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1 | A-B | 6 | null | Normal | 2,481 | 3,393 | ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.VOLUME the FIRST. | ||
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1 | A-B | 8 | null | Title | 2,481 | 3,393 | \—-—■ r -dk$fltKJgkEncyclopcedia Britannica;Jama ok, a CfrH&'f /prtJDICTIONARYO FARTS and SCIENCES,C/O VI PILED UPON A NEW PLAN.IN WHICHThe diferent Sciences and Arts are digefted intodiftindl Treatifes or Syftems;AND. The \irious Technical Terms, - are explained as they occurin the order of the Alphabet.ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY COPPERPLATES,By a Society of GENTLEMEN in Scotland.I N T H R E E VOLUMES.VOL. I.EDINBURGH:Printed for A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar;Aid fold by Co l i n Macfa rq.uh a r, at his Printing-office, N.col&n-RreeLM. .UCuL XXI. | ||
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1 | A-B | 10 | null | Normal | 2,481 | 3,393 | PREFACEUTILITY ought to be the principal intention of every publication.Wherever this intention does not plainly appear, neither the booksnor their authors have the finalleft claim to the approbation of mankind.To diffufe the knowledge of Science, is the profefled defign of the fol¬lowing work. What methods, it may be afked, have the compilers em¬ployed to accomplifh this defign ? Not to mention original articles, theyhave had recourse to the belt books upon almoft every fiibject, extractedthe ufeful parts, and rejected whatever appeared trifling or lefs interefl-ing. Inftead of difmembering the Sciences, by attempting to treat themintelligibly under a multitude of technical terms, they have digefted theprinciples of every fcience in the form of fyftems or diffcinct treatifes, andexplained the terms as they occur in the order of the alphabet, with re¬ferences to the fciences to which they belong.As this plan differs from that of all the Dictionaries of Arts and Scien¬ces hitherto publiflied, the compilers think it neceflary to mention whatthey imagine gives it a fuperiority over the common method. A fewwords will anfwer this purpofe. Whoever has had occafion to confidtChambers, Owen, rirc. or even the voluminous French Encyclopedic, willhave difcovered the folly of attempting to communicate fcience under thevarious technical terms arranged in an alphabetical order. Such an at¬tempt is repugnant to the very idea of fcience, which is a connected fe-ries of conclufions deduced from felf-evident or previoufly difcovered prin¬ciples. It is well if a man be capable of comprehending the principlesand relations of the different parts of fcience, when laid before him inone uninterrupted chain. But where is the man who can learn the prin¬ciples of any fcience from a Dictionary compiled upon the plan hithertoadopted? We will, however, venture to affirm, that any man of ordi¬nary parts, may, if he chuf s, learn the principles of Agriculture, of A-ftronomy, of Botany, of Chemiftry, &c. drc. from the EncyclopediaBritann ica.In the execution of this extenfive and multifarious undertaking, theCompilers laboured under many difadvantages, partly arifing from thenature of the work, and partly owing to the following ciicumflance.The | ||
1 | A-B | 11 | null | Normal | 2,481 | 3,393 | vi PREFACE.Th e Editors, though fully fenfible of the propriety of adopting theprefent plan, were not aware of the length of time neceffary for the ex¬ecution, but engaged to begin the publication too early. However, bythe remonflrances of the Compilers, the publication was delayed for twelvemonths. Still time was wanted. But the fubfcribers pufhed the Editors,and they at lafl perfuaded the Compilers to confent to the publication.If time had been allowed, the Compilers defigned to have compleated thefciences before proceeding to the technical terms; and by that means tohave guarded againft omiffions, and made all the references from the termsto the fciences more particular. The conlequence was unavoidable.Ail the references to any fcience that occur in the alphabet previous tothe name of the fcience itfelf, are general: tliofe that follow' are parti¬cular ; pointing out, not only the name of the fcience, but the numberof the? page.We mult further acknowledge, that, in fome in fiances, we have de¬viated from the general plan; but, we hope, not without reafon. For ex¬ample, under the words Botany and Natural History, it would havebeen an endlefs, and perhaps an ufelefs talk, to have given the genericdiftindtions of every plant, and of every animal. Thefe are to be foundunder the names of the plants and animals themfelves. The fame obfei>ration may be made with refpeet to Mineralogy, Materia Medica, Pa¬thology, Pbyftolo'gy, and ‘Therapeutics. Thefe, are fo interwoven withAnatomy, Botany,. Cbcmijiry, and Medicine, that, in a work of this kind,it was almoft impoffible, without many unneceflary repetitions, totreat them as diftined fciences. Indeed, properly fpeaking, they are notfciences, but parts or acceffbries of fciences, which, by the dexterity ofteachers and authors, have been long exhibited under that form.With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomi¬nation of mental, typographical, or accidental, we arc confcious of beingable to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men whoare acquainted with the innumerable difficulties attending the executionof a work of fueh an extenfive nature will make proper allowances. 1 othefe we appeal, and fhall refl fatlsfied with the judgment they pronounce.In order to give fame idea,of the materials of which this Dictionary iseompofed, we fhall conclude the preface with a iifl of the principal au¬thors made life of in the compilation.L I S T | ||
1 | A-B | 12 | null | Normal | 2,481 | 3,393 | LIST of A U T H O R S, &c.Albini tabulae- anatomica,Alfton’s Tirocinium botanieum.--—EfTay on the fexes of plants.Bacon’s fylva fy lvarum.Balk, Laurentii, Adolpho-Fredericianum,in Amocn. Acad.Balfour’s philofophical effays.Barrow’s dictionary of arts andfciences.Bertfmud fur l’art de conduire et de re-gler les pendules et les inontres.Bartlet’s farriery.Bielfield’s univerfal erudition.”Brookes’s practice of phyfic.-—natural hiftory.Brown de or tit animalium caloris.Bouffon’s bijloire nature lie.Byrom’s Ihort-hand writing.Calmet’s dictionary of the bible.Campbell’sdiffertation on miracles.Catefby’s natural hiftory of Carolina,Florida, &c.Chambers’s dictionary of arts andfciences.Chambers’s architecture.Cheflelden’s anatomy.Cotes’s hydroftatical lectures*Cowper’s myotomia reformat a.Crocker’s dictionary of arts andfciences.Cullen’s fynopfis nofologia methodicx.-MS. 1 Clares.-Derham’s phyfieo-theology.Dickfon’s agriculture.Le Drail’s furgery.Duncan’s moral philofophy.-Logic.Edwards’s natural hiftory.Elmgren’s• termini 'botanici.Le Grand Encyclopedic.Erfkine’s inftitutes of the law ofScotland.Effays on husbandry.Foreign eflays on agriculture.Effays phyfic al and literary.Euclid’s elements.Euflachii tabulae - anatomies.Franklin on electricity, &c.Fergufon’s aftronomy.--Mechanics.-Hydroftatics and hydraulics.-Dialling.-—-Principles of geography.-Optics.-Pneumatics.Goguet’s origin of laws, arts, andfciences.Gregory’s practical geometry.Grew’s anatomy of plants.Haart-m/m deplantis hybridis, in Amcen.Acad.Du Hamel’s elements of agriculture.Harris’s Hermes.Kaftelquift’s travels.--—de viribus pi ant arum.Haft Rudolphi, Amphibia Gyllenborgi-ana, in Amoen. Acad..Heifter’s furgery.Hill’s Eden.Hiorth de plantis efculentis, in Amoen...Acad.Hiftory of arts and fciences.Hook, s’s philofophical experiments. .Hudfon’s F/ortf Anglic a..Hume’s eflays.Home’s principia medicine.Home | ||
1 | A-B | 13 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | LIST of A U T H O R S, - &c.vijiHome on bl aching.Jack’s conic feCtions.JohnJloni hijloria naturalis.Jortin de plantis tinttoriis, in Arrian.Acad.Lord Kaims’s elements of criticifm.-abridgment of the ftatutes.Langley’s builder’s afllftant.Lee’s botany,Lewis’s dilpenlatory,Linnai Jyflema nature.-Amamitates academica.-Pbilofophia botanica.-Genera plantarum.-Species plantarum.-Fundamenta botanica.Locke on the human underftaiiding.Maclaurin’s fluxions.-Algebra.Macqueer’s chemiftry.Macdowal’sinftitutes of Scots law.Mair’s Book-keeping.-Arithmetick.Miller’s gardener’s dictionary.Monro’s ofteology.-Junior de venis lymphaticis val-vulofis.^Muller’s fortification.Mufceum rujlicum.Newtoni principia.-Lefiiones optica.Owen’s dictionary of arts and (cien**ces.Patoun’s navigation.Earl of Pembroke on horfemanfhip.Pennant’s Britifli zoology.Philofophical tranfaCtions.Polygraphic dictionary.Preceptor.Prieftley’s hiftory of eleCtricity.Rail fynopfis Jlitpium Britannicarum.Rudborgi differtatio depeloria, inAmam.Acad.Rutherforth’s natural philofophy.Sale’s Koran and life of Mahomed.Sandeman de Rheo palmato.Seba rerum naturalium thefaurus.Sharp’s furgery.Sloane’s natural hiftory of Jamaica.Smellie’s midwifery.Smith’s optics.Sir James Stewart’s political oeco-nomy.Swan’s architecture.Sundii Surinamenfia Grilliana, inAmam.Acad.Toumefort’s fyftem of botany. 'Try dell’s theory and practice of mu-lick.Ulloa’s voyages.Voltaire’s eflay on tafte.Wahlbomii fponfalia plantarum, in A-mam. Acad.Dr Whytt’s works.Wildman on bees.Willoughby’s ornithologia.-Ichthy ograpbia.Window’s anatomy.Worcefter’s natural philofophy.Young on compofition.Gazetteers, Pamphlets, Magazines, and other periodical publications ; be-fides many books mentioned in the work itfelf. | ||
1 | A-B | 14 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | Encyclopaedia Britannica;Or, A NEW and COMPLETEDICTIONARYO FARTS and SCIENCES.A BABAA A, the name of feveral rivers in different partsof the world, viz. i. of one in Solagne, inFrance; 2. of on? in French Flanders; 3. ofthree in Switzerland; 4. of five in the LowCountries; 5. of five in Weftphalia; 6. ofone in Livonia.AABAM, a term, among alchemifts, for lead.AACH, the name of a town and river in Swabia. It isalfo a name fometimes given to Aix-la-chapelle.AADE, the name of two rivers, one in the country ofthe Grifons in Switzerland, and the other in DutchBrabant.AAHUS, a fmall town and diftrifl; in Weftphalia.A AM, a Dutch meafure for liquids, containing about63 lb. ayoirdupoife.AAMA, a province in Barbary, very little known.AAR, the name of two rivers, one in Weftphalia, and onein Switzerland, It is likewife the name of a fmallifland in the Baltic fea.AARSEO, a town in Africa, fituated near the mouth ofthe river Mina.AATTER, or Atter, a province of Arabia Felix, fi¬tuated on the Red-fea.—N. B. AH other places whichbegin with a double A, but more generally with,aAngle one, will be inferted according to the laff ortho¬graphy.. vAB, the eleventh month of the civil year of the Hebrews.It correfponds to paft of our June and July, and con-fifts of 30 days. On the firCt of this month the Jewscommemorate the death of Aaron by a faft : they fallalfo on th? ninth, becaufe on that day both the templeof Solomon and that ereified after the captivity wereburnt. The. fame day is alfo remarkable for the publi¬cation of Adrian’s edi£t, prohibiting the Jews to lookback, evemwhen at a di(lance, upon Jerusalem, or toVox. I. No. 1.lament its 'defolation. The lamp of the fan&uary, inthe time of Ahaz, was extinguiihed on the night of thei8th, for which reafon the Jews fait that day. SeeAstronomy, Of the div'tjion of time.AB, in the Syriac kalendar, is the name of the lad furp-mer-month.ABACATUAIA, in ichthyology, a barbarous name ofthe zeus vomer, a filh belonging to the thoracic ordirofLinnxus. See Zeus.ABACAY, a barbarous name of a fpecies of the pfittacus,or parrot. See PstTTACus.ABACH, a town in Bavaria, fituated on the Danube,a little above Ratifbon.ABACISCUS. See Abacus.ABACO, a term, among ancient writers, for arithmetic.ABACOA, the name of one of the Bahama iflands.See Bahama.ABACOT, the name of an ancient cap of (late worn bythe kings of England, the upper part whereof was inthe form of a double crown.ABACTORES, or Abac tors, a term for fuch ascarry off or drive away a whole herd of cattle by Health.ABACTUS, an obfolete term, among phyficians, for amifcarriage procured by art.ABACUS, a table ftrewed over with dud or fand, uponwhich the ancient mathematicians drew their figures,It alfo fignified a cupboard, or buffet.ABACUS, in architecture, lignifies the fuperior part ormember of the capital of a column, and ferves as akind of crowning to both. It was originally intendedto reprefent a fquare tile covering a bafket. The formof the abacus is not the fame in all orders: in theTufcan, Doric, and Ionic, it'is generally fquare; butin the Corinthian and Compofite, its four fides arearched inwards, and embelli(hed in the middle withA fome | ||
1 | A-B | 15 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | ABA ( 2 ) ABBfome ornament, as a rofe or other flower. Scammozziufes abacus for a concave moulding on the capital ofthe Tufcan pedeftal; and Palladio calls the plinth a-bove the echinus, or boultin, in the Tufcan and Doricorders, by the fame name. See plate I. fig. i. andArchitecture.Abacus is alfo the name of an ancient inftrument forfacilitating operations in arithmetic. It is variouflycontrived. That chiefly ufed in Europe is made bydrawing any number of parallel lines at the diftance oftwo diameters of one of the counters ufed in the cal¬culation. A counter placed outhe lo weft line, fignifies r;on the 2d, io; on the 3d, ioo; on the 4th, 1000, &c.In the intermediate fpaces, the fame counters are efti-inated at one half of the value of the line immediatelyfuperior, viz. between the ift and 2d, 5; betweenthe 2d and 3d, 50, &c. See plate I. fig. 2. A B,where the fame number, 1768 for example, is reprefent-ed under both by different difpofitions of the counters.Abacus harmonious, among muficians, the arrangementof the keys of a mufical inftrument.Abacus logijitcus, a right-angled triangle, whofe fidesforming the right angle contain the numbers from 1 todo, and its area the fadta of every two of the numbersperpendicularly oppofite. This is alfo called a canonof fexagefimals.h^evs Pytbagoricus, the multiplication-table, or anytable of numbers that facilitates operations in arith¬metic.ABADAN, a town of Perfia, fituatednear the mouth ofthe Tygris.ABADDON, from a bad, to deftroy; a name given bySt John, in the Revelations, to the king of the locufts.ABADIR, a title which the Carthaginians gave to godsof the firft order. In the Roman mythology, it is thename of a ftone which Saturn fwallowed, believing.itto be his new-born fon Jupiter: hence it became theobject of religious worfhip.ABiERE, a town in the defarts of Arabia.ABAFT, a fea-term, fignifying towards the fern: forinftance, abaft the mtzzen-maf, implies, that the ob¬ject is between the mizzen-maft and the. ftern.ABAI, in botany, a fynonime of the calycanthus praecox,a genus of plants belonging to the icofandria polygyniaclafs of Linnaeus. See Calycanthus.ABAISSE. See Abased.ABALIENATION. See Alienation.ABANBO, a river of Ethiopia which falls into the Nile.ABANCAI, or Abancays, a town and river of Peru,in the diftridt of Lima.ABANO, a fmall town in Italy, fubjedt to Venice, andfituated five miles fouth-weft of Padua.ABAPTISTON, or Anabaptiston, an obfolete termfor the chirurgical inftrument called a trepan. SeeSurgery, and Trepan.ABARCA, a ihoe made of raw hides, formerly wornby the peafants in Spain.ABARTICULATION, in anatomy, a fpecies of arti¬culation which is now termed dtarthrofs. See Ana¬tomy, Part I. and Diart hr ofs.ABAS, a weight ufed in Perfia for weighing pearls. It isl-8th lefs than the European carat. *' •ABASCIA, the country of the Alcas. SeeALCAS.ABAISED, Abaijfe, in heraldry, an epithet applied to' the wings of eagles, &c. when the tip looks downwardsto the point of thefhield, or. when the wings are fhut;the natural way of bearing them being extended.ABASING, in the fea-language, fignifies the fame asftriking.ABASSI, or Abassis, a filver coin current in Perfia,.equivalent in value to a French livre, or tenpence half¬penny Sterling. It took its name from Schaw Abas II.king of Perfia, under whom it was ft ruck.ABATAMENTUM, in law, is an entry to lands by in-terpofition, i. e. when a perfon dies feized, and anotherwho has no right enters before the heir.ABATE, from abatre, to deftroy; a term ufed by thewriters of the common law, both in an adtive and neu¬tral fenfe; as, to abate a caftle, is to deftroy or beat itdown,; to abate a writ, is, by fome exception to ren¬der it null and void.Abate, in the manage, implies the performance of anydownward motion properly. Hence a horfe is faid toabate, or take down his curvets, when he puts bothhis hind-legs to the ground at once, and obferves thefame exadtnefs in all the times.ABATEMENT, in heraldry, implies fomething addedto a coat of arms in order to lefl’en its dignity, and pointout fome.imperfedlion or llain in the charadter of thewearer.Abatement,: in law. See Abate.Abatement, in commerce, fignifies an allowance ordifeount in the price of certain commodities, in confi-deration of prompt payment; a diminution in the ftipu-lated quantity or quality of goods, or fome fuch cir-cumftance.Abatement, in the cuftoms, an allowance made uponthe duty of goods, when the quantum damaged is deter¬mined by the judgment of two merchants upon oath,and afeertained by a certificate from the furveyor andland-waiter.ABATIS, an ancient term for an officer of the (tables.ABATOR, in law, a term applied to a perfon who entersto a houfe or lands, void by the death of the laft pof-feffor, before the true heir.ABAVO, in botany, a fynonime of the adanfonia, a(hrub belonging to the monadelphia polyandria of Lin¬naeus. See Adansonta.ABAYANCE. See Abeyance.ABB, a term, among clothiers, applied to the yarn of aweaver’s warp. They alfo fay Abb-wool in the famefenfe.ABBA, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, literallyfignifies a father; and figuratively, a fuperior, reputedas a father in refpedt of age, dignity, or affeftion. It isalfo a Jewifh title of honour given to fome of the clafscalled Tanaites.ABBAT. See Abbot.ABBATIS. See Abatis.ABBEFORD, a fea-port town in Norway, in 58. 44.N. lat.ABBESS, the fuperior of an abbey or convent of nuns,over whom (he has the fame authority as the abbots overthe monks. Their fex indeed hinders them from per¬forming | ||
1 | A-B | 16 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | ABB C 3 )forming the fpiritual-fundlions; but in the 12 th centurythere were abefles in Spain who gave benedictions, andconfefi’ed people of both fexes.ABBEVILLE, a large city of Piccardy in France, ly¬ing 90 miles north of Paris, in 50. 7. N. lat. and2. o. E. long.ABBEY, a religious houfe, governed by an abbot, whereperfons retire from the world, to fpend their time infolitude and devotion. By the invention of maflesfor the living and the dead, difpenfations, jubilees,indulgences, &c. the abbeys procured fuch large pri¬vileges, exemptions, and donations, that, when thefe _houfes were totally aboli/hed in England by HenryVIII. to the number of 190, an yearly revenue ofL. 2,853,000 reverted to the crown.ABBEY-BOYLE, a town in the county of Rofcom-mon in Ireland.ABBOT, the fuperior of an abbey or convent of monks.In the firft ages of Chriftianity, the abbots were plaindifinterefted men, and lived contented with the go¬vernment of their monafteries, which were generallyeredled in the moft folitary parts: but being calledfrom their deferts to oppofe the herefies in the church,they foon began- to entertain fentiments of ambition,and endeavoured"to /hake off their dependency on thebi/hops. Hence arofe the diltindhons of mitred abbots,crofieredabbots, (ecumenical abbots, cardinal abbots,,5tc.The principal diftindlien which fubfifls at prefent amongabbots, is that of regular and commendatory, the formerof which take the vow, and wear the habit of the or¬der ; the latter are feculars, though they are obligedto take orders at the proper age. Before the Refor¬mation in England, there were abbots elective and re-prefentative ; fome mitred, and others not. The mi¬tred abbots were inverted with epifcopal authoritywithin their own limits, independent of the bi/hop;but the others were fubjedt to the diocefan in all fpi-ritual government. The mitred abbots were Lords ofparliament, of which number Sir Edward Coke rec¬kons 27, who fat in parliament, befides two LordsPriors.ABBREVIATE of adjudications, in Scots law, an ab-ftradt or abridgment of a decreet of adjudication, whichis recQrded in a regifter kept for that purpofe.. SeeScots Law, title, Adjudications.ABBREVIATION, or Abbreviature, implies thefubftitution of a fyllable, letter, or charadter, for awhole word-ABBREVIATOR, a perfon who abridges any largebook into a narrower compafs.-ABBREVIATORS, a college of 72 perfons in the chan¬cery of Rome, who draw up the pope’s brieves, andreduce petitions into proper form.-ABBREVOIR, a term in mafonry, expreffive of cer¬tain indentures made in the joints or beds of ftones,which being filled with the cement or mortar, bindthem firmer together.ABBROCHMENT. See Abrochment.ABBUTTALS, figr.ify the buttings or bourfdings ofland towards any point. Limits were anciently diftin-gui/hed by artificial hillocks, which were called boten-A B Etines, and hence butting. In adefeription of the fiteof land, the fides on the breadth are more properlyadjacentes, and thofe terminating the length are abb te¬tanies ; which, in old furveys, were fometimes ex-,preffed by capitare, to head; whence abbuttals-arenow called head lands.ABC ASSES, a people or country in Alia, fituate be¬tween Circafiia, the Black-fea, and Mingrelia.ABCDARIA, in botany, a fynonime of the verbefinaacmella. See Verbesina.ABCDARY, or Abcdarian, an epithet applied to com-pofitions, whofe parts are difpofed in an alphabeticalABDALS, or fervants of God, in the Eaftern coun¬tries; furious enthufiafts, who frequently run aboutthe ftreets, deftroying all who differ from them in re¬ligious opinions.ABDELAVI, in botany, a name ufed by Arabian wri¬ters for a fpecies of cucumis. See Cucumis.ABDEST, a term ufed for the legal purifications bywater, p radii fed among the Mahometans and Perfiansbefore they begin their religious ceremonies.ABDICARIAN proportion, in logic, the fame with anegative one. See Logic, and Proportion.ABDICATION, the adtion of renouncing or giving upan office.ABDOMEN, in anatomy, is that part of the trunk ofthe body which lies between the thorax and the bot¬tom of the pelvis. See Anatomy, part VI.ABDUCTION, a form of reufoning among logicians,which confifts in drawing conclufions from certain andundeniable propofitions. See Logic.Abduction, in furgery, a fpecies of fradture whereinthe broken parts of the bone recede from each other.See Surgery, Of fraftures.ABDUCTOR, in anatomy, the name of feveral mufcles-which ferve to open or draw back the parts to whichthey are fixed. See Anatomy, Part VI.ABEL-TREE, or Abel e-tree, an obfolete name fora fpecies of the poplar. See Populus.ABELIANS, Abeloites, or Abelonians, afedtefheretics that fprung up near Hippo in Africa duringthe reign of Arcadius. They had one dirtingui/hingand extraordinary tenet, which was to marry, but ne¬ver to confummate.ABELMOSC1I, or Abelmusch, in botany, the trivialname of a fpecies of the hibifeus. See Hibiscus.ABENSBURG, or Abensperg, a fmall town in Bk-varia, on the river Abenae, near the Danube.ABERBROTHOCK, one of the royal boroughs ofScotland, fitnated in the county of Angus; about 40miles north of Edinburgh. Its weft long, is 2. 20.’ and N. lat. 56. 30. There was formeily one of thericheft monafteries in Scotland in this town. It wasfounded by King Wiliiam of Scotland about the year1170, in honour of Thomas Becket Arclibi/hop ofCanterbury, with whom he is faid to have been in¬timately acquainted. This monaftery received confi-derable donations from Gilchrift Earl of Angus,, andGilbred his fon. It was pofl'effed by the monks of §tBennet. The inhabitants of Aberbrothock, for. thefake | ||
