ▁Wei ▁of ▁X i ' s ▁susp icion . ▁X i , ▁knowing ▁that ▁his ▁warning ▁fell ▁to ▁de af ▁ears , ▁exc used ▁himself ▁from ▁the ▁battle field ▁by ▁going ▁to |
▁the ▁State ▁of ▁Q i ▁as ▁an ▁en voy . ▁ ▁Indeed , ▁when ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan ▁secret ly ▁met ▁with ▁Wei ▁H uan - zi ▁and ▁Han ▁K ang zi ▁( <0xE9> <0x9F> <0x93> 康 子 ), ▁who ▁conf essed ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁secret ly ▁planning ▁to ▁mut iny ▁against ▁Z hi . ▁The ▁three ▁discussed ▁their ▁plans ▁and ▁settled ▁on ▁a ▁date ▁to ▁execute ▁the ▁plans . ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan ▁returned ▁to ▁J iny ang ▁to ▁report ▁back ▁to ▁Z ha o ▁X i ang zi , ▁and ▁Z ha o , ▁in ▁joy ▁and ▁app reh ension , ▁bow ed ▁to ▁Z hang ▁several ▁times ▁as ▁a ▁sign ▁of ▁great ▁rever ence . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ' s ▁cl ans men , ▁Z hi ▁Gu o ▁( 智 <0xE9> <0x81> <0x8E> ), ▁by ▁happen st ance , ▁observed ▁the ▁leaders ▁of ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han ▁after ▁the ▁secret ▁meeting , ▁and ▁war ned ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ▁of ▁the ▁possibility ▁that ▁they ▁might ▁re bel , ▁jud ging ▁by ▁their ▁lack ▁of ▁rest raint s ▁like ▁before . ▁Z hi ▁again ▁chose ▁to ▁put ▁his ▁trust ▁in ▁his ▁two ▁al lies , ▁saying : ▁" Since ▁I ▁have ▁been ▁this ▁good ▁to ▁them , ▁they ▁would ▁surely ▁not ▁attack ▁or ▁dece ive ▁me . ▁Our ▁troops ▁have ▁inv ested ▁J iny ang ▁for ▁three ▁years . ▁Now ▁when ▁the ▁city ▁is ▁ready ▁to ▁fall ▁at ▁any ▁moment ▁and ▁we ▁are ▁about ▁to ▁enjoy |
▁the ▁spo ils , ▁what ▁reason ▁would ▁they ▁have ▁for ▁changing ▁their ▁minds ?" ▁Z hi ▁told ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han ▁what ▁Z hi ▁Gu o ▁said , ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁lear nt ▁to ▁be ▁c aut ious ▁when ▁they ▁saw ▁Z hi ▁Gu o ▁the ▁next ▁day . ▁Z hi ▁Gu o , ▁seeing ▁the ▁change ▁in ▁their ▁looks , ▁ins isted ▁to ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ▁that ▁the ▁two ▁ought ▁to ▁be ▁executed . ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ▁would ▁not ▁hear ▁of ▁it , ▁and ▁Z hi ▁Gu o ▁suggested ▁another ▁plan ▁to ▁buy ▁their ▁friendship : ▁to ▁b ri be ▁the ▁influ ential ▁minister s ▁Z ha o ▁J ia ▁( <0xE8> <0xB6> <0x99> <0xE8> <0x91> <0xAD> ) ▁of ▁Wei ▁and ▁Du an ▁G ui ▁( 段 <0xE8> <0xA6> <0x8F> ) ▁of ▁Han ▁with ▁en fe off ment ▁of ▁the ▁Z ha o ▁lands . ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ▁rejected ▁the ▁proposal ▁because ▁the ▁Z ha o ▁lands ▁were ▁going ▁to ▁split ▁in ▁three ▁already , ▁and ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁want ▁to ▁receive ▁less ▁than ▁one ▁third ▁of ▁the ▁event ual ▁spo ils . ▁Since ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ▁would ▁not ▁listen , ▁Z hi ▁Gu o ▁left ▁him ▁and ▁changed ▁his ▁surname ▁to ▁Fu ▁( <0xE8> <0xBC> <0x94> ) ▁as ▁a ▁pre ca ution . ▁ ▁H ear ing ▁this , ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan ▁ur ged ▁Z ha o ▁X i ang zi ▁to ▁take ▁action ▁immediately , ▁l est ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ▁changes ▁his ▁mind . |
▁Z ha o ▁then ▁dispatch ed ▁Z hang ▁M eng tan ▁to ▁the ▁cam ps ▁of ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han , ▁alert ing ▁them ▁of ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁final ▁attack . ▁On ▁the ▁night ▁of ▁May ▁ 8 , ▁ 4 5 3 ▁BC , ▁Z ha o ▁troops ▁killed ▁the ▁men ▁guard ing ▁the ▁d ams ▁of ▁the ▁Fen ▁River ▁and ▁let ▁the ▁river ▁flo od ▁the ▁Z hi ▁arm ies . ▁As ▁the ▁Z hi ▁arm ies ▁fell ▁into ▁cha os ▁trying ▁to ▁stop ▁the ▁water , ▁the ▁Wei ▁and ▁Han ▁arm ies ▁attacked ▁Z hi ▁from ▁the ▁sides ▁and ▁Z ha o ▁led ▁his ▁soldiers ▁in ▁a ▁front al ▁attack . ▁T ogether ▁they ▁inf lic ted ▁a ▁severe ▁defeat ▁on ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ' s ▁army ▁and ▁took ▁him ▁prisoner . ▁ ▁Z ha o ▁X i ang zi ▁had ▁a ▁grud ge ▁on ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ▁because ▁Z hi ▁had ▁often ▁hum ili ated ▁him ▁in ▁the ▁past , ▁thus ▁he ▁executed ▁Z hi ▁and ▁made ▁his ▁sk ull ▁into ▁a ▁wine cup . ▁No ▁one ▁in ▁the ▁house ▁of ▁Z hi ▁was ▁sp ared ▁except ▁for ▁Z hi ▁Gu o ' s ▁family , ▁who ▁had ▁already ▁changed ▁their ▁s urn ames ▁and ▁fled . ▁The ▁territ ories ▁of ▁Z hi ▁were ▁even ly ▁distributed ▁among ▁the ▁three ▁vict ors . ▁ ▁After math ▁With ▁the ▁elim ination ▁of ▁the ▁Z hi ▁house , ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁State ▁of ▁Jin ▁fell ▁to ▁the ▁remaining ▁three |
▁families , ▁their ▁powers ▁un checked ▁by ▁anyone ▁in ▁the ▁state . ▁In ▁ 4 3 4 ▁BC , ▁following ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Duke ▁A i , ▁the ▁three ▁families ▁an nex ed ▁all ▁of ▁Jin ' s ▁lands , ▁leaving ▁only ▁the ▁capital ▁est ates ▁of ▁Ji ang ▁and ▁Qu wo ▁for ▁the ▁next ▁du ke ▁of ▁Jin . ▁In ▁ 4 0 3 ▁BC , ▁the ▁Wei , ▁Z ha o ▁and ▁Han ▁l ords ▁all ▁went ▁to ▁King ▁We il ie ▁of ▁Z hou ▁in ▁Lu oy ang ▁and ▁were ▁made ▁marqu ises ▁in ▁their ▁own ▁right , ▁establish ing ▁the ▁three ▁states ▁of ▁Z ha o , ▁Wei , ▁and ▁Han , ▁us her ing ▁in ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁W arring ▁States ▁period ▁by ▁S ima ▁Gu ang ' s ▁definition . ▁Most ▁histor ians , ▁when ▁referring ▁to ▁those ▁three ▁states , ▁call ▁them ▁the ▁" Three ▁J ins " ▁( 三 <0xE6> <0x99> <0x89> ). ▁The ▁State ▁of ▁Jin ▁continued ▁to ▁exist ▁with ▁a ▁tiny ▁piece ▁of ▁territory ▁until ▁ 3 7 6 ▁BC ▁when ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁territory ▁was ▁partition ed ▁by ▁the ▁Three ▁J ins . ▁ ▁The ▁Leg al ist ▁think er ▁Han ▁Fe izi ▁of ▁the ▁late ▁W arring ▁States ▁period ▁used ▁this ▁battle ▁as ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁failure ▁via ▁gre ed ▁and ▁per vers ity , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁" T en ▁F ault s " ▁that ▁a ▁r uler ▁should ▁not ▁have . ▁He ▁reason ed ▁that ▁because ▁Z |
hi ▁Y ao ▁was ▁too ▁fond ▁for ▁profit , ▁he ▁opened ▁himself ▁to ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁the ▁state ▁and ▁his ▁own ▁dem ise . ▁ ▁The ▁Song ▁D ynast y ▁states man ▁S ima ▁Gu ang , ▁in ▁his ▁Z iz hi ▁T ong j ian , ▁attribute ▁Z hi ▁Y ao ' s ▁failure ▁to ▁his ▁lack ing ▁virtue ▁compared ▁to ▁his ▁tal ents , ▁and ▁thus ▁invited ▁dis aster . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁S ima ▁Gu ang , ▁Z iz hi ▁T ong j ian ▁S ima ▁Q ian , ▁Records ▁of ▁the ▁Grand ▁Histor ian ▁Li u ▁X i ang ▁et ▁al ., ▁Z han ▁Gu o ▁Ce ▁Watson , ▁Bur ton ▁( 2 0 0 3 ). ▁Han ▁Fe izi : ▁Basic ▁Writ ings . ▁New ▁York : ▁Columbia ▁University ▁Press . ▁. ▁ ▁Category : 4 5 5 ▁BC ▁Category : 4 5 3 ▁BC ▁J iny ang ▁ 4 5 5 ▁BC ▁Category : 5 th ▁century ▁BC ▁in ▁China ▁J iny ang ▁ 4 5 5 ▁BC ▁Category : J in ▁( Ch inese ▁state ) ▁J iny ang ▁ 4 5 5 ▁BC ▁Category : H an ▁( state ) ▁Category : Z ha o ▁( state ) ▁Category : We i ▁( state ) <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁F i esta ▁Bowl ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁▁▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁F i esta ▁Bowl ▁( J anu ary ) ▁- ▁January ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 9 |
7 , ▁game ▁( after ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁season ) ▁between ▁P enn ▁State ▁and ▁Texas ▁▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁F i esta ▁Bowl ▁( Dec ember ) ▁- ▁December ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 9 9 7 , ▁game ▁( after ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁season ) ▁between ▁Kansas ▁State ▁and ▁Sy rac use <0x0A> </s> ▁Edu ardo ▁Miss oni ▁( born ▁July ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁in ▁Rome ) ▁is ▁an ▁Italian ▁medical ▁doctor ▁who ▁has ▁been ▁active ▁in ▁numerous ▁social ▁causes . ▁He ▁was ▁appointed ▁as ▁the ▁Secretary ▁General ▁of ▁the ▁World ▁Organ ization ▁of ▁the ▁Sc out ▁Mov ement ▁from ▁April ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁through ▁November ▁ 3 0 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁ ▁Life ▁ ▁Dr . ▁Miss oni ▁received ▁his ▁medical ▁training ▁and ▁special ty ▁in ▁tropical ▁medicine ▁from ▁Rome ▁University . ▁He ▁subsequently ▁obtained ▁a ▁master ' s ▁degree ▁from ▁the ▁London ▁School ▁of ▁H yg iene ▁& ▁Trop ical ▁Medicine . ▁He ▁is ▁a ▁professor ▁at ▁B oc con i ▁University ▁Management ▁School ▁in ▁Milan . ▁His ▁area ▁of ▁teaching ▁and ▁research ▁is ▁ ▁related ▁to ▁health ▁development ▁co operation ▁management ▁and ▁global ▁strateg ies ▁for ▁health . ▁ ▁He ▁began ▁his ▁career ▁as ▁a ▁volunte er ▁doctor ▁in ▁Nic ar agua . ▁He ▁was ▁later ▁employed ▁as ▁a ▁UN ICE F ▁officer ▁in ▁Mexico . ▁He ▁worked ▁for ▁the ▁Italian ▁government ▁in ▁the ▁capacity |
▁of ▁advis er ▁and ▁representative ▁for ▁health ▁co operation ▁programs ▁in ▁Latin ▁America ▁and ▁sub - S ah aran ▁Africa . ▁ ▁As ▁a ▁youth ▁in ▁Italy ▁Dr . ▁Miss oni ▁joined ▁the ▁Sc out ▁movement . ▁Later , ▁as ▁a ▁young ▁adult ▁he ▁became ▁a ▁Sc out ▁leader ▁and ▁remained ▁active ▁in ▁Sc out ing ▁until ▁he ▁left ▁for ▁his ▁medical ▁mission ▁in ▁Nic ar agua . ▁Many ▁years ▁later , ▁without ▁having ▁applied ▁for ▁the ▁position , ▁he ▁was ▁" head h unted " ▁on ▁beh alf ▁of ▁the ▁World ▁Sc out ▁Committee ▁and ▁was ▁selected ▁as ▁the ▁new ▁Secretary ▁General ▁of ▁W OS M . ▁He ▁took ▁office ▁April ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 4 . ▁ ▁W OS M ▁crisis ▁On ▁October ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁National ▁Sc out ing ▁Organ izations ▁wrote ▁an ▁open ▁letter ▁of ▁compla int ▁to ▁the ▁World ▁Sc out ▁Committee . ▁ ▁The ▁main ▁compla ints ▁were ▁that ▁the ▁World ▁Sc out ▁Bureau ▁was ▁not ▁foc using ▁on ▁National ▁Sc out ing ▁Organ izations , ▁especially ▁those ▁in ▁developing ▁countries ▁and ▁that ▁there ▁were ▁govern ance ▁and ▁management ▁issues ▁within ▁the ▁World ▁Sc out ▁Bureau . ▁ ▁Two ▁days ▁later , ▁the ▁Boy ▁Sc outs ▁of ▁America ▁sent ▁a ▁letter ▁to ▁the ▁W SC ▁re iter ating ▁their ▁position ▁and ▁stating ▁that ▁they ▁would ▁with hold ▁fund ing ▁to ▁the ▁W SB ▁until ▁the ▁current ▁Secretary ▁General ▁was ▁replaced ▁and ▁appropriate ▁processes ▁instit |
uted ▁to ▁restore ▁the ▁W SB ▁its ▁core ▁mission . ▁Svens ka ▁Sc out rå det ▁followed ▁with ▁a ▁similar ▁letter . ▁The ▁World ▁Sc out ▁Foundation , ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁instit uted ▁to ▁ins ure ▁a ▁reliable ▁fund ing ▁source ▁for ▁the ▁movement , ▁followed ▁suit . ▁ ▁The ▁World ▁Sc out ▁Committee ▁wrote ▁an ▁un cir cul ated ▁response ▁to ▁these ▁requests ▁on ▁October ▁ 2 4 . ▁ ▁Several ▁National ▁Sc out ▁Organ izations ▁expressed ▁concern ▁at ▁this ▁economic ▁co erc ion . ▁ ▁On ▁November ▁ 1 2 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁the ▁World ▁Sc out ▁Committee ▁met ▁in ▁C airo ▁and ▁rel ieved ▁Miss oni ▁from ▁his ▁position ▁as ▁Secretary ▁General , ▁despite ▁his ▁opposition ▁and ▁that ▁of ▁many ▁committee ▁members . ▁He ▁was ▁to ▁maintain ▁representative ▁duties ▁until ▁November ▁ 3 0 . ▁ ▁On ▁November ▁ 3 0 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Edu ardo ▁Miss oni ▁wrote ▁a ▁chron ology ▁of ▁what ▁he ▁called ▁a ▁" put sch " ▁on ▁his ▁personal ▁web ▁page , ▁re le asing ▁many ▁documents ▁which ▁were ▁unknown ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁and ▁giving ▁his ▁point ▁of ▁view . ▁ ▁Awards ▁and ▁hon ors ▁ ▁Ast ero id ▁ 2 7 3 4 1 2 ▁Edu ard om iss oni , ▁discovered ▁by ▁Italian ▁amateur ▁astronom er ▁Sil vano ▁Cas ul li ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁was ▁named ▁in ▁his ▁honor . ▁The ▁official ▁ ▁was ▁published ▁by ▁the ▁Minor ▁Planet ▁Center ▁on |
▁May ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁( ). ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁World ▁Organ ization ▁of ▁the ▁Sc out ▁Mov ement ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Miss oni ▁Website ▁ ▁World ▁Organisation ▁of ▁the ▁Sc out ▁Mov ement : ▁Official ▁bi ography ▁ ▁Comment s ▁about ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁his ▁W OS M ▁mand ate ▁ ▁Category : World ▁Sc out ▁Committee ▁members ▁Category : 1 9 5 4 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Rome ▁Category : B oc con i ▁University ▁al umn i <0x0A> </s> ▁Bruno ▁Corn illet ▁( born ▁ 8 ▁February ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁in ▁Lamb alle , ▁C ô tes - d ' Ar mor ) ▁is ▁a ▁French ▁former ▁professional ▁road ▁b icy cle ▁rac er . ▁ ▁Major ▁results ▁▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Over all , ▁Vol ta ▁a ▁la ▁Com unit at ▁Val enci ana ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 1 ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 2 , ▁Paris – B our ges ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Ch ate aur oux - L im og es ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 4 , ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 2 , ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph iné ▁Lib éré ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 3 , ▁Post gi rot ▁Open |
▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 6 , ▁Post gi rot ▁Open ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 4 , ▁Paris – N ice ▁( M t ▁F aron ) ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁GP ▁O uest - France ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 2 b , ▁Tour ▁of ▁Ireland ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁A ▁Tra vers ▁le ▁Mor b ih an ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Over all , ▁Circ uit ▁de ▁la ▁S art he ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 2 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Stage ▁ 4 a ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Tour ▁de ▁V end ée ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁▁ 1 st , ▁Paris – B our ges ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 6 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Lamb alle ▁Category : F rench ▁male ▁cycl ists ▁Category : T our ▁de ▁France ▁cycl ists ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁C ô tes - d ' Ar mor <0x0A> </s> ▁C uff links ▁are ▁items ▁of ▁j ew el ry ▁that ▁are ▁used ▁to ▁secure ▁the ▁cu ff s ▁of ▁dress ▁sh ir ts . ▁C uff links ▁can ▁be ▁manufact ured ▁from ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁different ▁materials , ▁such ▁as ▁glass , ▁stone , ▁le ather , ▁metal , ▁pre cious ▁metal ▁or ▁combinations ▁of ▁these . ▁Sec uring ▁of ▁the ▁cu |
ff links ▁is ▁usually ▁achieved ▁via ▁togg les ▁or ▁revers es ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁the ▁front ▁section , ▁which ▁can ▁be ▁fol ded ▁into ▁position . ▁There ▁are ▁also ▁variants ▁with ▁ch ains ▁or ▁a ▁rig id , ▁bent ▁rear ▁section . ▁The ▁front ▁sections ▁of ▁the ▁cu ff links ▁can ▁be ▁decor ated ▁with ▁gem st ones , ▁in l ays , ▁in set ▁material ▁or ▁en am el ▁and ▁designed ▁in ▁two ▁or ▁three - dimensional ▁form . ▁ ▁C uff links ▁are ▁designed ▁only ▁for ▁use ▁with ▁sh ir ts ▁which ▁have ▁cu ff s ▁with ▁button hol es ▁on ▁both ▁sides ▁but ▁no ▁buttons . ▁These ▁may ▁be ▁either ▁single ▁or ▁double - length ▁(" F rench ") ▁cu ff s , ▁and ▁may ▁be ▁worn ▁either ▁" k iss ing ", ▁with ▁both ▁edges ▁pointing ▁out ward , ▁or ▁" bar rel - style ", ▁with ▁one ▁edge ▁pointing ▁out ward ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁one ▁in ward ▁so ▁that ▁its ▁hem ▁is ▁over la pped . ▁In ▁the ▁US , ▁the ▁" bar rel - style " ▁was ▁popular ized ▁by ▁a ▁famous ▁ 1 9 th - century ▁ent ert ainer ▁and ▁c low n , ▁Dan ▁R ice ; ▁however , ▁" k iss ing " ▁cu ff s ▁are ▁usually ▁preferred . ▁ ▁Design ▁ ▁Cl osing ▁mechanism ▁ ▁C uff link ▁designs ▁vary ▁widely , ▁with ▁the ▁most ▁traditional ▁the ▁" double - panel ", ▁consisting ▁of ▁a ▁short ▁post ▁or ▁( |