1 | A-B | 17 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A B R. ( 4 ) A IB 1fake of their monadery, were made denifofts of allEngland (London excepted) by King John.ABERDEEN, the name of two cities in Scotland, tail¬ed the Old and New Tuvins, fituated on the GermanOcean, in i 45. W. Ion. and 57. 1I. N. lat.The old town lies about a mile to the north of thenew, at the mouth of the river Don, over which is a.line bridge, of a Angle arch, which reds at both fideson two rocks. The old tov/n was formerly the feat ofthe bifhop, and had a large cathedral church, com¬monly called St Macber’s. This cathedral had an-• ciently two rows of (lone pillars acrofs .the chuich,and three turrets ; the deeple, which was the larged ofthefe turrets, refted upon an arch, fupported by fourpillars. In this cathedral there was a fine library;but about the year 1560 it waf almod totally deftroyedBut the capital building is the King’s-college, on thefouth fide of the town, which is a large and (lately fa¬bric. The (leeplo is vaulted with a double crofs arch,above which is an imperial crown, fupported by eight(lone pillars, and clofed with a globe and two gildederodes. In the year 1631 this (leeple was thrown downby a dorm, but was foon after rebuilt in a more (late¬ly form. This college was founded by Bifliop Elphindpn in the year 15005 but James IV. claimed thepatronage of it, and it has fince been called the King'sCollege. This college, and the Marilhall-cjllege inthe new town, form one univerfity, called the Univer-Jity of King Charles.The new town is the capital of the (hire of Aberdeen.For largenefs, trade, and. beauty, it greatly exceedsany town in the North. It (lands upon a hill or rilingground. The buildings are generally four (lories high,and have, for the mod part, gardens behind them, whichgives it a beautiful appearance. On the high dreet isa large church, Which formerly belonged to the Frao-eifeans. This church was begun by Bp William Ei-phinflon, and finifhed by Gavinus Dunbar, Bifhop ofAberdeen, about the 1500. Bp Dunbar is faid like-wife to have built the bridge over the Dee, which Con-fids of feven arches.. The chief public building inthe new town is the Marifhall-collcge, founded byGeorge Keith Earl cf Mar(hall, in the year 159J ;but has fince been greatly augmented "with additionalbuildings. In both the Mariihall and King’s-collegethe languages, mathematics, natural philofophy, divi¬nity, Sc. are taught by very able profefl'orsABERDOUR, a fmall town in Fifefhire, Scotland, onthe frith of Forth, about ten miles N. W. of Edin¬burgh.ABERGAVENY, in Monmouthfhire, England, a well-built town, lying 142 miles W. byN. of London, in51. 50. N. lat. and 3d. 5 W Ion. This town Con-fids of about 500 hanfes, has a Weekly market on theTuefdays, .and another on the Fridays; and threefairs for horfes, (heep, and black cattle.ABERMURDER, an old law-term for murder, provedin a judicial manner, which could not be atoned forwith money.ABERRATION, in aftronomy, a fmall apparent mo¬tion of the fixed dars, fird difeovered by Dr Bradleyand Mr Mollineux, and found to be owing to the pro-gredive motion of light, and the earth’s annual mo¬tion in its orbit. If a lucid objeCt be fixed, and theeye of the ohferver moving along in any other direc¬tion than that of a ftreight line from the eye to theobjeft, it is plain, that theobjeCt mud have an appa¬rent motion, greater or lefs, according to the velocitywith which the eye is moved, and the didance of theobjeCt from the eye. See Astronomy.ABERRATION, in optics, a deviation of the rays oflight which prevents their uniting in the fame focalpoint, and is occafioned by their being refraCted by afpherical lens, or refieCted by a fpherical (peculum.See Optics.ABERYSWITH, a market-town in Wales, lying 199• miles W. S. W. of London, in 52. 30. N. lat. and40 15 W. long.ABESTA, the name of one of the facred books of thePerfian magi, which they aferibe to their great found-•er Zeroader The abeda is a commentary on two o-thers of their religious books called Zend and Pazend\the three together including the whole fydem of theIgnicold, or worihippers of fireABESTON, a blundering way of writing Abedus. SeeAbestus.ABETTOR, a law-term, implying one who encouragesanother to the performance of fome criminal aClion,or who is.art and part in the performance itfelf. Trea¬son is the only crime in which abettors are excluded bylaw, every individual concerned being confidered as aprincipal. It is the fame with art and part in'theScots law.ABEVACUATION, in medicine, a gentle evacuation.See Evacuation.ABEX, the name of a large trad of land, lying alongthe wed coad of the Red-fea, fouth of Egypt, fubjeCtto the Ottoman Porte.ABEYANCE, in law, the expectancy of an edate.Thus if lands be leafed to one perfon for life, withreverfion to another for years, the remainder for yearsis an abeyance till the death of the lcflee,ABHEL, in botany, an obfolete name of the fabina orfavin. See Juniper and Sabina.ABIB, fignifying an ear of corn, a name given by theJews to the fird month of their ecdefiadical year, af¬terwards called Nifan. It commenced at the vernalequinox, and, according to the covrrfe of the moon, bywhich their months were., regulated, anfwered to thelatter part of our March, and beginning of April.ABIDING by a writing, in Scots law : When a perfonfounds upon a writing alledged to be falfe, he may beobliged to declare judicially, whether he will dandorabide by it as a true deed. As to the confequencesof abiding by, or paffingfrom, a falfif deed, fee ScotsLaw, title, Crimes.ABIES, the fir-tree, in botany, belongs to the monseciamonadelphia clafs of Linnaeus. For its characters, feePinus, of which it is a (pedes.ABIGEAT, an old law-term, denoting the crime ofdealing cattle by droves or herds. This crime wasmore feverely punidied than furtum, the delinquentbeing '3 | ||
1 | A-B | 18 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A B L (5being often condemned to the mines, baniihroent, andfometiines capitally.ABIGEATUS, cr Abactus, among phyficians, Cg^nif:cs a mifearriage effected by art.ABIG1ES, a term in the Roman law, applied to onewho had been guilty of the crime Ab i g e at; which fee.ABILITY, a term in law, denoting a power of doing cer¬tain actions in the aequifition or transferring of property.ABINGDON, a town of Berkfhire, England, featedon the Thames,-about 55 miles W. of London, andgives title of Earl to the noble family of Bertie.AB-INTESTATE, in the civil law, is applied to aperfon who inherits the right of one who died inte-flate, or without making a will. See Intestate.ABISHERING, a term found in old law books, deno¬ting a liberty or freedom from all amerciaments, ..anda right to exadt forfeitures of others.ABIT., or Abo it, obfoiete terms for cerufe or whitelead. See Ceruse and Chemistry.ABJURATION, in our ancient euftoms, implied anoath, taken by a perfon guilty of felony, and who hadfled to a place of fandtuary, whereby he folemnly en¬gaged to leave the kingdom for ever.Abjuration, is now.ufed to fignify the renouncing,declaiming, and denying, upon oath, the Pretender tohave any kind of right to the crown of thefe kingdoms.Abjuration of herefy, the foiemn reeantaticn of anydodtline as falfe and wicked.ABLAC, a fmall river in Swabia, which falls into theDanube not far from Furdenburg. ,ABLACTATION, the weaning a child from the bread.See Weaning..Ablactation, in gardening, fignifies grafting by ap¬proach. See Grafting and Garden 1 ng.ABLACQUEATION, an old term in gardening, fig¬nifies the operations of removing the earth and baringthe roots of trees in winter, to expofe them more freelyto the air, rain, fnows,ABLATIVE, is the 6th cafe in Latin grammar, andpeculiar to that language. It is oppofed to the dative,which exprelfes the adtion of giving, and the ablativethat of taking away.ABLAY, or Ablai, a country of Great Tartary, whofeinhabitants, ealled Bocbars, are vaffals of the Ruf¬fians. It lies to the ead of the Ir.tis, and extends 500leagues along the fouthem frontiers tof Siberia. •ABLECTI, in Roman antiquity, a felcdt body of foldierschofen from among thofe called Extraorduiar>u,which fee.ABLEGM1NA, among the ancient Romans, fignifiedthofe parts in the intrails cf vidtims which were fprihk-led with flour, and biirnt.upon the altar, in faerificingto the gods.ABLET, or Ablen, anobfolete name ofthe fifh Cal¬led Cyprinus. See Cypri-nCs.ABLUENTS, in medicine, are the fame with dilutCrs.ABLUTION, a eeremony ufed by the ancient Romansbefore they began the facrifice, which confided in wafh-ing the body. They very probably learned this cere¬mony from the Jews, as have idfo the Mahometans,who dill pradlife it with the -utraod ftrictaefs.Vol. I. No. x.) A B RAblution, among chemids, the fweetening anymatterimpregnated with falts, by repeatedly waihing it withpure water. See Chemistry.Ablution, with phyficians, is either the wafliing of a-ny external part by bathing, or ofthe domaeh and in-tedines by.diluting liquors.ABO, a city of Sweden, capital of Finland, feated atthe mouth of the river Aurojoks on the gulph of Both¬nia, 24. o. N. E. of Stockholm, in lac. 60. go, N.and long. 21. 30. E.ABOARD, fignifies any part on the deck or infide of a(hip; hence any perfon who goes on the deck, or intothe apartments of a fhip, is faid to go aboard.ABOLITION, implies the adt of annulling, dedroying,malting void, or reducing to nothing. In law, it fig¬nifies the repealing any law or datute.ABOLLA, the name of a military garment worn bythe Greeks and Romans.ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or Abomasius, names ofthe fourth domaeh of ruminating animals. The firdltomach is ealled venter, the feeond reticulum, thethird omafus, and the fourth abomajis. The thirddomaeh, omafis, is endued with the Angular qualityof curdling milk. But the truth is, the domachs ofalmod all animals, whether they ruminate cr not, willproduce the fame effedt, though not perhaps in an e-qual degree, as the domachs of calves or lambs.See Milk, Runnet.ABOMINATION, a term ufed in feripture to exprefsidols, idolatry, <bc.ABORIGINES, an epithet applied to the original orfird inhabitants of any country, but particularly ufeito fignify the ancient inhabitants of Latiuni, or coun¬try now called Campagna di Roma, when /Eneas withhis Trojans came into Italy.ABORTION, in midwifery, the birth of a foetus before.,it has acquired a fuffieient degree of perfection to en¬able it to perform refpiration and the other vital func¬tions. See Midwifery, title, Of abortions.Abortion, among gardeners, fignifies fuch fruits as,being produced too eafy, never arrive at maturity.ABORTIVE, in a general fenfe, implies any thingwhich comes before its proper time, or mifearries inthe execution.ABOY, a fmall town in Ireland, in the province of Lein-der.ABRA, a filver coin of Poland, in value nearly equiva¬lent to an Englifli Shilling.ABRACADABRA, a magical word or fpcll, which be¬ing written as many times as the word contains letters,and omitting the lad letter of the former every time,was, in the ages of ignorance and fuperdition, wyrnabout the neck, as an antidote againd agues and feve-ral other difealesABRAHAM’/ balm, in botany, See Cannabis.ABRAHAMITES, an order of monks exterminated• for idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth eentury. Alfothe name of another fed! of heretics who had adoptedthe errors of Paulus. See Paulicians.ABRAMIS, an obfcletejaame for the fills, cyprinus. SeeCyprinus.Abr.a$a,B | ||
1 | A-B | 19 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A B R (6ABRASA, in furgery, ulcers, where the Ikin is fo ten¬der and lax as to render them fubjed to abrafion.ABRASION, in medicine, tire corroding of any part byacrid humours or medicines.ABRAUM, an obfolete name of a certain fpecies of clay,called by fome authors Adamic earth, on account ofits red colour.ABRASAX, or Abraxas, a myftical term found inthe ancient theology and philofophy of Balilides’s fol¬lowers. 'ABR AX, an antique done with the word abraxas engra¬ved on it. They are of various fizes, and moll ofthem as old as the third century.ABREAST, a fea-term. In an attack, purfuit, ,or re¬treat at fea, the fquadrons or divilions of a fleet areoften obliged to vary their difpofitions, and at thefame time obferve a proper regularity, -by failing inright or curved lines: when they fail at a proper di-ftance from each other, and are all equally forward,they are then faid to have formed the line abreaji.ABRENUNCIATION. See Renunciation.ABRIDGEMENT, in literature, a term fignifying theredudion of a book into a fmaller compafs.—The artof conveying much fentiment in few words, is thehappieft talent an author can be pofleffed of. Thistalent rs peculiarly neceffary in the prefent ftate of li¬terature ; for many writers have acquired the dexte¬rity of fp reading a few tritical thoughts over feve-xal hundred pages. When an author hits ujSon athought that pleafes him, he is apt to dwell upon it,to view it in different lights, to force it in improperly,or upon the flighteft relations. fI'hough this may bepleafant to the writer, it tires and vexes the reader.There is another great fource of diffufion in compo-fition. It is a capital object with an author, whateverbe the fubjed, to give vent to all his belt thoughts.When he finds a proper place for any of them, he ispeculiarly happy. But, rather than facrifice a thoughthe is fond of, he forces it in by way of digrelfion,or fuperfluous illuftration. If none of thefe expe¬dients anfwer his purpofe, he has recourfe to the mar¬gin, a very convenient apartment for all manner ofpedantry and impertinence. There is not an author,however corred-j but is more or lefs faulty in thisrefped. An abridger, however, is not fubjed to thefetemptations. The thoughts are not his own; he viewsthem in a cooler and lefs affedionate manner; he dilco-vers an impropriety in fome, a vanity in others, and awant of utility in many. His bufinefs, therefore, isto retrench fuperfluities, digreffions, quotations, pe¬dantry, <bc. and to lay before the public only what isreally ufeful. This is by no means an eafy employ¬ment : To abridge fome books, requires talents equal,if not fuperiour, to thofe of the author. The fads,manner, fpirit, and reafoning, mull be preferved; no¬thing effential, either in argument or illuftration, oughtto be omitted. The difficulty of the talk is the prin¬cipal reafon why we have fo few good abridgements :Wynne’s abridgement of Locke’s Effay on the Hu¬man Underftanding is, perhaps, the only unexception¬able one in cur language.) ABR 0Thefe obfervations relate folely to fuch abridge¬ments as are defigned for the public. But,When a perfon wants to fet down the fubftance ofany book, a fhorter and lefs laborious method may befollowed. It would be foreign to our plan to give ex¬amples of abridgements for the public : But, as it maybe ufeful, efpecially to young people, to know howto abridge books for their own ufe, after giving afew diredions, we fliall exhibit an example or two,to ftiew with what eafe it may be done.Read the book carefully ; endeavour to learn theprincipal view of the author; attend to the argu¬ments employed: When you have done fo, you willgenerally find, that what the author ufes as new oradditional arguments, are in reality only collateralones, orextenfions of the principal argument. Takea piece of paper, or a common-place book, put downwhat the author wants to prove, fubjoin the argu¬ment or arguments, and you have the fubftance of thebook in a few lines. For example,In the Effay on Miracles, Mr Hume’s defign is toprove, That miracles which have not been the imme¬diate objeds of our fenfes, cannot reafonably be be¬lieved upon the teftimony of others.Now, his argument, (for there happens to be butone), is,“ That experience, which in fome things is vari-“ able, in others uniform, is our only guide in rea-“ foning concerning matters of fad. A variable ex-“ perience gives rife to probability only; an uniform“ experience amounts to a proof. Our belief of any“ fad from the teftimony of eye-witneffes, is deri-“ ved from no other principle than our experience“ in the veracity of human teftimony. If the fad“ attefted be miraculous, here arifes a conteft of“ two oppofite experiences, or proof againft proof.“ Now, a miracle is a violation of the laws of na-“ ture ; and as a firm and unalterable experience has“ eftablilhed thefe laws, the proof againft a miracle,“ from the very nature of the fad, is as complete as'“ any argument from experience can polfibly be ima-“ gined; and if fo, it is an undeniable confequence,“ that it cannot be furmounted by any proof what-“ ever derived from human teftimony.”In Dr Campbell’s Differtation on Miracles, the au¬thor’s principal aim is to (hew the fallacy of Mr Hume’sargument; which he has done moft fuccefsfully by an¬other Angle argument, as follows :“ The evidence arifing from human teftimony is“ not folely derived from experience : on the contra-“ ry, teftimony hath a natural influence on belief an-“ tecedent to experience. The early and unlimit-“ ed affent given to teftimony by children gradually“ contrads as they advance in life: it is, therefore,“ more confonant to truth, to fay, that our diffidence“ in teftimony is the refult of experience, than that“ our faith in it has this foundation. Befides, the.“ uniformity of experience, in favour of any fad, is“ not a proof againft its being reverfed in a particular“ inftance. The evidence arifing from the Angle te-“ ftimony of a man of known veracity will go far to“ tftablilh | ||
1 | A-B | 20 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A B R (** eftablilh a belief ia its being actually reverfed: If“ his teftimony be confirmed by a few others of the“ fame character, we cannot with-hold our afi’ent to“ the truth of it. Now, though the operations of na-“ ture are governed by uniform laws, and though we“ have not the teftimony of our fenfes in favour of a-“ ny violation of them , Hill, if, in particular inftan-“ ces, we have the teftimony of thouftnds of our fel-“ low-creatures, and thofe too men of ftrid integri-“ ty, fwayed by no motives of ambition or intereft,“ and governed by the principles of common fenfe,“ That they were actually eye-witnelfes of thefe vio-“ lations, the conftitution of our nature obliges us to“ believe them.” wThefe two examples contain the fubftance of about400 pages. — Making private abridgements of thiskind has many advantages; it engages us to read withaccuracy and attention; it fixes the fubjcft in ourminds ; and, if we Ihould happen to forget, infteadof reading the books again, by glancing a few lines,we are not only in pofleflion of the chief arguments,but recall in a good meafure the author’s method andmanner.Abridging is peculiarly ufeful in taking the fubfiance of what is delivered by Profeflors, isc. It isimpoflible, even with the afliflance of Ihort-hand, totake down, verbatim, what is faid by a public fpeak-er. Befides, although it were practicable, fuch a ta¬lent would be of little ufe. Every public fpeakerhascircumlocutions, redundancies, lumber, which defervenot to be copied* All that is really ufeful may becomprehended in a fliort compafs. If the plan of thedifeourfe, and arguments employed in fupport of thedifferent branches be taken down, you have the whole.Thefe you may afterwards extend in the form of adifeourfe drefled in your own language. This wouldnot only be a more rational employment, but wouldlikewife be an excellent method of improving youngmen in compofition, an objeCt too little attended to inall our univerfities. Befides, it would be more for thehonour of profeflors ; as it would prevent at lead fuchimmenfe loads of disjointed and unintelligible rubbifhfrom being handed about by the name of fuch a man’slcCturcs.Abridgement, inlaw, fignifies the making a declara¬tion or plaint Ihorter by leaving out fomethingAbridgement, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, Ofvulgar fractionsAbridgement, in algebra. See Algebra, Of equa¬tions .ABROBANIA, a town and diftriCt in Tranfylvania.ABRQCHMENT, an old law term which fignifies fore-ftalling. See Forestalling.ABROGATION, fignifies annulling, making void, orrepealing a law.ABROLKOS, the name o^" certain {helves, or banks offand, about 20 leagues from the coaft of BrazilABRON, a river of France which falls into the Loirenot far from NeversABRONO. SeeABRUGi,ABROTANOlDES, the came of a fpecies of coral call-7 ) A B Sed porus. It is alfo a fynonime of the artemifia. SeeArtemisia.ABROTANOlDES, a wine mentirued by Diofcorides,impregnated with futhernwood.ABROTANUM, in botany, a fynonime of feveral plants.See Artemisia, Filago, Santolina.ABRUPTION, in furgery. See Abduction.ABRUS, in botany, the trivial name of the glycine. SeeGlycine.ABRUZZO, in geography, the name of two provincesbelonging to the K. of Naples, on the gulph of Ve¬nice, diftinguifhed by Nearer and Farther Abruzzo,from their pofition with refpeCt to Naples.ABSCEDENTIA, in furgery, a term applied to decay¬ed parts of the body, which, in a morbid ftate, arefeparated from the found, or lofe that union whichwas preferved in a natural ftate.ABSCESS, in medicine and furgery, an impofthume, orany tumor or cavity containing purulent matter. SeeSurgery, title, Of tumours or abfeeff'es.ABSCHARON, a town in Afia, fituated on the weftern(bore of the Cafpian fea.ABSCISSE, in mathematics. See Conic Sections,ABSCISSION, a figure in rhetoric, whereby the fpeak-er flops Ihort in the middle of his difeourfe, leavingthe audience to make the inference.Abscission, in furgery, the fame with amputation.ABSCONSA, a dark lanthorn ufed by the monks atthe ceremony of burying their dead.ABSENCE, in Scots law': When a perfon cited beforea court does not appear, and judgment is pronounced,that judgment is faid to be in abfence No perfoncan be tried criminally in abfence. See Law, title,Sentences and their execution.ABSINTHIATED medicines, fuch as are impregnatedwith abfinthium or wormwood.ABSINTHIUM, in botany, the trivial name of thecommon wormwood or artemifia. It is alfo a fyno¬nime of the tanacetum incanum, the fenecio incanum,the anthemis montana,. the achillsea egyptiaca, and ofthe parthenium hyfterophorus. See Artemisia, <bc.ABSIS, in aftronomy, the fame with Apsis, which fee.ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, denotes a thing’s be¬ing independent of, or unconne&ed with, any other ;it is alfo ufed to exprefs freedom from all limitation.Absolute government, is that wherein the prince, un¬limited by the laws, is left folely to his own will. SeeGovernment.Absolute gravity, in phyfics, is the whole force by whicha body is urged downwards. See Mechanics.Absolute, in metaphyfics, denotes a being that pof-fefles independent exiftence.ABSOLUTION, in general, is the pardoning cr forgi¬ving a guilty perfon.'Absolution, in civil law, is a fentenee whereby theparty accufed is declared innocent of the crime laidto his charge.Absolution, in the canon law, is a juridical aft. where¬by the eeclefiaftical officers remit or forgive the peni¬tent offender, or declare him reftc-red to the privilegesof innocence in confideration of his repentance,ABSORBENT | ||
1 | A-B | 21 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A B S (8ABSORBENT medicines, teftaceous powders, as chalk,crabs-eyes, <bc. which are taken inwardly tor dryingup or abforbingvny acrid or redundant humours inthe ftomach or inteftines, They are likewife appliedoutwardly to ulcers or fores with the fame intention.Absorbent veffels, in anatomy, a name given promif-cuoully to the la&eal veffels, lymphatics, and inhalentarteries. See Anatomy-,Absorbent veffeh, is alfo a name ufed for the fmallfibrous roots of plants.ABSORPTION, in the animal ceconomy, is the adwhereby the abforbent vefTels imbibe the juices, <bc.ABSTEMIOUS, an epithet applied to perfons very tem¬perate in eating and drinking. It is likewife appliedto fhofe who could not partake pf the eucharift on ac¬count of their averfion to wine.ABSTENTUS, in law, an heir who is with-held by histutor from entering upon his inheritance.ABSTERGENT medicines, thofe employed for refol-ving obdru&ions, concretions, <bc. fuch as foap, fcc.ABSTINENCE, the refraining from fomethingwe havea propenfity to. It commonly imports a fpare diet.ABSTINENTS, in church hiftory, a fort of people inthe anchnt churGh who carried their abftinence andmortification very far. ' They have'beeri claffed withheretics, though we have no certain account of theirparticular opinions.ABSTRACT idea, in metaphyfics, is a partial idea ofa complex object, limited to one or more of the com¬ponent parts or properties, laving afide or abftradlingfrom the reft. Thi s, in viewing an objedt with the eye,or recollecting it in the mind, we can eafily abftradtfrom fome of its parts or properties, and attach our-felves to others: we- can attend to the rednefs of acherry, without regard to its figure, tafte, or confid¬ence. See Abstraction, Metaphysics.Abstract terms, words that are ufed to exprefs ab-ftraft ideas. Thus beauty, uglinefs, whitenefs, round-nefs, life, death, are abftra£t terms.Abstract mathematics, fometimes denominated puremathematics, treat of magnitude or quantity abfolute-ly and generally confidered, without regard to any par¬ticular fpecies of magnitude.Abstract numbers, fuch as have no particular applica¬tion.Abstract, is alfo a term in literature tofignify a con¬es fe, yet general view or analyfis of fome. larger work.It differs from an abridgment, in being fhorter and morefuperficial; and from an extract, as this laft is a copyof fome part or pall'age of it.ABSTRACTION, the operation of the mind when oc¬cupied by abftradt ideas. A large oak fixes our atten¬tion, and abftradts us from the ffirubs that furrounff it.In the fame manner, a beautiful woman in a crowd,abftradts our thoughts, and engroffes our attention fole-ly to herfelf. Thefe are examples of real abftrariion :when thefe, or any others of afimilar kind, are recalledto the mind, after the objeris themfelves are removedfrom our fight, they form what is called abjirafl ideas,or the mind is faid to be employed in abftraft ideas.But the power of abftradtion is not confined to db-3) a b yjecls that are feparable in reality as well as mental¬ly : the fize, the figure, the colour ,'of a tree are infe-parably connected, and cannot exift independent ofeach other; and yet we c&n mentally confine our ob-fervations to any one of thefe 'properties, neglecting orabftra&ing from the reft.Abstraction, in chemiftry, the evaporating or drawing"off the menftruum from any fubjett.ABSTRACTITIOUS, anobfolete term, among chemifts,for a vegetable fpirit obtained without fermentation.ABSTRUSE, a term applied to any thing that is hardto be underftood, whether the obfeurity arifes fromthe difficulty of the fubjeft, or the confuted mannerof the writer.ABSURD, an epithet for any thing that contradicts anapparent truth.ABSURDITY, the name of an abfurd action or fenti-ment.ABSUS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of the,; jcaffia. i ‘ YABSYNTHIUM. See Absinthium.ABUAI, one of the Philippine iftes. See Philippine.ABUCCO, Abocco, or Aboochi, a. weight ufed inthe kingdom of Pegu, equal to 12‘ teccalis ; two a-buccoS make an agiro; and two aglri make half a biza,which is equal to 2 5 oz. of the heavy weight of Ve¬nice.ABUKESO. See Aslani.ABUNA, the title of the Archbiffiop or Metropolitanof Abyffmia.ABUNDANT numbers, fuch whofe aliquot parts ad¬ded together exceed the number itfelf; a* 20, thealiquot parts of which are, 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and make 22.ABU SAN, an ifland on the coaft of Africa, in 35 35.N lat dependent on the province of Garet, in thekingdom of Fez.ABUSE, implies the perverting of any thing from, itsoriginal intention.ABUTIGE, a town in Upper Egypt, famous for produ¬cing the beft opium.ABUTTALS. See Abbuttals.ABUTILON, in botany, the trivial name of feveralfpecies of the fida. See Si da. Abutilon is alfo afynonime of the mclochia tomentofa, and melochia de-preffa, two American plants of the monadelphia pen-tandria clafs. It it is likewife a fynonime of the la-vatora, malva, and hibifeus.ABYSS, in a general fenfe, fignifies any unfathomablegulph. It is alfo the name of a vaft cavern filled with-water, fuppofed to exift near the centre of the earth.Abyss, in feripture, is fometimes ufed for hell.Abyss, in antiquity, a name given to the temple ofProferpine,Aeyss, among alchemifts, fignifies the receptacle of thefeminal matter, and fometimes the feminal matter it¬felf.ABYSSINIA, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on theN. by that of Sennar, or Nubia; on the E. part¬ly by the Red fea, and partly by Dancala; on the\V. by Gorham and Gin giro; and on the S by A-laba and Ornrao-Zaidi. It was formerly of greaterextent | ||
1 | A-B | 22 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A C A (9extent than it is at prefent, becaufe ferenJ provinceshave revolted, and the Turks have made encroach¬ments to the eaft. The kftd is fertile in many places,and the air is very hot, except in the rainy ieafon,and then it is very temperate. For four months in theyear, greater rains fall there than perhaps in any otherpart of the world, which occafion the l'welling of theriver Nile, that has its fource in this country. It con¬tains mines of all forts of metal, except tin ; but theinhabitants make no great advantage thereof.. Thefields are watered by feveral ftreams, except in themountainous parts. The emperor, or king, is calledNegus ; and he has been commonly taken for PrefterJohn. Kis authority is abfolute, and he often dwellswith his whole court in tents. However, Abyflinia isnot without cities, as fome pretend; for Gondar is alarge place, where the king commonly refides whenhe is not in the field. The inhabitants are black, orvery near it; but they are not fo Ugly as the negroes.They make profeflfon of the Chriftian religion, but ithas a mixture of Judaifin. The habit of perlonS ofquality is a filken vert, with a fort of fcarf; but thecommon people wear nothing but a pair of drawers.ABYSSINIAN church, that eftablifhcd in the empire ofAbyflinia. It is a branch of the Copts or Jacobites,a fe<ft of heretics, who admit but one nature in JefusChrirt.AGriCALOTL, the Brafilian name of a fpeeies of theCorvus. SeeCoavos.ACACIA, in botany, a fynonime of the poinciana,genifta, mimofa, robinia, guaicun, 6c. See tliefearticles.ACacia, in the materia mediea, die infpiffitated juiceof the unripe fruit of the acacia. This juice isbrought from Egypt in roundiih pieces, wrapt up inthin bladders, and is ufed as a mild aftringent.AcaCia germaniea, See Pruna.Acacia, among antiquaries, fomething refembling aroll or bag, faen on racial*! as in the hands of feveralconfuls and emperors. Some take it to reprefent ahandkerchief rolled up, wherewith they made fignalsat the games ; others a roll of petitions or memorials;and fome a purple bag full of earth, to remind them oftheir mortality.ACACIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name of fe¬veral feds of heretics; fome of whom maintained,that the Son was only a fimilar, not foe fame, fub-ftance with the Father ; and others, that he was notonly a diftindl, but a diffimilar fublfance. Two of tbefefeCfs had their denomination from Acacias bifhop ofCsefarea, who lived in the fourth century, and changedhis opinions, fo as, at different times, to be head ofboth. Another was named from Acacius patriarch ofGonftahtinopld, who lived in the clofe 6f the fifth sen*tury.ACADEMIC, AeiOTHicuK, ot AcaDemist, amember ®f an academy. Sec Academy in the mo¬dern fenfe.ACADEMICS, or Acabemists, a denomination gi¬ven to the cultivators of a fpeeies of philofophy origi¬nally derived from Socrates) and afterwards UluftrgJedXol. I. No x. 3) A C Aand inforced by Plato, who taught in a grove near A-thens, confecrated to the memory of Academus an A-thenian hero; from which rircumftance this philofophyreceived the name of academical. Before the days ofPlato, philofophy had, in a great meafure, fallen intocontempt. The conttadidtory fyrtems and hypothefesthat had fucceffively been urged upon the world, Werebecome fo numerous, that, from a view of this ineon-ftancy and uncertainty of human opinions, many wereled to conclude, that truth lay beyond the reach ofoupcomprehenfion. Abfolute and univerfal fcepticifm wasthe natural confequeiice of this conclufien. In orderto remedy this abufe of philofophy and of the hufmnFaculties, Plato laid hold of the principles of thTe aca¬demical philofophy, and, in his Phaedo, reaforiS ntthefollowing manner: “ If we ate unable to difeover“ truth, (fays he), it muft be owing to two circUm-“ rtances; either there is no truth, in the nature bf“ things, or the mind, from A defedt in its powers,“ is not able to apprehend it. Upon the latter fuppo-“ fition, all the uncertainty arid fludluaiion in the opi-“ hions and judgments of mankind admit of an eafy“ folntion: Let us therefore be modeft, and aferibe“ our errors to the real weaknefs of our own minds,“ and not to the nature of things themfdves. Truth“ is often difficult of aceefs: in order to come at it,** we mult proceed with Caution and diffidence, care-“ fully examining every ftep ; and after ail cor labdur,“ we Will frequently find our greatert efforts difap-“ pointed, and be obliged to confefs bur ignorance“ aad v/eaknds.”Labour and caution in out refearches, in oppofition torafh and hafty decifions, were the dirtinguiffiing charac-teriftres of the difciples of the imoient academy. Aphilofopher poffeffed of thefe principles, will be flowin his progrefs, but will foldom fall into errors, orhave ocCafion to alter his opinion after it is once form¬ed. Vanity and precipitance are the great futures’offcepticifm : hurried bn by thefe, inrtead of attending tothe cool and deliberate principles recommended by theacademy, feveral of our modern philofophers have plun¬ged themf Ives into ah abford and- ridicul.ous kind of fcep¬ticifm. They pretend to diferedit things that are plain,fimple, and eafily comprehended; but give peremptoryand decifive judgments upon fubjetfs that evidently ex¬ceed the limits of our capacity; Of thefe Berkley JndHume are the moft confiderable. Berkley denied theexirtence of every thing, excepting his own ideas. MrHume has gone a ftep further, and queftiobed even foeexirtence of ideas; but at the fame time has not hdfi-tared to give determined opinions with regard to eter¬nity, providence, and a futUre ftate, miraculous intfcr-pofitions of the Deity, 6c. fubjefts far above foereach of our faculties. In his feffay on the academicalor feeptical philofophy, he has confounded two vdryoppofite fperies of philofophy. After the days ofPlato, indeed, the principles of the firft academy weregrofsly Corrupted by Areefilas, Carneades, 6c. TIrismight lead Mr Hume into the notion that the acade¬mical and feeptical philofophy were fynommous terms.But no principles can be of a more oppofite nattireC than. | ||
1 | A-B | 23 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A C A < xo ) A C Athan thofe which were inculcated by the old academyof Socrates and Plato, and the fceptical notions whichwere propagated by Arcefilas, Carneades, and the o-ther difciples of the fucceeding academics.ACADEMY, in antiquity, a garden or villa, fituatedwithin a mile of Athens, where Plato' and his follow¬ers held their philofophical conferences. It took itsname from one Academus, or Ecademus, a citizen ofAthens, who was the original owner of it, and madeit a kind of gymnafium : he lived in the time of The-feus. . Cimon embellilhed it with fountains, trees,and walks; but Sylla, during the fiege of Athens,employed thefe very trees in making battering-enginesagainft the city. Cicero too had his villa, or placeof retirement, near Puzzuoli, which he alfo named anacademy, where he compofed his Academical que-Jlions, and his book De natura deorum.Academy, among the moderns, is mod commonly ufedto fignify a fociety of learned men, edablifhed for theimprovement of any art or fcience. Charlemagne wasthe firft that edablifhed an academy in Europe. Modnations have fince followed his example; but Italyhas by far the greated number. In the cities ofPiedmont, Ferrara, and Milan, Jarckius reckons 550.We have but few in Britain. In England thofe ofnote are, the Royal Society, the Antiquarian Society,Society for the encouragement of arts, and the Aca¬demy of Painting; in Scotland, the Edinburgh So¬ciety, College of Phyficians, and Mufical Society;all which fee in their proper places.The French have feveral academies; as, the RoyalAcademy of Sciences, for the improvement of phy-fics, mathematics, and chemidry. It was firft infti-tuted in 1666, by the afliftance of Mr Colbert,comptroller-general of the finances, but was not con¬firmed by the French king till the year 1696, who,by a regulation dated the 26th of January, new-mo¬delled and put it on a better footing. According tothis regulation, the academy was to be compofed often honorary academicians, eight drangers affociates,twenty penfionaries fellows, twenty eleves or fcholars,and twelve French adociates ; thefe were to be divi¬ded into fix claffes, viz. geometricians, adronomers,mechanics, anatomids, chemids, and botanids; thehonorary academids to be all inhabitants of France,the penfionaries and eleves all to refide at Paris.In the year 1716, the duke of Orleans, then re¬gent, made an alteration in their conditution, aug¬menting the number of honoraries and adociates totwelve, admitting regulars among fuch adociates, fup-prefiing the clafs of eleves, and edablilhing in lieuthereof a new clafs of twelve adjuncts to the fix feve¬ral kinds of fcience cultivated by the academy; and,ladly, appointing a vice-prefident, to be chofen yearlyby the king out of the honorary members, and a di-redlor and fub-diredlor out of the penfionaries.The academies of Florence and Bologne, of Mont¬pelier and Bourdeaux, of Leipfic and Berlin, and oflate thofe of Peterdmrg and Seville, were formed up¬on the fame model with the Royal Academy of Sci¬ences.French Academy, a fociety of forty, edablifhed forimproving the French language.This academy was founded by Cardinal Riclilieu,and confirmed by the edidt of Lewis XIII, in 1635.They have compiled a didtionary, intided, I.e Dic-tionaire de I'academie Francoife. This work wasbegun, in 1637, and finifhed in 1694. They have adiredtor and chancellor, who are drawn by lot everythree months, and a fecretary who is perpetual. Theymeet at the old Louvre, on the Mondays, ThUrfdays,and Saturdays, all the year round, and hold an ex¬traordinary meeting at the reception of a new mem¬ber, and on St Lewis’s day, when the prizes of elo¬quence and poetry are adjudged.Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. This fo¬ciety was founded about the year 16461. The mem¬bers were at firft about twenty-five in number, viz.twelve officers, called ancients, eleven private mem¬bers, and two fyndics; but at prefent it confifts offorty painters and fculptors. There are four perpe¬tual redtors, nominated by the king; a diredtor andchancellor; a fecretary, who keeps the regifter, andcounterfigns the difpOtches; a treafurer, twelve pro-feflors, adjundts to the redtors-and profeffors, fixcounfellors, a profeffor for the part of anatomy thatbelongs to painting and fculpture, and another forgeometry and perfpedtive.There is alfo an academy of painting, fculpture,(yc. at Rome, eftablifhed by Lewis XIV. whereinthofe who have won the annual prize at Paris, are en¬titled to be three years entertained for their furtherimprovement.Academy of Medals and Infcriptions, called alfo Theacademy of belles lettres, was eredted by Lewis XIV.for the ftudy and explanation of ancient monuments,and to perpetuate the remembrance of great events,by medals, relievos, infcriptions, iyc. The plan ofthis academy was formed by Mr Colbert, and efta¬blifhed in 1663. In its firft inftitution it confiftedonly of four or five members ; but in 1701, they wereincreafed to forty, viz. ten honoraries, ten penfiona¬ries, ten afTociates, and ten novices or eleves, underthe direction of a prefident and vice-prefident, whoare annually appointed by the king.Their chief employment has been upon the medal-lie hiftory of the reign of Lewis their founder. Butthe learned are indebted to this academy for manyvolumes of efl’ays on other parts of hiftory, publifhedunder the title of Memoirs, &c.Academy of Architefiure, eftablifhed about the end ofthe year 1671 by Mr Colbert, confifted at firft onlyof fix architedls; but their number is fince confiderablyincreafed.Academy of Politics, is compofed of fix perfons, whomeet at the Louvre, in the chamber where the papersrelating to foreign affairs are lodged. But as thekings of France are unwilling to truft any, except theirminiflers, with the infpedtion of foreign affairs, thisacademy is of little ufe to the public.Royal Academy of Dancing was eftab ifhe : by the Kingof France in 1661. It coahfts oi tha\cen able d ncing-jnafters. | ||
1 | A-B | 24 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A C A ( n ) A C Amatters, who meet once a-month ; and two of the aca-demifts teach by turns the art of dancing, ancient andmodern.The French have alfo academies in mod of theirgreat cities, as, the Academy of Sciences at Mont¬pelier, that of the Lanternifts at Thouloufe; befidesothers at Nifmes, Arles, Angiers, Lyons, Caen inNormandy, 6c.; and the Chirurgical Academy atParis is a modern inftitution for the general improve¬ment of the art, and to compile and publilh the an¬cient and modern hiftory of it.Royal Spanijb Academy at Madrid, has for its objettthe cultivation of the Caftilian tongue, and was efta-blilhed in 1714 by the Duke d’Efcalona, with the ap¬probation of the King of Spain. It confifts of twenty-four academifts, including the dir eft or and fecretary.In Portugal, John V. founded an hiftorical academyat Lilbon, in the year 1720, for collecting and afcer-taining the hiftory of his own dominions. It confiftsof fifty members, a director, f ur cenfors, and a fe¬cretary.In Germany, they have the Academy of NaturesCuriojty otherwife called the Leopoldine Academy,founded in 1652 by Jo. Laur. Baufch a phyfician,and, in 1670, taken under the protection of the Em¬peror Leopold. The defign of this fociety was topromote medical knowledge. They began in 168410publilh their obferv itions, under the title of Epheme-rides; which publication has been continued annually,with fome interruptions, and under different titles.This academy confifts of a prefident, two adjuncts orfecretaries, and colleagues or members without limi¬tation.Berlin Academy, was founded by Frederick I. thelate King of Pruflia, in the year 1700. It has forits objects the improvement of natural knowledge, andthe belles lettres. The charter of this fociety wasamended in 1710, and by it the prefident is to be no¬minated by the king. The members are divided intofour claffcs; 1. for phyfic, medicine, and chemiftry;2. for mathematics, aftronomy, and mechanics; 5. forthe German language, and the hiftory of the country;4. for Oriental learning, particularly what relates tothe propagation of the gofpel among infidels. Thegreat promoter of this foundation was the celebratedMr Leibnitz.Ruffian Academy was founded by Czar Peter the Great,at Peterlburg, upon the plan of the Academy of Sci¬ences at Paris ; befides which, they take in the Ruf¬fian language.Academy is alfo a term for fchools and other feminariesof learning among the Jews, where their rabbins anddoctors inftruCted their youth in the Hebrew language,and explained to them the Talmud, and the fecrets ofthe Cabbala: Thofe of Tiberias and Babylon havebeen the mod noted.Academy is often ufed with us to denote a kind of col¬legiate fchool, where youth are inftruCted in arts andfciences. There is one at Portfmouth for teachingnavigation, drawing, 6c.; another at Woolwich, forfortification, gunnery, 6c.Academy is likewife a name given to a riding-fchool,where young gentlemen are taught to ride the greathorfe, 6c. and the ground allotted for it is ufuallycalled the Menage.Academy figure, a drawing of a naked man or wo¬man, taken from the life, which is ufually done onpaper with red or black chalk, and fometimes withpaftils or crayons.ACADIE, or Acadia, in geography, a name former¬ly given to Nova Scotia, one of our American colo¬nies. See Nova Scotia.ACfENA, in antiquity, a Grecian meafure of length,being a ten feet rod, ufed in meafuring their lands.ACAIABA. See Acajou.ACAJA, in botany, a lynonime of the fpondias lutea,an American tree. See Spondias.ACAJOU, in botany, a fynonime of the anacardium oc-cidentale, or calhew-nut-tree. See Anacardium.ACALEPTIC, in ancient profody, a complete verfe.ACALIS, in botany, an obfolete name of the Cerato-nia. See Ceratonia.ACALYPHA, in botany, a genus of plants belongingto the monoecia monadelphia clafs. There are onlyfour fpecies of this plant; the acalypha virginica,which is a native of Ceylon; the virgata, indica, andauftralis, all natives of America. Sir Hans Sloai>ranks this plant with the nettle, under the name of ur-tica tninor inert fpicata.ACAMATOS, a word ufed to exprefs the beft lhape ofthe human body.ACAMBOU, a kingdom on the coaft of Guinea in A-frica.ACAMEEH, among fome of the old chemifts, the fco-riae of filver; as- alfo a fuperfluity of the humidum ra-dicale.ACANACEOUS plants, fuch as are armed withprickles.ACANAPHORA, in botany, an obfolete name of thecentaurea jacea, or knapweed. See Centaurea.ACANES, in geography. SeeAxANis.ACANGIS, that is, ravagers or adventurers; a namewhich the Turks give their huffars or light-troops,who are generally fent out in detachments to procureintelligence, harafs the enemy, or ravage the country.ACANNY, an inland country on the gold coaft of Gui¬nea in Africa, which affords the beft gold, and ingreat plenty. There is a town or village of the famename, W. Jong. o. 5. lat. 8. 30.ACANTHA, in botany, the prickle of any plant.Acantha, in zoology, a term for the fpine or pricklyfins of fifties.ACANTHA, in anatomy, an obfolete term for the fpi-nal proceffes of the back.ACANTHABOLUS, in furgery, an inftrument forpulling thorns, or the like, out of the fkin.ACANTHACEOU ~, among ancient botanifts, an epi¬thet given to thirties and other prickly plants.ACANTHE, in botany, an obfolete name for the Cy-nara or artichoak. See Cynara,ACANTHIAS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of afpecies of fqualus. See Squaevs.ACAN- | ||
1 | A-B | 25 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | A C A ( rACANTHINE, any thing refembling or belonging tothe herb acanthus. Acanthine garments, among theancients, are faici to be made of the down cf thiilles;others think, they were garments embroidered in imi¬tation of the acanthus.ACANTHI UM, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-cies of onopordum. See Onopokdum.ACANTHOIDES, in botany, a fynonime of the car-Iina, or carline-thiftle. See Carlin a. .ACANTHQPTERYGIOUS fijhes, a term ufed byLinnaeus and others for thofe filhes whofe back-fins arehard, offeous, and prickly.ACANTHUS, bears-breach, or brank-urfine, in bota-ny, a genus of plants belonging to the didynamia arv-giofpermia clafs. There are only five fpecies of thisplant,'all of which are natives either of Italy or theIndies. For its figure, which is extremely beautiful,fee plate.I. fig. 3. The leaves, of the acanthus arefamous for having given rife to the capital of the Co¬rinthian order of architecture.Acanthus is likewife ufed by Theophraftus as a fyno-nime of the acacia.Acanthus, in architefhire, an ornament reprefentingthe leaves of the acanthus, ufed in the capitals of theCorinthian and Compofite orders. See Architec¬ture.AC ANUS, in botany, a fynonime of the carduus cafia-bonae of Linnaeus. See Carduus.ACAPATLI, the American name of the piper longum,or long pepper. See Piper.ACAPNON, in botany, an obfolete name of the origa¬num or marjoram. See Origanum.ACAPULCO, in geography, a fea-port town in NorthAmerica, in 102, o. W. long. 17. 3. N. lat. fituatedin the province of Mexico, on a fine bay of the South-fea, from whence a Ihip fails annually to Manilla inthe Philippine iflands.ACARA, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of the percachryfoptera. See Perca.ACARA-AYA, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of afpecies of the cyprinus or carp. See Cyprinus.ACARA-PEBA, in ichthyology, an obsolete name ofthe fparus. See^SPARUs.ACARA-PINIMA, in ichthyology, an obfolete nameof the fparus cantharus. See Sparus.AC ARA-PITAMBA, in ichthyology, an obfolete nameof a ipecies of the mugil. See Mugil.ACARAI, a town in Paraguay in South America, builtby the Jefuits in 1624, 116. 40. hang, 26. Q. S. lat.ACARI. SeeAcAaus.ACARICOBA, in botany, a fynonime of the hydroco-tyle umbellata. See Hydro-cotyle.ACARNA, in botany, a fynonime of the carduus Caufa-bonse, of the cnicus, of the carlina lanata, corymbo-fa, racemofa, and cancellata. Acarna is aifo ufed byVaillant as a term for cynaracephaloos or aickboak-headed plants. • .ACARN AN, an obfolete name of the fparus erythry-nus. See Sparus.ACARON, the name of the god of flies. The Ekroo-ites called him Baalzebub-.2 ) ' A C AACARUS, a genus of infeds belonging to the order ofaptera, or fuch as haye no wings. The acarus has 8legs, 2 eyes, one on eafch fide of the head, and twojointed teataculalike feet. See plate I, fig, 4. Thereare thirty-one Ipecies of the acarus. 1. Theelephan-tinus, is about the fize of a white lupin feed, has adeprefled orbicular livid body, thickeft at the edges,with three furrows on each fide of the belly, and ablack oval trifid fpot at the bafe or end of the body.It is a native of India. 2. The segyptius, is of anoval lhape, yellowilh colour, and a white edge ormargin. It is a native of the Eaft. 3. The redu-vius is plain and oval, with an oval fpot at the bale.It lives on oxen and dogs. 4. The americanus, isreddilh and oval, with the fcutellum and joints of thefeetwhite. It is a native of America. 4.Thefanguifu-gus. The hinder part of the abdomen is crenated, thefcutellum is oval and yellowiih, and the beak is trifl'd.It is a native of America, and ilicks fo fad on the legsof travellers, fucking their blood, that they can hard¬ly be extracted. 6. The ricinus is ^globular, and hasa round fpot at the bafe ; the feelers are clubbed. Itinhabits the bodies of dogs and oxen. 7..The0an-croides, with nippers like a crab, and an oval depreff-ed belly. It is found in the fhady places of Eu¬rope. 8. The fcorpioides, with crab-hke nippers, acylindrical belly, and a final 1 pendulous head. It isof a yellowilh colour; and its bite is venomous. Itis a native of America. 9. The craflipes has the .fe-cond pair of kgs lhaped like thofe of 4 crab, and is anative of Europe, to. The paflerinus has the thirdpair of legs remarkably thicker than the reft. It in-feifts feveral fpecies of fparrows. 11. The motato-rius has the firft pair of legs very long and nimble,and frequents the woods. 12. The aphidioides hasthe firft pair of feet longeit, and two fmall horns atthe hinder part of the belly. It is a native of Eu¬rope. 13. The coleoptratus is black, and the fidesare 1 little cmftaceous. It is a native of Europe.14. The tebrius is of a greenifh yellow Colour Ithas a fmall fting or weapon, with which it woundsthe leaves of plants, and occafions them to fold back¬ward. They are very frequently to be met with inthe autumn, inclofed in the folded leaves of the lime-tree. 15. The firo has lob-Jike fides ; the four hin¬der feet are longeft; the head and thighs are of aniron colour, and the belly is briftly. It inhabitsthe farinaceous plants of Europe and America. 16.The exnlcerans hap very long fetaceons legs, but thetwo firft are (hort. It inhabits the fcabies. 17. Thegeniculatus, is black, and the joints of the thighs areglobular. 18 The aquaticus has a deprefled redbelly, and the hinder part of it obtufe. It inhabitsthe fvefh waters of Europe. 19. The bolofericeushas the fame characters with, the farmer, only it doesnot live in water. 20 The baccarum, has a red di-ftended belly, and lives on goofeberries, <&e. 21. Thetnufeerum, is of a yellowilh red colour, and the hin¬der legs are long and threed-like. It inhabits mof-fies. 22. The batatas, is of a blood-colour, and alittle rough; the fore pair of kgs are as long as the | ||