more ▁often ) ▁chain ▁connecting ▁two ▁disc - sh aped ▁parts , ▁both ▁decor ated . ▁Wh ale - back ▁and ▁toggle - back ▁cu ff links ▁have ▁a ▁flat ▁decor ated ▁face ▁for ▁one ▁side , ▁while ▁the ▁other ▁side ▁shows ▁only ▁the ▁sw ivel - bar ▁and ▁its ▁post . ▁The ▁sw ivel ▁bar ▁is ▁placed ▁vert ically ▁( aligned ▁with ▁the ▁post ) ▁to ▁put ▁the ▁links ▁on ▁and ▁off , ▁then ▁hor izont ally ▁to ▁hold ▁them ▁in ▁place ▁when ▁worn . ▁The ▁decor ated ▁face ▁on ▁the ▁most ▁visible ▁side ▁is ▁usually ▁larger ; ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁designs ▁can ▁connect ▁the ▁smaller ▁piece : ▁It ▁may ▁be ▁small ▁enough ▁to ▁fit ▁through ▁the ▁button ▁hole ▁like ▁a ▁button ▁would ; ▁it ▁may ▁be ▁separated ▁and ▁attached ▁from ▁the ▁other ▁side ; ▁or ▁it ▁may ▁have ▁a ▁portion ▁that ▁sw iv els ▁on ▁the ▁central ▁post , ▁align ing ▁with ▁the ▁post ▁while ▁the ▁link ▁is ▁thread ed ▁through ▁the ▁button - hole ▁and ▁sw ivel ing ▁into ▁a ▁position ▁at ▁right ▁angles ▁to ▁the ▁post ▁when ▁worn . ▁ ▁Link s ▁of ▁kn otted ▁bright ly ▁col oured ▁sil k ▁enjoyed ▁renew ed ▁popular ity ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁joined ▁by ▁an ▁el astic ated ▁section . ▁ ▁Mot if ▁ ▁The ▁visible ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁cu ff link ▁is ▁often ▁mon ogram med ▁or ▁decor ated ▁in ▁some ▁way , ▁such ▁as ▁with ▁a ▁birth stone ▁or ▁something ▁which ▁reflect s ▁a |
▁h ob by ▁or ▁association . ▁There ▁are ▁numerous ▁styles ▁including ▁novel ty , ▁traditional , ▁or ▁contemporary . ▁ ▁C uff links ▁can ▁and ▁have ▁been ▁worn ▁with ▁cas ual ▁wear , ▁inform al ▁att ire ▁or ▁business ▁su its , ▁all ▁the ▁way ▁to ▁very ▁dress y ▁styles ▁such ▁as ▁semi - form al ▁( black ▁tie ▁or ▁St roller ), ▁and ▁formal ▁wear ▁( mor ning ▁dress ▁or ▁white ▁tie ), ▁where ▁they ▁become ▁essentially ▁required ▁and ▁are ▁matched ▁with ▁sh irt ▁stud s . ▁Col our ful ▁and ▁wh ims ical ▁cu ff link ▁designs ▁are ▁usually ▁only ▁suitable ▁for ▁cas ual ▁and ▁relatively ▁inform al ▁events , ▁and ▁signals ▁someone ▁who ▁is ▁fun - lo ving , ▁approach able , ▁and ▁friendly . ▁However , ▁formal ▁wear ▁has ▁str ic ter ▁expect ations , ▁with ▁p ear l ▁cu ff links ▁being ▁preferred ▁for ▁white ▁tie ▁events ▁ ▁Trad itionally ▁it ▁was ▁considered ▁important ▁to ▁coordinate ▁the ▁metal ▁of ▁one ' s ▁cu ff links ▁with ▁other ▁j ew el ry ▁such ▁as ▁watch ▁case , ▁bel t ▁bu ck le , ▁tie ▁bar ▁or ▁rings . ▁ ▁S art orial ▁exper ts ▁pres cribe ▁gold ▁to ▁be ▁worn ▁during ▁the ▁day time ▁and ▁silver ▁for ▁evening ▁wear , ▁but ▁neither ▁expectation ▁is ▁considered ▁as ▁critical ▁as ▁it ▁once ▁was . ▁ ▁Fab ric ▁cu ff links ▁ ▁An ▁alternative ▁type ▁of ▁cu ff link ▁is ▁the ▁che aper ▁sil k ▁kn ot ▁which ▁is ▁usually ▁two ▁con |
jo ined ▁mon key ' s ▁f ist ▁or ▁Turk ' s ▁head ▁kn ots . ▁The ▁Paris ▁sh irt maker ▁Char vet ▁is ▁cred ited ▁with ▁their ▁introduction ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 4 . ▁They ▁became ▁quickly ▁popular : ▁" Char vet ▁[ link ] ▁buttons ▁of ▁tw isted ▁bra id ▁are ▁quite ▁the ▁style " ▁noted ▁The ▁New ▁York ▁Times ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 8 . ▁French ▁cu ff ▁sh ir ts ▁are ▁often ▁accompanied ▁with ▁a ▁set ▁of ▁colour - co ordin ated ▁sil k ▁kn ots ▁instead ▁of ▁double - button ▁cu ff links . ▁They ▁are ▁now ▁often ▁not ▁from ▁sil k , ▁and ▁consist ▁of ▁a ▁fabric ▁over ▁an ▁el astic ated ▁core . ▁O wing ▁to ▁the ▁popular ity ▁of ▁this ▁fashion , ▁metal ▁cu ff links ▁sh aped ▁to ▁look ▁like ▁a ▁sil k ▁kn ot ▁are ▁also ▁worn . ▁ ▁Inter change able ▁cu ff links ▁ ▁Inter change able ▁cu ff links ▁have ▁started ▁to ▁come ▁back ▁in ▁to ▁the ▁market place ▁in ▁recent ▁years . ▁Cart ier ▁introduced ▁their ▁type ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁consisting ▁of ▁a ▁bar ▁with ▁a ▁loop ▁at ▁either ▁end ▁that ▁would ▁allow ▁a ▁mot if ▁to ▁be ▁inserted ▁at ▁either ▁end ▁per pend icular ▁to ▁the ▁bar . ▁ ▁Cart ier ▁referred ▁to ▁the ▁inter change able ▁mot ifs ▁as ▁bat ons . ▁ ▁A ▁set ▁including ▁the ▁bars ▁would ▁come ▁with ▁bat ons ▁made ▁from ▁cor al , ▁car nel |
ian , ▁la pis ▁la z uli , ▁rock ▁cry stal , ▁on y x , ▁t iger ' s ▁eye ▁and ▁mal ach ite . ▁ ▁B ars ▁would ▁have ▁been ▁made ▁from ▁st ain less ▁steel , ▁ster ling ▁silver ▁or ▁ 1 8 k ▁gold . ▁ ▁Cart ier ▁recently ▁re - int rodu ced ▁these ▁inter change able ▁cu ff links ▁with ▁bat ons ▁made ▁from ▁strip ed ▁ch al ced ony , ▁silver ▁obs id ian , ▁mal ach ite , ▁sod al ite , ▁and ▁red ▁t iger ' s ▁eye . ▁ ▁The ▁accomp any ing ▁bars ▁are ▁made ▁from ▁ 1 8 k ▁gold ▁or ▁p all ad ium ▁pl ated ▁ster ling ▁silver . ▁ ▁The ▁se cur ing ▁mechanism ▁is ▁the ▁same ▁for ▁either ▁series ▁using ▁a ▁small ▁sc rew ▁in set ▁in ▁to ▁the ▁loop ed ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁bar . ▁The ▁pressure ▁ex ert ed ▁a ▁by ▁the ▁sc rew ▁on ▁the ▁b aton ▁holds ▁them ▁in ▁place . ▁ ▁Another ▁type ▁of ▁inter change able ▁system ▁was ▁created ▁by ▁pr anga ▁& ▁co . ▁The ▁pat ent - p ending ▁cu ff link ▁system ▁comes ▁apart ▁allowing ▁the ▁mot if , ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁an ▁an ker , ▁to ▁slide ▁on . ▁ ▁Put ting ▁the ▁cu ff link ▁back ▁together ▁sec ures ▁the ▁an ker ▁into ▁the ▁cu ff link ▁allowing ▁it ▁to ▁be ▁worn . ▁pr anga ▁& ▁co ' s ▁cu ff link ▁is ▁simple ▁and ▁similar |
▁in ▁concept ▁to ▁charm ▁bra ce let ▁be ad ▁systems ▁popular ized ▁by ▁companies ▁like ▁P and ora ▁Jew el ry . ▁ ▁The ▁an k ers ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁cu ff links ▁are ▁inter change able ▁with ▁various ▁charm ▁bra ce lets ▁systems ▁and ▁vis a - vers a . ▁ ▁History ▁Although ▁the ▁first ▁cu ff links ▁appeared ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 0 0 s , ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁become ▁common ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century . ▁Their ▁development ▁is ▁closely ▁related ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁men ' s ▁sh irt . ▁Men ▁have ▁been ▁we aring ▁sh irt - like ▁items ▁of ▁cl othing ▁since ▁the ▁in vention ▁of ▁w oven ▁fabric ▁ 5 , 0 0 0 ▁years ▁BC . ▁Although ▁styles ▁and ▁methods ▁of ▁manufact uring ▁changed , ▁the ▁underlying ▁form ▁remained ▁the ▁same : ▁a ▁t unic ▁opened ▁to ▁the ▁front ▁with ▁sle e ves ▁and ▁col lar . ▁The ▁sh irt ▁was ▁worn ▁directly ▁next ▁to ▁the ▁skin , ▁it ▁was ▁was h able ▁and ▁thereby ▁protected ▁the ▁outer ▁gar ments ▁from ▁contact ▁with ▁the ▁body . ▁Con vers ely , ▁it ▁also ▁protected ▁the ▁skin ▁against ▁the ▁rough er ▁and ▁heav ier ▁fab rics ▁of ▁jack ets ▁and ▁co ats ▁by ▁covering ▁the ▁neck ▁and ▁w rist s . ▁ ▁The ▁early ▁form ▁of ▁cu ff links ▁called ▁linked ▁buttons , ▁sometimes ▁had ▁a ▁design ▁put ▁under ▁the ▁glass ▁of ▁the ▁cu ff link , ▁magn ifying ▁it ▁for |
▁others ▁to ▁see . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges ▁the ▁visible ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁sh irt ▁( ne ck , ▁ch est ▁and ▁w rist s ) ▁became ▁sites ▁of ▁decor ative ▁elements ▁such ▁as ▁fr ills , ▁r uff s ▁and ▁emb roid ery . ▁The ▁cu ff s ▁were ▁held ▁together ▁with ▁rib b ons , ▁as ▁were ▁coll ars , ▁an ▁early ▁prec ursor ▁of ▁neck ties . ▁Fr ills ▁that ▁hung ▁down ▁over ▁the ▁w rist ▁were ▁worn ▁at ▁court ▁and ▁other ▁formal ▁settings ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century , ▁whilst ▁in ▁the ▁every day ▁sh ir ts ▁of ▁the ▁time ▁the ▁sle e ves ▁ended ▁with ▁a ▁simple ▁rib bon ▁or ▁were ▁secured ▁with ▁a ▁button ▁or ▁a ▁connected ▁pair ▁of ▁buttons . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁the ▁former ▁splend our ▁of ▁the ▁arist ocracy ▁was ▁su pers eded ▁by ▁the ▁b our ge ois ▁efficiency ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁employed ▁classes . ▁From ▁then ▁on ward ▁men ▁wore ▁a ▁highly ▁conventional ▁w ard ro be : ▁a ▁dark ▁suit ▁by ▁day , ▁a ▁dinner ▁jack et ▁or ▁tail co at ▁in ▁the ▁evening . ▁By ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁the ▁modern ▁cu ff link ▁became ▁popular . ▁The ▁sh irt ▁front ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁col lar ▁and ▁cu ff s ▁covering ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁wear ▁were ▁made ▁st urd ier . ▁This ▁was ▁practical ▁but ▁when ▁clean ▁and ▁st arch ed , |
▁coll ars ▁and ▁cu ff s ▁unders cor ed ▁the ▁formal ▁character ▁of ▁the ▁cl othing . ▁However , ▁they ▁could ▁be ▁too ▁st iff ▁to ▁secure ▁the ▁cu ff s ▁with ▁a ▁simple ▁button . ▁As ▁a ▁consequence , ▁from ▁the ▁mid ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁on ward ▁men ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁and ▁upper ▁classes ▁wore ▁cu ff links . ▁The ▁industrial ▁revolution ▁meant ▁that ▁these ▁could ▁be ▁mass - produ ced , ▁making ▁them ▁available ▁in ▁every ▁price ▁category . ▁ ▁Col oured ▁cu ff links ▁made ▁from ▁gem st ones ▁were ▁initially ▁only ▁worn ▁by ▁men ▁with ▁a ▁great ▁deal ▁of ▁self - conf idence , ▁however . ▁This ▁situation ▁changed ▁when ▁the ▁Prince ▁of ▁Wales , ▁later ▁Edward ▁VII , ▁popular ised ▁colour ful ▁Fab erg é ▁cu ff links ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century . ▁During ▁this ▁time ▁cu ff links ▁became ▁fashion ▁access ories ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁few ▁acceptable ▁items ▁of ▁j ew ell ery ▁for ▁men ▁in ▁Britain ▁and ▁the ▁U . S . ▁ ▁This ▁development ▁continued ▁into ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 0 0 s , ▁with ▁more ▁cu ff links ▁worn ▁than ▁ever ▁before . ▁These ▁were ▁available ▁in ▁every ▁type ▁of ▁form , ▁colour ▁and ▁material , ▁incorpor ating ▁both ▁gem st ones ▁and ▁less ▁pre cious ▁stones ▁and ▁glass ▁in ▁che aper ▁copies . ▁In tr icate ▁col oured ▁en am elled ▁cu ff links ▁in ▁every ▁conce iv able ▁geometric ▁pattern ▁were ▁especially ▁popular . ▁All |
▁of ▁these ▁were ▁of ▁equal ▁value , ▁as ▁C oco ▁Ch anel ▁had ▁made ▁fashion ▁j ew ell ery ▁acceptable ▁to ▁wear . ▁In ▁a ▁parallel ▁development , ▁however , ▁a ▁sport ier ▁style ▁of ▁sh irt ▁emer ged ▁with ▁un st arch ed ▁cu ff s ▁that ▁could ▁be ▁secured ▁with ▁simple ▁buttons . ▁ ▁This ▁spread ▁to ▁Europe ▁as ▁well ▁over ▁the ▁same ▁period . ▁In ▁Germany , ▁Id ar - O ber stein ▁and ▁P for z heim ▁were ▁key ▁cent res ▁of ▁cu ff link ▁production . ▁Wh ilst ▁in ▁Id ar - O ber stein ▁cu ff links ▁were ▁produced ▁using ▁simple ▁materials ▁for ▁the ▁more ▁mod est ▁budget , ▁the ▁P for z heim ▁j ew ell ery ▁manufact ur ers ▁produced ▁for ▁the ▁medium ▁and ▁upper ▁segments ▁using ▁genu ine ▁gold ▁and ▁silver . ▁In ▁P for z heim ▁prem ium ▁cu ff links ▁are ▁still ▁produced ▁today , ▁some ▁of ▁them ▁to ▁historic ▁patterns , ▁some ▁modern , ▁all ▁of ▁them ▁using ▁traditional ▁craft sm ans hip . ▁ ▁Following ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁short ages ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁into ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 s ▁a ▁gentleman ▁liked ▁to ▁ad orn ▁himself ▁with ▁a ▁whole ▁range ▁of ▁access ories , ▁compr ising ▁items ▁such ▁as ▁cig aret te ▁case , ▁l ighter , ▁tie ▁pin ▁or ▁tie ▁bar , ▁watch ▁( now ▁worn ▁mostly ▁on ▁the ▁w rist ▁instead ▁of ▁the ▁pocket ), ▁ring , ▁key ▁chain , ▁money ▁clip |
, ▁etc ., ▁an ▁ensemble ▁that ▁also ▁included ▁a ▁wide ▁range ▁of ▁cu ff links . ▁▁▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁cu ff links ▁were ▁less ▁emphas ized ▁in ▁much ▁of ▁middle ▁class ▁fashion . ▁F ashion ▁was ▁domin ated ▁by ▁the ▁Wood stock ▁generation , ▁with ▁sh ir ts ▁primarily ▁manufact ured ▁complete ▁with ▁buttons ▁and ▁button hol es . ▁ ▁Many ▁fine ▁he ir lo oms ▁were ▁re work ed ▁into ▁ear r ings . ▁ ▁The ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁saw ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁traditional ▁cu ff links , ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁general ▁rev ival ▁in ▁traditional ▁male ▁dress . ▁This ▁tr end ▁has ▁more ▁or ▁less ▁continued ▁to ▁this ▁day . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Jon as , ▁Susan ▁and ▁N iss enson , ▁Mar il yn : ▁C uff ▁Link s , ▁New ▁York ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁ ▁P izz in , ▁Ber tr and : ▁C uff ▁Link s , ▁New ▁York ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁ ▁Ro etz el , ▁Bern hard : ▁Der ▁Gent le man . ▁Hand buch ▁der ▁klass ischen ▁Her ren mode , ▁Köln ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Types ▁of ▁C uff links ▁ ▁Design er ▁C uff links ▁And ▁Access ories ▁For ▁The ▁Well ▁D ress ed ▁Man ▁ ▁Category : F ashion ▁access ories ▁Category : F ast en ers ▁Category : Types ▁of ▁j ew ell ery ▁Category : Arm we ar <0x0A> |
</s> ▁S - 6 3 ▁is ▁an ▁ ▁International ▁H ydro graph ic ▁Organ ization ▁( I HO ) ▁standard ▁for ▁encrypt ing , ▁se cur ing ▁and ▁compress ing ▁electronic ▁navig ational ▁chart ▁( EN C ) ▁data . ▁ ▁The ▁Data ▁Prote ction ▁Sch eme ▁was ▁prepared ▁by ▁the ▁I HO ▁Data ▁Prote ction ▁Sch eme ▁Ad vis ory ▁Group , ▁and ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁protection ▁scheme ▁developed ▁and ▁operated ▁by ▁Prim ar ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁providing ▁their ▁protected ▁EN C ▁service . ▁E CC ▁( E lect ron ic ▁Chart ▁Centre ) ▁and ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁H ydro graph ic ▁Office ▁were ▁the ▁original ▁contrib uting ▁organizations . ▁The ▁UK HO ▁has ▁since ▁left ▁this ▁arrangement ▁and ▁Prim ar ▁is ▁now ▁operated ▁exclus ively ▁by ▁E CC . ▁▁ ▁The ▁standard ▁was ▁adopted ▁as ▁the ▁official ▁I HO ▁standard ▁by ▁the ▁I HO ▁member ▁states ▁in ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁ ▁The ▁S - 6 3 ▁standard ▁sec ures ▁data ▁by ▁encrypt ing ▁the ▁basic ▁transfer ▁database ▁using ▁the ▁B low fish ▁algorithm , ▁S HA - 1 - hash ing ▁the ▁data ▁based ▁on ▁a ▁random ▁key ▁and ▁adding ▁a ▁C RC 3 2 ▁check . ▁ ▁The ▁standard ▁also ▁defines ▁the ▁systems ▁to ▁develop ▁permit ▁files ▁that ▁are ▁delivered ▁to ▁end - users ▁of ▁EN C ▁data ▁en abling ▁them ▁to ▁dec rypt ▁the ▁data ▁and ▁use ▁it ▁for ▁navigation . ▁It ▁also ▁defines ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁D SA ▁format ▁sign atures ▁to ▁authentic ate |
▁the ▁data ▁origin ator , ▁however ▁because ▁of ▁poor ▁implementation ▁of ▁the ▁standard ▁by ▁E CD IS ▁hardware ▁manufact ur ers , ▁virt ually ▁all ▁signing ▁is ▁performed ▁cent r ally ▁by ▁the ▁I HO ▁which ▁acts ▁as ▁the ▁scheme ▁administrator . ▁Exception s ▁to ▁this ▁are ▁a ▁few ▁smaller ▁res ellers ▁such ▁as ▁A US R enc ▁operated ▁by ▁A HS . ▁ ▁Com pression ▁is ▁achieved ▁by ▁applying ▁the ▁standard ▁Z IP ▁( file ▁format ) ▁algorithm ▁to ▁the ▁base ▁and ▁update ▁EN C ▁files , ▁before ▁encryption . ▁The ▁other ▁files ▁are ▁not ▁com pressed . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : E lect ron ic ▁navigation <0x0A> </s> ▁" Movie ▁K lip " ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁single ▁by ▁Dan ish ▁rock band ▁Nep hew ▁from ▁their ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁album ▁US AD SB . ▁ ▁Category : N ep hew ▁( band ) ▁songs <0x0A> </s> ▁List ▁of ▁Serge ants - at - Ar ms ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Commons ▁of ▁Canada ▁who ▁are ▁senior ▁officials ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁appointed ▁by ▁Governor ▁in ▁Council , ▁the ▁Serge ant - at ▁Ar ms ▁ass ists ▁the ▁C ler k ▁as ▁head ▁of ▁parliament ary ▁prec inct ▁services , ▁performing ▁certain ▁cer emon ial ▁functions ▁( b ear ing ▁the ▁Cer emon ial ▁ma ce ▁of ▁the ▁Commons ) ▁and ▁being ▁responsible ▁for ▁security ▁and ▁building ▁services . ▁ ▁The ▁current ▁Serge ant - at - Ar ms ▁is ▁Ass istant ▁Commission er ▁Pat ▁Mc Don ell , ▁as ▁of |
▁January ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁ ▁Past ▁Serge ants - at - Ar ms ▁were : ▁ ▁Lieutenant ▁Colonel ▁Donald ▁William ▁Mac D onn ell ▁ 1 8 6 7 ▁- ▁ 1 8 9 2 ▁- ▁Serge ant - at - Ar ms ▁of ▁the ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁of ▁the ▁Province ▁of ▁Canada ▁ 1 8 5 4 - 1 8 6 7 ▁ ▁Lieutenant ▁Colonel ▁Henry ▁Robert ▁Smith ▁C M G ▁ 1 8 9 2 ▁- ▁ 1 9 1 7 ▁- ▁Deput y ▁Serge ant - at - Ar ms ▁ 1 8 7 2 - 1 8 9 2 ▁ ▁Lieutenant ▁Colonel ▁Henry ▁William ▁B owie ▁ <0x09> 1 9 1 8 ▁- ▁ 1 9 3 0 ▁- ▁Deput y ▁Serge ant - at - Ar ms ▁ 1 8 9 1 - 1 9 1 8 ▁ ▁Lieutenant ▁Colonel ▁Harry ▁Jud son ▁C og hill ▁▁ 1 9 3 0 ▁- ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁- ▁died ▁in ▁office ▁ ▁Brig ad ier ▁Mil ton ▁F ow ler ▁Gre gg , ▁V . C . ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁- ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁ ▁Arthur ▁Beau ches ne ▁ 1 9 3 9 - 1 9 4 5 ▁- ▁acting ▁Serge ant - at - Ar ms ▁along ▁with ▁his ▁duties ▁as ▁C ler k ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Commons ▁ ▁Lieutenant ▁Colonel ▁William ▁John ▁Franklin ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁- ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁ ▁Lieutenant ▁Colonel |