1 | A-B | 26 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | ACC (i•body. It inhabits the potatoes of Surinam. 23. Thegymnopterorum, is reddiffi, with two fcarlet fpots oneach fide. It inhabits bees, fee. 24. The coleop-tratorum, is reddiffi, with a white anus. It inhabitsthe fcarabaeus. 25. The rupeftris, is ycllowiffi, witha double coloured line on the back. It is a native ofEurope. 26. The longicornis, i.s red, and the feel¬ers are longer than the fnout. It is a native of Eu¬rope. 2 7. The littoralis, is of a tawny yellowifh co¬lour, and has blood-red legs. It frequents the ffioresof Europe. 28. The fungerrum is of a yellowifh co¬lour, and has a globular clammy belly. It inhabitsthe muffiroom. 29. The fcaber, is afh-coloured, anddepreffed ; the fides are feurfy. It is a native of Eu¬rope. 30. The falicinus, is red, with two yellowlines on. the back; it is forked before. It dwells onthe willows. 31. The croceus, is yellow, with areddifh fpot on each fide of the breaft.ACATALECTIC, a term, in the ancient poetry, forfuch verfes as have all their feet or fyllables, in con-' tradiftinftion to thofe that have a fyllable too few.ACATALEPSY, fignifies the impoffibility of compre¬hending any thing.ACATALIS, a name given by the ancients to the juni¬per-berry.ACATASTATOS, with phyficians, fignifies the irre¬gular paroxyfms of a difeafe.ACATERY, or Accatry, an officer 6f the king’shoufehold, defigned for a check betwixt the clerks ofthe kitchen and the purveyors.ACATHARSIA, an impurity of the blood or humours.4 ACATHISTUS, in an ecclefiaflical fenfe, a folemnhymn anciently fung in the Greek church on the Sa¬turday of the fifth week of Lent, ip honour of theVirgin, for having thrice delivered Conftantinople fromthe invafions of the barbarous nations.ACATItJM, in antiquity, a kind of boat ufed in mili¬tary affairs, and was a fpecies of the naves adluariae.See Actuarial Naves.ACATSIA-VALLI, in botany, a fynonime of the caf-fitha filiformis. See Cassitha.ACAULIS, in botany, fignifies plants that have no cau-lis or ftem.ACCALIA, in antiquity, folemn feafts held in honourof Acca Laurentia, nurfe to Romulus. They wereotherwife called Laurentalia.-To the fame Ac¬ca is alfo aferibed the inflitution of the fratres ar-vales,ACCAPITARE, inlaw, the adl of becoming vaffal ofa lord, or of yielding him homage and obedience. SeeVassal and Homage.ACCAPITUM, fignifies the money paid by a vaffal up¬on his admiflion to a feud.Accapitum, in our ancient law, was ufed alfo to ex-prefs the relief due to the chief lord. See Relief.ACCEDAS ad curiam, in the Englifh law, a writ ly¬ing, where a man has received, or fears falfe judg¬ment, in an inferior court; it lies alfo for juflied de¬layed, and is a fpecies of the writ reeordare.ACCEDONES. See Accendones.ACCELERATED, implies, in a general fenfe, quick-Vol.I. No. 1. 33 ) ACCened, continually increafing. Thus, accelerated mo-iitn is a motion continually increafing. See Mecha¬nics.ACCELERATION, an increafe of velocity in the mo¬tion of a body; it is oppofed to retardation, which isa diminution of motion.Acceleration, is alfo a term ufed by ancient aftro-nomers, with whom it fignified the difference betweenthe revolution of the primum mobile, and that of thefun, computed to be three minutes and fifty-fix fe-conds.ACCELERATOR, in anatomy, the name of two muf-cles of the penis, which ferve for ejecting the urine orfemen. SeeANATOMY, Part VI.ACCENDENTES, a lower order of minifters in theRomiffi church, whole.office is to light and trim thecandles.ACCENDONES, in Roman antiquity, a Ibrt of gla¬diators, whofe office was to excite and animate thecombatants during the engagement. See Gladiator.ACCENSI, among the ancient Romans., a kind of fu-pernumerary foldiers, who ferved to fill the places ofthole who were killed or difableff by their wounds.Accensi ferenfes, among the Romans, an inferior or¬der of officers, who attended the magillrates in themanner of our ulhers, ferjeants, or tipftaffs.ACCENSION, in chemiftry, die aftion of fetting a bo¬dy on fire : thus the accenfion of tinder is effected bylinking fire with flint and Heel.ACCENT, or accenting, in reading or fpeaking : Whenwe raife the tone higher in founding any particularword or fyllable, that word or fyllable is faid to-beaccented, or graced with an accent. In hexametersthere is a capital accent in every line, eafily diftin-.guilhable from the reft by a-good ear. Thus,Nee bene promeritis capitdr, nec tangitur ira.Accents either in profe or poetry have a double effeft :They contribute to the melody, by giving it air andfpirit; they contribute not lefs to the fenfe, by diftin-guilhing words of importance from others. Accent¬ing is entirely confined to long fyllables ; for a ffiofitfyllable is not capable of an accent. Every word inan hexameter line that has a long fyllable may be ac¬cented, unlefs the fenfe interpofe, which rejects theaccenting a word that makes no figure by its fignifica-*tion. But, notwithftanding this circumftance, thereis conftandy one accent in every line which makes agreater figure than any of the reft. Thus,Smooth flow the wives, the zephyrs gently play, ,Belinda fmil'd, and all the world was gay.In order to facilitate the reading of dead languages,grammarians have adopted various characters for di-. ftinguifhing the accents belonging to particular Eylla-bles; fuch as the acute, marked thus, ('), the gravethus ('), and the circumflex thus ('J),!or(*), fee. The.. acute denotes that the voice is to be raifed; thegrave, that it is to be lowered or flattened ; and thecircumflex, that the fyllable is to be lengthened ordwelt upon.Accent | ||
1 | A-B | 27 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | ACC ( 14 ) ACCAccent, in mufic, is a certain modulation of founds toexprefs a pailion, whether by the voice or iiiftruments.See Music.ACCENTER, in mufic, one of the three fingers in atrio, viz. the perfon who fings the higheit part. SeeTrio.ACCEPTANCE, in Scots law, denotes either a per-fon’s adhibiting his fubfcription to a bill or draught,by which he fabje&s himfelf to the payment of it ; oraccepting or agreeing to offers made in bargaining, bywhich the bargain is concluded.Acceptance, in the church of Rome, is put for recei¬ving the Pope’s conftitut ions.Acceptance, in commerce, is the fubfcribing, fign-ing, and making one’s felf debtor for the fum contain¬ed in a bill of exchange, or other obligation. SeeBills.ACCEPTATION, in grammar, the fenfe or meaningwherein any word is taken,ACCEPTER, or Acceptor, the perfon who acceptsa bill of exchange, <bc.ACCEPTION, the lame with acceptation.ACCEPTILATION, among civilians, an acquittanceor difcharge given by the creditor to the debtor with¬out the payment of any value.ACCESS, the approach of one perfon or thing to an¬other. It is alfo ufed by phylicians for the beginningof a paroxifm.ACCESSARY, or Accessory, inlaw. See Acces¬sory.ACCESSIBLE, fomething that may be approached, orthat accefs may be had to. Thus we fay. Such aplace is acceilible on one fide, <bc.ACCESSION, in Scots law, is a method of acquiringproperty, by which, in things that have a clofe con¬nexion or dependence upon one another, the propertyof the principal thing draws after it the property of theacceffory. Thus, the owner of a cow becomes like-wife the owner of the calf. See Law, title, D bi¬ff on of rights. It fometimes Ukewife fignifies con-fent or acquiefcence.Accession, among phylicians, is ufed for a paroxyfmof a difeafe; among politicians, it fignifies a prince’sfjcceeding to the government upon the death, of hispredeceffor.ACCESSORY, in Scots law, is the fubjeft acquiredby acceffion; or, in crimes, it fignifies the perfon-bywhofe alEdance, advice, or command, the crime wascommitted: In this latter fenfe, it is the lame withaccomplice, art and part, isc.. See Law, title. Crimes.Accessory nerve. See Anatomy, Part V.ACCIB, a name given by fome authors to lead.ACCIDENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any cafual e-vent.Accident, in logic, fignifies fecondary qualities, orfuch as do not eftentially belong to any fubjedt.Accident, in grammar. See Grammar.Accident, in heraldry, an additional point or markin a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or re¬tained without altering the effence of the armour;fuch as, abatementdifferences, and tinilure.Accident, among phylicians, an oblolete term for %fymptom.ACCIDENTS, ip aftrology, the moll remarkable oc¬currences in a man’s life.Abfolute Accident, in the Romilh church, an accidentwhich may poflibly fubfift, at leaf! miracuJoufly, with¬out a lubjedt; which is unintelligible jargon.Accidental, fomething that happens by accident, ora mode that is not efiential to its fubjedt.Accidental point, in perfpedtive. See Perspective.Accidental dignities and debilities, in aftrology, cer¬tain cafual difpofitions of the planets, whereby theyare fuppofed to be either ftrengthened or weakened.ACCIPENSER, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties be¬longing to the Amphibia Nantes of Linnaeus. The ac-cipenfer has a fingle linear Boftril: the mouth is in theunder part of the head, and contains no teeth; thecirri are below the inout, and before the mouth.There are four fpecies of this genus, viz. r. Thefturio, or fturgeon, with 4 cirri, and 11 fquamous pro¬tuberances on the back. It inhabits the Europeanfeas. This fifti was fo greatly efteemed in the time ofSeverus, that he ordered it to be carried to his feaftsby fervants crowned with garlands, and trumpets play¬ing before. See Plate I. fig. 5. 2. The ruthenushas 4 cirri, and 15 fquamous protuberances. It is anative of Rufiia. 3. The hufo has 4 cirri; the bo¬dy is naked, i. e. has no prickles or protuberances.The Ikin of the hufo is fo tough and ftrong, that itis employed for ropes in carts and other wheel-car¬riages. Ifinglafs is alfo made of the Ikin of this filh,and its eggs are fometimes made into pickles. It in¬habits the Danube, and the rivers of Rulfia. SeePlate I. fig. 6. 4. The plecoftomus, which is diftin-guilhed from the other three by having only 2 cirri.It is a native of Surinam. The whole four fpecies areviviparous.ACCIPENSIUS. See Accipenser.ACCIPITER, the name of Linnaeus’s firfl order of birds.The birds belonging to this order have crooked beaks.This order comprehends only four genera, viz. Thevultur, falco, flrix, and lanius. See Vultur, <&c,ACCIPITRINAj an obfolete name of the hierachiumor hawkweed. See Hierachium.ACCISMUS, in antiquity, fignifies a feigned refufal ofwhat one eameftly defires.AecisMus, in rhetoric, is accounted a fpecies of iro¬ny. See Irony.ACCLAMATION, any expreflien of joy, or applaufe,whereby the public teftifies its approbation.Acclamation is alfo ufed, in a bad fenfe, for expref-fions of deteftation.Acclamation, in rhetoric, a figure, the fame with E-piphonema, which fee.Acclamation, medals, among antiquaries, fuch as re-prefent the people exprefling their joy in the poftureof acclamation.ACCLIVUS, in anatomy, a fynonime of the obliquusafeendens mufcle. See Anatomy, Part II.ACCLIVITY, the rife or afeeat of a hill, in eppofi-uon to the declivity or. descent of it. Some wri- | ||
1 | A-B | 28 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | ACC ( :ten in fortification ufe it for the lahu of a rampart.ACCLOYED, in farriery, fignifies pricked. Thus ahorfe’s foot pricked in (hoeing, is laid to be accloyed.ACCOL.A, among the Romans, fignified that a perfonlived near fome place.ACCOLADE, in antiquity, one of the forms of con¬ferring knighthood, in which the prince laid his armsabout the neck of the young knight, embraced him,and, fome fay, gave him a blow on the cheek, neck,or ffioulder, in imitation of the form of manumiffionamong the Romans.ACCOLEE, fometimes fynonomous with Accolade,which lee. •— It is alfo ufed in divers fenfes in herald¬ry : Sometimes it is applied to two things joined; atother times, to animals with crowns, or collars a-bout their necks, as the lion in the Ogilvy’s arms ;and laflly to kews, battons, maces, fwords, i.7c. pla¬ced faltier-wife behind the Ihield.ACCOMMODATION, making two or more things a-gree with one another.—-Among divines, it is apply¬ing what is originally faid of one perfon, or thing, toanother r Thus the words of Ifaiah to the Jews of histime, are, by our Saviour, accommodated to his con-tempories, and by St Paul to his.—In law, it fignifiesthe amicable iiTue of a debate, which is effectedfometimes by mediation of friends, fometimes by fub-miffion, and fometimes by a divifion of the fubjed indebate.ACCQMPAGNAGE, a term in the filk manufadures,fignifying a fine woof of the fame colour with the gild¬ing, helping to enrich the ground under which it paf-fes, and to hinder it from llriking crofs the gilding it-felf, which would diminifh its glofs and'luftre. Allrich fluffs, the warps whereof are of a colour diffe¬rent from the gilding, Ihould be accompanied.ACCOMPANIMENT, foraething attending or addedas a circumftance to another, either by way of orna¬ment, or for the fake of fymmetry. See Circum¬stance.Accompaniment, in mufic, thefe parts that are ad¬ded to render the harmony more full and complete, asan- inUrument accompanying a voice. Among the rao-tferns, the accompaniment frequently plays a differentmelody from the fong it accompanies; but authors arenot agreed whether it was fo among the ancients.See Music.Accompaniment, in painting, denotes fuch objeds asare added, either by way of ornament, or probability,as dogs, guns, game, be. in a hunting piece. SeePainting.Accompaniment, in heraldry, any thing added to aIhield by way of ornament; as the belt, mantling,fupporters, be. It is alfo applied to feveral bear¬ings about a principal one; as a faltier, bend, fefs,chevron, be.ACCOMPLICE, in law. See Accessory.ACCOMPLISHMENT, the entire execution or ful¬filling of any thing.Accomplishment, is alfo ufed for any mental or per-fonal endowment.ACCOMPT, See Account.5 > ACCACCOMPTANT. See Accountant.ACCORD, in mufic. See Concord.Accord, in law, an accommodation between parties atvariance, by means of an offer made by the one, andaccepted by the other.Accord, in painting, is the harmony that reigns amongthe lights and (hades of a picture.ACCORNED, in heraldry : When any figure of an ani¬mal, in an efcutcheon, has horns of a different colourfrom thofe of the real animal, then it is faid to beaccorned.ACCOUNT, or Accompt, in a general fenfe, a com¬putation or reckoning of any thing by numbers. Col-ledively, it is ufed to exprefs the books which mer¬chants, traders, bankers, Crc. ufe for recording theirtranfadions in bufinefs. Sec Book-keeping.Account in company, is an account betwixt partnersrelating to the tranfadions of their joint concern. SeeBook-keeping.Account of fains, is an account given by one mer¬chant to another, or by a fador to his principal, 61the difpofal, charges, commiffion, and nett proceeds ofcertain merchandifes fent for the proper or companyaccount of him that configned them to fuch fador orvender. See Book-keeping.Account current,—of goods. See Book-keeping.Account in bank, a fund which it is common formerchants or others to furnifn themfelves with in thecafh of a bank, to be in readinefs for the payment ofbills of exchange, purchafes, be.Auditing an A.ccount, is the examining and pafiingan account by an.officer appointed for the purpofe. SeeAuditor.Chamber of Accounts, in the French polity, 's a fo-vereign court of great antiquity, which takes cogni¬zance of, and regilters the accounts of the king’s re¬venue. It is nearly the fame with the Engliffi Courtof Exchequer ; which fee.Account in the remembrancer's office, in the exche¬quer, is the Hate of any branch of the king’s revenue;as the account of the mint, of the wardrobe, of thearmy, navy, be. •Account, in law, theadion that lies againft a perfonwho is accountable by office to another, but refufes torender the account.Account, isaHo taken fometimes, in a particular fenfe,for the computation of time; as we fay, The Julianaccount, the Gregorian account, be. in which fenfeit is equivalent to ftyle.Account is alfo u(ed in funriry mercantile forms ofexpreflion for advantage, hazard, lofs, be,ACCOUNTABLE, a term ttfed to denote a perfon’sbeing liable to render an account for any thing.ACCOUNTANT, or Accomptant, in the moll ge¬neral fenfe, is a. perfon drilled in accounts. In a morereftrided fenfe, it is applied to a peifon, or officer,appointed to keep the accounts of a public company,or office, as the South-fea, the Iadia company, thebank, the exeife, be.ACCOUNTANTSHIP, the art of keeping and balan¬cing accounts. See Book-keeping.. ’ACCOUNT- | ||
1 | A-B | 29 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,337 | JACC ( 16 ) ACEACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, a new officer in thecourt of Chancery appointed by a<ft of parliament toreceive all moneys lodged in court inftead of the ma¬ilers, and convey the fame to the bank of England forfecurity.ACCOUNTING-HOUSE, counting-houfe, or compt-ing-houfe, is a houfe, or office, fet apart by a mer¬chant, or trading-company, for tranfadting their bufi-nefs, as well as keeping their books, accounts, vouch¬ers, fyc.ACCOUTREMENT, an old term, applied to the fur¬niture of a foldier, knight, or gentleman.ACCRETION, in phyfics, the increafe, or growth, ofan organical body, by the acceffion of new parts.Accretion, among civilians, the property acquiredin a vague or unoccupied thing, by its adhering toor following another already occupied; thus, if a le¬gacy be left to two perfons, one of whom dies beforethe teftator, the legacy devolves to the furvivor byright of accretion.ACCROCHE, in heraldry, denotes a thing’s beinghook-ed with another.ACCROCHING, in old law-books, is incroaching up¬on, or ufurping another man’s right.ACCRUE, in law, any thing that is connedled to ano¬ther as an appendage.ACCUBATION, in antiquity, the pofture ufed bythe Greeks and Romans at table. The body was ex¬tended, and the head refting on a pillow, or on theelbow.The Romans at their meals made ufe of a low roundtable, around which two or three couches were,placed inproportion to the number of guefts; and hence it wascalled biclinium, ox triclinium. Thefe were coveredwith a fort of bed-cloaths, and furniflied with quilts andpillows fo* leaning on. The guefts reclined on the leftfide, the firft at the head of the bed, with his feet be¬hind the back of the fecond, <bc. Before they cameto table, they changed their cloaths, for what theycalled the cxnatoria vejles, the dining garment, andpulled off their Ihoes to keep the couch clean.ACCUBITOR, an ancient officer of the emperors ofConftantinople, whofe bulinefs was to lie near the em¬peror. He was the head of the youths of the bed¬chamber, and had the cubicularius and procubitor un¬der him.ACCUMULATION, in a general fenfe, the adt ofheaping or amafling things together. Among lawyersit is ufed in fpeaking of the concurrence of feveral ti¬tles to the fame thing, or of feveral circumftances tothe fame proof.Accumulation of degrees, in an univerfity, is the ta¬king feveral of them together, or at fmaller intervalsthan ufual, or than is allowed by the rules of the uni¬verfity.ACCURATE. See Exactness.ACCURSED, denotes fomething that lies under a curfe,or is deteftable. It is likewife ufed for an excommu¬nicated perfon.ACCUSATION, in law, the charging any perfon witha criminal aftion, either in one’s own name, or thatof the public. It differs, little from impeachment oriridi&ment.ACCUSATIVE. See Grammar.AC-DENGHIS, a name given to the Archipelago bythe Turks.ACE, a term among gamefters, fignifying a card or diemarked with a fingle point.ACENTETUM, or Acenteta, names ufed by theancients for the pureft rock cryftal. See Crystal.ACEPHALI, or Acephalitje, a name given, in ec-clefiaftical hiftory, to feveral fefts that were deftituteof any head or leader; as ajfo, to fuch biffiops aswere exempted from the j urifdidtion of a patriarch.ACEPHALOUS, in our ancient law-books, an appel¬lation given to fuch perfons as held nothing of anyfuperior.ACEPHALUS, without a head.Acephalus, an obfolete term for the tenia, or tape¬worm. See Tenia.Acephalus, is alfo ufed to exprefs a verfe defective inthe beginning.ACER, in botany, the maple or fycomore tree, a ge¬nus of the polygamia dicecia clafs. There are ten fpe-cies of this genus. The calix of the female is quin-quifide, the corolla pentapetalous, the ftamina eight,one piftil, and two ieed-capfules. The calix of themale is alfo quinquifide, the corolla pentapetalous, and.the ftamina eight. There are only two fpecies of theacer which are reckoned natives of England, viz. thepfeudo-platanus, and the campeftre.ACERB, a four rough aftringency of tafte, fuch as thatof unripe fruit. See Astringent.ACERENZA. See Cirenza.ACERIDES, fignifies a plafter without any wax in itscompofition.ACERINA, an abfolete name of a fpecies of the perch,a fiffi of the thoracic order. See Perca.ACERNO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,with a bifhop’s fee. It is 17 miles S. W. ofConza, and 12 N. E. of Salerno, long. 14. 23.lat 40. 55.ACERRA, in antiquity, an altar eredted, among theRomans, near the gate of a perfon deceafed, on whichhis friends daily offered incenfe, till his burial.—TheChinefe have ftill a cuftom like this ; they eredt an al¬tar to the deceafed in a room hung with mourning,and place an image of the dead perfon on the altar>,to which every one that approaches it bows four times,and offers oblations and perfumes.Acerra, in geography, a town of Italy in the kingdomof Naples, and in the terra di Lavoro. It ftands onthe river Agno, 7 miles N. E. of Naples, and 20S. W. of Benevento, Ion. 14. 23. lat. 40. 55.ACERRAi, th<? pots wherein incenfe was burnt.ACERSECOMES, long-haired, a name of Apollo, be-caufe he was ufually painted fo.ACESTIDES, in foundery, a name given by the an¬cients to the chimneys of their furnaces wherein brafswas made. ' 1ACETABULUM, in antiquity, a little vafe or cup ufedat table to ferve up fauces or feafoning. It alfo de¬notes 1 | ||
1 | A-B | 30 | null | Normal | 2,551 | 3,337 | J3!Site I. | ||
1 | A-B | 31 | null | Normal | 2,521 | 3,337 | 1*1 ate IIV//. 1. A CHILMJA X CXBILTS O./foyi/’t Sanf// 4/u'r/1AC01^ITLTMrYR F.NA1C’ IIMyw//f | ||
1 | A-B | 32 | null | Normal | 2,521 | 3,337 | A C H( 17 )C Hnotes a Roman meafure, both for IrquiU. and drythings, equal to a cyathus and a haJf.ACETABULUM, in anatomy, a cavity in any bone forreceiving the protuberant head of another, and therebyforming that fpecies of articulation called enarthrdfis.See Anatomy, Part I.Acetabulum, in botany, the trivial name of a fpeciesof the peziza, or cup-peziza, a fungus belonging tothe cryptogamia fungi of Linntsus. It has got thename of acetabulum from the ref^mblance its leavesbear to a cup. See Peziza. *ACETARY. Nehemiah Grew, in his anatomy of plants,applies this term to a pulpy fubftance in certain fruits,e. g. the pear, which is inclofed in a congeries of final!calculous bodies towards the bafe of the fruit, and isalways of an acidtafle. See Agriculture, Se£t. i.ACETIFICATION, a term ufed by chemiits for tiremaking of vinegar.ACETOSA, in botany, a fynoninie of the rumex, orforrel. See Rumex.ACETOSE, or Acetous, an epithet applied to fuchfubftances as are four, or partake of the nature of vi¬negar.ACETUM, vinegar, the vegetable acid of the chemifts.See Chemistry, title, tjf acids.Acetum dijlillatum, in chemiftry, diddled vinegar.Acetum efuriens, in cliemidry, a diddled vinegar, rec¬tified by the help of verdigreafe.Acetum radicatum. BoCrhaave thinks the tartacusregeneratus is the acetum radicatum of the old che-mifts.ACGIAH-SARAI, a towp on the north fhore of theCafpian fea.ACH, or Ache, in medicine, a term ufed for any fe¬ver e pain, ashead-ach, tooth-ach, &c. See Medi¬cine.ACHAC, a barbarous name of a fpecies of the tetrao,a bird of the order of gallinse. See Tetrao.ACfLEINUS. See Achienus.ACIIAIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, now calledLivadia, of which Athens was anciently the capital,at prefent named Saithines or Setines. See Li-r VAD1A.ACHALACTLI, in ornithology, a barbarous name ofthe columba cyanocephala. See Columba.ACH AM, a country in the E. Indies, bounded on theN. by Bouton, on the E. by China, on the S. by A-va, and on the W. by Patan and Jefuat in Bengal.It is very little known to the Europeans.ACHANE, in Perfian antiquity, a corn-meafure, equalto forty-five Attic mediami. See Medimni.ACHANDES. See Remora.ACHAOVA, in botany, an obfolete name of the marummatricaria, Oc. See Marum,ACHASSES, a river of Languedoc in France.ACHAT, in the law-French, fignifies a contrail orbargain, efpecially by way of purchafe.ACHAT. See Agat.ACHATOR, in the old law-books, is ufed for Pur¬veyor, which fee.Vol. I. No. x. 3ACHBALUC-MANGI, a town in the northern confinesof China.ACHE, in medicine. See Ach.ACHECAMBEY, one of the Bahama iflands. SeeBahama.ACHELO, a town near the Euxine fea.AGHEN, or Ac hem, a capital town of a kingdom ofthe fame name, in the N. part of the ifland of Suma¬tra, in the E. Indies. It extends as far as the line.The inhabitants are generally very fuperftitious. Ithas for a conliderable time been a noted place fortrade ; and was formerly governed by a queen; butin 1700, a Said, or Preacher, found means to ufurpthe government. Its principal produce is gold dull,which is exceeding good. They punilh theft very fe-verely; yet robbery and murder are very frequent a-mong them. This town is feated by the fide of a ri¬ver, and the king’s palace is in the middle of thetown, and is well fortified. It is 450 miles N. W.of Malua, and 1000 S. E. of Fort St George, 95.55.E. long. 5. 30. lat.ACHERNER, in atlronomy, a ftar of the firft magni¬tude a the fouthern extremity of the conftellation E-ridanus. See Eridanus, and Astronomy.ACHETA, an obfolete name of the gryllus or cricket.See Gryllus.ACHIAR, a Malayan word, fignifying a fort of fruiterr roots pickled with vinegar and fpice. See Ba mboe.ACHIENUS, a name given by the ancients to the cer-vus or Hag. See Cervus.ACHILLdEA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging tothe fyngenefia polygamia fuperflua clafs. Of this genusthere are 21 fpecies, only two of which are natives ofBritain, viz. the achilkea millefolium, or commonyarrow, (fee Plate II. fig. 1.) and the achillsa ptar-mica, or fneezewort.Achillaea, a name frequently given by the ancients tothe gum called dragons blood. See Dracons-BLOOD.ACHILLEID, Achiliexs, a celebrated poem of Sta¬tius, in which that author propofed to deliver thewhole life and exploits of Achilles ; but being pre¬vented by death, he has only treated of the infancyand education of his hero.Tetido ACHILLIS. See Anatomy, Part II.ACHIMENES, in botany, a fynonime of the columneafcandens, a genus of the didynamia angiofpermia clafs.> See Columnea.ACHIOTE. See Achiotte.ACHIOTL, a name given to the drug achiotte.ACHIOTTE, an American drug, ufed in dying and inr ' ’ , chocolate. It is produced from the mitella11a, a tree which grows in North America, Be¬ts the fmail filaments or leaves of this..tree, littlegrains of a vennilion colour are found, which the In¬dians make into cakes, and fend in this form to Eu¬rope ; it is fuppofed to promote urine.ACHIROPOETOS, a name given, by ancient writers,to certain pictures o£Chrill and the Virgin fuppofedto have been miracdoufly made without hands.E ACHLAR, | ||
1 | A-B | 33 | 18 | 68 | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | A Cl ( 18ACHLAR, a river in America, called Jr axis by theancients.ACHLIS. See Machlis,ACHLYS, in medicine, a dimnefs of fight, arifing fromany fear remaining after an ulcer in the cornea. Itis alfo ufed for the diforder called a fuffufton of theuterus.ACHMETSCHET, a town of the peninfula of theCrimea, the refidence of the fultan Galga, who is eld-eft fon of the Khan of Tartary, 51.2Q. long. 45.0. lat.ACHONRY, a frtlall town of Ireland in the province ofConnaught, and county of Sligo, feated on the riverShannon.ACHOR, in medicine, fmall ulcers on the face whichdifeharge a vifeid humour. See Medicine.ACHRAS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mono-gynia clafs. It bears a fruit not unlike the pear.There are cnly three fpecies of the achras, viz. themimofa, the fapota, and the falicifolia, all natives ofAmerica.ACHRONICAL, Achronycal, or Acronychal.See Acronical-ACHYR, a ftrong town and caftle of the Ukrain, fub-jeft to the Ruffians fince 1667.. It Hands oh the riverUorflclo near the frontiers of Ruffia, 127 miles W. ofKiow, 36. o. long. 49. 32. lat.ACHYRANTES, in botany, a genus of the pentandriamonogynia clafs. There are feven fpecies of the achy-rantes, molt of them natives of the Indies.ACHYRANTHA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe¬cies of the iHecebryim. See Illecebrum.ACHYRONIA, in botany, an obfolete name of a genusof the diadelphia decandria clafs.ACHYROPHORUS, in' botany, a fynonime of the fe-riola. See Seriola.ACIA, a term in the Roman fuTgery, about the mean¬ing of which phyficians and commentators are greatlydivided; fome taking it for the needle, and others forthe thread.ACICULT, the fmall fpikes or prickles of the hedge¬hog, echinus marinus, &c.ACIDS, fubftances which give a four, fharp, or tarttafte. Among the chemifts, the acid falts are diftin-guifhed into the nitrous, vitriolic, muriatic, and vege¬table. See Chemistry, title. Of acids.Acids, in the materia medica, are fuch medicines aspofiefs an acid quality; fuch as vinegar, fpirit of vi¬triol, 6". Thefe being powerful antifeptics, are e-fteemed good in all purtrid and malignant difeafes, and,by their cooling virtue, are no lefs efficacious in fe-verifh and inflammatory cafes.ACIDITY, that quality which'renders bodies acid.ACIDOTON, in botany, is both a fynonime and thetrivial name of a fpecies of the adeha. See Adelia.ACIDULfE, a term for water or any fobftance impreg¬nated with an acid.ACIDULATED, a name given to medicines that havean acid in their compofltion.ACIERNO, a town in the Hither Principality, in thekingdom of Naples, with a bifhop’s fee. It is 15 milesE. of Salerno, 37. 0. E. long. 40. 52. lat.) A C OACINAIES, in antiquity, a kind of cutlafs, or'fcime-tcr, in ufe among the Perlians.ACINARIA, in botany, a fynonime of the focus acina-rius, belonging to the crvptogamia algae of Linnaeus.See Focus.ACINI, in botany, a fynonime of the thymus alpinus.See Thymus.AC1NIFORMIS tunica, in anatomy. See Uvea.AC1NODENDRION, in botany, the trivial name ofa fpeties of the melaftoma. See Melastoma.ACINODENDRUM, in botany, a fynonime of two• fpecies of the melafloma.ACINOIDES, in botany, the trivial name of a fpeciesof the ziziphora. See Ziziphora.ACINOS, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of the Cu-nila. See Cun 1 la.ACINUS, in botany, fignifies grapes or berries growingin clufteis.ACISONTHERA, in botany, both a fynonime and thetrivial name of a fpecies of the rhexia. See Rhfxi a.ACITLI, in ornythology, the American name of thecolymbus criftatus, a bird of the order of anferes. SeeColymbus.ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general fenfe, is a per-fon’s owning or confeffing a thing; but, more parti¬cularly, is the expreffion of gratitude for a favour.AcKNowLEDGMENT-»«wiy’, a certain fum paid by te¬nants in feveral parts of England, on the death oftheir landlords, as an acknowledgment of their newlords.ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of miffive wea¬pon, with a thong affixed to it, whereby to draw itback. Moft authors deferibe it as a fort of dart orjavelin ; but Scaliger makes it round’fli or globular,with a (lender wooden (lem to poife it by.ACLOWA, in botany, a barbarous name of a fpecies ofcolutea. It is ufed by the natives of Guinea to curethe itch. See Cold-tea.ACME, or Ac k me, The top or height of any thing. Itis ufually applied to the maturity of an animal juft be¬fore it begins to decline; and phyficians have ufed itto exprefs the utmoft violence or crifis of a difeafe.ACMELLA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies ofthe verbefina. See Verbesina.ACNIDA, in botany, a genus of the dicecia pentandria-clafs. There is only one fpecies of it, vis. the ae-nida canabina. It is a native of Virginia.ACNDA, in Roman antiquity, fignified a certain mea-fure of land,' near about the Englifti rood, or fourthpart of an acre. See Rood.ACOBA, a fmall town of Portugal in the province ofEftremadura.ACOEMETyE, or Acoemeti, in church hiftory, ormen who lived without deep; a fet of monks whochaunted the divine fervice night and day in their pla¬ces of worfhip. They divided themfelves into threebodies, who alternately fucceedcd one another,, fo thattheir churches were never filent. This practice theyfounded upon the precept. Pray •without ceaftns. Theyflourifhed in the eaft about the middle of the fifth cen¬tury. There are a kind cf acoemeti (till fubfifting in | |
1 | A-B | 34 | 19 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | AGORoman church, viz. the religious of the holy facra-ment, who keep up a perpetual adoration, fome oneor other of them praying before the holy facrament,day and night.ACOLASTRE, a fmall river of France in the Nivernois.ACOLCHICHI, in ornythology, a barbarous name ofthe phoenicopterus, a bird of the order of grails. SeePhoenicopterus.ACOLIN, an obfolete name of a fpecies of the tetrao,of the order of gallinae See Tetrao.Acolin, in geography, a river of France which takes• its rife in the Bourbonnois.ACOLUTHI, a term applied to perfons who werefirm and fteady in their opinions, and particularly to• the ftoics, who were remarkably tenacious of their re-folutions and principles.In church-hiftory, the term acolythus, or acolytbiji,is peculiarly applied to candidates for the miniftry whocontinually attend the bifhops.ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the of¬fice or order of divine fervice; or the prayers, cere¬monies, hymns, foe. whereof the Greek fervice iscompofedfACOMA, a town of N. America, in New-Mexico,feated on a high mountain, with a firong caftle. It isthe capital of the province, and was taken by the Spa¬niards in i$99, 108. 3$. W. long. 35. o. lat.ACOMAC, a county of Virginia, in N. America, be¬ing a peninfula, bounded on the N. by Maryland; onthe E. and S. by the ocean, and on the W. by thebay of Chefe-peak. Cape Charles is at the entranceof the bay, being the mod fouthern promontory of thiscounty.ACONK, a fpecies of whet-ftone. See Cos.ACONITUM, in botany, a genus of the polyandriatrigynia. There are feven fpecies of the aconitum. ■ x.The lyccdtonum, is a native of Lapland, Switzerland,and other hilly countries of Europe. 2. The unci-natum, is a native of Philadelphia. 3, The variega-tum grows on the Italian and Bohemian mountains.4. The napellus, is a native of Switzerland, Bava¬ria, and France. $. The Pyrenaicum, is a native ofSiberia, Tartary, and the Pyrenaean mountains. Seeplate II. fig. 2. 6. The cammarum, and, 7. Theanthora, are both natives of Taurus and the Pyrc-naean mountains. The Englilh name of the aconitumis 'wolfsbane or monkshood. Each fpecies is highly a-crid, and extremely dangerous when, taken into thellomach, as it generally occafions convulfions, and fre¬quently a mortification in that organ.ACONTIAS, in zoology, an obfolete name of the an-guis jaculus, or dart-fnake, belonging to the order ofamphibia ferpentes. See Anguis.Acontias, is alfo a name applied by fome writers to akind of comet or meteor, whofe head appears roundilhor oblong, and its tail long and flender, like a dart orarrow.ACONTIUM, in ancient writers, a kind of Greciandart or javelin, fomewhat refembling the Roman pilum.ACOPA, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies of. the trifolium, SheTrifolium.A C CVAcopa, alfo fignifies medicines for refrelhing the bodyafter great fatigue.-ACOPAM. See Acopa.ACOPIS, a kind of foflil, mentioned by Pliny.ACOPUM, among ancient phyficians, a topical medicinecompofed of warm and emollient ingredients for allay¬ing the fenfe of wearinefs.ACORES, ingeography. See Azores.ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree. See Quercus.ACORUM, in botany, a fynonime of the acorus. SeeAcorus.ACORUS, in botany, the fweet-fuelling flag or cala¬mus, a genus of the hexandria monogynia clafs. It'is a native of this as well as other European countries.There are three varieties of this genus, viz. the aco¬rus calamus; the vulgaris, or aromaticus of the {hops ;and the verus, which chiefly grows in the Indies.Acorus, in mat. med. a name fometimes given to thegreat galangal. See GalangalAcorus, in botany, is likewife a fynonime of the irispfeudacorus. See Iris.ACOUSMATICI, fometimes alfo called Acoujlici, inGrecian antiquity, fuch difciples of Pythagoras as hadnot completed their five years probation. See Py¬thagorean pbilofophy.ACOUSTIC, in general, denotes any thing that relatesto the ear, or the fonle of hearing.Acoustic dull, in anatomy, the lame with meatus au-ditorius, or the external paflage of the ear. See A-natomy, Part VI.Acoustic injlrument, an inftrument made in the formof a'horn, perforated at the finall end, to afliit hear¬ing. - 1 ri <Acoustic nerve, the fanfe with the auditory nerve.See Anatomy, Part V. and. Auditory nerve.ACOUSTICS, with phyficians, medicines for curingdcafnefs.ACQS, a town at the foot of the Pyrenaean mountainsin the government of Foixrin France. It takes itsname from the hot waters in thefe parts; 1. 2$. E.long. 43. o. lat.ACQUA, a town in the Grand Dutchy of Tufcany,where there are warm baths, 12. 5. E. long. 43.4$. lat.ACQUA-CHE-TAVELLA, a celebrated fountain ofItaly, in Calabria-citerior, a province of Naples. Itis near the mouth of the river Crata, and the ruinscommonly called Sihari rovinata. It has been faidtobeautify thofe who walhed in it.ACQUAPENDENTE, a pretty large town of Italy,in the territory of the church,, and patrimony of StPeter, with a Sifhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain,,near the river Paglia, 10 miles W. of Orvieto, and57 N. by W. of Rome, 11. $3. E long. 42-43. lat.ACQUARIA, a fmall town of Italy, in Frigana, a di-ftridt of Modena, which is remarkable for its medici-. nal waters* It is 12 miks fouth of the city of Mo¬dena, 11. 17. E. long. 44. 24. lat.ACQUA VIVA, a fmall town in the Terra di Bari, aprovince in the kingdom: of Naples, 17. 25,,. E- long.,41. io-lau( 19 )ACQUEST, | |
1 | A-B | 35 | 20 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | A C 11ACQUEST, or Acquist, inlaw, figuifies goods gotby purcliafe or donation. See Conquest.ACQUI, a town of Italy, in the Dutchy of Montfer-rat, with a bilhop’s fee, and commodious baths. Itwas taken by the Spaniards in 1745, and retaken,bythe Piedmontefe in 1746; but after this, it was takenagain and difmantled by the French, who afterwardsforfook it. It is featedon the river Bormio, 25 milesN. W. of Genoa, and 30 S. of Cafal, 8. 30. E. long.44. 40. lat.ACQUIESCENCE, in commerce, is the confent thata perfon gives to the determination given either by ar¬bitration, or by a confulACQUIETANDIS plegiis, in the Englilh law, is awrit that lies for a furety, againft a creditor, who re-fufes to acquit the complainant after the debt is paid.ACQUIETANTIA de Jh'tr'ts et hundredis, in England,fignifies the privilege of being free from fuit and fer-vice in Ihires and hundreds.ACQUISITION, in general, denotes the obtaining orprocuring fomething. Among lawyers, it is ufed forthe right or title to an eftate got by purchafe or dona¬tion.ACQUIT ARE, in ancient law-books, fignifies to dif-charge or pay off the debts of a perfon deceafed.ACQUITTAL, a difcharge, deliverance, or fetting ofa perfon free from the guilt or fufpicion of an offence.ACQUITTANCE, a releafe or difcharge in writingfor a fum of money.ACRA, a town of Africa, on the coaft of Guinea, wherethe Englilh, Dutch, and Danes, have ftrang forts,and each fort its particular village, o. 2. W. long.5. o. lat.ACRASIA, among phyficians, fignifies the predominan¬cy of one quality over another.ACRE, or Ac a a, a fea-port town in Syria. It wasformerly called Ptoleniais, and is a bifhop’s fee. Itwas very famous in the time of the crufadoes, and un¬derwent feveral fieges both by the Chrillians and Sara¬cens. It is now an inconfiderable town, being entire¬ly fupported by its harbour, which is frequented byfhips of feveral nations. It is 20 miles S. of Tyre,and 37 N. of Jerufalem, 39. 25. E. long. 32.40, lat.Acre, in the Mogul’s dominions, the fame with lack,and fignifies the fum of 100,000 rupees ; the rupee isof the value of the French crown of 3 livres, or 30fols of Holland; an 100 lacks of rupees make a cou-ron in Indoftan, or 10,000,000 rupees; the poundSterling is about 8 rupees; according to which pro¬portion, a lack of rupees amounts to 12,500 poundsSterling.Acre, a meafure of land ufed in feveral provinces ofFrance, particularly in Normandy, It is larger orlefs according to the different places; but commonlycontains 160 perches.The Acre of ’woods in France, confifts of four roods,called verg 'es; the rood is 40 perches, the perch 24feet, the foot 12 inches, the inch 12 lines.Acre, the univerfal meafure of land in Britain. Anacre in England contains 4 fquare roods, a rood 40A C Rperches or poles of 16' feet each by ftatute. Yet thEmeafure does not prevail in all parts of England, asthe length of the pole varies in different counties, andis called cujiomary meafure, the difference runningfrom the 16 ‘ feet to 28. The acre is alfo divided in¬to 10 fquare chains, of 22 yards each, that is 4840fquare yards. An acre in Scotland contains 4 fquareroods; 1 fquare rood is 40 fquare falls; 1 fquare fall,36 fquare ells; 1 fquare ell, 9 fquare feet, and 73fquare inches; 1 fquare foot, 144 fquare inches.The Scots acre is alfo divided into 10 fquare chains ;the meafuring chain Ihould be 24 ells in length, divi¬ded into 100 links, each link 8T’(!| inches; and fo1 fquare chain will contain 10,000 fquare links.The Englilh ftatute acre is about 3 roods and 6 fallsftandard meafure of Scotland.ACREME, in old law-books, fignifies ten acres of land.ACRIBEIA, fignifies great accuracy.ACRID, a name for any tiling that is of a (harp .orpungent tafte.ACRIDOPHAGI, fignifies locujl-eaters. It has beenmuch difputed whether the inhabitants of Arabia, E-thiopia, Qr. ever eat locufts. We fliall give tliefub-ftance of what Hafl’elquift fays on this fubjedt, whotravelled in Syria and Egypt fo late as the year 1752.This ingenious gentleman, who travelled with a viewto improve natural hiftory, informs us, that he afkedFranks, and many other people who had lived long inthefe countries, whether they had ever heard that theinhabitants of Arabia and Ethiopia, isc. ufed loeuftsas food. They anfwered that they had. He like-wife afked the fame queftion of Armenians, Cophtes,and Syrians, who lived in Arabia, and had travelledin Syria and near the Red-fea; fome of whom fa id,they heard of fuch a practice, and others that theyhad often feen the people eat thefe infett.s. He atlaft obtained complete iatisfattion on this head from alearned fheck at Cairo, who had lived fix years inMecca. This gentleman toldJiim, in prefence of M.le Grand, the principal French interpreter at Cairo,and others, that a famine frequently rages at Meccawhen there is a fcarcity of corn in Egypt, which obli¬ges the inhabitants to live upon coarfer food than or¬dinary : That when com is fcarce, the Arabians grindthe locufts in hand-mills, or ftone mortars, and bakethem into cakes, and ufe thefe cakes in place ofbread: That he has frequently feen locufts ufed bythe Arabians, even when there was no fcarcity ofcom; but then they boil them, ilew them, with but¬ter, and make them into a kind of fricafiee, which hefays is not difagreeably tailed; for he hid fometimeatailed thefe locuft-fricaffees out of curiofity. Fromthis account, we may fee the folly of that difpute a-rnong divines about die nature of St John’s food ii\the wildernefs. Some of them fay that locufts werethe fruits of certain trees, others that they were akind of birds, <bc.; but thofe who adhered to the li¬teral meaning of the text were at leaft the moll orthc-.dox, although their arguments were perhaps not follrong as they might have been, had they had an op¬portunity of quoting fuch an author as Ilaffelquift.,ACRI-( 20 ) | |
1 | A-B | 36 | 21 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | a c r, ( 2ACRTFQLIUM, in botany, a lharp Or prickly leaf,ACRIMONY, that quality in bodies which rendersthem acrid to t-hc tafte.ACRIVIOLA, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies oftropssolum or Indian crefs. See Trop^eolum.ACRO AM ATTIC, or Acroatic, in general, denotesa thing fubliine, profound, or abftrufe. Ariflotle’sledlures to his favourite difciples and intimate friendsbore this denomination, in oppofition to his exotericleisures, or thofe- accommodated to a popular audi¬ence.ACRQBATICA, or Acrobaticum, in Grecian anti¬quity, an enginowhereby the people were raifed aloft,that they might fee .further, or with greater advan¬tage. It was much the fame with the fcanforium ofthe Latins.ACROCHIRISMUS, in Grecian antiquity, a kind'ofgynjnaftic exercife, performed with the fills, withoutdoling at all.ACROCHORDON, a painful wart, which is very pro¬minent and pendulous.ACROCQRION, in botany, an obfqlete name of thecrocus. See Crocus.ACROMATIC, or Achromatic, in optics, a termapplied to a particular kind of telefcope, the me ft per¬fect of the refradting kind. See Optics and Tele¬scope,ACROMION, in anatomy, the upper part of the fca-pula. See Anatomy, Part I.ACROMON OGRAMMATICUM, in poetry, a kindof poem., wherein every fqhfe4u*nt verfe begins, withthe letter wherewith the immediately preceding oneterminated.ACRON, a territory on the gold coa/l of Guinea in A-frica, bordering on th.e Fantynean country. TheDutch, have a fort here, called Fort Patience. Theinhabitants apply themfelves principally to hulbandry.They are a very ignorant people, and go naked likethe red of the negroes.ACRON, among ancient botanifts, fignifies the top orflower of plants of the thillle kind.ACRONICAL, Achronycal, or Achronical, inaftronomy, is a term applied to the riling of a liar,when the fun is fet in the evening; but has been pro-mifeuoufly ufed to exprefs a liar’s riling at funfet, orfetting at funrife.ACROSPIRE, a vulgar term for What the botanills callthe plume. See Agriculture, Of vegetation.ACROSPIRED, in mait-nfiaking, is the grain’s ihoot-ing both at the root and blade end. See Malt.ACROSTIC, Acrost 1 cum, in poetry, a poem dif-pofed in fuch a manner, that the initial letters of theverfes. makeLome perfon’s name, title, motto, isc.ACROSTICUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptoga-mia Alices, of which there are 30 fpecies, but onlythree of them are natives of Britain, viz. the fepten-trionale, or horned fern ; the ilvenfe, or haijy fern •and the thelypteris, or marlh fern.ACROSTOLIUM, in ancient naval architedlure, theextreme part cf the ornament ufed on the prows oftheir fnips, which was fometimes in the lhape of aVol. I. No. 1. 3i ) A C Tbuckler, helmet, animal, ire.; but more frequentlycircular, or Ipiral. It was ufual to tear them fromthe prows of vanquilhed vefleta, and fix them to theconquerors, as a lignal of vidtory.ACROTEIJECJTIC, among eceleliaftic .writers, an ap¬pellation given to any thing added to the end of a pfalm,as the Gloria Patri or doxology.ACROTERI, a town in the illand of Santorin, thatlios in the fea of Candia, 25. 26. E. long. 3d.25. Ft.ACROTERI A, in architedlure, fmall pedelluls, ufuallywithout bafes, anciently placed at the middle and thetwo extremes of pediments or frontifpieces, fervirg tofupport the llatues, ire. It alfo fignifies the figuresplaced as ornaments on the tops of churches, and thelharp pinnacles that Hand in ranges about flat build¬ings with rails and ballullers.Among ancient phylicians, it fignified the larger ex*tremiries of the body, as the head, hands, and feet.It has alfo been ufed for the tips of the fingers, andfometimes for the eminences or procefl'es of bones.ACRITHYMIA, in furgery, a large tumour refenr-bling a wart, though fometimes flat and deprefled.See Surgery, title, Of tumours.ACSOR, a town in the river Nile in Egypt, famed forits earthen ware.ACSU, a town in Aliatic Tartary, fituated in 40. 30.N. lat.ACT, in general, denotes the exertion of power; anddiffers from power, as the effedt from the caufe.Act, among lawyers, is an inllrument in writing fordeclaring or juflifying the truth of any thing. InWhich leufe, records, decrees, fentences, reports, cer¬tificates, ire. are called Alls.Acts, alfo denote the deliberations and refolutions cfan affembly, fenate, or convocation, as, Adis of par¬liament, ire.Act of faith, auta da fe, in the Romilh church, is afort of jail delivery, for the puniflnnent of heretics,and the abfolution of thofe who are found to be inno¬cent. The culprits are firlt led to church, wherktheir fentence, either of condemnation or abfolutLon,is pronounced, and the guilty are delivered over to thefecular power, with an earneft interccflion for them,that no blood may be Hied. But if they perfifl intheir fuppofed errors, they are burnt alive. See In¬quisition. i.Acts, in dramatic poetry, are the parts or divifions in¬to which tragedies and comedies are generally fplit.. Dramatic compofitions ufually confifl of five adls. Butthis divifion is. not eflentially neceflary, but may bevaried according to the humour of the author, or thenature of the fubjedt. See Drama.Act of grace. See Grace.ACTjF.A, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-gynia clafs. Tbere are three fpecies of this plant,viz. the adltea fpicata, or bone-berries, which is anative of Britain; the racemofa, which is a native ofAmerica; and the ciraicifuga, which is a native of Si¬beria.ACTIAN gamety in Roman antiquity, were folemnF games | |