▁David ▁Viv ian ▁C urr ie , ▁V . C . ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁- ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁ ▁Major ▁General ▁Maurice ▁Gast on ▁Cl out ier ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁- ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁- ▁died ▁in ▁office ▁ ▁Aud rey ▁Elizabeth ▁O ' B rien ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁- ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁- ▁inter im ▁head ▁of ▁Parliament ary ▁P rec inct ▁Services ▁following ▁death ▁of ▁Cl out ier ▁and ▁Deput y ▁C ler k ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Commons ▁ ▁Chief ▁Super int endent ▁Kevin ▁V ick ers ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁- ▁Jan ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁ ▁Mac Don ell , ▁O ' B rien ▁and ▁V ick ers ▁are ▁the ▁only ▁non - mil it ary ▁appoint ments ▁to ▁the ▁Serge ant - at - Ar ms . ▁O ' B rien ▁worked ▁her ▁way ▁from ▁Commons ▁Committee ▁cl erk ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 7 . ▁Mc Don ell ▁and ▁V ick ers ▁are ▁former ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Canadian ▁Mount ed ▁Police . ▁Beau ches ne , ▁a ▁lawyer ▁by ▁training , ▁was ▁acting ▁in ▁his ▁capacity ▁and ▁did ▁not ▁serve ▁in ▁the ▁military . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Offic ers ▁and ▁Official s ▁of ▁Parliament ▁ ▁Serge ants - at - Ar ms ▁* <0x0A> </s> ▁Shah ran az ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁Sy rian ▁town ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁Q ala at ▁al - M adi q ▁Sub d istrict ▁of ▁the ▁al |
- Su q ay lab iy ah ▁District ▁in ▁H ama ▁Governor ate . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Sy ria ▁Central ▁Bureau ▁of ▁Statistics ▁( C BS ), ▁Shah ran az ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 1 , 6 4 6 ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁census . ▁Its ▁inhabitants ▁are ▁pre domin antly ▁Sun ni ▁Muslim s . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁al - Su q ay lab iy ah ▁District ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁J ab al ▁Z aw i ya <0x0A> </s> ▁Bar cl ays ▁Park ▁is ▁a ▁ 5 0 - acre ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁parish ▁of ▁Saint ▁Andrew ▁in ▁Barb ados . ▁Bar cl ays ▁Park ▁was ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 6 ▁by ▁H M ▁Queen ▁Elizabeth ▁II ▁after ▁being ▁gift ed ▁to ▁the ▁Barb ados ▁government ▁once ▁independence ▁was ▁declared ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 6 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁Barb ados ▁Category : Saint ▁Andrew , ▁Barb ados <0x0A> </s> ▁Cast el p izz uto ▁is ▁a ▁comune ▁( m unicip ality ) ▁in ▁the ▁Province ▁of ▁I ser nia ▁in ▁the ▁Italian ▁region ▁Mol ise , ▁located ▁about ▁ ▁west ▁of ▁Camp ob asso ▁and ▁about ▁ ▁sout heast ▁of ▁I ser nia . ▁As ▁of ▁ 3 1 ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁it ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 1 5 6 ▁and ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁. ▁ ▁Cast el p izz uto ▁borders ▁the ▁following |
▁municipal ities : ▁Cast el pet ro so , ▁Long ano , ▁P ett or an ello ▁del ▁Mol ise , ▁Roc cam and olf i , ▁Santa ▁Maria ▁del ▁Mol ise . ▁ ▁Dem ographic ▁evolution ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : C ities ▁and ▁towns ▁in ▁Mol ise <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁D run ken ▁S ail or ▁and ▁other ▁K ids ▁F avor ites ▁is ▁an ▁album ▁by ▁Tim ▁Hart ▁and ▁Fri ends . ▁ ▁This ▁album ▁follows ▁Tim ▁Hart ' s ▁first ▁collection ▁" My ▁Very ▁F avor ite ▁Nur ser y ▁Rh ym es ". ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁greater ▁variety ▁in ▁treatment ▁- ▁" H ush ▁Little ▁Baby " ▁is ▁s ung ▁as ▁a ▁cal y ps o , ▁with ▁the ▁t une ▁of ▁" Is land ▁in ▁the ▁Sun " ▁on ▁oil - d rum s ▁cre eping ▁in ▁at ▁the ▁end . ▁Mel anie ▁Har ro ld ' s ▁" A ▁Fox ▁J ump ed ▁Up " ▁has ▁a ▁b oun cy ▁h od own ▁fiddle , ▁though ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁credit ▁given ▁for ▁any ▁f idd ler . ▁Brian ▁Gol bey ▁does ▁a ▁com ic - l ug ub ri ous ▁version ▁of ▁" C lement ine " ▁with ▁steel ▁guitar ▁accompan iment . ▁( B rian ▁had ▁also ▁been ▁present ▁on ▁the ▁first ▁" S illy ▁Sister s " ▁album .) ▁" What ▁shall ▁We ▁Do ▁With ▁D run ken ▁S ail or " ▁is ▁out - an - out ▁disco ▁a ▁la ▁B oney ▁M |
. ▁" Who ▁Kil led ▁C ock ▁Robin " ▁has ▁M addy ▁Prior ▁double ▁tracking ▁in ▁a ▁very ▁high ▁pitch ed ▁voice . ▁Notable ▁u ille ann ▁pip es ▁player ▁Dav y ▁Sp ill ane ▁plays , ▁app ri ori ately , ▁on ▁the ▁Irish ▁song ▁" C ock les ▁and ▁M uss els ". ▁M addy ▁does ▁a ▁du et ▁with ▁Mel anie ▁Har ro ld ▁on ▁" Michael ▁Finn eg al ", ▁to ▁the ▁sound ▁of ▁mand olas ▁and ▁mand ol ins ▁( or ▁perhaps ▁they ▁are ▁synth esis ers ). ▁▁ ▁E MI ▁released ▁an ▁hour - long ▁c ass ette ▁called ▁" F avor ite ▁Nur ser y ▁Rh ym es " ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 5 . ▁It ▁contained ▁all ▁these ▁tracks ▁except ▁" W id de com be ▁Fair " ▁and ▁" Cur ly ▁Lock s ". ▁It ▁also ▁contained ▁all ▁but ▁two ▁tracks ▁from ▁" My ▁Very ▁F avor ite ▁Nur ser y ▁Rh ym es ". ▁In ▁their ▁place ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁new ▁track ▁- ▁" H um pty ▁Dum pty ". ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁E MI / Music ▁For ▁Ple asure ▁released ▁a ▁ 3 - CD ▁set ▁called ▁" The ▁Children ' s ▁Collection ". ▁One ▁CD ▁consisted ▁of ▁a ▁different ▁selection ▁of ▁these ▁tracks . ▁The ▁same ▁two ▁tracks ▁were ▁missing ▁from ▁" The ▁D run ken ▁S ail or ", ▁but ▁all ▁the ▁tracks ▁from ▁" My ▁Very ▁F avor ite ▁Nur ser y ▁Rh ym es |
" ▁were ▁present . ▁Running ▁time ▁about ▁ 3 5 ▁minutes . ▁These ▁tracks ▁have ▁not ▁been ▁public ly ▁available ▁since ▁ 1 9 8 9 . ▁Produ cer ▁Tim ▁Hart . ▁Engine er ▁Dave ▁Bas com be , ▁Jerry ▁Boys . ▁Record ed ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁▁ ▁LP ▁- ▁side ▁one ▁ ▁Over ▁The ▁Hills ▁And ▁Far ▁A way ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁A ▁Fox ▁J ump ed ▁Up ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁Clement ine ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁Three ▁J olly ▁Rog ues ▁Of ▁Lyn n ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁Who ▁Kil led ▁C ock ▁Robin ? ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁C ock les ▁and ▁M uss els ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁H ush ▁Little ▁Baby ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁LP ▁- ▁side ▁two ▁ ▁What ▁Sh all ▁We ▁Do ▁With ▁The ▁D run ken ▁S ail or ? ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁The ▁R iddle ▁Song ▁( Child ▁Ball ad ▁ 1 ) ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁Michael ▁Finn igan ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁W ide com be ▁Fair ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁Fro gg y ' s ▁Cour ting ▁( Tr ad ) ▁▁ ▁Cur ly ▁Lock s ▁( Tr ad ) ▁ ▁Good ▁News ▁▁ ▁Park ▁Records ▁have ▁re - re leased ▁Tim ▁Hart ' s ▁Very ▁F avor ite ▁Nur ser y ▁Rh yme ▁Record ; ▁a ▁ 2 - CD ▁album ▁containing ▁ 3 2 ▁tracks . ▁I ▁believe ▁this |
▁was ▁done ▁to ▁help ▁pay ▁for ▁his ▁cancer ▁treatment , ▁hopefully ▁the ▁money ▁will ▁now ▁be ▁used ▁towards ▁some ▁sort ▁of ▁mem orial ▁for ▁Tim . ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁▁ ▁CD 1 ▁▁ ▁Oh ▁The ▁Grand ▁Old ▁Duke ▁Of ▁York ▁ ▁Sing ▁A ▁Song ▁Of ▁Six p ence ▁ ▁Once ▁I ▁C aught ▁A ▁Fish ▁A live ▁ ▁Med ley ▁ ▁Little ▁Bo ▁Pe ep ▁ ▁Mary , ▁Mary ▁Qu ite ▁Con tr ary ▁ ▁Old ▁Mac Donald ▁Had ▁A ▁Farm ▁ ▁There ▁Was ▁An ▁Old ▁Woman ▁T oss ed ▁Up ▁In ▁A ▁B asket ▁ ▁Tw ink le , ▁Tw ink le ▁Little ▁Star ▁ ▁Boys ▁And ▁Girls ▁Come ▁Out ▁To ▁Play ▁ ▁Nick ▁N ack ▁P addy ▁W ack ▁ ▁Ba a , ▁Ba a ▁Black ▁She ep ▁ ▁Bobby ▁Sh af to e ▁ ▁H ush - A - By e - B aby ▁ ▁Hum pty ▁Dum pty ▁ ▁Lav enders ▁Blue ▁( D illy ▁D illy ) ▁ ▁London ▁Bridge ▁Is ▁Fall ing ▁Down ▁ ▁Or anges ▁And ▁Lem ons ▁ ▁Oh ▁D ear ▁What ▁Can ▁The ▁M atter ▁Be ▁ ▁CD 2 ▁▁ ▁Over ▁The ▁Hills ▁And ▁Far ▁A way ▁ ▁A ▁Fox ▁J ump ed ▁Up ▁ ▁Clement ine ▁ ▁Three ▁J olly ▁Rog ues ▁Of ▁Lyn n ▁ ▁Who ▁Kil led ▁C ock ▁Robin ? ▁ ▁C ock les ▁And ▁M uss els ▁ ▁H ush ▁Little ▁Baby ▁ ▁What ▁Sh all ▁We ▁Do ▁With ▁The ▁D run ken ▁S ail or ? ▁ ▁The |
▁R iddle ▁Song ▁ ▁Michael ▁Finn igan ▁ ▁W idd ic om be ▁Fair ▁ ▁Fro gg y ’ s ▁Cour ting ▁ ▁Cur ly ▁Lock s ▁ ▁Person nel ▁▁▁ ▁M addy ▁Prior ▁- ▁vocals ▁ ▁Mel anie ▁Har ro ld ▁- ▁vocals ▁ ▁Brian ▁Gol bey ▁- ▁vocals ▁ ▁G ina ▁Full er lo ve ▁- ▁French ▁horn ▁ ▁B . J . ▁Cole ▁- ▁steel ▁guitar ▁ ▁Rick ▁K emp ▁- ▁bass ▁ ▁S pi ke ▁Full er lo ve ▁- ▁vocals ▁ ▁Tam sey ▁Kan er ▁- ▁c ello ▁ ▁Le a ▁Nich ol son ▁- ▁concert ina ▁ ▁Steve ▁No ble ▁- ▁per cussion ▁ ▁Deb bie ▁Paul ▁- ▁vocals ▁ ▁Andy ▁Rich ards ▁- ▁synth esis er ▁ ▁B ever ly ▁Jane ▁Smith ▁- ▁vocals ▁ ▁Dav y ▁Sp ill ane ▁- ▁u ille ann ▁pip es ▁ ▁The ▁Living ston ▁Ho or ay ▁Ens emble ▁- ▁ch orus ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Tim ▁Hart ▁albums ▁Category : 1 9 8 3 ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁Er ig one ▁dent ig era ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁d war f ▁sp ider ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Lin y phi idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁North ▁America , ▁Europe , ▁C au cas us , ▁and ▁Russia ▁( F ar ▁East ). ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : L iny phi idae ▁Category : Art icles ▁created ▁by ▁Q bug bot ▁Category : Sp iders ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 4 <0x0A> </s> ▁Louis ▁VII ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁▁ ▁Louis |
▁VII ▁of ▁France ▁" the ▁Young er " ▁( 1 1 2 0 – 1 1 8 0 ) ▁ ▁Louis ▁VII , ▁Duke ▁of ▁Bav aria ▁" the ▁Be arded " ▁( 1 3 6 5 – 1 4 4 7 ) ▁ ▁Louis ▁VII , ▁Land gra ve ▁of ▁H esse - D arm stadt ▁( 1 6 5 8 – 1 6 7 8 ) ▁ ▁Louis ▁VII ▁of ▁Gram ont , ▁duc ▁de ▁Gram ont ▁( 1 6 8 9 – 1 7 4 5 ) <0x0A> </s> ▁G ai us ▁Liv ius ▁Marcus ▁A em il iani ▁f . ▁Marcus ▁n . ▁Dr us us ▁was ▁a ▁Roman ▁politician ▁who ▁was ▁cons ul ▁in ▁ 1 4 7 ▁BC , ▁together ▁with ▁Sci pio ▁A em ilian us . ▁ ▁Family ▁Liv ius ▁Dr us us ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁ple be ian ▁gens ▁Liv ia . ▁His ▁father ▁was ▁born ▁to ▁the ▁pat ric ian ▁gens ▁A em ilia , ▁most ▁likely ▁a ▁younger ▁brother ▁of ▁Lu cius ▁A em il ius ▁Pa ull us ▁Mac ed onic us , ▁who ▁was ▁adopted ▁by ▁Marcus ▁Liv ius ▁Dr us us ▁Sal in ator . ▁He ▁was ▁the ▁father ▁of ▁Marcus ▁Liv ius ▁Dr us us . ▁ ▁Political ▁career ▁Liv ius ▁Dr us us ▁was ▁elected ▁Pra et or ▁around ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 5 0 ▁BC . ▁He ▁was ▁then ▁elected ▁cons ul ▁for ▁ 1 4 7 ▁BC , ▁alongside ▁Sci pio ▁A em |
ilian us , ▁who ▁was ▁possibly ▁his ▁first ▁cousin . ▁As ▁the ▁Third ▁P unic ▁War ▁was ▁ra ging , ▁there ▁was ▁enorm ous ▁concern ▁in ▁Rome ▁about ▁who ▁was ▁going ▁to ▁be ▁assigned ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁forces ▁against ▁Car th age . ▁Dr us us , ▁as ▁was ▁the ▁custom , ▁requested ▁that ▁lots ▁be ▁drawn ▁to ▁assign ▁the ▁provinces ▁to ▁the ▁respective ▁cons uls . ▁This ▁was ▁v eto ed ▁by ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁ple be ian ▁trib unes , ▁who ▁proposed ▁that ▁the ▁assignment ▁of ▁the ▁provinces ▁be ▁put ▁before ▁the ▁conc il ium ▁Ple bis . ▁The ▁people ▁then ▁voted ▁to ▁assign ▁the ▁war ▁against ▁Car th age ▁to ▁Sci pio ▁A em ilian us . ▁ ▁Career ▁as ▁a ▁jur ist ▁Liv ius ▁Dr us us ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁identified ▁as ▁the ▁jur ist ▁mentioned ▁by ▁Cic ero ▁in ▁his ▁work ▁T us cul ana e ▁Dis putation es . ▁Dr us us ▁composed ▁works ▁of ▁great ▁use ▁to ▁students ▁of ▁law , ▁and ▁was ▁c ited ▁by ▁subsequent ▁writers ▁on ▁the ▁law . ▁C els us ▁c ites ▁an ▁opinion ▁of ▁Liv ius ▁Dr us us ▁concerning ▁a ▁s eller ’ s ▁rights ▁at ▁law , ▁stating ▁that ▁the ▁s eller ▁might ▁bring ▁an ▁equ itable ▁action ▁for ▁dam ages ▁against ▁the ▁bu yer , ▁to ▁recover ▁the ▁exp enses ▁of ▁the ▁up keep ▁of ▁a ▁slave , ▁whom ▁the ▁bu yer , ▁without ▁due ▁cause , ▁had ▁refused ▁to ▁accept . ▁Pr is cian |
▁attributes ▁to ▁Dr us us ▁the ▁sentence ▁” Imp ub es ▁lib rip ens ▁es se ▁non ▁pot est , ▁ne que ▁an test ari ” ▁( “ You ng ▁boys ▁cannot ▁stand ▁on ▁their ▁feet ▁before ▁they ▁can ▁learn ▁to ▁balance .” ). ▁ ▁In ▁his ▁old ▁age , ▁although ▁he ▁was ▁blind , ▁Liv ius ▁Dr us us ▁continued ▁to ▁give ▁advice ▁to ▁the ▁crow ds ▁which ▁used ▁to ▁gather ▁before ▁his ▁house ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁consult ▁him . ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁An cient ▁ ▁App ian , ▁Roman ▁History , ▁Book ▁ 8 ▁ ▁Cic ero , ▁T us cul ana e ▁Dis putation es ▁ ▁Modern ▁ ▁Br ought on , ▁T . ▁Robert ▁S ., ▁The ▁Mag istr ates ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Republic , ▁Vol ▁I ▁( 1 9 5 1 ) ▁ ▁Smith , ▁William , ▁Dictionary ▁of ▁Greek ▁and ▁Roman ▁Biography ▁and ▁M yth ology , ▁Vol ▁I ▁( 1 8 6 7 ). ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : R oman ▁Republican ▁cons uls ▁Dr us us , ▁G ai us ▁Category : 2 nd - century ▁BC ▁Rom ans <0x0A> </s> ▁Le onia ▁is ▁a ▁genus ▁of ▁tropical ▁small ▁trees ▁or ▁shr ubs . ▁It ▁was ▁named ▁by ▁H ip ól ito ▁Ru iz ▁López ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 4 . ▁ ▁Category : V i ol aceae ▁Category : Mal p igh ial es ▁gener a <0x0A> </s> ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁( ; ▁ ▁– ▁April ▁ 2 2 |
, ▁ 1 9 8 6 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Roman ian ▁historian ▁of ▁religion , ▁fiction ▁writer , ▁phil os opher , ▁and ▁professor ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Chicago . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁leading ▁interpreter ▁of ▁religious ▁experience , ▁who ▁established ▁parad ig ms ▁in ▁religious ▁studies ▁that ▁persist ▁to ▁this ▁day . ▁His ▁theory ▁that ▁hier oph an ies ▁form ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁religion , ▁splitting ▁the ▁human ▁experience ▁of ▁reality ▁into ▁sacred ▁and ▁prof ane ▁space ▁and ▁time , ▁has ▁proved ▁influ ential . ▁One ▁of ▁his ▁most ▁influ ential ▁contributions ▁to ▁religious ▁studies ▁was ▁his ▁theory ▁of ▁E ternal ▁Return , ▁which ▁holds ▁that ▁myth s ▁and ▁rit uals ▁do ▁not ▁simply ▁comm emor ate ▁hier oph an ies , ▁but , ▁at ▁least ▁to ▁the ▁minds ▁of ▁the ▁religious , ▁ ▁actually ▁particip ate ▁in ▁them . ▁ ▁His ▁literary ▁works ▁belong ▁to ▁the ▁fant astic ▁and ▁aut obi ographical ▁gen res . ▁The ▁best ▁known ▁are ▁the ▁nov els ▁M ait rey i ▁(" La ▁N uit ▁Beng ali " ▁or ▁" B eng al ▁N ights "), ▁No ap te a ▁de ▁S ân z iene ▁(" The ▁For b idden ▁Forest "), ▁Isabel ▁și ▁a pe le ▁dia vol ului ▁(" Is abel ▁and ▁the ▁Dev il ' s ▁W aters ") ▁and ▁Roman ul ▁Ad oles cent ului ▁Mi op ▁(" Nov el ▁of ▁the ▁N ears ight ed ▁Ad oles cent "), ▁the ▁nov ell as ▁Dom ni ș o ara ▁Christ ina ▁(" |
Miss ▁Christ ina ") ▁and ▁T in ere ț e ▁f ăr ă ▁tin ere ț e ▁(" Y outh ▁Without ▁Youth "), ▁and ▁the ▁short ▁stories ▁Secret ul ▁doctor ului ▁Hon ig berger ▁(" The ▁Secret ▁of ▁Dr . ▁Hon ig berger ") ▁and ▁La ▁ Ț ig ă n ci ▁(" With ▁the ▁Gy ps y ▁Girls "). ▁ ▁Early ▁in ▁his ▁life , ▁El ia de ▁was ▁a ▁journalist ▁and ▁ess ay ist , ▁a ▁dis ci ple ▁of ▁Roman ian ▁far - right ▁phil os opher ▁and ▁journalist ▁N ae ▁I ones cu , ▁and ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁literary ▁society ▁C riter ion . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 0 s , ▁he ▁served ▁as ▁cultural ▁attach é ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁Portugal . ▁Several ▁times ▁during ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁El ia de ▁public ly ▁expressed ▁his ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard , ▁a ▁fasc ist ▁and ▁ant is emit ic ▁political ▁organization . ▁His ▁political ▁invol vement ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁his ▁other ▁far ▁right ▁connections , ▁were ▁frequently ▁critic ised ▁after ▁World ▁War ▁II . ▁ ▁Not ed ▁for ▁his ▁vast ▁er ud ition , ▁El ia de ▁had ▁fl uent ▁command ▁of ▁five ▁languages ▁( R oman ian , ▁French , ▁German , ▁Italian , ▁and ▁English ) ▁and ▁a ▁reading ▁knowledge ▁of ▁three ▁others ▁( H eb rew , ▁Pers ian , ▁and ▁S ansk rit ). ▁He ▁was ▁elected ▁a ▁post hum |