1 | A-B | 37 | 22 | 70 | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | ACT ( 22games inftituted by Auguftus, in memory of his vic¬tory over Marc Anthony at Adtium, held every fifthyear, and celebrated in honour of Apollo, fince calledAftiur. Hence Adtian years, an sera commencingfrom the battle of Adtium, called the Mr a of Au-• guflus.ACTION, in a general fenfe. See Act.Action, in mechanics, the motion produced by theim-pulfe of one body upon another. See Mechanics.Action, in ethics, denotes the external figns or expref-fions of the fentiments of a moral agent. See Ethics,Metaphysics.Action, in poetry, the fame with the fubjedt or fable.Critics generally diftinguifh two kinds, the principaland the incidental. 'The principal adtion is what isgenerally called the fable; and the incidental an epi-fode. See Drama. .Action, in oratory, is the outward deportment of theorator, or the accommodation of his countenance,voice, and gefture, to the fubjedt of which he is treat¬ing. See Eloquence.Action, in a theatrical fenfe, is much the fame withadtion in!oratory; the one adapts his adtion to an af-fumed char-adter, the other is fuppofed to feel in rea¬lity what he ^xprefles, 'Action, in painting and fculpture, is the pofture of aftatue or pidturc, lerving to exprefs fome paffion, <bc.Action, among phyficians. See Motions.Action, in commerce, is a term ufed abroad for apart or (hare in a company’s ftock or capital.Action, in Scots law, is a demand made before ajudge for obtaining what we arevlegally intitledto de¬mand, and is more commonly known by the name oflaw-fuit or procefs. See Law, tide, A ft ions.ACTIONARY, or Actionist, a proprietor of ftockin a trading company.ACTIONS, among merchants, fometimes fignify move-able effedts; and we fay the merchant’s creditors havefeized on all his adtions, when we mean that they havetaken pofleflion of all his adtive debts.ACTIVE, denotes fomething that communicates adtionor motion to another; in which acceptation it Handsoppof d to paffive.Active, in grammar, is a'pplicd to fuch words as ex¬prefs adtion; and is therefore oppofed to paffive. Theadtive performs the adtion, as the paffive receives it-.Active principles, in chemiftry, fuch as are fuppofedto adt without any affiftance from others; as mercury,fulphur, fcc. See Chemistry. /ACTIVITY, in general, denotes the power of adting,or the adtive faculty. See Active.Sphere of Activity, the whole fpace in which the vir¬tue, power, or influence of any objedt is exertedACTIUS, in mythology, a frrname of Apollo, fromAdtium, Where he was wo Whipped.ACTOR, in general, fignifies a perfon who adts or per¬forms fomething.Actor, in the drama, is a perfon who reprefents fomepart or charadter upon the theatre. The drama inits original only canfifted of a Ample chorus, who) A C Ufung hymns in honour of Bacchus ; fo that the primi¬tive adtors were only fingers and muficians. Thefpiswas the firft who introduced a perjona, or aft or, toeafe the chorus, by reciting the adventures of fomeof their heroes. iEfchylus introduced a fecond, andchanged the ancient recitals into dialogues. Sopho¬cles added a third, in order to reprefent the variety ofincidents in a more natural manner. And here theGreeks ftopped; at leaft we do not find, in any oftheir tragedies, above three perfons in the fame feene,though, in their comedies, they took a greater liber¬ty. The ancient adlors were mafked, which mufthave been a great difadvantage to their adtion, as theywere thereby deprived of all the variety of expreffionthe countenance is capable of. Adtors were as muchhonoured at Athens, as they were defpifed at Rome.The Freneh have, in this particular, adopted themanner of the Romans, and the. Englifh that of theAthenians. See Drama.ACTORUM tabula, in antiquity, were tables inftj.tutedby Servius Tullius, in which the births of childrenwere regiftered. They were kept in the treafury ofSaturnus.ACTRESS, a woman who performs a part upon theftage. Women adtors wene unknown to the ancients.ACTUAL, fomething that is real and efFedtivc, or thatexifts truly and abfolutely.ACTUARIAL naves, a kind of fhips among the Ro¬mans, chiefly defigned for fwift failingACTUARIUS, or Actarius, a notary or officer ap¬pointed to write the adts or proceedings of a court, orthe like. In. the Eaftern empire, the adtuarii wereproperly officers who kept the military accounts, re¬ceived the corn from the fufceplores, or ftore-keepers,and delivered it to the foldiers.ACTUATE, to bring into adt* to put a thing in motion,or to flir up a pcrlon to adtion.ACTUS, in ancient.architedture, a meafure in length e-qual to 120 Roman feet. In ancient agriculture, theword fignified the length of one furrow, or the diftancea plough goes before it-turns.Actus minimus, was a quantity of land 120 feet inlength, and four in breadth.Actus major, or Actus quadratus, a piece of groundin the fquare form, whofe fide was equal to 120 feet,equal to half the jugerum.Actus intervicenalis, a fpace of ground four feet inbreadth, left between the lands as a path or way.ACUANITES, or Acuanita, a branch of thofe an¬cient heretics who bore the general name of Mani -hees.This branch took their diftinguiffiing title from Acua,a difciple of Thomas.ACUBENE, in aftronomy, the Arabic name of a ftarof the fourth magnitude, in the fouthern forceps ofCancer; by Bayer marked A. See Astronomyand Cancer.ACUHYTLI, a barbarous name of a fpecies of ferpent.AGUITION. See Acutition.ACULEATE, or Aculeati, a term applied to anyplant or animal armed with prickks.ACU- | |
1 | A-B | 38 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | ADAACULEATUS, in ichthyology, a fynonitne of the ga-flerodeus or flickle-back. See Gasterosteus.ACULEI, the prickles of animals or of plants.ACULEOSA, in botany, a fynonime of the gorteriaciliaris and the roella ciliata. See Gorteria, Ro-ella.ACULER, in the menage, is ufed for the motion of ahorfe, when, in working upon volts, he does not gofar enough forward at every time or motion, fo thathis fnoulders embrace or take in too little ground, andhis croupe comes too near the centre of the volt.Horfes are naturally inclined to this fault in makingdemi-volts.ACUMEN, in the ancient mufic, a found produced bythe intention or raifing of the voice.ACUMINA, in antiquity, a kind of military omen, modgenerally fuppofed to have been taken from the pointsor edges of darts, fwords, or other weapons.ACUMULO, a fmall town in Abruzzo Ulterior, aprovince of the kingdom of Naples, 17. 15. long. 39,30. lat.ACUPUNCTURE, the name of a furgical operationamong the Chinefe and Japanefe, which is performedby pricking the part affcAed with a filver needle.They employ this operation in head-achs, lethargies,convulfions, colics, <bc.ACUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies offyngnathus. See Syngnathus.ACUTE, as applied to angles, triangles, cones, <bc.See thefe articles.Acute accent, in grammar. See Accent.Acute, in mufic, fignifies a tone that is fharp, flirjll,or high, in rcfpeci of fome other, and is oppofed tograve.Acute difeafes, fuch as come fuddenly to a crifis.This term is ufed for all difeafes which do not fallunder the head of chronic difeafes.ACUTITION, among phyficians, the lharpening or in-creafing the force of any medicine.ACYROLOGIA,- fignifies an improper word, phrafe,or expreflion.AD, a Latin prepofition, originally fignifying to, andfrequently ufed in compofition both with and \yithoutthe d, to exprefe the relation of qne thing to another.Ad beflias, in antiquity, is the punifhment of criminals• condemned to be thrown to wild beads.Ad hominem, in logic, a kind of argument drawn fromthe principles or prejudices of thefe with whom weargue.An ludos, in antiquity, a fentence upon criminals amongthe Romans, whereby they were condemned to enter¬tain the people either by fighting with wild beads, orwith one another, and thus executing judice uponthemfel ves.Ad inetalla, in antiquity, the punifhment of fuch cri¬minals as were condemned to the mines, among theRomans • and therefore called M,et allic-i.Ad quiddities, among fchoolmen. See Quiddities.Ad valorem, a term chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the du¬ties or cuftoras paid for certain goods : The duties onADAfome articles are paid by the number, weight, mea-fure, tale, isc. and others are paid ad valorem, thatis, according to their value.ADA, a large town of Alia, inhabited chiefly by Arme¬nians.ADACA-MANGEN, in botany, a fynonime of thefpbseranthus. See Sph^ranthus.ADAGE, a proverb, or fhort fentence, containing fomewife obfervation or popular faying.ADAGIO, in mufic, an Italian adverb, fignifying fofily,leifurely ; and is ufed to denote the flowed of all times,except the grave.ADAJA, a river in Spain which falls into the Duro.ADALIDES, in the Spainifh policy, are officers of ju¬dice for matters touching tire military forces, efpeci-ally on expeditions.ADAMANT, a name fometimes given to the diamond.See Diamond. It is likewife applied to the fcoriseof gold, the magnet, <bc,ADAMANTIC, in church hidory, a name given to thefollowers of Origen, firnamed Adamant ins.ADAMBOE, in botany, a fynonime of the ipomoea cam-panulata, an Indian plant, belonging to the pentandriamonogynia clafs. See Ipomoea.AD AMI pomum, or Adam's apple, in botany, an obfo-lete name of a fpecies of the citrus or orange. SeeCitrus.Adami pomum, in anatomy, the convex part of the firftcartilage of the larynx. See Anatomy, Part VI.ADAMIC earth, a name given to common red chy,alluding to that fpecies of earth of which the fird manis fuppofed to have been made.ADAMITES, in church hidory, .a name fometimes 11-fed for the defeendents of Adam by Seth, who aremore ufually called Set kites. But the name Adamitesis more particularly ufed, by ecclefiadical writers, fora left of ancient heretics, who took upon them to imi¬tate the nakednefs'of Adam, and pretended to be re¬inflated in his original innocence.ADAMSHIDE, a diflri<A of the circle of Raflenburg,belonging to the King of Pruffia, Which, with Dom-brolken, was bought, in 1737, for 42,000 dollars.ADAM 'speak, a high mountain of the E. Indies, inthe ifland of Ceylon, on the top of which they be¬lieve the fird'man was created ; and there is the fhapeof a man’s foot, cut out of the rock, about five or fixfeet in length, which they pretend is the print of hisfoot, 80. 50. E. long. .5 55. lat.ADg,NA, an ancient town of Natolia, with a bifhop’sfee. It dands on the river Choquen, 25 miles N. E.of Tarfus, 36. 25. long. 38. 10. lat. :ADANSONIA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphiapolyandria clafs. It is a native of Senegal and E-gyP1- "(ADAOUS, or Adows, a people ©f Guinea in Africa.ADAPTERS, in chemidry, machines for fitting a reci¬pient to the capital. See Chemistry.ADAR, the name of a Hebrew month, anfwering to theend of February and beginning of March, the 12th oftheir facred, and 6th of their civil year. On the7th( 23 ) | ||
1 | A-B | 39 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | A D D (y-th day of it, the Jews keep a fait for the death ofMofes; on the 13 th, they have the fall of Efther;and on the 14th, they celebrate the feafl: of Purim,for their deliverance from Hainan's confpiracy,AD ARCE, a kind of concreted falts found on reeds andother vegetables, and applied by the ancients as a re¬medy in feveral cutaneous difeafes.ADARCQN, in jewifh. antiquity, a gold coin mention¬ed in feriptnre, about the value of which authors arenot agreed.A DARE, a fmall town of Ireland, in the county ofLimtnerick.ADARME, in commere, a fmall weight in Spain, whichis alfo ufed at Buenos-Aires, and in all Spanilh Ame¬rica. It is the 16th part of an ounce, which at Parisis called the demi-gros. But the Spanilh ounce is fe-ven per cent. lighter than that of Paris. Stephensrenders it in Englilh by A. dratn. .AD ARTICULATION, in anatomy, the fame withdiarthrofis. See Diarthrosis.ADATAIS, Adatis, or Adatys, in commerce, amuflin or cotton-cloth, very fine and clear, of whichthe piece is ten French ells long, and three quartersbroad. It comes from the E. Indies; and the fioeftis made at Bengal. Sea Must in.ADCHER,. in the materia medica, a name given byfome to the fchosnanth. See Scoenanth.ADCORDABILES denarii, in ancient law-books, ismoney paid by the vaffal to his lord, in the nature ofa fine, upon felling ©r exchanging a feud.ADCRESCENTES, among the Romans, denoted akind of loldiery, entered in the army, but not yet puton duty; from thefe the Handing forces were recruited.See Accensi.ADDA, in geography, a river of Switzerland and Italy,which rifes in mount Braulio, in the country of theGrifons, and palling through the Valteline, traverfesthe lake Como and the Milanefe, and falls into thePp> near Cremona.ADD ACE, in natural hilfory, a name the Africans giveto the common antelope. See Gazella.ADDEPHAGIA, in medicine, a term ufed by fomephyficians, for gluttony, or a voracious appetite.ADDER, in zoology, a vulgar name for the Viter;which fee.ADDERS-TONGUE, in botany, the Englilh nameof the ophiogloffum. See OphioGlossum.ADDER-WORT, in botany, the Englilh name of thepolygonum biilata. See Polygonum.ADDEXTRATORES, in the court of Rome, the pope’smitre-bearers, fo called according to Ducange, be-. caufe they walk at the pope’s right-hand, when herides to vifit the churches.ADDICE, or Adze, a kind of crooked ax ufed byIhip-wrights, carpenters, coopers, ebc.ADDICTI, in antiquity, a kind of Haves, among theRomans,, adjudged to ferve fome creditor whom theycould not otherwife fatisfy, and whofe Haves they be¬came till they could pay, or work out the debt.ADDICTION, among the Romans, was the makingover goods to another, either byfale, or by legal fen-tence; the goods fo delivered were called bona addit-t/j. Debtors were fome times delivered over in thefame manner; and thence calledferui addicTi.ADDICTIO in diem, among the Romans, the adjud¬ging a thing to a perfem for a certain price, unlefs byfuch a day the owner, or fome other, give morefor it.ADD1TAMENT, a term fometimes ufed by chemiftsand phyficians for the addition of any new ingredientto. increale the ftrength of a menftruum or compofi-tion.ADDITION, is the joining together or uniting two ormore things, or augmenting a thing by the acceffion.of others thereto.Addition, in Arithmetic, Algebra, Loga¬rithms, &c. lee thefe articles.Addition of ratios, a term fometimes ufed for co?n-pofition of ratios.Addition, in mufic, a dot marked on the right fide ofa note, fignifying that it is to he founded or length¬ened half as much more as it would have been with¬out fuch mark.Addition, in law, is. that title or defiguation which isgiven to a man, over and ajbqve his proper name andfir name, to Ihew of what eltate, degree, occupation,or place he is.Additions, in heraldry, fome things added to a coatof arms, as marks of honour; and therefore'direftlyoppofite to abatements. Among additions we reckonBordure,Quarter,Canton,Gyron, Pile, 6c.See thefe articles.Addition, in diltillery, a general name given to fuchthings as are added to the wafh or liquor while ferment¬ing, to increafe the vinofity and quantity of the fpirit,or give it a particular reliih,ADDITIVE, in general, fomething to be added. Thus,mathematicians fpeak of additive ratios, aftronomersof additive equations, &e.ADDOU, one of the Maldivian iflands.ADDRESS, a term often ufed to exprefs the lkill andpropriety with which an affair is conduced or mana¬ged.An Address, in a particular acceptation, is a congra¬tulation, petition, or remonftrance, prefented to a fu-perior, efpecially to the king.ADDUCENT mufcles, or Adductors. See Ad¬ductor.ADDUCTION, in anatomy, the motion or aftion ofthe adducent mufcles.ADDUCTOR, in anatomy, the names of all mufcleswhich pull one part of the body towards another. SeeAnatomy, Part II.ADEA, in geography, a province of Annian, on the eaft-ern coaft of Africa, called alfo Adel.ADEB, a large and uncertain Egyptian weight, ufedchiefly for rice.ADEL, or Adea, in geography, a kingdom of Africa,called alfo Zeila, from its capital town. It lies o»the S. eoaft of the ftrait of Babelmandel. There isfeldom any rain here, and yet the country h fruitful,it being well watered with rivers. It abcutds withwheat. | ||
1 | A-B | 40 | null | Normal | 2,526 | 3,378 | Plate JIL, | ||
1 | A-B | 41 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | .i • ■:. .nil -ilia | ||
1 | A-B | 42 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | A D E (2 5 ) ADIwheat, tnillet, frankincenfe, and pepper. Their reli¬gion is the Mahometan.Ad el-fijb, an obfolete name of the falmo albula, be¬longing to the order of abdominales. . See Sal mo.ADEL-ODAGAM, in botany, a fynonime ofthejufli-cia bivalvis. See Justicia. .ADELIA, in botany, a genus of the dieccia monadel-phia clafs. Of this genus there are three fpecies ; thebernardia, a native of America; and the ricinellaand acidoton, both natives of Jamaica.ADELPHIANI, in church hillory, a fed! of ancientheretics, fo called from their leader Adelphius. Theykeep the fab bath as a fail.ADELSCALC, in antiquity, a fervant of the king; fromthe German, adel, noble, and fcalc, a fervant. Theyfeem to have been the fame with royal thanes amongthe Saxons, and the minijlri regis in ancient char¬ters.ADELSPERG, a fmall town of Germany, in lowerCarniola.-ADEMPTION, in law, is the revocation of a donation,or grant, either directly by a deed or writ, or indi¬rectly by otberwife difpofing of the fubjeCt of it. SeeRescission.ADEN, formerly a rich and confiderable town of Ara¬bia the Happy It is feated by the fea-fide, a lit¬tle eaftward of the llraits of Bebdmandel.ADENANTHERA, in botany, a genus of the decan-dria monogynia clafs. There are only two fpecies ofthis plant, the pavonina and the faleataria, both na¬tives of India.ADENBURG, or Aldenburc, in geography, a townpfWeftphalia, and in the dutchy of Burg, fubjeCt tothe Elector Palatine. It is 12 miles N. E. of Cologne,and 17 W of Bonn, 7. 25. E long. 51. 2. lat.ADENDUM, a fmall town of Africa, in the kingdomof Fez.ADENOGR APHY, 'that part of anatomy which treatsof the glandular parts.ADENOIDES, in anatomy. See Prostates.ADENOLOGYi See Adenography.ADENOS, a kind of cotton otherwife called marinecotton. It comes from Aleppo by the way of Marfeilles,where it pays 20 per cent, duty, according to the tariffof the year 1766. Its valuation, according to the fametariff, is 76 livres idfols.ADENOSE abfeefs, a term fometimes ufed for a hardtumour refembling a gland.ADEONA, in mythology, the name of a goddefs invokedby the Romans when they fet out upon a journey.ADEPHAGIA, in mythology, the goddefs of glutto¬ny, to whom, the Sicilians paid religious worfhip.ADEPS, in anatomy, the fat found in the abdomen.It alfo fignifies animal-fat of any kind.ADEPTS, a term among alcbemifts for thofe who pre¬tended to have found out the panacea or philofophers-ftone.ADEQUATE, fomething equal to or exa&ly corre-fponding with another.Adequate idea, fignifies a diftinCl or perfedt concep¬tion of all the. qualities of any objeCt.Vol. I. No. 2. 3ADERBERG, a town of Pomerania, fituate on the Ci¬der.ADERBIGAN, a province of Perfia, bounded on theN. by Armenia Proper, on the S. by Irac-Agemi, onthe E. by Ghilan, and on the W. by Curdiftan. Theprincipal town is Tauris, from 42. to. 48. long, from36. ro 39. lat.APERNO, a fmall place in the Val di Demona in thekingdom pf Sicily, 15. 25. E. long. 28. 5. lat.ADESSENARIANS, AdesSenarii, in church-hifto-ry, a fe£t of Chriftians, who hold the real prefenceof Chriff’s body in the eucharift, though not by" wayof tranfubftantiation. They differ confiderably as. tothis prefence, fome holding that the body of Chrifl isin the bread.; others, that it is about the bread; andothers, that it is under the bread.ADFECTED equation. See Algebra.ADFILIATION, a Gothic cuftom, whereby the chil¬dren of a former marriage are put upon the famefooting with thofe of the fecond. This is alfo cal¬led unio prolium, and (till retained in fome parts ofGermany.ADHATODA, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies ofruelia, acanthus, and of two fpecies of jufticia.Afiion of ADHERENCE, in Scots law, an adtion com-,petent to ahufband or wife, to compel either party toadhere, in cafe of defertion. See Law, title. Mar-AD H ERG AT, a town of Syria, near the frontiers ofArabia.ADHESION, implies the flicking or adhering of twobodies together.Adhesion, in logic, fignifies tenacioufnefs to an argu¬ment, without regard to any evidence of its truth.Adhesion, in anatomy, a term for one part flicking toanother, which in a natural flate are feparate.ADHOA, in ancient cuftoms. See Relief.ADJA, or Adga, a town of Guinea on the coaft ofFantin.ADJACENT, an appellation given to fuch things as arefituate near, or adjoining to each other..ADIANTHUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptoga-mia filices, of which there are 19 fpecies, and only ntwo of them natives of Britain, viz. the adianthumcapillus veneris, or true maiden-hair, and the trapezi-forme, or fhining maiden-hair.ADIAPHORISTS, Adiafhoristje, or Adiafk-o-rites, in church-hiflory, a name importing luke-iWarmnefs, given, in the fixteenth century, to the mode¬rate Lutherans, who embraced the opinions of Me-,landthon, whofe difpofition was vaflly more pacific thanthat of Luther.ADJAZZO, in geography, a handfome town and caftleof Corfica in the Mediterranean, with a bifliop’s fee,and a good harbour. It is populous, and fertile inwine. Some call it Agaccio. It is 27 miles S. W.of Corte, 8. 53. E. long. 41. 54. lat.ADJECTIVE, in grammar, when joined to a fubftan-tive, imports fome quality, or accident, or circum-• fiance belonging to that fubftantive.ADIGE, in geography, a river in Italy, which taking -G its | ||
1 | A-B | 43 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | ADM ( 2<its rife S. of the lake Glace, among the Alps, runs S.by Trent, then E. by Verona in the territory of Ve¬nice, and falls into the gulph of Venice, N. of themouth of the Po.ADJOURNMENT; the word imports putting offfomething to another day or time..ADIPOSE, a term ufed by anatomifts for any cell,membrane, &C-. that is remarkable for its fatnefs.ADVIRBEITSAN, in geography, a province of Per-jfia, in Alia, and part of the ancient Media. It isbounded on the N. by the province of Shirvan, onthe S. by Irac-Agemi and Curdiftan, on the E. by Gi-lan and the Cafpian fea, and on the AV. by Turco-mania.ADIT, in general, fignifies the paffage to, or entranceof any thing, as the adit of a mine, &c.ADJUDICATION, in Scots , law, rhe name of thataftion by which a creditor attaches the heritable eftateof his debtor, or his debtor’s heir, in order to appropri¬ate it to himlelf, either in payment or fecurity of hisdebt j or, that aftion by. which the holder of an heri¬table right, labouring under any defeft in point ofform, may fupply tliat defect. See Law, title. Com-prtfings and adjudications.ADJUNCT, fomething added or joined to another. Inrhetoric and grammar, they fignify certain words orthings added ta others, to amplify or augment theforce of the difcourfe.ADJUTANT, in the military art, is an officer wholebufinefs it is to aflift the major. Each battalion offoot and regiment of horfe has an adjutant, who re¬ceives the orders every night from the brigade-major ;which, after carrying them to the colonel, he deliversout to the ferjeants. When detachments are to bepoade, he gives the number to be furniffied by each,company or troop, and affigns the hour and place of ren¬dezvous. He alfo places the guards, receives and di-.tributes the ammunition to the companies, <bc. andby the major’s orders, regulates the prices of bread,beer, and other provifions.—The word is fometimeaufed by the French for an aid-du-camp,Anjtrre.HT&-general, among the Jefuits, a feleft num¬ber of fathers, refiding with the general pf the order,each of whom has a province or country affigned him,as England, Holland, <bc. and their bufinefs is to in¬form the father-general of ftate-occurrences in fuchcountries.ADJUTORIUM, „a term ufed by phyficians for anymedicine in a prefcription but the capital one.Abjutorium, in anatomy, the fame with the humerusor fnoulder-blade. See Humerus.ADLE-EGGS, fuch as have not received an impregna¬tion from the femen of the cock.ADLOCUTION, in Roman antiquity, is chiefly under-ftood of fpeeches made by Roman generals, to theirarmies, to animate them with courage, before a battle.ADMINICLES, in Scots law, fignifies any writing ordeed referred to by a party in an action of law, forproving his alledgeances or affertions.Adminicles, among antiquarians, tfie ornaments where¬with Juno is represented on medals.I ) ADMADMINICULATOR, an ancient officer of the church,whofe bufinefs.it was to attend to, and defend thecaufe of widows, orphans, andothers deftitute of help,ADMINISTRATION, in general, the government,direction, or management of affairs, and particular¬ly the exercife of diftributive juftice ; among eccle-fiaftics it is often ufed to exprefs the giving or difpen-fing the facraments, <bc.Administration, is alfo the name given by the Spa¬niards in Peru, to the ftaple magazine, or warehoiife,eftablifhed at Callao, a fmall town on the S. Sea, whichis the port of Lima, the capital of that part of S. A-merica, and particularly of Peru. The foreign (hips,which have leave to trade along that coaft, are obligedto unload here, paying 13 per cent, of the price theyfell for, if the cargo be entire, and even 16 per cent.if otherwilc; befides which they pay 3 per iodo,duty for confulffiip, and fome other fmall royal rightsand claims.Administration, a term ufed by anatomifts for theart of differing with propriety.ADMINISTRATOR, in Scots law, a perfon legallyimpowered to aft for another whom the law prefumesincapable of afting for himfelf. Thus tutors or cura¬tors arefometimes ftyled adminijlrdtors in law to pu¬pils, minors, or,fatuous perfans. But more generallythe term is ufed to imply that power which is confer¬red by the law upon a father over the perfcns and e-ftates of his children during their minority. See Law,title. Minors, and their tutors and curators.Administrator, is fometimes ufed for the prefidentof a province; for a perfon appointed to receive, ma¬nage, and diftribute the revenues of an hofpital or re¬ligious houfe ; for a prince who enjoys the revenuesof a fecularized bifhopjick; and for the regent of akingdom, during a minority of the prince, or a va¬cancy of the throne.ADMINISTRATRIX, a woman who afts as admini-ftrator.ADM1RABILIS, in botany, a fyr.onime of the roirabi-lis. SeeMiRABins.ADMIRABILIS fal, the fame with Glauber’s fait. SeaGlauber’s salt.ADMIRAL, in maritime affairs, a great officer whocommands the Daval forces of a kingdom or ftate.High Admiral, in the law of Scotland, a judge in¬verted with fupreme jurifdiftion in all maritime caufeswithin Scotland. See Law, title, Supreme judges,and courts of Scotland.Adm 1 ral alfo denotes the commander in chief of a finglefleet or fquadron; or, in general, ary flag-officer what¬ever. In the Britifh navy, befides the admiral whocommands in chief, there are the vice-admiral, whocommands the fecond fquadron; and the rear-admiral,who commands the third. The admiral carries hisflag at the main-top-maft-head; the vice-admiral atthe fore-top-maft-head; and the rear-admiral at the'mizen-top-maft-head. See Flag.F/«-Admiral likewife denotes an officer inverted withthe jurifdiftion of an admiral, within a certain diftrift.There are a number of fuch in G. Britain.Admiral, | ||