ous ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Academy . ▁ ▁Biography ▁ ▁Child hood ▁Born ▁in ▁Buch ar est , ▁he ▁was ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁Roman ian ▁Land ▁Forces ▁officer ▁G he org he ▁El ia de ▁( wh ose ▁original ▁surname ▁was ▁I erem ia ) ▁and ▁Je ana ▁n ée ▁Vas iles cu . ▁An ▁Orth odox ▁bel ie ver , ▁G he org he ▁El ia de ▁registered ▁his ▁son ' s ▁birth ▁four ▁days ▁before ▁the ▁actual ▁date , ▁to ▁co inci de ▁with ▁the ▁lit urg ical ▁calendar ▁fe ast ▁of ▁the ▁Fort y ▁Mart y rs ▁of ▁Seb aste . ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁had ▁a ▁sister , ▁Cor ina , ▁the ▁mother ▁of ▁semi ologist ▁Sor in ▁Alexand res cu . ▁His ▁family ▁moved ▁between ▁T ec u ci ▁and ▁Buch ar est , ▁ultimately ▁sett ling ▁in ▁the ▁capital ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 4 , ▁and ▁purch asing ▁a ▁house ▁on ▁Mel od iei ▁Street , ▁near ▁Pia ța ▁Ros etti , ▁where ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁res ided ▁until ▁late ▁in ▁his ▁te ens . ▁ ▁El ia de ▁kept ▁a ▁particularly ▁fond ▁memory ▁of ▁his ▁child hood ▁and , ▁later ▁in ▁life , ▁wrote ▁about ▁the ▁impact ▁various ▁unusual ▁episodes ▁and ▁enc oun ters ▁had ▁on ▁his ▁mind . ▁In ▁one ▁instance ▁during ▁the ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁Roman ian ▁Camp aign , ▁when ▁El ia de ▁was ▁about ▁ten ▁years ▁of ▁age , ▁he ▁witness ed ▁the ▁bomb ing |
▁of ▁Buch ar est ▁by ▁German ▁ze ppel ins ▁and ▁the ▁patri otic ▁fer vor ▁in ▁the ▁occupied ▁capital ▁at ▁news ▁that ▁Roman ia ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁stop ▁the ▁Central ▁Pow ers ' ▁advance ▁into ▁Mold avia . ▁ ▁He ▁described ▁this ▁stage ▁in ▁his ▁life ▁as ▁marked ▁by ▁an ▁un repeat able ▁e pi ph any . ▁Rec alling ▁his ▁entrance ▁into ▁a ▁drawing ▁room ▁that ▁an ▁" e erie ▁ir ides cent ▁light " ▁had ▁turned ▁into ▁" a ▁fair y - t ale ▁palace ", ▁he ▁wrote , ▁I ▁pract iced ▁for ▁many ▁years ▁[ the ] ▁exercise ▁of ▁re capt uring ▁that ▁e pi phan ic ▁moment , ▁and ▁I ▁would ▁always ▁find ▁again ▁the ▁same ▁pl en itude . ▁I ▁would ▁s lip ▁into ▁it ▁as ▁into ▁a ▁fragment ▁of ▁time ▁de void ▁of ▁duration — without ▁beginning , ▁middle , ▁or ▁end . ▁During ▁my ▁last ▁years ▁of ▁l yc ée , ▁when ▁I ▁strugg led ▁with ▁prof ound ▁attacks ▁of ▁mel anch oly , ▁I ▁still ▁succeeded ▁at ▁times ▁in ▁returning ▁to ▁the ▁golden ▁green ▁light ▁of ▁that ▁afternoon . ▁[...] ▁But ▁even ▁though ▁the ▁beat itude ▁was ▁the ▁same , ▁it ▁was ▁now ▁impossible ▁to ▁bear ▁because ▁it ▁ag gra v ated ▁my ▁sad ness ▁too ▁much . ▁By ▁this ▁time ▁I ▁knew ▁the ▁world ▁to ▁which ▁the ▁drawing ▁room ▁belonged ▁[...] ▁was ▁a ▁world ▁forever ▁lost . ▁ ▁Robert ▁Ell wood , ▁a ▁professor ▁of ▁religion ▁who ▁did ▁his ▁gradu ate ▁studies ▁under ▁Mir |
ce a ▁El ia de , ▁saw ▁this ▁type ▁of ▁nost alg ia ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁characteristic ▁them es ▁in ▁El ia de ' s ▁life ▁and ▁academic ▁writ ings . ▁ ▁Ad oles c ence ▁and ▁literary ▁debut ▁After ▁comple ting ▁his ▁primary ▁education ▁at ▁the ▁school ▁on ▁M ânt ule asa ▁Street , ▁El ia de ▁attended ▁the ▁Sp ir u ▁H aret ▁National ▁College ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁class ▁as ▁Ar ș av ir ▁Act er ian , ▁Ha ig ▁Act er ian , ▁and ▁Pet re ▁V if ore anu ▁( and ▁several ▁years ▁the ▁senior ▁of ▁Nicola e ▁Stein hardt , ▁who ▁eventually ▁became ▁a ▁close ▁friend ▁of ▁El ia de ' s ). ▁Among ▁his ▁other ▁colle agues ▁was ▁future ▁phil os opher ▁Constantin ▁No ica ▁and ▁No ica ' s ▁friend , ▁future ▁art ▁historian ▁Bar bu ▁Bre z ian u . ▁ ▁As ▁a ▁child , ▁El ia de ▁was ▁fasc in ated ▁with ▁the ▁natural ▁world , ▁which ▁formed ▁the ▁setting ▁of ▁his ▁very ▁first ▁literary ▁attempts , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁with ▁Roman ian ▁fol kl ore ▁and ▁the ▁Christian ▁faith ▁as ▁expressed ▁by ▁pe as ants . ▁G row ing ▁up , ▁he ▁aim ed ▁to ▁find ▁and ▁record ▁what ▁he ▁believed ▁was ▁the ▁common ▁source ▁of ▁all ▁religious ▁trad itions . ▁The ▁young ▁El ia de ' s ▁interest ▁in ▁physical ▁exercise ▁and ▁advent ure ▁led ▁him ▁to ▁purs ue ▁mount aine ering ▁and ▁sail ing , ▁and ▁he ▁also ▁joined |
▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Boy ▁Sc outs . ▁ ▁With ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁friends , ▁he ▁designed ▁and ▁sa iled ▁a ▁boat ▁on ▁the ▁Dan ube , ▁from ▁Tul ce a ▁to ▁the ▁Black ▁Sea . ▁In ▁parallel , ▁El ia de ▁grew ▁est r anged ▁from ▁the ▁educational ▁environment , ▁becoming ▁dis en ch anted ▁with ▁the ▁discipline ▁required ▁and ▁obs essed ▁with ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁u g lier ▁and ▁less ▁vi rile ▁than ▁his ▁colle agues . ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁cultiv ate ▁his ▁will power , ▁he ▁would ▁force ▁himself ▁to ▁sw allow ▁insect s ▁and ▁only ▁sle pt ▁four ▁to ▁five ▁hours ▁a ▁night . ▁At ▁one ▁point , ▁El ia de ▁was ▁failing ▁four ▁subjects , ▁among ▁which ▁was ▁the ▁study ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁language . ▁ ▁Instead , ▁he ▁became ▁interested ▁in ▁natural ▁science ▁and ▁chem istry , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁occ ult , ▁and ▁wrote ▁short ▁pieces ▁on ▁ent om ological ▁subjects . ▁Despite ▁his ▁father ' s ▁concern ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁in ▁danger ▁of ▁losing ▁his ▁already ▁weak ▁eyes ight , ▁El ia de ▁read ▁passion ately . ▁One ▁of ▁his ▁favorite ▁authors ▁was ▁Honor é ▁de ▁Bal z ac , ▁whose ▁work ▁he ▁studied ▁carefully . ▁El ia de ▁also ▁became ▁acquaint ed ▁with ▁the ▁modern ist ▁short ▁stories ▁of ▁Giovanni ▁Pap ini ▁and ▁social ▁anth rop ology ▁studies ▁by ▁James ▁George ▁Fra zer . ▁ ▁His ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁two ▁writers ▁led ▁him ▁to ▁learn ▁Italian ▁and ▁English ▁in ▁private , |
▁and ▁he ▁also ▁began ▁studying ▁Pers ian ▁and ▁Heb rew . ▁At ▁the ▁time , ▁El ia de ▁became ▁acquaint ed ▁with ▁Sa adi ' s ▁po ems ▁and ▁the ▁ancient ▁Mes op ot am ian ▁Ep ic ▁of ▁Gil g ames h . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁interested ▁in ▁philosophy — stud ying , ▁among ▁others , ▁S ocr ates , ▁Vas ile ▁Cont a , ▁and ▁the ▁Sto ics ▁Marcus ▁A ure lius ▁and ▁Ep ict et us , ▁and ▁read ▁works ▁of ▁history — the ▁two ▁Roman ian ▁histor ians ▁who ▁influenced ▁him ▁from ▁early ▁on ▁were ▁Bog dan ▁Pet rice ic u ▁Has de u ▁and ▁Nicola e ▁I org a . ▁His ▁first ▁published ▁work ▁was ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 1 ▁In am icul ▁vier mel ui ▁de ▁m ăt ase ▁(" The ▁Sil kw orm ' s ▁En emy "), ▁followed ▁by ▁C um ▁am ▁g ă s it ▁pi atra ▁filosof al ă ▁(" How ▁I ▁Found ▁the ▁Philosoph ers ' ▁Stone "). ▁Four ▁years ▁later , ▁El ia de ▁completed ▁work ▁on ▁his ▁debut ▁volume , ▁the ▁aut obi ographical ▁Nov el ▁of ▁the ▁N ears ight ed ▁Ad oles cent . ▁ ▁University ▁studies ▁and ▁Indian ▁so j ourn ▁ ▁Between ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁and ▁ 1 9 2 8 , ▁he ▁attended ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Buch ar est ' s ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Philosoph y ▁and ▁Let ters ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 8 , ▁ear ning ▁his ▁di pl oma |
▁with ▁a ▁study ▁on ▁Early ▁Modern ▁Italian ▁phil os opher ▁T omm aso ▁Camp an ella . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 7 , ▁El ia de ▁tra ve led ▁to ▁Italy , ▁where ▁he ▁met ▁Pap ini ▁and ▁collabor ated ▁with ▁the ▁scholar ▁Giuseppe ▁T ucci . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁during ▁his ▁student ▁years ▁that ▁El ia de ▁met ▁N ae ▁I ones cu , ▁who ▁lect ured ▁in ▁Log ic , ▁becoming ▁one ▁of ▁his ▁dis ci ples ▁and ▁friends . ▁He ▁was ▁especially ▁attract ed ▁to ▁I ones cu ' s ▁radical ▁ideas ▁and ▁his ▁interest ▁in ▁religion , ▁which ▁sign ified ▁a ▁break ▁with ▁the ▁rational ist ▁tradition ▁represented ▁by ▁senior ▁academ ics ▁such ▁as ▁Constantin ▁R ă d ules cu - M ot ru , ▁Dim it rie ▁Gust i , ▁and ▁T ud or ▁V ian u ▁( all ▁of ▁whom ▁ow ed ▁insp iration ▁to ▁the ▁def unct ▁literary ▁society ▁Jun ime a , ▁al beit ▁in ▁varying ▁degrees ). ▁ ▁El ia de ' s ▁scholar ly ▁works ▁began ▁after ▁a ▁long ▁period ▁of ▁study ▁in ▁British ▁India , ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Cal cut ta . ▁F inding ▁that ▁the ▁Mah ar aja ▁of ▁K ass imb azar ▁spons ored ▁European ▁sch ol ars ▁to ▁study ▁in ▁India , ▁El ia de ▁applied ▁and ▁was ▁granted ▁an ▁allow ance ▁for ▁four ▁years , ▁which ▁was ▁later ▁double d ▁by ▁a ▁Roman ian ▁scholar ship . ▁In ▁aut umn ▁ 1 9 2 8 , |
▁he ▁sa iled ▁for ▁Cal cut ta ▁to ▁study ▁S ansk rit ▁and ▁philosophy ▁under ▁Sur end ran ath ▁Das gu pta , ▁a ▁Beng ali ▁Cambridge ▁al umn us ▁and ▁professor ▁at ▁Cal cut ta ▁University , ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁a ▁five ▁volume ▁History ▁of ▁Indian ▁Philosoph y . ▁Before ▁reaching ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent , ▁El ia de ▁also ▁made ▁a ▁brief ▁visit ▁to ▁Egypt . ▁Once ▁in ▁India , ▁he ▁visited ▁large ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁region , ▁and ▁spent ▁a ▁short ▁period ▁at ▁a ▁H imal ay an ▁as hr am . ▁ ▁He ▁studied ▁the ▁bas ics ▁of ▁Indian ▁philosophy , ▁and , ▁in ▁parallel , ▁learned ▁S ansk rit , ▁P ali ▁and ▁Beng ali ▁under ▁Das gu pta ' s ▁direction . ▁At ▁the ▁time , ▁he ▁also ▁became ▁interested ▁in ▁the ▁actions ▁of ▁Mah at ma ▁Gand hi , ▁whom ▁he ▁met ▁personally , ▁and ▁the ▁S aty ag ra ha ▁as ▁a ▁phenomen on ; ▁later , ▁El ia de ▁adapted ▁Gand h ian ▁ideas ▁in ▁his ▁disc ourse ▁on ▁spiritual ity ▁and ▁Roman ia . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 0 , ▁while ▁living ▁with ▁Das gu pta , ▁El ia de ▁fell ▁in ▁love ▁with ▁his ▁host ' s ▁daughter , ▁M ait rey i ▁De vi , ▁later ▁writing ▁a ▁bare ly ▁dis gu ised ▁aut obi ographical ▁novel ▁M ait rey i ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁" La ▁N uit ▁Beng ali " ▁or ▁" B eng al ▁N |
ights "), ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁claimed ▁that ▁he ▁carried ▁on ▁a ▁physical ▁relationship ▁with ▁her . ▁ ▁El ia de ▁received ▁his ▁Ph D ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁with ▁a ▁th esis ▁on ▁Y oga ▁practices . ▁The ▁book , ▁which ▁was ▁translated ▁into ▁French ▁three ▁years ▁later , ▁had ▁significant ▁impact ▁in ▁academ ia , ▁both ▁in ▁Roman ia ▁and ▁abroad . ▁ ▁He ▁later ▁re called ▁that ▁the ▁book ▁was ▁an ▁early ▁step ▁for ▁understanding ▁not ▁just ▁Indian ▁religious ▁practices , ▁but ▁also ▁Roman ian ▁spiritual ity . ▁During ▁the ▁same ▁period , ▁El ia de ▁began ▁a ▁correspond ence ▁with ▁the ▁C ey lon ese - born ▁phil os opher ▁An anda ▁Co om ar as w amy . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 – 1 9 3 7 , ▁he ▁function ed ▁as ▁honor ary ▁assistant ▁for ▁I ones cu ' s ▁course , ▁lect uring ▁in ▁Met aph ys ics . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁had ▁a ▁physical ▁relationship ▁with ▁the ▁actress ▁Sor ana ▁ Ț op a , ▁while ▁falling ▁in ▁love ▁with ▁N ina ▁Mare ș , ▁whom ▁he ▁ultimately ▁married . ▁The ▁latter , ▁introduced ▁to ▁him ▁by ▁his ▁new ▁friend ▁Mih ail ▁Sebastian , ▁already ▁had ▁a ▁daughter , ▁G iza , ▁from ▁a ▁man ▁who ▁had ▁divor ced ▁her . ▁El ia de ▁subsequently ▁adopted ▁G iza , ▁and ▁the ▁three ▁of ▁them ▁moved ▁to ▁an ▁a partment ▁at |
▁ 1 4 1 ▁D acia ▁Bou lev ard . ▁He ▁left ▁his ▁residence ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁during ▁a ▁trip ▁he ▁made ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁Germany , ▁when ▁he ▁first ▁visited ▁London , ▁Oxford ▁and ▁Berlin . ▁ ▁C riter ion ▁and ▁C uv ânt ul ▁ ▁After ▁contrib uting ▁various ▁and ▁generally ▁po lem ical ▁pieces ▁in ▁university ▁mag az ines , ▁El ia de ▁came ▁to ▁the ▁attention ▁of ▁journalist ▁Pam fil ▁ Ș e ic aru , ▁who ▁invited ▁him ▁to ▁collabor ate ▁on ▁the ▁national ist ▁paper ▁C uv ânt ul , ▁which ▁was ▁noted ▁for ▁its ▁har sh ▁t ones . ▁By ▁then , ▁C uv ânt ul ▁was ▁also ▁hosting ▁articles ▁by ▁I ones cu . ▁ ▁As ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁figures ▁in ▁the ▁C riter ion ▁literary ▁society ▁( 1 9 3 3 – 1 9 3 4 ), ▁El ia de ' s ▁initial ▁encounter ▁with ▁the ▁traditional ▁far ▁right ▁was ▁po lem ical : ▁the ▁group ' s ▁con ferences ▁were ▁storm ed ▁by ▁members ▁of ▁A . ▁C . ▁Cu za ' s ▁National - Christ ian ▁Def ense ▁League , ▁who ▁object ed ▁to ▁what ▁they ▁viewed ▁as ▁pac if ism ▁and ▁addressed ▁ant is emit ic ▁ins ult s ▁to ▁several ▁speak ers , ▁including ▁Sebastian ; ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁he ▁was ▁among ▁the ▁sign ers ▁of ▁a ▁manif esto ▁oppos ing ▁Naz i ▁Germany ' s ▁state - en for |
ced ▁rac ism . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁at ▁a ▁time ▁when ▁Sebastian ▁was ▁public ly ▁ins ult ed ▁by ▁N ae ▁I ones cu , ▁who ▁pre fac ed ▁his ▁book ▁( De ▁dou ă ▁m ii ▁de ▁ani ...) ▁with ▁thoughts ▁on ▁the ▁" et ernal ▁dam n ation " ▁of ▁Jews , ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁spoke ▁out ▁against ▁this ▁perspective , ▁and ▁commented ▁that ▁I ones cu ' s ▁references ▁to ▁the ▁ver dict ▁" Out side ▁the ▁Church ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁salv ation " ▁contrad icted ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁God ' s ▁om n ip ot ence . ▁However , ▁he ▁cont ended ▁that ▁I ones cu ' s ▁text ▁was ▁not ▁evidence ▁of ▁ant is emit ism . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁reflect ing ▁on ▁the ▁early ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁its ▁Jewish ▁community , ▁he ▁de pl ored ▁the ▁exp ulsion ▁of ▁Jewish ▁sch ol ars ▁from ▁Roman ia , ▁making ▁specific ▁references ▁to ▁Mos es ▁G aster , ▁He im ann ▁Har it on ▁T ikt in ▁and ▁Laz ăr ▁ Ș ă ine anu . ▁El ia de ' s ▁views ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁focused ▁on ▁innov ation — in ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁he ▁replied ▁to ▁an ▁anti - mod ern ist ▁critique ▁written ▁by ▁George ▁C ă lines cu : ▁All ▁I ▁wish ▁for ▁is ▁a ▁deep ▁change , ▁a ▁complete ▁transformation . ▁But |
, ▁for ▁God ' s ▁sake , ▁in ▁any ▁direction ▁other ▁than ▁spiritual ity . ▁ ▁He ▁and ▁friends ▁Emil ▁C ior an ▁and ▁Constantin ▁No ica ▁were ▁by ▁then ▁under ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁Tr ă ir ism , ▁a ▁school ▁of ▁thought ▁that ▁was ▁formed ▁around ▁the ▁ide als ▁expressed ▁by ▁I ones cu . ▁A ▁form ▁of ▁exist ential ism , ▁Tr ă ir ism ▁was ▁also ▁the ▁synth esis ▁of ▁traditional ▁and ▁newer ▁right - wing ▁belief s . ▁Early ▁on , ▁a ▁public ▁po lem ic ▁was ▁spark ed ▁between ▁El ia de ▁and ▁Camil ▁Pet res cu : ▁the ▁two ▁eventually ▁recon ci led ▁and ▁later ▁became ▁good ▁friends . ▁ ▁Like ▁Mih ail ▁Sebastian , ▁who ▁was ▁himself ▁becoming ▁influenced ▁by ▁I ones cu , ▁he ▁maintained ▁contacts ▁with ▁intellect uals ▁from ▁all ▁sides ▁of ▁the ▁political ▁spectrum : ▁their ▁ent ou rage ▁included ▁the ▁right - wing ▁Dan ▁Bot ta ▁and ▁Mir ce a ▁V ul c ă nes cu , ▁the ▁non - polit ical ▁Pet res cu ▁and ▁I onel ▁J ian u , ▁and ▁Bel u ▁Z il ber , ▁who ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁illegal ▁Roman ian ▁Commun ist ▁Party . ▁ ▁The ▁group ▁also ▁included ▁Ha ig ▁Act er ian , ▁Mih ail ▁Pol i hr onia de , ▁Pet ru ▁Com arn es cu , ▁Mar iet ta ▁Sad ova ▁and ▁Fl oria ▁C aps ali . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁close ▁to ▁Marcel ▁Av r ames cu , |
▁a ▁former ▁Sur real ist ▁writer ▁whom ▁he ▁introduced ▁to ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁René ▁Gu én on . ▁A ▁doctor ▁in ▁the ▁Kab bal ah ▁and ▁future ▁Roman ian ▁Orth odox ▁cler ic , ▁Av r ames cu ▁joined ▁El ia de ▁in ▁editing ▁the ▁short - l ived ▁es oter ic ▁magazine ▁Mem ra ▁( the ▁only ▁one ▁of ▁its ▁kind ▁in ▁Roman ia ). ▁ ▁Among ▁the ▁intellect uals ▁who ▁attended ▁his ▁lect ures ▁were ▁Mih ai ▁ Ş ora ▁( wh om ▁he ▁de emed ▁his ▁favorite ▁student ), ▁Eugen ▁Sch iler u ▁and ▁Mir on ▁Constant ines cu — known ▁later ▁as , ▁respectively , ▁a ▁phil os opher , ▁an ▁art ▁critic , ▁and ▁a ▁soci ologist ▁and ▁political ▁figure ▁of ▁the ▁commun ist ▁regime . ▁Mar iana ▁Klein , ▁who ▁became ▁ Ș ora ' s ▁wife , ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁El ia de ' s ▁female ▁students , ▁and ▁later ▁author ed ▁works ▁on ▁his ▁scholar ship . ▁ ▁El ia de ▁later ▁rec ount ed ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁himself ▁en list ed ▁Z il ber ▁as ▁a ▁C uv ânt ul ▁contrib utor , ▁in ▁order ▁for ▁him ▁to ▁provide ▁a ▁Marx ist ▁perspective ▁on ▁the ▁issues ▁discussed ▁by ▁the ▁journal . ▁Their ▁relation ▁sou red ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 5 , ▁when ▁the ▁latter ▁public ly ▁accused ▁El ia de ▁of ▁serving ▁as ▁an ▁agent ▁for ▁the ▁secret ▁police , ▁Sig ur an ța ▁Stat ului ▁( S eb ast ian ▁answered ▁to |
▁the ▁statement ▁by ▁alleg ing ▁that ▁Z il ber ▁was ▁himself ▁a ▁secret ▁agent , ▁and ▁the ▁latter ▁eventually ▁ret ract ed ▁his ▁claim ). ▁▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁political ▁transition ▁El ia de ' s ▁articles ▁before ▁and ▁after ▁his ▁ad her ence ▁to ▁the ▁principles ▁of ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁( or , ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁usually ▁known ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁the ▁Leg ion ary ▁Mov ement ), ▁beginning ▁with ▁his ▁It iner ar ▁spiritual ▁(" Sp irit ual ▁It iner ary ", ▁serial ized ▁in ▁C uv ânt ul ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 7 ), ▁center ▁on ▁several ▁political ▁ide als ▁advoc ated ▁by ▁the ▁far ▁right . ▁ ▁They ▁displayed ▁his ▁re jection ▁of ▁liberal ism ▁and ▁the ▁modern izing ▁goals ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 4 8 ▁Wal lach ian ▁revolution ▁( per ce ived ▁as ▁" an ▁abstract ▁ap ology ▁of ▁M ank ind " ▁and ▁" ape - like ▁im itation ▁of ▁[ West ern ] ▁Europe "), ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁for ▁dem ocracy ▁itself ▁( acc using ▁it ▁of ▁" man aging ▁to ▁cr ush ▁all ▁attempts ▁at ▁national ▁r ena issance ", ▁and ▁later ▁pra ising ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁on ▁the ▁grounds ▁that , ▁according ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁"[ in ▁Italy ,] ▁he ▁who ▁thinks ▁for ▁himself ▁is ▁promoted ▁to ▁the ▁highest ▁office ▁in ▁the ▁short est ▁of ▁times "). ▁He ▁approved ▁of ▁an ▁eth nic ▁national ist ▁state ▁centered |
▁on ▁the ▁Orth odox ▁Church ▁( in ▁ 1 9 2 7 , ▁despite ▁his ▁still - v ivid ▁interest ▁in ▁The osoph y , ▁he ▁recommended ▁young ▁intellect uals ▁" the ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁Church "), ▁which ▁he ▁opposed ▁to , ▁among ▁others , ▁the ▁sec ular ▁national ism ▁of ▁Constantin ▁R ă d ules cu - M ot ru ; ▁referring ▁to ▁this ▁particular ▁ideal ▁as ▁" R oman ian ism ", ▁El ia de ▁was , ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁still ▁view ing ▁it ▁as ▁" ne ither ▁fasc ism , ▁nor ▁ch au vin ism ". ▁ ▁El ia de ▁was ▁especially ▁diss atisf ied ▁with ▁the ▁inc idence ▁of ▁un emp loyment ▁among ▁intellect uals , ▁whose ▁care ers ▁in ▁state - fin anced ▁institutions ▁had ▁been ▁rendered ▁uncertain ▁by ▁the ▁Great ▁De pression . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁El ia de ▁was ▁the ▁focus ▁of ▁a ▁campaign ▁in ▁the ▁far ▁right ▁press , ▁being ▁target ed ▁for ▁having ▁author ed ▁" p orn ography " ▁in ▁his ▁Dom ni ș o ara ▁Christ ina ▁and ▁Isabel ▁și ▁a pe le ▁dia vol ului ; ▁similar ▁accus ations ▁were ▁aim ed ▁at ▁other ▁cultural ▁figures , ▁including ▁T ud or ▁Arg he zi ▁and ▁Ge o ▁Bog za . ▁Ass ess ments ▁of ▁El ia de ' s ▁work ▁were ▁in ▁sharp ▁contrast ▁to ▁one ▁another : ▁also ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁El ia de ▁accepted ▁an ▁award |
▁from ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Writ ers ' ▁Society , ▁of ▁which ▁he ▁had ▁been ▁a ▁member ▁since ▁ 1 9 3 4 . ▁In ▁summer ▁ 1 9 3 7 , ▁through ▁an ▁official ▁decision ▁which ▁came ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁accus ations , ▁and ▁despite ▁student ▁protest s , ▁he ▁was ▁stri pped ▁of ▁his ▁position ▁at ▁the ▁University . ▁ ▁El ia de ▁decided ▁to ▁sue ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Education , ▁asking ▁for ▁a ▁symbol ic ▁compens ation ▁of ▁ 1 ▁le u . ▁He ▁won ▁the ▁trial , ▁and ▁reg ained ▁his ▁position ▁as ▁N ae ▁I ones cu ' s ▁assistant . ▁ ▁Nevertheless , ▁by ▁ 1 9 3 7 , ▁he ▁gave ▁his ▁intellectual ▁support ▁to ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard , ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁saw ▁" a ▁Christian ▁revolution ▁aim ed ▁at ▁creating ▁a ▁new ▁Roman ia ", ▁and ▁a ▁group ▁able ▁" to ▁recon cile ▁Roman ia ▁with ▁God ". ▁His ▁articles ▁of ▁the ▁time , ▁published ▁in ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁papers ▁such ▁as ▁S f arm ă ▁P iat r ă ▁and ▁B una ▁V est ire , ▁contain ▁am ple ▁pra ises ▁of ▁the ▁movement ' s ▁leaders ▁( C orn eli u ▁Ze lea ▁C od re anu , ▁I on ▁Mo ţ a , ▁Vas ile ▁Mar in , ▁and ▁G he org he ▁Cant ac uz ino - Gr ă nic er ul ). ▁The ▁transition ▁he ▁went ▁through ▁was ▁similar ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁his ▁fellow ▁generation ▁members ▁and ▁close ▁collabor ators |
— am ong ▁the ▁notable ▁exceptions ▁to ▁this ▁rule ▁were ▁Pet ru ▁Com arn es cu , ▁soci ologist ▁Henri ▁H . ▁St ahl ▁and ▁future ▁dram at ist ▁Eug ène ▁I ones co , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁Sebastian . ▁ ▁He ▁eventually ▁en rolled ▁in ▁the ▁Tot ul ▁pentru ▁ Ț ar ă ▁(" Every thing ▁for ▁the ▁Father land " ▁Party ), ▁the ▁political ▁expression ▁of ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard , ▁and ▁contributed ▁to ▁its ▁ 1 9 3 7 ▁elect oral ▁campaign ▁in ▁Pra h ova ▁County — as ▁indicated ▁by ▁his ▁inclusion ▁on ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁party ▁members ▁with ▁county - level ▁respons ib ilities ▁( pub lished ▁in ▁B una ▁V est ire ). ▁ ▁Intern ment ▁and ▁diplom atic ▁service ▁The ▁st ance ▁taken ▁by ▁El ia de ▁resulted ▁in ▁his ▁arrest ▁on ▁July ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁after ▁a ▁crack down ▁on ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁author ized ▁by ▁King ▁Carol ▁II . ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁his ▁arrest , ▁he ▁had ▁just ▁interrupted ▁a ▁column ▁on ▁Provin cia ▁și ▁leg ion ar ism ul ▁(" The ▁Province ▁and ▁Leg ion ary ▁Ide ology ") ▁in ▁V reme a , ▁having ▁been ▁sing led ▁out ▁by ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁Arm and ▁C ă lines cu ▁as ▁an ▁author ▁of ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁propag anda . ▁ ▁El ia de ▁was ▁kept ▁for ▁three ▁weeks ▁in ▁a ▁cell ▁at ▁the ▁Sig ur an ţ a ▁Stat ului ▁Head quarters , ▁in ▁an ▁attempt ▁to ▁have ▁him |
▁sign ▁a ▁" de clar ation ▁of ▁dis soci ation " ▁with ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard , ▁but ▁he ▁refused ▁to ▁do ▁so . ▁In ▁the ▁first ▁week ▁of ▁August ▁he ▁was ▁transferred ▁to ▁a ▁makes h ift ▁camp ▁at ▁M ier c ure a - C i uc . ▁When ▁El ia de ▁began ▁c ough ing ▁blood ▁in ▁October ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁he ▁was ▁taken ▁to ▁a ▁clin ic ▁in ▁Mor o eni . ▁El ia de ▁was ▁simply ▁released ▁on ▁November ▁ 1 2 , ▁and ▁subsequently ▁spent ▁his ▁time ▁writing ▁his ▁play ▁I ph igen ia ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁If igen ia ). ▁In ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 0 , ▁with ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁Alexand ru ▁Ros etti , ▁became ▁the ▁Cultural ▁Att ach é ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom , ▁a ▁posting ▁cut ▁short ▁when ▁Roman ian - B rit ish ▁foreign ▁relations ▁were ▁broken . ▁ ▁After ▁leaving ▁London ▁he ▁was ▁assigned ▁the ▁office ▁of ▁Coun sel ▁and ▁Press ▁Officer ▁( l ater ▁Cultural ▁Att ach é ) ▁to ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Emb ass y ▁in ▁Portugal , ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁kept ▁on ▁as ▁diplom at ▁by ▁the ▁National ▁Leg ion ary ▁State ▁( the ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁government ) ▁and , ▁ultimately , ▁by ▁I on ▁Anton es cu ' s ▁regime . ▁His ▁office ▁involved ▁dis sem in ating ▁propag anda ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁state . ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 9 4 1 , ▁weeks ▁after ▁the ▁blo ody ▁Leg |
ion ary ▁Reb ell ion ▁was ▁cr ushed ▁by ▁Anton es cu , ▁I ph igen ia ▁was ▁st aged ▁by ▁the ▁National ▁Theater ▁Buch ar est — the ▁play ▁soon ▁raised ▁doub ts ▁that ▁it ▁ow ed ▁insp iration ▁to ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ' s ▁ide ology , ▁and ▁even ▁that ▁its ▁inclusion ▁in ▁the ▁program ▁was ▁a ▁Leg ion ary ▁attempt ▁at ▁sub version . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 2 , ▁El ia de ▁author ed ▁a ▁volume ▁in ▁pra ise ▁of ▁the ▁Estado ▁Nov o , ▁established ▁in ▁Portugal ▁by ▁Ant ón io ▁de ▁O live ira ▁Sal azar , ▁claim ing ▁that ▁" The ▁Sal az arian ▁state , ▁a ▁Christian ▁and ▁total itar ian ▁one , ▁is ▁first ▁and ▁for em ost ▁based ▁on ▁love ". ▁On ▁July ▁ 7 ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁year , ▁he ▁was ▁received ▁by ▁Sal azar ▁himself , ▁who ▁assigned ▁El ia de ▁the ▁task ▁of ▁warning ▁Anton es cu ▁to ▁withdraw ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Army ▁from ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Front ▁(" [ In ▁his ▁place ], ▁I ▁would ▁not ▁be ▁gr inding ▁it ▁in ▁Russia "). ▁El ia de ▁also ▁claimed ▁that ▁such ▁contacts ▁with ▁the ▁leader ▁of ▁a ▁neutral ▁country ▁had ▁made ▁him ▁the ▁target ▁for ▁Gest ap o ▁surve ill ance , ▁but ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁managed ▁to ▁communicate ▁Sal azar ' s ▁advice ▁to ▁Mih ai ▁Anton es cu , ▁Roman ia ' s ▁Foreign ▁Minister . ▁ ▁In ▁aut umn ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁he |
▁tra ve led ▁to ▁occupied ▁France , ▁where ▁he ▁rejo ined ▁Emil ▁C ior an , ▁also ▁meeting ▁with ▁scholar ▁Georges ▁Dum é zil ▁and ▁the ▁collaboration ist ▁writer ▁Paul ▁Mor and . ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁he ▁applied ▁for ▁a ▁position ▁of ▁lect urer ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Buch ar est , ▁but ▁with d rew ▁from ▁the ▁race , ▁leaving ▁Constantin ▁No ica ▁and ▁I on ▁Zam f ires cu ▁to ▁dispute ▁the ▁position , ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁a ▁panel ▁of ▁academ ics ▁compr ising ▁Luci an ▁B lag a ▁and ▁Dim it rie ▁Gust i ▁( Z am f ires cu ' s ▁event ual ▁selection , ▁going ▁against ▁B lag a ' s ▁recommendation , ▁was ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁topic ▁of ▁a ▁controvers y ). ▁In ▁his ▁private ▁notes , ▁El ia de ▁wrote ▁that ▁he ▁took ▁no ▁further ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁office , ▁because ▁his ▁vis its ▁abroad ▁had ▁convinced ▁him ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁" something ▁great ▁to ▁say ", ▁and ▁that ▁he ▁could ▁not ▁function ▁within ▁the ▁conf ines ▁of ▁" a ▁minor ▁culture ". ▁Also ▁during ▁the ▁war , ▁El ia de ▁tra ve led ▁to ▁Berlin , ▁where ▁he ▁met ▁and ▁convers ed ▁with ▁controvers ial ▁political ▁the or ist ▁Carl ▁Sch mitt , ▁and ▁frequently ▁visited ▁Franco ist ▁Spain , ▁where ▁he ▁not ably ▁attended ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁L us it ano - Span ish ▁scientific ▁con gress ▁in ▁C ór dob a . ▁It ▁was ▁during ▁his ▁tri ps |
▁to ▁Spain ▁that ▁El ia de ▁met ▁philosoph ers ▁José ▁Or te ga ▁y ▁G asset ▁and ▁Eugen i ▁d ' O rs . ▁He ▁maintained ▁a ▁friendship ▁with ▁d ' O rs , ▁and ▁met ▁him ▁again ▁on ▁several ▁occasions ▁after ▁the ▁war . ▁ ▁N ina ▁El ia de ▁fell ▁ill ▁with ▁u ter ine ▁cancer ▁and ▁died ▁during ▁their ▁stay ▁in ▁Lis bon , ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁As ▁the ▁wid ower ▁later ▁wrote , ▁the ▁disease ▁was ▁probably ▁caused ▁by ▁an ▁abort ion ▁procedure ▁she ▁had ▁under g one ▁at ▁an ▁early ▁stage ▁of ▁their ▁relationship . ▁He ▁came ▁to ▁suffer ▁from ▁clin ical ▁de pression , ▁which ▁increased ▁as ▁Roman ia ▁and ▁her ▁A xis ▁al lies ▁suffered ▁major ▁defe ats ▁on ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Front . ▁Cont empl ating ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁Roman ia ▁as ▁a ▁soldier ▁or ▁a ▁mon k , ▁he ▁was ▁on ▁a ▁continuous ▁search ▁for ▁effective ▁ant ide press ants , ▁medic ating ▁himself ▁with ▁passion ▁flower ▁extract , ▁and , ▁eventually , ▁with ▁m eth am ph et am ine . ▁This ▁was ▁probably ▁not ▁his ▁first ▁experience ▁with ▁dru gs : ▁vague ▁mentions ▁in ▁his ▁not ebook s ▁have ▁been ▁read ▁as ▁indic ation ▁that ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁was ▁taking ▁op ium ▁during ▁his ▁travel s ▁to ▁Cal cut ta . ▁Later , ▁discuss ing ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁Ald ous ▁H ux ley , ▁El ia de ▁wrote ▁that ▁the ▁British ▁author ' s ▁use |
▁of ▁mes cal ine ▁as ▁a ▁source ▁of ▁insp iration ▁had ▁something ▁in ▁common ▁with ▁his ▁own ▁experience , ▁indicating ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁as ▁a ▁date ▁of ▁reference ▁and ▁adding ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁" need less ▁to ▁explain ▁why ▁that ▁is ". ▁ ▁Early ▁ex ile ▁At ▁signs ▁that ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁commun ist ▁regime ▁was ▁about ▁to ▁take ▁hold , ▁El ia de ▁opt ed ▁not ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁country . ▁On ▁September ▁ 1 6 , ▁ 1 9 4 5 , ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁France ▁with ▁his ▁adopted ▁daughter ▁G iza . ▁Once ▁there , ▁he ▁res umed ▁contacts ▁with ▁Dum é zil , ▁who ▁helped ▁him ▁recover ▁his ▁position ▁in ▁academ ia . ▁On ▁Dum é zil ' s ▁recommendation , ▁he ▁taught ▁at ▁the ▁É cole ▁Pr atique ▁des ▁Haut es ▁Ét udes ▁in ▁Paris . ▁It ▁was ▁estimated ▁that , ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁it ▁was ▁not ▁un common ▁for ▁him ▁to ▁work ▁ 1 5 ▁hours ▁a ▁day . ▁El ia de ▁married ▁a ▁second ▁time , ▁to ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁ex ile ▁Christ in el ▁C otes cu . ▁His ▁second ▁wife , ▁the ▁desc endant ▁of ▁boy ars , ▁was ▁the ▁sister - in - law ▁of ▁the ▁conduct or ▁I onel ▁Per lea . ▁ ▁T ogether ▁with ▁Emil ▁C ior an ▁and ▁other ▁Roman ian ▁exp atri ates , ▁El ia de ▁r al lied ▁with ▁the ▁former ▁diplom at ▁Alexand ru ▁Bus u io cean u , ▁helping |
▁him ▁public ize ▁anti - comm un ist ▁opinion ▁to ▁the ▁Western ▁European ▁public . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁briefly ▁involved ▁in ▁publishing ▁a ▁Roman ian - language ▁magazine , ▁titled ▁Lu ce af ăr ul ▁(" The ▁Mor ning ▁Star "), ▁and ▁was ▁again ▁in ▁contact ▁with ▁Mih ail ▁ Ș ora , ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁granted ▁a ▁scholar ship ▁to ▁study ▁in ▁France , ▁and ▁with ▁ Ș ora ' s ▁wife ▁Mar iana . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁he ▁was ▁facing ▁material ▁constraints , ▁and ▁An anda ▁Co om ar as w amy ▁found ▁him ▁a ▁job ▁as ▁a ▁French - language ▁teacher ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁at ▁a ▁school ▁in ▁Arizona ; ▁the ▁arrangement ▁ended ▁upon ▁Co om ar as w amy ' s ▁death ▁in ▁September . ▁ ▁Begin ning ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 , ▁he ▁wrote ▁for ▁the ▁journal ▁Crit ique , ▁edited ▁by ▁French ▁phil os opher ▁ ▁Georges ▁B ata ille . ▁The ▁following ▁year , ▁he ▁went ▁on ▁a ▁visit ▁to ▁Italy , ▁where ▁he ▁wrote ▁the ▁first ▁ 3 0 0 ▁pages ▁of ▁his ▁novel ▁No ap te a ▁de ▁S ân z iene ▁( he ▁visited ▁the ▁country ▁a ▁third ▁time ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 2 ). ▁He ▁collabor ated ▁with ▁Carl ▁Jung ▁and ▁the ▁E ran os ▁circle ▁after ▁Henry ▁Cor bin ▁recommended ▁him ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 9 , ▁and ▁wrote ▁for ▁the ▁An ta ios ▁magazine ▁( ed ited ▁by ▁Ernst ▁J |