1 | A-B | 44 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | ADOAdmiral is alfo an appellation given to the moft con-fiderable (hip of a fleet of merchant-men, or of theveflels employed in the cod-fi(hery of Newfoundland.This lad has the privilege of chufing what place hepleafcs on the fhore to dry his fi(h ; gives proper or¬ders, and appoints the fifhing places to thofe who comeafter him; and as long as the fifhing-feafon continues,he carries a flag on his main-mart.Admiral, in zoology, the Engliih name of a fpecies ofthe voluta, a (hell fi(h belonging to the order of ver¬mes tertacea. See Voluta.High Court of ADMIRALTY, in Scotland, the court *in which the high-admiral is judge. See Admi¬ral.ADMIRATION, in general, denotes furprife, wonder,or aftoniftntient at any extraordinary event. Some¬times alfo it fignifies the expreflion of wonder.ADMISSION, among ecclefiaftical writers, is the a£t ofa bifhop’s allowing axlerk to be properly qualified forferving a cure.ADMITTENDO clerico, in the Engliih law, a writgranted to a perfon who has recovered his right of pre-fentation againft the bifliop, iyc. in the common pleas,by which the bilhop, or metropolitan is ordained to ad¬mit his clerk.Admittendo in focium, in the Englifh law, a writfor the afiociation of certain perfons to juftices of af-fize formerly appointed.ADMONITION, in ecclefiaftical difcipline, is a formalwarning of an offender of his irregularities, and ad-vifing him to reform.ADMONITIO fajlium, among the Romans, a milita¬ry punifhment, not unlike our whipping, only it wasperformed with vine-branches.ADMORTIZATION, in the feudal cuftoms, the re¬duction of the property of lands or tenements to mort¬main. See Mortmain.ADNATA, inanatomy, one of the coats of the eye, whichis alfo called conjunct iva and alouginea. See Ana¬tomy, Part VI.Adnata, is alfo ufed for any hair, wool, or the like,which grows upon animals or vegetables.ADNOUN, a term ufed by feme giammarians for anadjedtive.AD otto, implied the higheft degree of perfection, amongancient philofophers.ADOLESCENCE, the flower of youth, or time ofgrowth in the human fpecies, commencing at infancy,and terminating in manhood.ADOLPH Fredrick's Schachj, a filver-mine in Sweden,which, from 174210 1747, produced a great deal offilver.ADOM, in geography, a populous village in the pro¬vince of Stuhl-Weiffenberg, belonging to Hungary.It lies in a fruitful country, towards the river Da¬nube, 19. 20. long. 47. 30. lat.ADONAI, one of the names of the Supreme Being inthe feriptures. The proper m aning of the word ismy lords, in the plural number, as Adoni is my lordin the Angular.ADONIA, in mythology, feftiva’.s in honour of Venus,A D Pand in memory of Adonis, with whom (he is faid tohave been in love.ADONIAS, in botany, an obfolete name of the anemone.See Anemone.ADONIDES, in botany, a name given to botanifts whodeferibed or made catalogues of plants cultivated inany particular place.ADONION, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpecies offouthernwood.ADONIS, in zoology. See Exocoetus.Adonis, in botany, a genus of the polyandria pojy-gynia clafs. The Englifh names are, adonis-flower,pheafant’s eye, red maithes, or red morocco. Thecalix of this genus is pentaphyllous, the petals arefive, and the feeds are naked. There are five fpeciesoFthe adonis, viz. the aeftivalis, autumnalis, verna-lis, appennina, and capenfis; none of which are nativesof Britain, excepting the autumnalis. Sec Plate III.fig. 1. which reprefents the adonis appennina.Adonis polio, in antiquity, an ancient beverage madeof wine, mixed with flower of roafted adon. It wasthe fame with cyceon.ADOPTIANI, in church hiftory, a fcft/Of antient he¬retics, followers of Felix of Urgel, and Elipand ofToledo, who, towards the end of the eighth century,advanced the notion, that Jefus Chrift, in his humannature, is the Son of God, not by nature, but by adop¬tion.ADOPTION, a folemn adt whereby any one takes an¬other man’s fon into his family, and makes him hisheir, inverting him with all the rights and privilegesof a fon.ADOPTIVE, in general, fignifies any thing adopted.Thus we fay, adoptive children, &c.Adoptive arms, in heraldry, or, arms of adoption,thofe which a perfon enjoys by the gift or conceflion ofanother, and to which he was not otherwife intitled.ADOPTIVE See Adoptiani.ADORATION, is the homage and fubmiftion due tothe Supreme Being.ADOSSEE,in heraldry, fignifies two figures or bearings,being placed back to • back. Thus the arms of thedutchy of Bar are two bars adoffee, or back to back.ADOUR, the name of a river of France, which rifies inthe mountains of Bigorre, and running N. by Tarbesthrough Gafcony, afterwards turns E. and, parting byDax, falls into the bay of Bifcay, below Bayonne.ADOXA, or Tuberose Moschatel, in botany, a. genus of the odiandria tetragynia clafs. There is on¬ly one fpecies of the adoxa, which is a native of Bri¬tain and other parts of Europe.ADPERCEPTION, a term ufed by Leibnitz for the adtwhereby the mind becomes ccnfcious of its perceptions.AD pondus omnium, among phyficians, an abbreviationin their preferiptions, fignifying that the.lad mention¬ed ingredient is to weigh as much as all die reft to¬gether.AD quod damnum, in the Englifh law, a writ directedto the (herifir, commanding him to enquire into the da¬mage which may befal from granting certain privilegesto a place, as a fair, market, or the like.( 27 )ADRA, | ||
1 | A-B | 45 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | A D V ( 28 ) A D VADRA, in geography, a fea-port town of Spain, in thekingdom of Granada, 37 miles^, S. E. of Granada,and 12 S. W. of Almeria, 1. 10. W; long. 36. o. lat.ADRACANTH. See Tragacanth.ADRACHNE, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpeciesof arbutus. See Arbutus.ADRAMMELECH, in antiquity, or mythology, adeity worfhipped by the inhabitants of Sepliarvaim, apeople planted in the Holy Land by the kings of Af-l'yiia, after Salmanazar had taken Samaria, and puta final period to the kingdom of Ifrael. The wor-lhippers of Adrammeleeh burnt their children in thefire to the honour of that idol. The name is Perfian,and fignifies the magnificent king.ADRIUNE, in botany, an obfolete name of the cycla¬men. See Cyclamen.ADROBE, the name of two rivers in that part of Afia-tic Tartary which is fubjeft to Mofcovy: They both. fall into the Wolga beneath Cazan.ADSCRIPTS, a term,ufed by fome mathematicians forthe natural tangents. See Tangent.ADSIDELLA, in antiquity, the table at which theflamens fat during the facrifices.ADSTAT, a fmall town belonging to Denmark in theifiand of Iceland, not far from Holar.ADSTRICTION, among phyficians, a term ufed to de¬note the rigidity of .any part.ADVANCE, in the mercantile ftyle, denotes moneypaid before goods are delivered, work done, or bufi-nefs performed.ADVANCED ditch, in fortification, is that which fur-rounds the'glacis or efplanade of a place.Advanced guard, or vanguard, in the art of war, thefirft }ine or divifion of an army, ranged, or marchingin order -of battle; or, it is that part which is nextthe enemy, and marches firft towards them.Advanced guard, is more paticularly ufed for a fmallparty of horfe ftationed before the main-guard.ADVANCER, among fportfmen, one of the ftarts, orbranches of a buck’s attire, between the back antlerand the palm.ADUAR, in the Arabian and Moorifh cuftoms, a kindof ambulatory village, confiding of tents, which thefepeople remove from one place to another, as fiats theirconveniency.ADVENT, in the kalendar," properly fignifies the ap¬proach of the feaft of the Nativity. It includes fourfundays, which begin on St Andrew’s day, or on theSunday before or after it. During advent, and to theend of the oftaves of Epiphany, the folemnizing ofmarriage is forbid, without a fpecial licence.ADVENTITIOUS, an epithet applied to any thing thatis accidental or fortuitous.AD VENTREM infpiciendum, in law, a writ by whicha woman is to be fearched whether file be with childby a former hufband, on her vith-holding of landsfrom the next, fading ifliie of her own body.ADVENTURE, in a general fenfe, fome extraordina¬ry or accidental event. It alfo denotes a hazardousor difficult undertaking.Bill of Adventure, among merchants, a writing fign-ed by a merchant, teftifying the goods mentioned init to be flapped on board a certain veflfel belongingto another perfon, who is to run all hazards; themerchant only obliging himfelf JO account to him forthe produce.ADVENTURER, in a general fenfe, denotes one wbohazards lomething. •ADVERB, in grammar, a word joined to verbs, ex¬prefling the manner, time, <bc. of an aftion: thus,in the phrafe, he ijjas warmly attached to the inter eftof his mafter, the'word warmly is an adverb. SeeGrammar. VADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of ac¬counts, not unlike our journals, or day-books. It ismore particularly ufed for a kind of common-place-book. See Common-place-book.ADVERSARY, a perfon who is an enemy to, or oppo-fes another.ADVERSATIVE, in grammar, a word exprefling fomedifference between what goes before and what follows»it. Thus, in the phrafe, he is an honeft man, but agreat enthuftaft, the word but is an adverfative con¬junction.ADVERSATOR, in antiquity, a fervant who attendedthe rich in returning from fupper, to give them noticeof any obllacles in the way, at which they might be aptto Humble.ADVERTISEMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes anyinformation given to perfons interefted in an affair;-and is more particularly ufed for a brief account of anaffair inferted in the public papers, for the informationof all concerned.ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that is ar¬rived at maturity : Thus we fay, an adult perfon, anadult plant, <bc. Among civilians, it denotes a youthbetween fourteen and twenty-five years of age.ADULTERATION, the aft of^ebafing, by an impro¬per mixture, fomething that was pure and genuine'ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one mar¬ried perfon and another, or between a married and un¬married perfon. See Scots Law, titles, Marriage,and Crimes.ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a perfon who un¬dertook the defence of caufes. The term is Hill keptup in all countries where the civil law obtains.King's Advocate, is the principal crown-lawyer inScotland. His bufinefs is to aft as a public profecu-tor, and to plead in all caufes lhat concern the crown;but particularly in fuch as are of a criminal nature.The office of King’s advocate is not very ancient: It-feems to have been ellabliflied about the beginning ofthe 16th century. Originally he had no power toprofecute crimes without the concurrence of a privateparty; but in the year 1597, he was impowered toprolecute crimes at his own inftance.Faculty of A dvo cates, in Scotland, a refpeftable bo¬dy of lawyers, who plead in all caufes before theCourts of Seffion, Jufticiary, and Exchequer. Theyare alfo intitled to plead in the houfe of peers, and o-ther fupreme courts in England.In the year 1660, the faculty founded a libraryupon | ||
1 | A-B | 46 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | A D V ( 29 ) JE G lupon a very extenfive plan, fuggefted by that learnedand eminent lawyer Sir George M'Kenzie of Rofe-haugh, advocate to King Charles II. and King JamesVII. who enriched it with many valuable books. Ithas been daily increafing fince that time, and now con¬tains not only the bell collection of law-books in Eu¬rope, but a very large and feleCt collection of books onall fubjeCts. Befides, this library contains a greatnumber of original manufcripts, and a vaft variety ofJewifh, Grecian, Roman, Scots, and Englifh coinsand medals. \A candidate for the office of an advocate undergoesthree feveral trials : The firft is in Latin, upon the ci¬vil law and Greek and Roman antiquities ; the fecond,in Englifh, upon the municipal law of Scotland; andin the third, ho is obliged to defend a Latin thefis,which is impugned by three members of the faculty.Immediately before putting on the gown, the candidatemakes a fhort Latin fpeech to the lords, and then takesthe oaths to the government and de fideli.The faculty at prefent confifts of above 200 mem¬bers. As an advocate or lawyer is efteemed the gen-teeleft profeffion ia Scotland, many gentlemen of for¬tune take the degree of advocate, without having anyintention of praCtifing at the bar. This circumftancegreatly increafes their number, gives dignity to theprofeffion, and enriches their library and public fund.It is from this refpeCtable body, that all vacancies on• the bench are generally fupplied,Fifcal Advocate, fifci advocatus, in Roman antiqui¬ty, an officer of ftate under the Roman Emperor?, whopleaded in all caufes wherein the fifcus, or private, trea¬sury, was concerned.CoHjijlorial Advocates, officers of the confiftory atRome, who plead in all oppofitions to the difpofal ofbenefices in that court; they are ten in number.,Advocate of a city, in the German polity, a magi¬strate appointed in the Emperor’s name to adminifterjuftice.Bill of ADVOCATION, in Scots law, a writing drawnup in the form of a petition, whereby a party, in an ac¬tion before an inferior court, applies to the fupremecourt, or court of Seffion, for calling the a&ion fromthe inferior court before itfelf. See Law, title, Ju-rifdiflion, and judges in general.Letters of Advocation, in Scots law, the decree orwarrant of the court of Seffion upon cognifance of thefafts fet forth in the bill, drawn up in the form of afummons, andpaffing under the fignet, difcharging theinferior judge and all others from further procedure inthe caufe, and advocating it to itfelf. Seo Bill ofAdvocation.ADVOCATIONE decimarum> a writ which lies forclaiming a fourth part fqr tithes, or upwards, belong¬ing to any church.ADVOUSON, or Adwouzen. SeeADvowzoN.ADVOU, in law, fignifies the patron of a church, orhe who has a right to prefent to a benefice.Paramount ADVOWEE, is ufed for the king, as be¬ing the higheft patron.ADVOWING. See Avowing,Voi..'I. No, 2.ADVOWTRY, a term ufed in fome old law-books foradultery.ADVOWZON, in law, is the right of patronage, orprefenting to a vacant benefice,ADUST, among phyficians, a term applied to the blood,be. when top hot and fiery.ADU STION, among phyficians, the fame with inflam¬mation.ADYTUM, in pagan antiquity, the mod retired and fa-cred place of their temples, into which none but thepriefts were allowed to enter.ADZEL, a fmall town of Livonia, fituated on the fouth-fide of the river Aa, about ten German leagues fouth-weft of Dorpt,AEACEA, in Greeian antiquity, folemn feftivals andgames celebrated at AEgina, in honour of Abacus ; who,on account of his juftice upon earth, was thought toto have been appointed one of the judges in hell.AECHMALOTARCHA, in Jewifh antiquity, the titlegiven to the principal leader or governor of .the Hebrewcaptives refiding in Chaldea, Aflyria, and the neigh¬bouring countries.AEDES, in Roman antiquity, befides its more ordinaryfignification of a houfe, likewife fignified an inferiorkind of temple, confecrated to fome deity.AEDICULA, a term ufed to denote the inner part ofthe temple, where the altar and ftatue of the deity flood.AEDILATE, the office of ssdije, foipetimes called <edi-lity. See the next article,AEDILE, in Roman antiquity, a magiftrate whofe bu-finefs it was to fuperintend buildings of all kinds, butmore efpecially public ones, as temples, aqusedu&s,high-ways, bridges, be.AEDITUUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer belongingto the temples, who had the charge of the offerings,treafure, and facred utenfils. The female deities hada woman-officer of this kind called asditua.AEGAGROPILA, a ball compofed of a fubftance refem-bling hair, generated in the ftomach of the chamois-goat. This ball is of the fame nature with thofe foundin cows, hogs, be.AEGILETHRON, in botany, an obfolete name of themercurialis. See Mercuriahs.AEGIAS, among phyficians, a white fpeck on the pupilof the eye, which occafions dimnefs of fight.AEGILOPS, among phyficians, a. fpecies of abfeefs. SeeSurgery, title. Of abfcejjes, ox tumors.AEgilops, in botany, a genus of the polygamia monoeciaclafs. There are five fpecies of this plant, which is akind of grafs, vis. the ovata, caudata, fquarrofa,triuncialis, and incurvata, only the Iaft of which is anative of Britain, and grows by the fea-fhore. TheEnglifh name is fea-bard grafs.AEGINETIA, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of oro-.banche. See Orobanch-e.AEGIPAN, in heathen mythology, a denomination givento the god Pan, becaufe he was reprefented with thehorns, legs, feet, be. of a.goat.AEGIS, in heathen pythology, is particularly ufed forthe fhield or cuirafs of Jupiter and PaJIas.AEGIUCHUS, in heathen mythology, a firname of Ju-H P‘ter>,3 | ||
1 | A-B | 47 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | iE O N ( go ) A E Rpiter, given him on account of his having been fuckled Aon, among the Platonifts, was ufed to denote any vir-by a goat.AGLEFINUS, or Haddock, in ichthyology, a fpe ¬cies of the gadus. See Gadus.AGOCEPHALUS, in ornithology, an oblolete nameof a fpecie3 of tringa. See Tringa.AGOCERAS, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpeciesof ononis. See Ononis.AGGCERATOS, in botany, a fynonime of the hugo-nia. See PIugonia.AGOLETHRON, in botany, an obfolete name of therhododendron hirfiuum. See Rhododendron.AGONIC HUS, in botany, an obfolete name of the li-thofpermum. See Lithospermum.AGOPHTHALMUS, a name given to any of the fe-mipellucid gems with circular fpots in them, refemblingthe eye of a goat.AGOPQGON, in botany, an obfolete name of the'tra-gapodon. See Tragapodon.AGOPODIUM, a genus of the pentandria digyniaclafs. There is but one fpecies of this plant, whichis a native of Britain and other parts of Europe.The Englilh name is herb-gerard, gout-weed, or ajh-•meed.AGYPTIACUM, in pharmacy, the name of feveraldetergent ointments.AGYPTILLA, the name of a ft one variegated with■different colours, and faid to be capable of giving wa¬ter the colour and tafte of wine.AINAUTA,' in antiquity, a denomination given tothe fenators of Miletus, becaufe they held their deli¬berations on board a flap, and never returned to landtill matters had been agreed on.,ALURUS, in Egyptian mythology, the deity or god ofcats; reprefented fometimes like a cat, and foinetimes•like a man with a cat’s head.ANEATORES, in Roman antiquity, a general namefor the muficians of an army.ANIGMA, denotes any dark laying, wherein fome well-known thing is concealed under obfeure language.AN GMATOGRAPHY, or Anigmathology, theart of refolving, or making {enigmas.AOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething belong¬ing to Aolis.Aolic dialed, among grammarians, one of the fiveylialedts of the Greek tongue, agreeing in moft thingswith the Doric dialed. See Boric.Aolic verfe, in profady, a verfe, confiding of an iam¬bus, or fpendee; then of two anapefts, feparated by along fyllable; and kitty, of another fyllable. Such as,0 Jlelliferi auditor erbis.AO L! PILE, a hollow metalline ball with a flenderneck, tr pipe ; which after being filled with water,and a great degree of heat applied to it, the waterilR.es out with great velocity in the form of an elalticvapour. See Pneumatics.AOLIS, in ancient geography, a country lying upon thewdhrn coait of Afia Minor, *AOLUS, the god of the winds.AON, fignifies the age or duration of any thing.tue, attribute, or perfection.Aon, in mythology, the firll woman, according to thePhoenician writers,Aon, among anatomifts, an obfolete name for the fpinalmarrow.AONI AN, in botany, an obfolete name of the ledum ma-jus. See Sedum.ARA, in chronology, ,a feries of years commencing froma certain fixed point of time, called an epbeha ; thuswe fay, the Chriftian {era, that is, the number of yearselapfed fince the birth of Ohrid. See Astronomy,Of the divifon of time.Ara of Nabonaffar. See Nabonassar.Ara of the Hegira. See Hegira.ARARIUM, in Roman antiquity, the treafury or placewhere the public money was depofited.Ararium privatum, was the emperor’s privy purfe, orplace where the moneys ariling from his private patri¬mony were depofited.ARARIUS, in a general fenfe, denotes any perfon em¬ployed in coining or managing the public monies.Ararius was more particularly ufed by the Romansfor a degraded citizen, whofe name had been ftruck offthe lift of his century.The aerarii were fo called on account of their beingliable to all the taxes and other burdens of the ftate,without enjoying any of its privileges. Hence, interararios referri, was a more fevere punilhment thantribu moveri. *AERiAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething parta¬king of the nature of air; thus, aerial fubftance, aeri¬al particles, <bc.AERIANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of Arians, who,to the doCtrines of that feCt, added fome peculiar dog¬mas of their own ; as, that there is no difference be¬tween bifhops and priefts ; a doCtrine maintained bymany modern divines, particularly of the prefbyterianand reformed churches.AERICA, in ichthyology, a fynonime of the clupea he-rengus, or herring. See Cjlupea.Flos ARIS, among alchemifts, final! feales procuredfrom copper melted by a ftrong heat j it is fometimesufed for aerugo or verdegris.AEROGRAPHY fignifies a defeription of the air, efpe-cially of its dimenfions, and other rnoft obvious pro¬perties ; in which fenfe it differs but little from aero¬logy, which is a fcientifical account of the nature andlelsobvious properties of air. See Pneumatics.AEROMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed bymeans of air, wind, &c. It is alfo ufed for the aitof foretelling the various changes of the air and wea¬ther, by means of barometers, hygrometers, <tc.AElvOMETRY, the art of meafuring the motion, gra¬vity, elafticity, rarefaction, condenfation, fic. of air.See Pneumatics.AEROPHOBIA, among phyficians, fignifies the dread,of air.AEROPHYLACEA, a term ufed by naturalifts for ca¬verns or refervoirs of air, fuppofed to exift in thebowels of the earth.ARRA, | ||
1 | A-B | 48 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | M S TERRA, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province ofEftramadura, fituated upon the river Zatas.AERESCHOT, a town of the Dutch Netherlands, fi¬tuated in Brabant, about fifteen miles eaflwaTd ofMechlin.ERUGINOUS, in ornithology, the trivial name of afpecies of falco. See Falco.Eruginous, an epithet given to fuch things are re-femble or partake of the nature of the rult of cop¬per.ERUGO, properly fignifies the ruft of copper, or ver-degris ; but is applied indifferently to rult of any kind.ERUGO falls, a kind of reddifh flimy matter, fepara-ted from Egyptian natrum; probably a mixture ofbitumen and a red earth.ERUSCAT0RES, in antiquity, a kind of drollingbeggars, not urilike gypfies, who drew money fromthe credulous by fortune-telling, <bc. It was alfo adenomination given to gripping exadors, or colledorsof the revenue.AERY, or Airy, among fportfmen. See Airy.ES, properly fignifies copper, or money coined of thatmetal. See Copper.Es flavum, yellow Copper, among the Romans, an ap¬pellation given to the coarfer kinds of brafs. SeeBrass.iEs caldarium, the name of a -certain regulus of antimo¬ny, employed in preparing the line blue colour calledfmalt.As njhivi, a preparation of copper, by expofing platesof it in a reverberatory furnace, till they crumble in¬to a powder, which is called as ttjlttm. It is uftd forcolouring glafs, eating off dead flefh, or cleanfing foululcers.AES A LON, in ornithology, an obfolete name of a fpeciesof falco. See Falco.AESCH, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of a fpecies offalmo. See Salmo.ESCHYNOMENE, in botany, a genus of the diadel-phia decanaria clafs. There are feven fpecies of thisgenus, none of which are natives of Britain. The ca-lix of the asfehynomene is bilabiated, and the pod joint¬ed. It is alfo a fynonime of feveral fpecies of tlie jni-mofa, or fenfitive plant. See Mimosa.ESCULANUS, or Eres, in mythology, a deity whoprefided over the coinage of copper-money.ESCULAPlUSV ferment, or Coluber Esculapu.See Coluber.ESC ULUS, in botany, a genus of the heptandria mo-nogynia clafs. There are only two fpeeies of it, viz.the cafianum, and the pavia, both- natives of India.The calix of the sefculus is rnonophyllous with fivetieih ; the corolla has five petaM unequally coloured,and inferted into the calix.'ESTIMATIQ capitis, a term met with in old law-booksfor a fine anciently ordained to be paid Par offencescommitted again;! perfons of quality, according to theirfeveral degrees.ESTIVAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething con¬nected with, or belonging to fumraer. Hence, sedivalfign, sellival .a’dice, 6c.M T HESTUARIA, in geography, denotes an arm of thelea, which runs a good way within land. Such is theBriftol channel, and many of the friths of Scotland.ESTUARIES, in ancient baths, were fecret paffagesfrom the hypocaudum iiito the chambers. See Bath,and Hypocaustum.ESTUARY, among phyficians, a vapour-bath, or anyother indrument for conveying heat to the body.ETH, or Ath, a ltrong little' town in the. AndrianNetherlands, and province of Hainault, fituated onthe river Dender, about twenty miles S. W. of Brvif-fels.ETHALE, a term ufed by the ancients for the cadmiafornacum. See Cadmia.ETHALIES, a name given by the Greeks to the fedum.See Sedum.ETHER, the name of an imaginary fluid, fuppofed byfeveral authors, both ancient and modern, to be thecaufe of gravity, heat, light, mufcular motion, fenfa-tion, and, in a word, of every phenomenon in nature.Anaxagoras maintained that ether was of a fimilar na¬ture with fire; Perrault reprefents it as 7200 timesmore rare than air; and Hook makes it more dehfethan gold itfelf. Whoever has an inclination to knowthe various hypothefes concerning ether, may cOnfultShebbere, Perrault, Hook’s polthumous works, Aft.Eritd. Lipf. 17x6, Bernouilli’s Cogitat. degravitatextkeris, &c. See,Before the method of philofophiffng by induction wasknown, the hypothefes of philolophers were wild, fan¬ciful, ridiculous. They had recouife to ether, occultqualities, and other imaginary caufes, in order to ex¬plain the various phenomena of nature: But fincethe days of the great Lord Verulam, who may be ftyledthe parent of genuine philofophy, a contrary courfe hashappily been followed. He convinced the world, thatall knowledge mud be derived from experiment andobfervation; and that every attempt to invedigatecaufes by any other means mud be unfuccefsful. Sincehis time, the bed philofophers have followed the tradh'which he pointed out. Boyle, Locke, Newton, Hales,and a few others, in little more than one centujry,have improved and extended fcience far beyond whatthe accumulated force of all the philofophers fince thecreation had been able to effedluate : A driking proofboth of rhe comprekenfive genius of Bacon, and of thefolidity of his plan of inveltigation.It mud indeed be acknowledged, that there is a pro-penficy in the human mind, which, unlefs it be pro¬perly redrained, has a diredt tendency both to corruptfcience, and to retard ourprogrefs in it. Not contented,with the examination of objedls which readily fall with¬in the fp-here of cur observation, we feel a drong de¬fire to account for things which, from their very na¬ture, mud, and ever will, elude our refearches. EvenSir Ifaac Newton himfelf was not proof againft thistemptation. It was not enough that he had difeoveredthe nature of light and colours, the application of gra¬vity to the motions cf the heavenly bodies, &c. lie mudgo further, and attempt to allign the caufe of gravity, it-ielf. But, how dots he proceed kilns matter ? Not inthe( 3* ) | ||