üng er ). ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 0 , ▁El ia de ▁began ▁att ending ▁E ran os ▁con ferences , ▁meeting ▁Jung , ▁Ol ga ▁Fr ö be - K ap te yn , ▁G ers hom ▁Sch ole m ▁and ▁Paul ▁Rad in . ▁He ▁described ▁E ran os ▁as ▁" one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁cre ative ▁cultural ▁experiences ▁of ▁the ▁modern ▁Western ▁world ." ▁ ▁In ▁October ▁ 1 9 5 6 , ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁sett ling ▁in ▁Chicago ▁the ▁following ▁year . ▁He ▁had ▁been ▁invited ▁by ▁Jo achim ▁W ach ▁to ▁give ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁lect ures ▁at ▁W ach ' s ▁home ▁institution , ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Chicago . ▁El ia de ▁and ▁W ach ▁are ▁generally ▁admitted ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁found ers ▁of ▁the ▁" Ch icago ▁school " ▁that ▁basically ▁defined ▁the ▁study ▁of ▁relig ions ▁for ▁the ▁second ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century . ▁Upon ▁W ach ' s ▁death ▁before ▁the ▁lect ures ▁were ▁delivered , ▁El ia de ▁was ▁appointed ▁as ▁his ▁replacement , ▁becoming , ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 4 , ▁the ▁S ew ell ▁A very ▁Dist ingu ished ▁Service ▁Professor ▁of ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ions . ▁Begin ning ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 4 , ▁with ▁the ▁first ▁edition ▁of ▁his ▁volume ▁on ▁E ternal ▁Return , ▁El ia de ▁also ▁enjoyed ▁commercial ▁success : ▁the ▁book ▁went ▁through ▁several ▁ed itions ▁under ▁different ▁titles , ▁which ▁sold |
▁over ▁ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁copies . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 6 , ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁became ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁Academy ▁of ▁Arts ▁and ▁Sciences . ▁He ▁also ▁worked ▁as ▁editor - in - ch ief ▁of ▁Mac mill an ▁Publish ers ' ▁Encyclopedia ▁of ▁Religion , ▁and , ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 8 , ▁lect ured ▁in ▁religious ▁history ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Santa ▁Barbara . ▁It ▁was ▁also ▁during ▁that ▁period ▁that ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁completed ▁his ▁vol umin ous ▁and ▁influ ential ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ious ▁Ide as , ▁which ▁grouped ▁together ▁the ▁over views ▁of ▁his ▁main ▁original ▁interpret ations ▁of ▁religious ▁history . ▁He ▁occasionally ▁tra ve led ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁such ▁as ▁att ending ▁the ▁Congress ▁for ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ions ▁in ▁Mar burg ▁( 1 9 6 0 ) ▁and ▁vis its ▁to ▁Sweden ▁and ▁Norway ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 0 . ▁ ▁Final ▁years ▁and ▁death ▁Initial ly , ▁El ia de ▁was ▁attacked ▁with ▁vir ul ence ▁by ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁press , ▁chief ly ▁by ▁Româ nia ▁Liber ă — which ▁described ▁him ▁as ▁" the ▁Iron ▁Guard ' s ▁ide olog ue , ▁enemy ▁of ▁the ▁working ▁class , ▁ap ologist ▁of ▁Sal azar ' s ▁dict ator ship ". ▁However , ▁the ▁regime ▁also ▁made ▁secret ive ▁attempts ▁to ▁en list ▁his ▁and ▁C ior an |
' s ▁support : ▁Ha ig ▁Act er ian ' s ▁wid ow , ▁the ater ▁director ▁Mar iet ta ▁Sad ova , ▁was ▁sent ▁to ▁Paris ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁re - est ab lish ▁contacts ▁with ▁the ▁two . ▁Although ▁the ▁move ▁was ▁planned ▁by ▁Roman ian ▁officials , ▁her ▁enc oun ters ▁were ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁evidence ▁inc rimin ating ▁her ▁at ▁a ▁February ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁trial ▁for ▁tre ason ▁( where ▁Constantin ▁No ica ▁and ▁D inu ▁P ill at ▁were ▁the ▁main ▁defend ants ). ▁Roman ia ' s ▁secret ▁police , ▁the ▁Sec ur itate , ▁also ▁port rayed ▁El ia de ▁as ▁a ▁sp y ▁for ▁the ▁British ▁Secret ▁Int elligence ▁Service ▁and ▁a ▁former ▁agent ▁of ▁the ▁Gest ap o . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁slowly ▁re h abil itated ▁at ▁home ▁beginning ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁under ▁the ▁rule ▁of ▁G he org he ▁G he org hi u - De j . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s , ▁El ia de ▁was ▁approached ▁by ▁the ▁Nicola e ▁Ce au ș es cu ▁regime ▁in ▁several ▁ways , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁have ▁him ▁return . ▁The ▁move ▁was ▁prompt ed ▁by ▁the ▁officially ▁san ction ed ▁national ism ▁and ▁Roman ia ' s ▁claim ▁to ▁independence ▁from ▁the ▁Eastern ▁B loc , ▁as ▁both ▁phen omena ▁came ▁to ▁see ▁El ia de ' s ▁prest ige ▁as ▁an ▁asset . ▁An ▁un pre |
ced ented ▁event ▁occurred ▁with ▁the ▁interview ▁that ▁was ▁granted ▁by ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁to ▁poet ▁Ad rian ▁P ă unes cu , ▁during ▁the ▁latter ' s ▁ 1 9 7 0 ▁visit ▁to ▁Chicago ; ▁El ia de ▁compl iment ed ▁both ▁P ă unes cu ' s ▁activ ism ▁and ▁his ▁support ▁for ▁official ▁ten ets , ▁express ing ▁a ▁belief ▁that ▁the ▁youth ▁of ▁Eastern ▁Europe ▁is ▁clearly ▁superior ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁Western ▁Europe . ▁[...] ▁I ▁am ▁convinced ▁that , ▁within ▁ten ▁years , ▁the ▁young ▁revolution ary ▁generation ▁sh an ' t ▁be ▁behav ing ▁as ▁does ▁today ▁the ▁no isy ▁minor ity ▁of ▁Western ▁contest ers . ▁[...] ▁Eastern ▁youth ▁have ▁seen ▁the ▁abol ition ▁of ▁traditional ▁institutions , ▁have ▁accepted ▁it ▁[...] ▁and ▁are ▁not ▁yet ▁content ▁with ▁the ▁structures ▁enfor ced , ▁but ▁rather ▁seek ▁to ▁improve ▁them . ▁ ▁P ă unes cu ' s ▁visit ▁to ▁Chicago ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁national ist ▁official ▁writer ▁Eugen ▁Bar bu ▁and ▁by ▁El ia de ' s ▁friend ▁Constantin ▁No ica ▁( who ▁had ▁since ▁been ▁released ▁from ▁j ail ). ▁At ▁the ▁time , ▁El ia de ▁cont empl ated ▁returning ▁to ▁Roman ia , ▁but ▁was ▁eventually ▁persu aded ▁by ▁fellow ▁Roman ian ▁intellect uals ▁in ▁ex ile ▁( including ▁Radio ▁Free ▁Europe ' s ▁Vir g il ▁Ier un ca ▁and ▁Mon ica ▁Lov ines cu ) ▁to ▁reject ▁Commun ist ▁propos als . ▁In ▁ |
1 9 7 7 , ▁he ▁joined ▁other ▁ex iled ▁Roman ian ▁intellect uals ▁in ▁signing ▁a ▁tele gram ▁protest ing ▁the ▁repr ess ive ▁measures ▁newly ▁enfor ced ▁by ▁the ▁Ce au ş es cu ▁regime . ▁Writing ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Roman ian ▁anth rop ologist ▁And rei ▁O i ște anu ▁rec ount ed ▁how , ▁around ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁the ▁Sec ur itate ▁un success fully ▁press ured ▁to ▁become ▁an ▁agent ▁of ▁influence ▁in ▁El ia de ' s ▁Chicago ▁circle . ▁ ▁During ▁his ▁later ▁years , ▁El ia de ' s ▁fasc ist ▁past ▁was ▁progress ively ▁exposed ▁public ly , ▁the ▁stress ▁of ▁which ▁probably ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁decl ine ▁of ▁his ▁health . ▁By ▁then , ▁his ▁writing ▁career ▁was ▁ham per ed ▁by ▁severe ▁ar th rit is . ▁The ▁last ▁academic ▁hon ors ▁best owed ▁upon ▁him ▁were ▁the ▁French ▁Academy ' s ▁B ordin ▁Prize ▁( 1 9 7 7 ) ▁and ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁Doctor ▁Honor is ▁C aus a , ▁granted ▁by ▁George ▁Washington ▁University ▁( 1 9 8 5 ). ▁ ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁died ▁at ▁the ▁Bernard ▁Mitchell ▁Hospital ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 9 8 6 . ▁E ight ▁days ▁previously , ▁he ▁suffered ▁a ▁stroke ▁while ▁reading ▁Emil ▁C ior an ' s ▁Ex er cis es ▁of ▁Admir ation , ▁and ▁had ▁subsequently ▁lost ▁his ▁speech ▁function . ▁Four ▁months ▁before , ▁a ▁fire ▁had ▁destroyed |
▁part ▁of ▁his ▁office ▁at ▁the ▁M ead ville ▁Lomb ard ▁The ological ▁School ▁( an ▁event ▁which ▁he ▁had ▁interpreted ▁as ▁an ▁o men ). ▁El ia de ' s ▁Roman ian ▁dis ci ple ▁Io an ▁Pet ru ▁C ul ian u , ▁who ▁re called ▁the ▁scientific ▁community ' s ▁reaction ▁to ▁the ▁news , ▁described ▁El ia de ' s ▁death ▁as ▁" a ▁ma h ap aran ir v ana ", ▁thus ▁comparing ▁it ▁to ▁the ▁passing ▁of ▁G aut ama ▁Bud d ha . ▁His ▁body ▁was ▁cre m ated ▁in ▁Chicago , ▁and ▁the ▁fun eral ▁ceremony ▁was ▁held ▁on ▁University ▁grounds , ▁at ▁the ▁Rock ef eller ▁Chap el . ▁It ▁was ▁attended ▁by ▁ 1 , 2 0 0 ▁people , ▁and ▁included ▁a ▁public ▁reading ▁of ▁El ia de ' s ▁text ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁re called ▁the ▁e pi ph any ▁of ▁his ▁child hood — the ▁lecture ▁was ▁given ▁by ▁novel ist ▁Sa ul ▁B ellow , ▁El ia de ' s ▁colle ague ▁at ▁the ▁University . ▁His ▁grave ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁Oak ▁Wood s ▁C emetery . ▁ ▁Work ▁ ▁The ▁general ▁nature ▁of ▁religion ▁In ▁his ▁work ▁on ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁religion , ▁El ia de ▁is ▁most ▁highly ▁regarded ▁for ▁his ▁writ ings ▁on ▁Al ch emy , ▁Sh aman ism , ▁Y oga ▁and ▁what ▁he ▁called ▁the ▁et ernal ▁return — the ▁implicit ▁belief , ▁supposed ly ▁present ▁in ▁religious ▁thought ▁in ▁general , ▁that |
▁religious ▁behavior ▁is ▁not ▁only ▁an ▁im itation ▁of , ▁but ▁also ▁a ▁participation ▁in , ▁sacred ▁events , ▁and ▁thus ▁rest ores ▁the ▁myth ical ▁time ▁of ▁orig ins . ▁El ia de ' s ▁thinking ▁was ▁in ▁part ▁influenced ▁by ▁Rudolf ▁Otto , ▁Ger ard us ▁van ▁der ▁Lee uw , ▁N ae ▁I ones cu ▁and ▁the ▁writ ings ▁of ▁the ▁Trad itional ist ▁School ▁( R en é ▁Gu én on ▁and ▁Julius ▁E vol a ). ▁For ▁instance , ▁El ia de ' s ▁The ▁Sac red ▁and ▁the ▁Prof ane ▁partially ▁builds ▁on ▁Otto ' s ▁The ▁Ide a ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁to ▁show ▁how ▁religion ▁emer ges ▁from ▁the ▁experience ▁of ▁the ▁sacred , ▁and ▁myth s ▁of ▁time ▁and ▁nature . ▁ ▁El ia de ▁is ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁attempt ▁to ▁find ▁broad , ▁cross - c ult ural ▁par alle ls ▁and ▁un ities ▁in ▁religion , ▁particularly ▁in ▁myth s . ▁Wend y ▁Don iger , ▁El ia de ' s ▁colle ague ▁from ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁until ▁his ▁death , ▁has ▁observed ▁that ▁" E lia de ▁argued ▁bold ly ▁for ▁univers als ▁where ▁he ▁might ▁more ▁safely ▁have ▁argued ▁for ▁widely ▁pre val ent ▁patterns ". ▁His ▁Tre at ise ▁on ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ions ▁was ▁pra ised ▁by ▁French ▁phil ologist ▁Georges ▁Dum é zil ▁for ▁its ▁coh er ence ▁and ▁ability ▁to ▁synth es ize ▁diverse ▁and ▁distinct ▁myth ologies . ▁ ▁Robert ▁Ell wood ▁describes |
▁El ia de ' s ▁approach ▁to ▁religion ▁as ▁follows . ▁El ia de ▁approaches ▁religion ▁by ▁imag ining ▁an ▁ide ally ▁" rel ig ious " ▁person , ▁whom ▁he ▁calls ▁hom o ▁religios us ▁in ▁his ▁writ ings . ▁El ia de ' s ▁theories ▁basically ▁describe ▁how ▁this ▁hom o ▁religios us ▁would ▁view ▁the ▁world . ▁This ▁does ▁not ▁mean ▁that ▁all ▁religious ▁pract ition ers ▁actually ▁think ▁and ▁act ▁like ▁hom o ▁religios us . ▁Instead , ▁it ▁means ▁that ▁religious ▁behavior ▁" s ays ▁through ▁its ▁own ▁language " ▁that ▁the ▁world ▁is ▁as ▁hom o ▁religios us ▁would ▁see ▁it , ▁whether ▁or ▁not ▁the ▁real - life ▁participants ▁in ▁religious ▁behavior ▁are ▁aware ▁of ▁it . ▁However , ▁Ell wood ▁writes ▁that ▁El ia de ▁" t ends ▁to ▁slide ▁over ▁that ▁last ▁qual ification ", ▁imp lying ▁that ▁traditional ▁soci eties ▁actually ▁thought ▁like ▁hom o ▁religios us . ▁ ▁Sac red ▁and ▁prof ane ▁ ▁El ia de ▁arg ues ▁that ▁" Y ah we h ▁is ▁both ▁kind ▁and ▁wr ath ful ; ▁the ▁God ▁of ▁the ▁Christian ▁myst ics ▁and ▁the olog ians ▁is ▁terrible ▁and ▁gentle ▁at ▁once ". ▁He ▁also ▁thought ▁that ▁the ▁Indian ▁and ▁Chinese ▁myst ic ▁tried ▁to ▁att ain ▁" a ▁state ▁of ▁perfect ▁ind ifference ▁and ▁neutral ity " ▁that ▁resulted ▁in ▁a ▁coinc idence ▁of ▁oppos ites ▁in ▁which ▁" ple asure ▁and ▁pain , ▁desire ▁and ▁rep ulsion , ▁cold ▁and ▁heat ▁[...] |
▁are ▁exp ung ed ▁from ▁his ▁aw aren ess ". ▁ ▁El ia de ' s ▁understanding ▁of ▁religion ▁cent ers ▁on ▁his ▁concept ▁of ▁hier oph any ▁( manifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁Sac red ) — a ▁concept ▁that ▁includes , ▁but ▁is ▁not ▁limited ▁to , ▁the ▁older ▁and ▁more ▁restrict ive ▁concept ▁of ▁the oph any ▁( manifest ation ▁of ▁a ▁god ). ▁From ▁the ▁perspective ▁of ▁religious ▁thought , ▁El ia de ▁arg ues , ▁hier oph an ies ▁give ▁structure ▁and ▁orientation ▁to ▁the ▁world , ▁establish ing ▁a ▁sacred ▁order . ▁The ▁" prof ane " ▁space ▁of ▁non rel ig ious ▁experience ▁can ▁only ▁be ▁divided ▁up ▁geomet r ically : ▁it ▁has ▁no ▁" qual itative ▁different iation ▁and , ▁hence , ▁no ▁orientation ▁[ is ] ▁given ▁by ▁virtue ▁of ▁its ▁inher ent ▁structure ". ▁Thus , ▁prof ane ▁space ▁gives ▁man ▁no ▁pattern ▁for ▁his ▁behavior . ▁In ▁contrast ▁to ▁prof ane ▁space , ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁a ▁hier oph any ▁has ▁a ▁sacred ▁structure ▁to ▁which ▁religious ▁man ▁con forms ▁himself . ▁A ▁hier oph any ▁amounts ▁to ▁a ▁" re vel ation ▁of ▁an ▁absolute ▁reality , ▁opposed ▁to ▁the ▁non - re ality ▁of ▁the ▁vast ▁surrounding ▁exp anse ". ▁As ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁" s ac red ▁space " ▁demand ing ▁a ▁certain ▁response ▁from ▁man , ▁El ia de ▁gives ▁the ▁story ▁of ▁Mos es ▁hal ting ▁before ▁Y ah we h ' s ▁manifest ation ▁as ▁a |
▁burning ▁bush ▁( Ex od us ▁ 3 : 5 ) ▁and ▁taking ▁off ▁his ▁sho es . ▁ ▁Origin ▁myth s ▁and ▁sacred ▁time ▁El ia de ▁notes ▁that , ▁in ▁traditional ▁soci eties , ▁myth ▁represents ▁the ▁absolute ▁truth ▁about ▁prim ord ial ▁time . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁myth s , ▁this ▁was ▁the ▁time ▁when ▁the ▁Sac red ▁first ▁appeared , ▁establish ing ▁the ▁world ' s ▁structure — my th s ▁claim ▁to ▁describe ▁the ▁prim ord ial ▁events ▁that ▁made ▁society ▁and ▁the ▁natural ▁world ▁be ▁that ▁which ▁they ▁are . ▁El ia de ▁arg ues ▁that ▁all ▁myth s ▁are , ▁in ▁that ▁sense , ▁origin ▁myth s : ▁" my th , ▁then , ▁is ▁always ▁an ▁account ▁of ▁a ▁creation ". ▁ ▁Many ▁traditional ▁soci eties ▁believe ▁that ▁the ▁power ▁of ▁a ▁thing ▁lies ▁in ▁its ▁origin . ▁If ▁origin ▁is ▁equivalent ▁to ▁power , ▁then ▁" it ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁a ▁thing ▁that ▁is ▁significant ▁and ▁valid " ▁( a ▁thing ' s ▁reality ▁and ▁value ▁therefore ▁lies ▁only ▁in ▁its ▁first ▁appearance ). ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de ' s ▁theory , ▁only ▁the ▁Sac red ▁has ▁value , ▁only ▁a ▁thing ' s ▁first ▁appearance ▁has ▁value ▁and , ▁therefore , ▁only ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁first ▁appearance ▁has ▁value . ▁M yth ▁describes ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁first ▁appearance ; ▁therefore , ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age ▁is ▁sacred ▁time , ▁the ▁only ▁time ▁of ▁value |
: ▁" prim itive ▁man ▁was ▁interested ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁beg inn ings ▁[...] ▁to ▁him ▁it ▁matter ed ▁little ▁what ▁had ▁happened ▁to ▁himself , ▁or ▁to ▁others ▁like ▁him , ▁in ▁more ▁or ▁less ▁distant ▁times ". ▁El ia de ▁post ulated ▁this ▁as ▁the ▁reason ▁for ▁the ▁" nost alg ia ▁for ▁orig ins " ▁that ▁appears ▁in ▁many ▁relig ions , ▁the ▁desire ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁a ▁prim ord ial ▁Parad ise . ▁ ▁E ternal ▁return ▁and ▁" T error ▁of ▁history " ▁ ▁El ia de ▁arg ues ▁that ▁traditional ▁man ▁attributes ▁no ▁value ▁to ▁the ▁linear ▁march ▁of ▁historical ▁events : ▁only ▁the ▁events ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age ▁have ▁value . ▁To ▁give ▁his ▁own ▁life ▁value , ▁traditional ▁man ▁performs ▁myth s ▁and ▁rit uals . ▁Because ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁ess ence ▁lies ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age , ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁first ▁appearance , ▁any ▁later ▁appearance ▁is ▁actually ▁the ▁first ▁appearance ; ▁by ▁rec ount ing ▁or ▁re - en act ing ▁myth ical ▁events , ▁myth s ▁and ▁rit uals ▁" re - actual ize " ▁those ▁events . ▁El ia de ▁often ▁uses ▁the ▁term ▁" arch et ypes " ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁the ▁myth ical ▁models ▁established ▁by ▁the ▁Sac red , ▁although ▁El ia de ' s ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁should ▁be ▁distinguished ▁from ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁in ▁Jung ian ▁psych ology . ▁ ▁Thus , ▁arg ues |
▁El ia de , ▁religious ▁behavior ▁does ▁not ▁only ▁comm emor ate , ▁but ▁also ▁particip ates ▁in , ▁sacred ▁events : ▁ ▁In ▁im it ating ▁the ▁exempl ary ▁acts ▁of ▁a ▁god ▁or ▁of ▁a ▁myth ical ▁hero , ▁or ▁simply ▁by ▁rec ount ing ▁their ▁advent ures , ▁the ▁man ▁of ▁an ▁arch a ic ▁society ▁det aches ▁himself ▁from ▁prof ane ▁time ▁and ▁mag ically ▁re - ent ers ▁the ▁Great ▁Time , ▁the ▁sacred ▁time . ▁ ▁El ia de ▁called ▁this ▁concept ▁the ▁" et ernal ▁return " ▁( dist ingu ished ▁from ▁the ▁philosoph ical ▁concept ▁of ▁" et ernal ▁return "). ▁Wend y ▁Don iger ▁noted ▁that ▁El ia de ' s ▁theory ▁of ▁the ▁et ernal ▁return ▁" has ▁become ▁a ▁tr u ism ▁in ▁the ▁study ▁of ▁relig ions ". ▁ ▁El ia de ▁attributes ▁the ▁well - known ▁" cyc lic " ▁vision ▁of ▁time ▁in ▁ancient ▁thought ▁to ▁belief ▁in ▁the ▁et ernal ▁return . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁New ▁Year ▁cer emon ies ▁among ▁the ▁Mes op ot ami ans , ▁the ▁Egypt ians , ▁and ▁other ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁pe op les ▁re - en act ed ▁their ▁cosm og onic ▁myth s . ▁Therefore , ▁by ▁the ▁logic ▁of ▁the ▁et ernal ▁return , ▁each ▁New ▁Year ▁ceremony ▁was ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁for ▁these ▁pe op les . ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁these ▁pe op les ▁felt ▁a ▁need ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁Begin ning |
▁at ▁regular ▁intervals , ▁turning ▁time ▁into ▁a ▁circle .< ref > E lia de , ▁M yth ▁and ▁Re ality , ▁p . 4 7 – 4 9 </ ref > ▁ ▁El ia de ▁arg ues ▁that ▁year ning ▁to ▁remain ▁in ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age ▁causes ▁a ▁" ter ror ▁of ▁history ": ▁traditional ▁man ▁des ires ▁to ▁escape ▁the ▁linear ▁succession ▁of ▁events ▁( which , ▁El ia de ▁indicated , ▁he ▁viewed ▁as ▁empty ▁of ▁any ▁inher ent ▁value ▁or ▁sac ral ity ). ▁El ia de ▁suggests ▁that ▁the ▁abandon ment ▁of ▁myth ical ▁thought ▁and ▁the ▁full ▁accept ance ▁of ▁linear , ▁historical ▁time , ▁with ▁its ▁" ter ror ", ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁reasons ▁for ▁modern ▁man ' s ▁anx iet ies . ▁Trad itional ▁soci eties ▁escape ▁this ▁anx iety ▁to ▁an ▁extent , ▁as ▁they ▁refuse ▁to ▁completely ▁acknow ledge ▁historical ▁time . ▁ ▁Co inc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁El ia de ▁claims ▁that ▁many ▁myth s , ▁rit uals , ▁and ▁myst ical ▁experiences ▁involve ▁a ▁" co inc idence ▁of ▁oppos ites ", ▁or ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um . ▁In ▁fact , ▁he ▁calls ▁the ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁" the ▁myth ical ▁pattern ". ▁Many ▁myth s , ▁El ia de ▁notes , ▁" present ▁us ▁with ▁a ▁two fold ▁revel ation ": ▁they ▁express ▁on ▁the ▁one ▁hand ▁the ▁diam et rical ▁opposition ▁of ▁two ▁divine ▁figures ▁spr ung ▁from ▁one ▁and |
▁the ▁same ▁principle ▁and ▁dest ined , ▁in ▁many ▁versions , ▁to ▁be ▁recon ci led ▁at ▁some ▁ill ud ▁temp us ▁of ▁es chat ology , ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁other , ▁the ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁in ▁the ▁very ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁div inity , ▁which ▁shows ▁itself , ▁by ▁turns ▁or ▁even ▁simultaneously , ▁bene vol ent ▁and ▁terrible , ▁cre ative ▁and ▁destruct ive , ▁solar ▁and ▁ser pent ine , ▁and ▁so ▁on ▁( in ▁other ▁words , ▁actual ▁and ▁potential ). ▁El ia de ▁arg ues ▁that ▁" Y ah we h ▁is ▁both ▁kind ▁and ▁wr ath ful ; ▁the ▁God ▁of ▁the ▁Christian ▁myst ics ▁and ▁the olog ians ▁is ▁terrible ▁and ▁gentle ▁at ▁once ". ▁He ▁also ▁thought ▁that ▁the ▁Indian ▁and ▁Chinese ▁myst ic ▁tried ▁to ▁att ain ▁" a ▁state ▁of ▁perfect ▁ind ifference ▁and ▁neutral ity " ▁that ▁resulted ▁in ▁a ▁coinc idence ▁of ▁oppos ites ▁in ▁which ▁" ple asure ▁and ▁pain , ▁desire ▁and ▁rep ulsion , ▁cold ▁and ▁heat ▁[...] ▁are ▁exp ung ed ▁from ▁his ▁aw aren ess ". ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁the ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ’ s ▁appeal ▁lies ▁in ▁" man ' s ▁deep ▁diss atisf action ▁with ▁his ▁actual ▁situation , ▁with ▁what ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁human ▁condition ". ▁In ▁many ▁myth ologies , ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age ▁involves ▁a ▁" fall ", ▁a ▁fundamental ▁" ont ological ▁change ▁in ▁the ▁structure ▁of |
▁the ▁World ". ▁Because ▁the ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁is ▁a ▁contradiction , ▁it ▁represents ▁a ▁den ial ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁current ▁logical ▁structure , ▁a ▁revers al ▁of ▁the ▁" fall ". ▁ ▁Also , ▁traditional ▁man ' s ▁diss atisf action ▁with ▁the ▁post - my th ical ▁age ▁express es ▁itself ▁as ▁a ▁feeling ▁of ▁being ▁" t orn ▁and ▁separate ". ▁In ▁many ▁myth ologies , ▁the ▁lost ▁myth ical ▁age ▁was ▁a ▁Parad ise , ▁" a ▁par ado x ical ▁state ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁contr aries ▁exist ▁side ▁by ▁side ▁without ▁conflict , ▁and ▁the ▁multip lications ▁form ▁aspects ▁of ▁a ▁myster ious ▁Unity ". ▁The ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁express es ▁a ▁wish ▁to ▁recover ▁the ▁lost ▁unity ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁Parad ise , ▁for ▁it ▁presents ▁a ▁recon c ili ation ▁of ▁oppos ites ▁and ▁the ▁un ification ▁of ▁divers ity : ▁On ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁pre - system atic ▁thought , ▁the ▁mystery ▁of ▁tot ality ▁emb od ies ▁man ' s ▁ende avor ▁to ▁reach ▁a ▁perspective ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁contr aries ▁are ▁abol ished , ▁the ▁Spirit ▁of ▁Ev il ▁reve als ▁itself ▁as ▁a ▁stim ul ant ▁of ▁Good , ▁and ▁Dem ons ▁appear ▁as ▁the ▁night ▁aspect ▁of ▁the ▁God s . ▁ ▁Exception s ▁to ▁the ▁general ▁nature ▁ ▁El ia de ▁acknowled ges ▁that ▁not ▁all ▁religious ▁behavior ▁has ▁all ▁the ▁attributes ▁described ▁in ▁his ▁theory ▁of ▁sacred ▁time ▁and ▁the |
▁et ernal ▁return . ▁The ▁Z oro ast rian , ▁Jewish , ▁Christian , ▁and ▁Muslim ▁trad itions ▁em brace ▁linear , ▁historical ▁time ▁as ▁sacred ▁or ▁capable ▁of ▁san ct ification , ▁while ▁some ▁Eastern ▁trad itions ▁largely ▁reject ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁sacred ▁time , ▁seeking ▁escape ▁from ▁the ▁cycles ▁of ▁time . ▁ ▁Because ▁they ▁contain ▁rit uals , ▁J uda ism ▁and ▁Christian ity ▁necessarily — E lia de ▁arg ues — ret ain ▁a ▁sense ▁of ▁cy clic ▁time : ▁by ▁the ▁very ▁fact ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁religion , ▁Christian ity ▁had ▁to ▁keep ▁at ▁least ▁one ▁myth ical ▁aspect — lit urg ical ▁Time , ▁that ▁is , ▁the ▁periodic ▁redis cover y ▁of ▁the ▁ill ud ▁temp us ▁of ▁the ▁beg inn ings ▁[ and ] ▁an ▁im itation ▁of ▁the ▁Christ ▁as ▁exempl ary ▁pattern . ▁ ▁However , ▁J uda ism ▁and ▁Christian ity ▁do ▁not ▁see ▁time ▁as ▁a ▁circle ▁end lessly ▁turning ▁on ▁itself ; ▁nor ▁do ▁they ▁see ▁such ▁a ▁cycle ▁as ▁des irable , ▁as ▁a ▁way ▁to ▁particip ate ▁in ▁the ▁Sac red . ▁Instead , ▁these ▁relig ions ▁em brace ▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁linear ▁history ▁progress ing ▁toward ▁the ▁Mess ian ic ▁Age ▁or ▁the ▁Last ▁Jud gment , ▁thus ▁initi ating ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁" progress " ▁( hum ans ▁are ▁to ▁work ▁for ▁a ▁Parad ise ▁in ▁the ▁future ). ▁However , ▁El ia de ' s ▁understanding ▁of ▁Jud ae o - Christ ian ▁es |
chat ology ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁understood ▁as ▁cy clic al ▁in ▁that ▁the ▁" end ▁of ▁time " ▁is ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁God : ▁" The ▁final ▁cat ast rop he ▁will ▁put ▁an ▁end ▁to ▁history , ▁hence ▁will ▁restore ▁man ▁to ▁et ern ity ▁and ▁beat itude ". ▁ ▁The ▁pre - I sl am ic ▁Pers ian ▁religion ▁of ▁Z oro ast rian ism , ▁which ▁made ▁a ▁notable ▁" cont ribution ▁to ▁the ▁religious ▁formation ▁of ▁the ▁West ", ▁also ▁has ▁a ▁linear ▁sense ▁of ▁time . ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁the ▁Heb rew s ▁had ▁a ▁linear ▁sense ▁of ▁time ▁before ▁being ▁influenced ▁by ▁Z oro ast rian ism . ▁In ▁fact , ▁El ia de ▁ident ifies ▁the ▁Heb rew s , ▁not ▁the ▁Z oro ast ri ans , ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁culture ▁to ▁truly ▁" val or ize " ▁historical ▁time , ▁the ▁first ▁to ▁see ▁all ▁major ▁historical ▁events ▁as ▁episodes ▁in ▁a ▁continuous ▁divine ▁revel ation . ▁However , ▁El ia de ▁arg ues , ▁J uda ism ▁elabor ated ▁its ▁myth ology ▁of ▁linear ▁time ▁by ▁adding ▁elements ▁borrow ed ▁from ▁Z oro ast rian ism — including ▁eth ical ▁dual ism , ▁a ▁sav ior ▁figure , ▁the ▁future ▁res urre ction ▁of ▁the ▁body , ▁and ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁cos mic ▁progress ▁toward ▁" the ▁final ▁triumph ▁of ▁Good ". ▁ ▁The ▁Indian ▁relig ions ▁of ▁the ▁East ▁generally ▁retain ▁a ▁cy clic ▁view ▁of ▁time — for |
▁instance , ▁the ▁H indu ▁doctrine ▁of ▁kal pas . ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁most ▁relig ions ▁that ▁accept ▁the ▁cy clic ▁view ▁of ▁time ▁also ▁em brace ▁it : ▁they ▁see ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁way ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁sacred ▁time . ▁However , ▁in ▁Buddh ism , ▁J ain ism , ▁and ▁some ▁forms ▁of ▁H indu ism , ▁the ▁Sac red ▁lies ▁outside ▁the ▁flux ▁of ▁the ▁material ▁world ▁( called ▁may a , ▁or ▁" ill usion "), ▁and ▁one ▁can ▁only ▁reach ▁it ▁by ▁esc aping ▁from ▁the ▁cycles ▁of ▁time . ▁Because ▁the ▁Sac red ▁lies ▁outside ▁cy clic ▁time , ▁which ▁conditions ▁humans , ▁people ▁can ▁only ▁reach ▁the ▁Sac red ▁by ▁esc aping ▁the ▁human ▁condition . ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁Y oga ▁techniques ▁aim ▁at ▁esc aping ▁the ▁limitations ▁of ▁the ▁body , ▁allowing ▁the ▁soul ▁( at man ) ▁to ▁rise ▁above ▁may a ▁and ▁reach ▁the ▁Sac red ▁( n ir v ana , ▁m ok sha ). ▁Im ag ery ▁of ▁" fre edom ", ▁and ▁of ▁death ▁to ▁one ' s ▁old ▁body ▁and ▁reb irth ▁with ▁a ▁new ▁body , ▁occur ▁frequently ▁in ▁Y og ic ▁texts , ▁representing ▁escape ▁from ▁the ▁bond age ▁of ▁the ▁temporal ▁human ▁condition . ▁El ia de ▁discuss es ▁these ▁them es ▁in ▁detail ▁in ▁Y oga : ▁Im mort ality ▁and ▁Fre edom . ▁ ▁Symbol ism ▁of ▁the ▁Center ▁ ▁A ▁rec urrent ▁theme ▁in ▁El ia |
de ' s ▁myth ▁analysis ▁is ▁the ▁axis ▁m und i , ▁the ▁Center ▁of ▁the ▁World . ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁the ▁Cos mic ▁Center ▁is ▁a ▁necessary ▁cor ollary ▁to ▁the ▁division ▁of ▁reality ▁into ▁the ▁Sac red ▁and ▁the ▁prof ane . ▁The ▁Sac red ▁contains ▁all ▁value , ▁and ▁the ▁world ▁g ains ▁purpose ▁and ▁meaning ▁only ▁through ▁hier oph an ies : ▁In ▁the ▁hom ogeneous ▁and ▁infinite ▁exp anse , ▁in ▁which ▁no ▁point ▁of ▁reference ▁is ▁possible ▁and ▁hence ▁no ▁orientation ▁is ▁established , ▁the ▁hier oph any ▁reve als ▁an ▁absolute ▁fixed ▁point , ▁a ▁center . ▁ ▁Because ▁prof ane ▁space ▁gives ▁man ▁no ▁orientation ▁for ▁his ▁life , ▁the ▁Sac red ▁must ▁manifest ▁itself ▁in ▁a ▁hier oph any , ▁thereby ▁establish ing ▁a ▁sacred ▁site ▁around ▁which ▁man ▁can ▁orient ▁himself . ▁The ▁site ▁of ▁a ▁hier oph any ▁establish es ▁a ▁" fixed ▁point , ▁a ▁center ". ▁This ▁Center ▁abol ishes ▁the ▁" hom ogene ity ▁and ▁relativ ity ▁of ▁prof ane ▁space ", ▁for ▁it ▁becomes ▁" the ▁central ▁axis ▁for ▁all ▁future ▁orientation ". ▁ ▁A ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁Sac red ▁in ▁prof ane ▁space ▁is , ▁by ▁definition , ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁something ▁breaking ▁through ▁from ▁one ▁plane ▁of ▁existence ▁to ▁another . ▁Therefore , ▁the ▁initial ▁hier oph any ▁that ▁establish es ▁the ▁Center ▁must ▁be ▁a ▁point ▁at ▁which ▁there ▁is ▁contact ▁between ▁different ▁plan es — this , ▁El ia de |
▁arg ues , ▁explains ▁the ▁frequent ▁myth ical ▁imag ery ▁of ▁a ▁Cos mic ▁Tree ▁or ▁P ill ar ▁joining ▁Heaven , ▁Earth , ▁and ▁the ▁under world . ▁ ▁El ia de ▁noted ▁that , ▁when ▁traditional ▁soci eties ▁found ▁a ▁new ▁territory , ▁they ▁often ▁perform ▁consec rating ▁rit uals ▁that ▁re en act ▁the ▁hier oph any ▁that ▁established ▁the ▁Center ▁and ▁founded ▁the ▁world . ▁In ▁addition , ▁the ▁designs ▁of ▁traditional ▁buildings , ▁especially ▁tem ples , ▁usually ▁im itate ▁the ▁myth ical ▁image ▁of ▁the ▁axis ▁m und i ▁joining ▁the ▁different ▁cos mic ▁levels . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁Bab yl onian ▁z igg ur ats ▁were ▁built ▁to ▁res emble ▁cos mic ▁mountains ▁passing ▁through ▁the ▁heaven ly ▁spher es , ▁and ▁the ▁rock ▁of ▁the ▁Temple ▁in ▁Jerusalem ▁was ▁supposed ▁to ▁reach ▁deep ▁into ▁the ▁te hom , ▁or ▁prim ord ial ▁waters . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁logic ▁of ▁the ▁et ernal ▁return , ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁each ▁such ▁symbol ic ▁Center ▁will ▁actually ▁be ▁the ▁Center ▁of ▁the ▁World : ▁It ▁may ▁be ▁said , ▁in ▁general , ▁that ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁sacred ▁and ▁rit ual ▁trees ▁that ▁we ▁meet ▁with ▁in ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁relig ions ▁are ▁only ▁rep lic as , ▁imper fect ▁copies ▁of ▁this ▁exempl ary ▁arch et ype , ▁the ▁Cos mic ▁Tree . ▁Thus , ▁all ▁these ▁sacred ▁trees ▁are ▁thought ▁of ▁as ▁situated ▁at ▁the ▁Centre ▁of ▁the ▁World , ▁and ▁all ▁the ▁rit |
ual ▁trees ▁or ▁posts ▁[...] ▁are , ▁as ▁it ▁were , ▁mag ically ▁project ed ▁into ▁the ▁Centre ▁of ▁the ▁World . ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de ' s ▁interpretation , ▁religious ▁man ▁apparently ▁feels ▁the ▁need ▁to ▁live ▁not ▁only ▁near , ▁but ▁at , ▁the ▁myth ical ▁Center ▁as ▁much ▁as ▁possible , ▁given ▁that ▁the ▁Center ▁is ▁the ▁point ▁of ▁communication ▁with ▁the ▁Sac red . ▁ ▁Thus , ▁El ia de ▁arg ues , ▁many ▁traditional ▁soci eties ▁share ▁common ▁out lines ▁in ▁their ▁myth ical ▁ge ograph ies . ▁In ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁known ▁world ▁is ▁the ▁sacred ▁Center , ▁" a ▁place ▁that ▁is ▁sacred ▁above ▁all "; ▁this ▁Center ▁anch ors ▁the ▁established ▁order . ▁Ar ound ▁the ▁sacred ▁Center ▁lies ▁the ▁known ▁world , ▁the ▁real m ▁of ▁established ▁order ; ▁and ▁beyond ▁the ▁known ▁world ▁is ▁a ▁cha otic ▁and ▁dangerous ▁real m , ▁" pe op led ▁by ▁g hosts , ▁dem ons , ▁[ and ] ▁' fore ign ers ' ▁( who ▁are ▁[ ident ified ▁with ] ▁dem ons ▁and ▁the ▁sou ls ▁of ▁the ▁dead ) ". ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁traditional ▁soci eties ▁place ▁their ▁known ▁world ▁at ▁the ▁Center ▁because ▁( from ▁their ▁perspective ) ▁their ▁known ▁world ▁is ▁the ▁real m ▁that ▁ob e ys ▁a ▁recogn izable ▁order , ▁and ▁it ▁therefore ▁must ▁be ▁the ▁real m ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁Sac red ▁manifest s ▁itself ; ▁the ▁regions ▁beyond ▁the ▁known ▁world |
, ▁which ▁seem ▁strange ▁and ▁foreign , ▁must ▁lie ▁far ▁from ▁the ▁Center , ▁outside ▁the ▁order ▁established ▁by ▁the ▁Sac red . ▁ ▁The ▁High ▁God ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁some ▁" e volution istic " ▁theories ▁of ▁religion , ▁especially ▁that ▁of ▁Edward ▁Burn ett ▁T yl or , ▁cult ures ▁naturally ▁progress ▁from ▁anim ism ▁and ▁poly the ism ▁to ▁mon othe ism . ▁According ▁to ▁this ▁view , ▁more ▁advanced ▁cult ures ▁should ▁be ▁more ▁mon othe istic , ▁and ▁more ▁primitive ▁cult ures ▁should ▁be ▁more ▁poly the istic . ▁However , ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁" prim itive ", ▁pre - ag ric ult ural ▁soci eties ▁believe ▁in ▁a ▁supre me ▁sky - god . ▁Thus , ▁according ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁post - 1 9 th - century ▁sch ol ars ▁have ▁rejected ▁T yl or ' s ▁theory ▁of ▁evolution ▁from ▁anim ism . ▁Based ▁on ▁the ▁discovery ▁of ▁supre me ▁sky - god s ▁among ▁" prim it ives ", ▁El ia de ▁suspect s ▁that ▁the ▁earliest ▁humans ▁worship ed ▁a ▁heaven ly ▁Supreme ▁Being . ▁In ▁Pattern s ▁in ▁Compar ative ▁Religion , ▁he ▁writes , ▁" The ▁most ▁popular ▁prayer ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁is ▁addressed ▁to ▁' O ur ▁Father ▁who ▁art ▁in ▁heaven .' ▁It ▁is ▁possible ▁that ▁man ' s ▁earliest ▁pray ers ▁were ▁addressed ▁to ▁the ▁same ▁heaven ly ▁father ." ▁ ▁However , ▁El ia de ▁disag rees ▁with ▁Wilhelm ▁Schmidt , ▁who ▁thought ▁the ▁earliest |
▁form ▁of ▁religion ▁was ▁a ▁strict ▁mon othe ism . ▁El ia de ▁dismiss es ▁this ▁theory ▁of ▁" prim ord ial ▁mon othe ism " ▁( U rm on othe ismus ) ▁as ▁" rig id " ▁and ▁un work able . ▁" At ▁most ," ▁he ▁writes , ▁" this ▁schema ▁[ Sch midt ' s ▁theory ] ▁rend ers ▁an ▁account ▁of ▁human ▁[ rel ig ious ] ▁evolution ▁since ▁the ▁Pale ol ith ic ▁era ". ▁If ▁an ▁U rm on othe ismus ▁did ▁exist , ▁El ia de ▁adds , ▁it ▁probably ▁differ ed ▁in ▁many ▁ways ▁from ▁the ▁conception s ▁of ▁God ▁in ▁many ▁modern ▁mon othe istic ▁faith s : ▁for ▁instance , ▁the ▁prim ord ial ▁High ▁God ▁could ▁manifest ▁himself ▁as ▁an ▁animal ▁without ▁losing ▁his ▁status ▁as ▁a ▁cel est ial ▁Supreme ▁Being . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁heaven ly ▁Supreme ▁Be ings ▁are ▁actually ▁less ▁common ▁in ▁more ▁advanced ▁cult ures . ▁El ia de ▁spec ul ates ▁that ▁the ▁discovery ▁of ▁agricult ure ▁brought ▁a ▁host ▁of ▁fert ility ▁gods ▁and ▁god d esses ▁into ▁the ▁fore front , ▁causing ▁the ▁cel est ial ▁Supreme ▁Being ▁to ▁fade ▁away ▁and ▁eventually ▁van ish ▁from ▁many ▁ancient ▁relig ions . ▁Even ▁in ▁primitive ▁h unter - g ather er ▁soci eties , ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁is ▁a ▁vague , ▁distant ▁figure , ▁dwell ing ▁high ▁above ▁the ▁world . ▁O ften ▁he ▁has ▁no ▁cult ▁and ▁receives ▁prayer ▁only |
▁as ▁a ▁last ▁resort , ▁when ▁all ▁else ▁has ▁failed . ▁El ia de ▁calls ▁the ▁distant ▁High ▁God ▁a ▁de us ▁o ti os us ▁(" id le ▁god "). ▁ ▁In ▁belief ▁systems ▁that ▁involve ▁a ▁de us ▁o ti os us , ▁the ▁distant ▁High ▁God ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁closer ▁to ▁humans ▁during ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age . ▁After ▁finishing ▁his ▁works ▁of ▁creation , ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁" for so ok ▁the ▁earth ▁and ▁with d rew ▁into ▁the ▁highest ▁heaven ". ▁This ▁is ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁distance ▁from ▁" prof ane " ▁life , ▁life ▁lived ▁after ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age : ▁by ▁esc aping ▁from ▁the ▁prof ane ▁condition ▁through ▁religious ▁behavior , ▁figures ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁sh aman ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁conditions ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age , ▁which ▁include ▁near ness ▁to ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁(" by ▁his ▁flight ▁or ▁asc ension , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁[...] ▁meets ▁the ▁God ▁of ▁Heaven ▁face ▁to ▁face ▁and ▁speak s ▁directly ▁to ▁him , ▁as ▁man ▁sometimes ▁did ▁in ▁il lo ▁temp ore "). ▁The ▁sh aman istic ▁behav iors ▁surrounding ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁are ▁a ▁particularly ▁clear ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁et ernal ▁return . ▁ ▁Sh aman ism ▁ ▁Over view ▁ ▁El ia de ' s ▁scholar ly ▁work ▁includes ▁a ▁study ▁of ▁sh aman ism , ▁Sh aman ism : ▁Arch a ic ▁Te chni ques ▁of ▁E c st asy , ▁a ▁survey ▁of ▁sh aman |
istic ▁practices ▁in ▁different ▁areas . ▁His ▁M yth s , ▁Dream s ▁and ▁Myst eries ▁also ▁addresses ▁sh aman ism ▁in ▁some ▁detail . ▁ ▁In ▁Sh aman ism , ▁El ia de ▁arg ues ▁for ▁a ▁restrict ive ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁word ▁sh aman : ▁it ▁should ▁not ▁apply ▁to ▁just ▁any ▁mag ician ▁or ▁medicine ▁man , ▁as ▁that ▁would ▁make ▁the ▁term ▁redundant ; ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁he ▁arg ues ▁against ▁restrict ing ▁the ▁term ▁to ▁the ▁pract ition ers ▁of ▁the ▁sacred ▁of ▁Si ber ia ▁and ▁Central ▁Asia ▁( it ▁is ▁from ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁titles ▁for ▁this ▁function , ▁namely , ▁š am án , ▁considered ▁by ▁El ia de ▁to ▁be ▁of ▁T ung us ic ▁origin , ▁that ▁the ▁term ▁itself ▁was ▁introduced ▁into ▁Western ▁languages ). ▁El ia de ▁defines ▁a ▁sh aman ▁as ▁follows : ▁he ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁c ure , ▁like ▁all ▁do ctors , ▁and ▁to ▁perform ▁m ira cles ▁of ▁the ▁f ak ir ▁type , ▁like ▁all ▁mag icians ▁[...] ▁But ▁beyond ▁this , ▁he ▁is ▁a ▁psych op omp , ▁and ▁he ▁may ▁also ▁be ▁a ▁priest , ▁myst ic , ▁and ▁poet . ▁ ▁If ▁we ▁define ▁sh aman ism ▁this ▁way , ▁El ia de ▁claims , ▁we ▁find ▁that ▁the ▁term ▁covers ▁a ▁collection ▁of ▁phen omena ▁that ▁share ▁a ▁common ▁and ▁unique ▁" structure " ▁and ▁" history ". ▁( When ▁thus ▁defined , ▁sh aman ism ▁tends ▁to ▁occur |
▁in ▁its ▁pur est ▁forms ▁in ▁hunting ▁and ▁past oral ▁soci eties ▁like ▁those ▁of ▁Si ber ia ▁and ▁Central ▁Asia , ▁which ▁re vere ▁a ▁cel est ial ▁High ▁God ▁" on ▁the ▁way ▁to ▁becoming ▁a ▁de us ▁o ti os us ". ▁El ia de ▁takes ▁the ▁sh aman ism ▁of ▁those ▁regions ▁as ▁his ▁most ▁representative ▁example .) ▁ ▁In ▁his ▁exam in ations ▁of ▁sh aman ism , ▁El ia de ▁emphas izes ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁attribute ▁of ▁reg aining ▁man ' s ▁condition ▁before ▁the ▁" F all " ▁out ▁of ▁sacred ▁time : ▁" The ▁most ▁representative ▁myst ical ▁experience ▁of ▁the ▁arch a ic ▁soci eties , ▁that ▁of ▁sh aman ism , ▁bet ray s ▁the ▁N ost alg ia ▁for ▁Parad ise , ▁the ▁desire ▁to ▁recover ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁freedom ▁and ▁beat itude ▁before ▁' the ▁Fall ' ." ▁This ▁concern — which , ▁by ▁itself , ▁is ▁the ▁concern ▁of ▁almost ▁all ▁religious ▁behavior , ▁according ▁to ▁El ia de — manifest s ▁itself ▁in ▁specific ▁ways ▁in ▁sh aman ism . ▁ ▁Death , ▁res urre ction ▁and ▁secondary ▁functions ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁common ▁sh aman istic ▁them es ▁is ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁supposed ▁death ▁and ▁res urre ction . ▁This ▁occurs ▁in ▁particular ▁during ▁his ▁init iation . ▁O ften , ▁the ▁procedure ▁is ▁supposed ▁to ▁be ▁performed ▁by ▁spirits ▁who ▁dis member ▁the ▁sh aman ▁and ▁strip |
▁the ▁flesh ▁from ▁his ▁b ones , ▁then ▁put ▁him ▁back ▁together ▁and ▁rev ive ▁him . ▁In ▁more ▁than ▁one ▁way , ▁this ▁death ▁and ▁res urre ction ▁represents ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁elev ation ▁above ▁human ▁nature . ▁ ▁First , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁dies ▁so ▁that ▁he ▁can ▁rise ▁above ▁human ▁nature ▁on ▁a ▁quite ▁literal ▁level . ▁After ▁he ▁has ▁been ▁dis member ed ▁by ▁the ▁init iat ory ▁spirits , ▁they ▁often ▁replace ▁his ▁old ▁org ans ▁with ▁new , ▁mag ical ▁ones ▁( the ▁sh aman ▁dies ▁to ▁his ▁prof ane ▁self ▁so ▁that ▁he ▁can ▁rise ▁again ▁as ▁a ▁new , ▁san ct ified , ▁being ). ▁Second , ▁by ▁being ▁reduced ▁to ▁his ▁b ones , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁experiences ▁reb irth ▁on ▁a ▁more ▁symbol ic ▁level : ▁in ▁many ▁hunting ▁and ▁her ding ▁soci eties , ▁the ▁b one ▁represents ▁the ▁source ▁of ▁life , ▁so ▁reduction ▁to ▁a ▁ske leton ▁" is ▁equivalent ▁to ▁re - ent ering ▁the ▁w omb ▁of ▁this ▁prim ord ial ▁life , ▁that ▁is , ▁to ▁a ▁complete ▁renew al , ▁a ▁myst ical ▁reb irth ". ▁El ia de ▁cons iders ▁this ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁source ▁of ▁life ▁essentially ▁equivalent ▁to ▁the ▁et ernal ▁return . ▁ ▁Third , ▁the ▁sh aman istic ▁phenomen on ▁of ▁repeated ▁death ▁and ▁res urre ction ▁also ▁represents ▁a ▁trans fig uration ▁in ▁other ▁ways . ▁The ▁sh aman ▁dies ▁not ▁once ▁but ▁many ▁times : ▁having ▁died |
▁during ▁init iation ▁and ▁ris en ▁again ▁with ▁new ▁powers , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁can ▁send ▁his ▁spirit ▁out ▁of ▁his ▁body ▁on ▁err ands ; ▁thus , ▁his ▁whole ▁career ▁consists ▁of ▁repeated ▁death s ▁and ▁res urre ctions . ▁The ▁sh aman ' s ▁new ▁ability ▁to ▁die ▁and ▁return ▁to ▁life ▁shows ▁that ▁he ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁bound ▁by ▁the ▁laws ▁of ▁prof ane ▁time , ▁particularly ▁the ▁law ▁of ▁death : ▁" the ▁ability ▁to ▁' die ' ▁and ▁come ▁to ▁life ▁again ▁[...] ▁denotes ▁that ▁[ the ▁sh aman ] ▁has ▁sur pass ed ▁the ▁human ▁condition ". ▁ ▁Having ▁ris en ▁above ▁the ▁human ▁condition , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁is ▁not ▁bound ▁by ▁the ▁flow ▁of ▁history . ▁Therefore , ▁he ▁enjo ys ▁the ▁conditions ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age . ▁In ▁many ▁myth s , ▁humans ▁can ▁speak ▁with ▁animals ; ▁and , ▁after ▁their ▁initi ations , ▁many ▁sh am ans ▁claim ▁to ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁communicate ▁with ▁animals . ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁this ▁is ▁one ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁return ▁to ▁" the ▁ill ud ▁temp us ▁described ▁to ▁us ▁by ▁the ▁parad is iac ▁myth s ". ▁ ▁The ▁sh aman ▁can ▁descend ▁to ▁the ▁under world ▁or ▁asc end ▁to ▁heaven , ▁often ▁by ▁clim bing ▁the ▁World ▁Tree , ▁the ▁cos mic ▁pill ar , ▁the ▁sacred ▁lad der , ▁or ▁some ▁other ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁axis ▁m und i . ▁O ften , |
▁the ▁sh aman ▁will ▁asc end ▁to ▁heaven ▁to ▁speak ▁with ▁the ▁High ▁God . ▁Because ▁the ▁gods ▁( part icular ly ▁the ▁High ▁God , ▁according ▁to ▁El ia de ' s ▁de us ▁o ti os us ▁concept ) ▁were ▁closer ▁to ▁humans ▁during ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age , ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁easy ▁communication ▁with ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁represents ▁an ▁abol ition ▁of ▁history ▁and ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age . ▁ ▁Because ▁of ▁his ▁ability ▁to ▁communicate ▁with ▁the ▁gods ▁and ▁descend ▁to ▁the ▁land ▁of ▁the ▁dead , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁frequently ▁functions ▁as ▁a ▁psych op omp ▁and ▁a ▁medicine ▁man . ▁ ▁El ia de ' s ▁philosophy ▁ ▁Early ▁contributions ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁his ▁political ▁ess ays , ▁the ▁young ▁Mir ce a ▁El ia de ▁author ed ▁others , ▁philosoph ical ▁in ▁content . ▁Con ne cted ▁with ▁the ▁ide ology ▁of ▁Tr ă ir ism , ▁they ▁were ▁often ▁proph etic ▁in ▁tone , ▁and ▁saw ▁El ia de ▁being ▁ha iled ▁as ▁a ▁her ald ▁by ▁various ▁represent atives ▁of ▁his ▁generation . ▁When ▁El ia de ▁was ▁ 2 1 ▁years ▁old ▁and ▁publishing ▁his ▁It iner ar ▁spiritual , ▁literary ▁critic ▁ Ş er ban ▁Ci oc ules cu ▁described ▁him ▁as ▁" the ▁column ▁leader ▁of ▁the ▁spirit ually ▁myst ical ▁and ▁Orth odox ▁youth ." ▁Ci oc ules cu ▁discussed ▁his ▁" im press ive ▁er ud ition ", ▁but ▁argued ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁" |
occ asion ally ▁ple th or ic , ▁poet ically ▁in eb ri ating ▁itself ▁through ▁ab use ". ▁Ci oc ules cu ' s ▁colle ague ▁Per p ess ici us ▁saw ▁the ▁young ▁author ▁and ▁his ▁generation ▁as ▁marked ▁by ▁" the ▁spect er ▁of ▁war ", ▁a ▁notion ▁he ▁connected ▁to ▁various ▁ess ays ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁and ▁ 3 0 s ▁in ▁which ▁El ia de ▁threatened ▁the ▁world ▁with ▁the ▁ver dict ▁that ▁a ▁new ▁conflict ▁was ▁lo oming ▁( while ▁asking ▁that ▁young ▁people ▁be ▁allowed ▁to ▁manifest ▁their ▁will ▁and ▁fully ▁experience ▁freedom ▁before ▁per ishing ). ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁El ia de ' s ▁noted ▁contributions ▁in ▁this ▁respect ▁was ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 2 ▁Sol ilo qu ii ▁(" Sol ilo qu ies "), ▁which ▁expl ored ▁exist ential ▁philosophy . ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁who ▁saw ▁in ▁it ▁" an ▁echo ▁of ▁N ae ▁I ones cu ' s ▁lect ures ", ▁trac ed ▁a ▁parallel ▁with ▁the ▁ess ays ▁of ▁another ▁of ▁I ones cu ' s ▁dis ci ples , ▁Emil ▁C ior an , ▁while ▁not ing ▁that ▁C ior an ' s ▁were ▁" of ▁a ▁more ▁ex ult ed ▁tone ▁and ▁written ▁in ▁the ▁a ph or istic ▁form ▁of ▁K ier k ega ard ". ▁C ă lines cu ▁recorded ▁El ia de ' s ▁re jection ▁of ▁object ivity , ▁cit ing ▁the ▁author ' s ▁stated ▁ind ifference |
▁towards ▁any ▁" na ï vet é " ▁or ▁" contr ad ict ions " ▁that ▁the ▁reader ▁could ▁possibly ▁repro ach ▁him , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁his ▁dismiss ive ▁thoughts ▁of ▁" the oret ical ▁data " ▁and ▁main stream ▁philosophy ▁in ▁general ▁( E lia de ▁saw ▁the ▁latter ▁as ▁" in ert , ▁infer t ile ▁and ▁path ogen ic "). ▁El ia de ▁thus ▁argued , ▁" a ▁s inc ere ▁brain ▁is ▁un ass ailable , ▁for ▁it ▁den ies ▁itself ▁to ▁any ▁relationship ▁with ▁outside ▁truth s ." ▁ ▁The ▁young ▁writer ▁was ▁however ▁careful ▁to ▁clarify ▁that ▁the ▁existence ▁he ▁took ▁into ▁consideration ▁was ▁not ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁" inst inct s ▁and ▁personal ▁id ios ync ras ies ", ▁which ▁he ▁believed ▁determined ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁many ▁humans , ▁but ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁distinct ▁set ▁compr ising ▁" person al ities ". ▁He ▁described ▁" person al ities " ▁as ▁character ized ▁by ▁both ▁" pur pose " ▁and ▁" a ▁much ▁more ▁complicated ▁and ▁dangerous ▁al ch emy ". ▁This ▁different iation , ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁believed , ▁echo ed ▁I ones cu ' s ▁met ap hor ▁of ▁man , ▁seen ▁as ▁" the ▁only ▁animal ▁who ▁can ▁fail ▁at ▁living ", ▁and ▁the ▁du ck , ▁who ▁" sh all ▁remain ▁a ▁du ck ▁no ▁matter ▁what ▁it ▁does ". ▁According ▁to ▁El ia de , ▁the ▁purpose ▁of ▁personal ities ▁is ▁infinity : ▁" cons ci ously ▁and ▁gl |
or iously ▁bringing ▁[ ex istence ] ▁to ▁waste , ▁into ▁as ▁many ▁sk ies ▁as ▁possible , ▁continu ously ▁ful fill ing ▁and ▁pol ishing ▁ones elf , ▁seeking ▁as cent ▁and ▁not ▁circum ference ." ▁ ▁In ▁El ia de ' s ▁view , ▁two ▁roads ▁await ▁man ▁in ▁this ▁process . ▁One ▁is ▁glory , ▁determined ▁by ▁either ▁work ▁or ▁pro cre ation , ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁the ▁asc etic ism ▁of ▁religion ▁or ▁magic — both , ▁C ă lines cu ▁believed , ▁were ▁aim ed ▁at ▁reaching ▁the ▁absolute , ▁even ▁in ▁those ▁cases ▁where ▁El ia de ▁described ▁the ▁latter ▁as ▁an ▁" aby ss al ▁experience " ▁into ▁which ▁man ▁may ▁take ▁the ▁pl unge . ▁The ▁critic ▁pointed ▁out ▁that ▁the ▁addition ▁of ▁" a ▁mag ical ▁solution " ▁to ▁the ▁options ▁taken ▁into ▁consideration ▁seemed ▁to ▁be ▁El ia de ' s ▁own ▁original ▁contributions ▁to ▁his ▁ment or ' s ▁philosophy , ▁and ▁proposed ▁that ▁it ▁may ▁have ▁ow ed ▁insp iration ▁to ▁Julius ▁E vol a ▁and ▁his ▁dis ci ples . ▁He ▁also ▁recorded ▁that ▁El ia de ▁applied ▁this ▁concept ▁to ▁human ▁creation , ▁and ▁specifically ▁to ▁art istic ▁creation , ▁cit ing ▁him ▁describing ▁the ▁latter ▁as ▁" a ▁mag ical ▁joy , ▁the ▁vict orious ▁break ▁of ▁the ▁iron ▁circle " ▁( a ▁reflection ▁of ▁im itat io ▁dei , ▁having ▁salv ation ▁for ▁its ▁ult imate ▁goal ). ▁ ▁Phil os opher ▁of ▁religion ▁ ▁Anti - |
redu ction ism ▁and ▁the ▁" trans cons cious " ▁By ▁profession , ▁El ia de ▁was ▁a ▁historian ▁of ▁religion . ▁However , ▁his ▁scholar ly ▁works ▁draw ▁heavily ▁on ▁philosoph ical ▁and ▁psych ological ▁termin ology . ▁In ▁addition , ▁they ▁contain ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁philosoph ical ▁arguments ▁about ▁religion . ▁In ▁particular , ▁El ia de ▁often ▁implies ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁a ▁universal ▁psych ological ▁or ▁spiritual ▁" ess ence " ▁behind ▁all ▁religious ▁phen omena . ▁Because ▁of ▁these ▁arguments , ▁some ▁have ▁accused ▁El ia de ▁of ▁over - general ization ▁and ▁" ess ential ism ", ▁or ▁even ▁of ▁prom oting ▁a ▁the ological ▁ag enda ▁under ▁the ▁gu ise ▁of ▁historical ▁scholar ship . ▁However , ▁others ▁argue ▁that ▁El ia de ▁is ▁better ▁understood ▁as ▁a ▁scholar ▁who ▁is ▁willing ▁to ▁open ly ▁discuss ▁sacred ▁experience ▁and ▁its ▁consequences . ▁ ▁In ▁studying ▁religion , ▁El ia de ▁reject s ▁certain ▁" redu ction ist " ▁approaches . ▁El ia de ▁thinks ▁a ▁religious ▁phenomen on ▁cannot ▁be ▁reduced ▁to ▁a ▁product ▁of ▁culture ▁and ▁history . ▁He ▁ins ists ▁that , ▁although ▁religion ▁involves ▁" the ▁social ▁man , ▁the ▁economic ▁man , ▁and ▁so ▁forth ", ▁non eth eless ▁" all ▁these ▁condition ing ▁factors ▁together ▁do ▁not , ▁of ▁themselves , ▁add ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁the ▁spirit ". ▁ ▁Using ▁this ▁anti - redu ction ist ▁position , ▁El ia de ▁arg ues ▁against ▁those ▁who ▁acc use ▁him ▁of |