1 | A-B | 49 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | m t h ( 32the way ofcxpcriment, which had led him to his formerdifcoveries, but in the way of conjedture, which willnever lead any man to truth. He had recourfe to afubtile elaftic aether, not much different from that ofthe ancients, and by it accounted for every thing hedid not know, fuch as the caufe of gravitation, mufeu-lar motion, fenfation, he.Notwithftanding the reputation of Sir Ifaac, philo-fophers have generally looked upon this attempt as thefoible of a great man, or, at leaft, as the moft ufelefspart of his works ; and accordingly perufe it rather asa dream or a romance, than as having any connexionwith fcience. But we are forry to find, that fomelate attempts have been made to revive diis dodtrine ofaether, particularly in a differtation De ortu animaliumcaloris, publifhed in May laft.As the revival of an old dodfrine becomes in fomemeafure a new one, we fhall plead no other apologyfor inferting a fpecimen of the method of reafoningemployed in this differtation.The author makes frequent ufe of a fpecies of ar¬gument termed dilemma by logicians. For example,,in the firft part of the work, after endeavouring toprove that animal heat cannot be owing to fermenta¬tion, the motion of the fluids, and other caufes thathave ufually been affigned, he draws this conclufion:—“ If none of thefe caufes are fufficient to produce the“ effedt; therefore, by dilemma,” fays he, “ itmuft be‘ ‘ fought for in the nature and adtion of the nerves.”—This is a new fpecies of dilemma:—-If the authorhad proved, that the caufe of heat in animals couldnot poflibly exift any ’where, but either in fermenta¬tion, the motion of the fluids, he. or in the nerves,after having difprpved its exigence in all the reft, hisconclufion in favour of the nerves would have been juft;but, as he has not fo much as attempted this, theconclufion is not only falfe, but ridiculous.However, upon the authority of this dilemma, the au¬thor firft gives what he calls a Compend of a new doc¬trine concerning the nerves, and then proceeds to inquirein what manner the nerves produce animal heat: Hetells us, “ That thought (cog 'tlatio) and fenfation depend“ uponimpulfes either on the extremities of the nerves,“ or the fenforium commune, and the confequent mo-“ tions produced by thefe impulfes: That thefe motions** are fo quick, as to be almoft inftantaneous: That as“ all motion is mechanical; therefore thought, fen-“ fation, and mufcular motion, muft likewife be me-“ chanical: That fuch quick motions cannot be pro-“ duced without the intervention of fome extreme-“ ly elaftic power; and, as Sir Ifaac Newton has“ Ihown, that the impulfes which occafion the diffe-“ rent fenfations muft be owing to an elaftic power;“ therefore the mufcular motions of animals muft be“ occafioned by the ofcillations of fome elaftic pow.er.”“ But,” fays he, “ as this elaftic power cannot ex-“ ift in the folid nervous fibres, nor in any inelaftic“ fluid; therefore, by dilemma, it muft exift in an“ elaftic fluid; and hence alfo, by the former dilemma,“ this elaftic fluid muft be feated, either in the nerves,Ci or in their medullary fubftance.”) M T HHere again the author calls Sir Ifaac into his aflift-ar.ee.—“ What confirms this opinion,” fays he, “ is“ the Newtonian aether, which pervades all nature,“ ahd which, with a few variations in its modification,“ Sir Ifaac has Ihown to be the caufe of cohefion, e-* lafticity, gravity, eledtficity, magnetifm, he. in“ the following manner: 1. As the rays of light,“ when reflected, do not touch the folid parts of bo-“ dies, but are refledted a little before they reach“ them, it is plain that the aether not only fills the“ pores of bodies, but likewife floats upon their fur-,“ faces; and hence it becomes the caufe of attraction“ and repulfion.— 2. All metals, and inelaftic fluids,“ are non-eledtrics ; on the other hand, all folid bo-“ dies, metals excepted, are eledtrics, i. e. proper for“ accumulating aether. But aether, thus accumulated“ in fuch a variety of bodies, may produce various“ motions in the parts of thefe bodies, without indu-“ cing any change in the bodies themfelves. Hence“ aether, with fome variations in its modification, is“ fufficicnt to account for all the phaenomena of elec-“ tricity. 3. As iron, by accumulating aether around“ it, exhibits all the wonders of piagnetifm; fo this“ magnetical aether is more analogous to the nervous“ aether of animals than any-other kind of it. For,“ as the magnetical aether paffes along iron without“ changing any part of the iron ; fo the nervous aether,“ in like manner, paffes along the medullary fubftance“ of the nerves, and excites motion in any part; that is“ continuous with them, without inducing any change“ in the nerves.— 4. The irritability and life of“ plants, which very much referable thofe in animals,“ cannot be expjained by any inelaftic caufe, ahd“ muft therefore be attributed to an aetherial one.“ Laftly, As the common aether is differently modi-“ fied in each of the fubftances above taken notice“ of, and alfo produces various motions or effedts pe-“ culiar to each, it likewife varies and has fome pe-“ culiar qualities when refiding in animal bodies; fo“ that the nervous or animal aether is not exactly the“ fame, but differs in fome refpedts from thofe fpecies“ of aether which give rife to cohefion, gravity, mag-“ netifm, dedlricity,” he.Having thus explained the nature and qualities ofaether, our author ftarts a very important queftion, viz.“ Whence is aether derived ? and whether does it leave“ any body after having once got poffefSon of it ?”In anfwer to this, he ohferves, “ That certain bodies“ have the power of‘colledting the eledlrical matter■** from every circumjacent body, and of accumula-“ ting it in their pores and on their furfaces, but do“ not fuffer it again to tranfmigrate into any other“ body. There are other fubftances of an oppofite“ nature, which do not accumulate the eledtric mat-“ ter, but inftantly allow it to pafs into others, unlefs.“ prohibited by an eledlric. Hence,” fays he, “ no-“ tiling more is neceffary for fubftances of the former“ kind, but to be in fuch circumftances as allow them“ to accumulate the eledtric matter. In the fame.“ manner,” proceeds our author, “ the nervous aether,■“ which is diffufed through every part of nature,“ flows | ||
1 | A-B | 50 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | JE T H ( 33<£ flows copioufly into the meduHary par,t of the nerves,“ when no obftacle ftands in its way : but, when onee“ it has got there, it keeps firm po.fleflion, and never“ afterwards leaves it. Now,” fays he, a quan-« tity of aether probably conftitutes one of the ftami-“ nal parts of animal bodies, and increafes in propor-«** tion to their age and growth: For nothing is more“ ridiculous than to fuppofe that what is-commonly“ called the nervous fluid can be daily wafted by la-« bour and exercife, and daily repaired by a newfe-« cretion from the brain. To refute this vulgar no-“ tion, nothing more is neceflary than to fay, That“ it is one of Boerhaave's theories, and mujl be falfe,■“ as all Boerhaave’s other theories have been proved“ to be ill-founded! But aethgr is of a more fixed“ and determinate nature whenever it gets pofleflionf* of any fubftance, it never forfakes it, unlefs the“ texture and conftitution of the body itfelf be chan-ged. Hence,” continues our author, “ the aether“ of an acid body remains as long as the body conti-“ nues to be acid; the fame observation holds with“ regard to the aether of an alkaline body: But, if“ thefe two be blended together into a neutral fait,“ the aether muft .likewife be changed into a neutral;44 and therefore, in the formation of the medullary“ or ftaminal part of animals, the aether which before“ belonged to, or had the properties of fome other fub-“ fiance, is inftantaneoufly changed into animal aether,** and remains fo till the diflolution of that animal.”Our author next obferves, “ That bodies require to“ be in a certain ftate or condition in order to the for-“ mation of an aether that is proper for them. This“ condition of bodies is called an excitedftate: Thus,** as fulphur, when fluid, does not receive the eledric“ matter, but, when folid, inftantly receives it; in“ the fame manner, the nerves, though properly“ formed, do not admit an aether adapted to their“ nature, unlefs they be in an excited ftate. Hence,”fays he, “ the aether of a dead, and that of a living“ perfon, are very different, although the texture ana“ figure of the nerves be the fame. The ftate necef-“ fary for conftituting the aether of a living animal,“ feems to depend on heat and moifture ; becaufe thefe“ things are abfolutely neceflary in the conftitution of“ Jife: And henee,” concludes our author, “ the ex-“ cited ftate of the-nerves depends on heat and moi-“ fture. There are alfo certain circumftances,” fayshe, “ which contribute to render the ftate of the“ nerves more or lefs apt for accumulating aether: A“ fpafmodic fever, for example, renders the nerves of“ the whole body lefs pervious to the motion ©f the“ aether ; and hence, in cafes of this nature, health,“ and all the vital funttions, muft.be injured.”“ Thefe,” our author obferves, “ are the outlines“ of a new doftrine concerning the nature and func-“ tions of the nerves;” and, upon this foundation,proceeds to give his new theory of animal heat.“ From the foregoing reafoning," fays he, “ the“ heat, as well as all the functions of animals, feem“ to be oceafioned by the ofeillations of the nervous1 ‘ aether betwixt the extremities of the fentient nervesVpi. I. No. 2. 3) JE T H“ and the brain, or, more properly, betwixt the brain“ and mufcles. But electrical aether, as above ob-“ ferved, varies a little from common aether; all in-“ elaftic fluids, as was likewife formerly remarked,“ are non-eledtrics ; and all felid bodies, metals ex-“ ceptcd, are eleCtrics: Thefe circumftanCes,” faysour author, “ feem to be owing to the ofeillations of“ the eleCtric matter in bodies. In the fame manner,”fays he, “ the nature of animals may be fuch, and the“ nerves may be fo conftituted, as to form an aether ad-** apted to their nature, and to excite thofe ofeillations44 which occafion animal heat. The wonderful effedts44 of heat and cold upon the nerves,” continues ourauthor, 44 confirms this theory: Every adtion, and“ even life itfelf, requires a certain degree of heat;“ for, as the heat of the external air is fo variable, it“ was abfolutely neceflary that animal bodies, lhould** be endowed with the faculty of producing a degree“ of heat fuited to their nature, independent of ex-44 ternal circumftances : Hence we fee the reafon why“ the degree of heat fo feldom varies in the fame fpe-“ eies of animals. However, although the nervous■“ aether is always ready for exciting heat by its ofeif-“ lations ; yet, in order to bring about this effed fuc-** cefsfully, external flimuli are neceflary, otherwife“ the aether would be in danger of flagnating, which“ would occafion fleep, a.palfy, and, laft of all, death.“ The moft permanent of thefe flimuli is the -puli'a-“ tion of the arteries; which is the reafon why heat“ is fo connedled with the circulation of the blood,“ and why many authors have miftaken it for the true“ caufe of animal heat.”Our author now concludes with obferving, “ That** by his theory, the varieties of heat in different parts** of the body, the heat and flufhing of the face from“ fhame, and all the other phenomena of heat in ani-** mal bodies, admit of abetter explanation, than by•“ any other theory hitherto invented.”Having thus given a pretty full account of an at¬tempt to explain the moft abftrufe operations of na¬ture, as nearly as poflible in the very words of theauthor, we cannot deny ourfelves the liberty of ma¬king a few obfenvations.To give a formal refutation of this author’s reafon¬ing, is no part of our plan. It is, perhaps, wrongto fay that he has reafoned; for the whole hypothe¬tical part of his effay is a mere farrago of vague afler-tions, non-entities, illogical conclufions, and extra¬vagant fancies. His aether feems to be an exceedinglytradable fort of fubftance: Whenever the qualities-ofone body differ from thofe of another, a different mo¬dification of tether at once folves the phsenomenon.The aether of iron muft not, to be fure, be exadllythe fame with the nervous aether, otherwife it wouldbe in danger of producing fenfation in place of mag-netifm. It would likewife have been very improperto give the vegetable aether exadly the fame quali¬ties with thofe of animal aether; for, in fuch a cafe,men would run great rifle of ftriking root in the foil,and trees and hedges might eradicate and run aboutthe fields. Nothing can be more ludicrous than to fet | ||
1 | A-B | 51 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | 1 T H ( 34 ) iE T Ha writer treating a mere ens ratiorsis as familiarly as ifit were an objeft of our fenfes: The notion of com¬pounding the aether of an acid and that of an alkali,in order to make a neutral of it, is compleatly ridi¬culous. But if men take the liberty of fubltitutingnames in place of falls and experiments, it is an eafymatter to account for any thing.By this method of philofophifing, obfcurity is forever banifhed from the works of nature. It is impof-fible to gravel an aetherial philofopher. Aik him whatqueftions you pleafe, his anfwer is ready :—“ As we“ cannot find the caufe any where elfe; ergo, by di-“ lemma, it rauft be owing to aether f ” For example,afk one of thofe fages. What is the caufe of gravity?he will anfwer, ’Tis tether! Aik him the caufe’ ofthought, he will gravely reply, “ The folution of“ this queftion was once univerfally allowed to ex-“ ceed the limits of human genius: But now, by“ the grand difcoveries we have lately made, it is“ as plain as that three and two make five:—Thought“ is a mere mechanical thing, an evident effect of cer-“ tain motions in the brain produced by the ofcilla-“ tions of afubtile el attic fluid called ether!” Thisis indeed aftonilhing!Such jargon, however, affords an excellent leffonto the true philofopher. It fhows to what folly andextravagance mankind are led, whenever they de¬viate from experiment and obfervation in their inqui¬ries into nature. No fooner do we leave thefe onlyfaithful guides to fcience, than we inflantly land in alabyrinth of nonfenfe and obfcurity, the natural pu-nifhment of folly and prefumption.When endeavouring to account for that propenfityIn the human mind which prompts us to attempt thefolution of things evidently beyond our reach, we re-colleftcd a paffage in Swift’s works, which explainsit in the moil fatisfa«3ory manner.Let us next examine (fays the Dean) the great■“ introducers of new fchemes in philofophy, and“ fearch till we can find from what faculty of the foul“ the difpofition arifes in mortal man, of taking it**- into his head to-advance new fyftems, with fuch an“ eager zeal, in things agreed on all hands impojftble“ to he known; ft ora what feeds this difpofition“ fprings, and to what quality of human nature thefe“ grand innovators have been indebted for their num-“ ber of difciples; becaufe it is plain, that feveral of“ the chief among them, both ancient and modern,“ were ufually miftaken by their adverfaries, and in-“ deed by all except their own followers, to havebeen“ perfons crazed, or out of their wits; having gene-“ rally proceeded, in the common courfe of their“ words and adtions, by a method very different from“ the vulgar diftates of unrefined reafon; agreeing,“ for the mett part, in their feveral models, with“ their prefent undoubted fucceffors in the Acade-“ my of modern Bedlam. Of this kind were Epi-“ curus, Diogenes, Apollonius, Lucretius, Paracel-“ fus, Des Cartes, and others; who, if they were“ now in the world, tied fad, and leparated from“ their followers, would, in this undijlingui/hing age,“ incur manifeft danger of phlebotomy, and whips,“ and chains, and dark chambers, and fraw. For“ what man, in the natural Hate or courfe of think-“ ing, did ever conceive it in his power to reduce the“ notions of all mankind exadlly to the fame length,“ and breadth, and height of his own ? Yet this is“ thefirft humble and civil defign of all innovators in“ the empire of reafon.-Now, I would gladly“ be informed, how it is poflible to account for fuch“ imaginations as thefe in particular men, without re-“ courfe to my phenomenon of vapours, (i. e. tether),“ afeending from the lower faculties to overlhadow“ the brain, and there dittilling into conceptions, for“ which the narrownefs of our mother-tongue has not“ yet alfigned any other name befides that of madnefs“ or phrenzy. Let us therefore now conjecture bow“ it comes to pafs that none of thefe great projectors“ do ever fail providing themfelvcs and their notions“ with a number of implicit difciples; and I think“ the reafon is eafy to be afligned.—For there is a“ peculiar firing in the harmony of Jiuman underttand-“ ing, which, in feveral individuals, is exaCtly of the“ fame tuning. This if you can dextroufly ferew“ up to its right key, and then Jlrike gently upon it,“ whenever you have the good fortune to light among“ thofe of the fame pitch, they will, by a fecret ne-“ ceffary fympatliy, ltrike exadtly at the fame time.“ And in this one circumttance lies all the /kill or“ luck of the matter: For if you chance to jar the“ firing, among thofe who are either above or be-“ low your own height, inflead of fubferibing to your“ dodlrine, they will tie you fetft, call you mad, and“ feed you with bread and water. It is therefore a** point of the nicefl condudt, t6 diflinguifli and adapt“ this noble talent with refpedt to the difference of“ perfons and of times.—For, to fpeak a bold truth,“ it is a fatal mifearriage fo- ill to order affairs as to“ pafs for a fool in one company, when in another“ you might be treated as a philofopher: Which I de-“ fire jome certain gentlemen of my acquaintance to“ lay up in their hearts as a very feafonable insist-“ endo.’>Wc would not have dwelt fo long upon this article,had it not been to guard, as far as our influence ex-,tends, the minds of thofe who may be unacquaintedwith the genuine principles of philofophy, from beingled into a wrong track of invefligation../Ether, in cbymiftry, a name given to any volatile fpi-rit. The fpirit which generally goes by that name isprocured by diflilling fpirit of wine with oil of vitrid,and then precipitating with an alkali. See Chemi¬stry.iETHERIAL, an epithet for any thing partaking of thenature of asther./ETHIOPIS, in botany, a fynonime of a fpecies of fal-via. See Salvia.iETHIOPS mineral, a preparation of mercury madeby rubbing equal quantities of quickfilver and flour offalphur in a mortar, till the mercury wholly difappears,and a fine black powder remains../Ethiops albus, a preparation of mercury made byruhbing | ||
1 | A-B | 52 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | A F F ( 35 ) A F Rrubbing: quickfilver v/ith a double quantity , of crabs-eyes or candied fugar, till it is extinguifhed.ALTHIOPS of Or Plumber, a medicine prepared bylevigating fulphur auratum Antimonii with an equalquantity of calomel.jETHUSA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria di-gynia clais. The volucrum is dimidiated, triphyl-lous, and pendulous. There is but one fpecies, viz.the aethufa fynapium, or fools-parfley, a native of Bri-AETIANS, in church-hidory, a branch of Arians whomaintained, that the Son and Holy Ghoft are in allthings diffimilar to the Father.AETIOLOGY, that branch of phyfic which affigns thecaufes of difeafes.MT1TJE, or jEtit^s, a name given to pebbles orHones of any kind which have a loofe nucleus rattlingin them, called, in Englifh, Eaglc-Jlones.fETNA, ‘a fanious burning mountain or volcano of Si¬cily. It is one of the higheft mountains of the wholeifiand, and fituated on the eaflern coaft not far fromCatania. It is remarked of this mountain, that itseruptions ceafed immediately when thofe of Vefuviusbegan. See Vesuvius../Etna fa.lt, a name ufed by fome authors for falinefubftances, found near the opening of mount fEtnaand other volcanos;jETOLARCHA, in Grecian antiquity, the principalmagiftrate or governor of the ALtolians.AFFA, a weight ufed on the gold-coaft of Guinea, andequal to an ounce.AFFECTIO bovina, a diforder incident to cattle, occa-lioned by a fmall worm which eats its way all over thebody.AFFECTION, in a general fenfe, denotes an attributeinfeparable from its fubjeft, or an effential property ofit. Thus, quantity, figure, weight, &c. are affec¬tions of all bodies.Affections of the mind. See Passions, and Mo¬rals.AFFEERERS, or Affeerors, in law, perfons ap¬pointed in court-leets, courts-baron, &c. to fettle,upon oath, the fines to be impofed upon thofe whohave been guilty of faults arbitrarily pnnilhable.AFFERI, inlaw. See Averia.AFFETUOSO, or Affetto, in the Italian mufic,intimates, that the part to which it is added ought tobe played in a tender moving way, and. confequentlyrather flow than fall.AFFIANCE, in law, denotes the mutual plighting oftroth between a man and a woman to marry eachother.A'FFICHE, a term ufed by the French for bills or ad-vertifements hung cr parted up in public places tomake any thing, known. *AFFIDATIO domino rum, in old law-books, denotesan oath of allegiance taken by the lords in parliament.AFFIDATUS, or Affidiatus, in old law-books,fignifies a tenant by fealty, or one who put himfelfunder the protection of his lord, vowing fealty to him.AFFIDAVIT, fignifies an oath in writing, fworn be¬fore fome perfon who is authorifed to take the lame.AFFILIATION, a term ufed by fome for adoption.See Adoption.AFFINAGE, a term fometimes met with in old law¬books, for the refining of metals.AFFINITY, in Scots law, the connection formed bymarriage betwixt one of the married perfons and theblood-relations of the other. See Law, title, Mar¬riage.Affinity, is alfo ufed to denote conformity or agree¬ment: Thus we fay, the affinity of languages, the af¬finity of words, the affinity of founds, <bc.Affinity of bodies. See Chemistry, chapter, Ofeleflive attrallions.AFFIRMATION, in logic, the afferting the truth ofany propofition.Affirmation, is alfo ufed for the ratifying or con¬firming the fentence or decree of fome inferior court:thus we fay, the houfe of lords affirmed the decree ofthe lord-chancellor, or the decree of the lords of fcf-fion.AFFIX, among grammarians, denotes much the famewith prefix. See Prefix.AFFLATUS, among heathen mythclogirts and poets,-denotes the infpiration of fome divinity.AFFORAGE, in the French cuftoms, a duty paid tothe lord of a diftrifl, for permillion to Ell wine or.other liquors within his feigniory. It is alfo ufed forthe rate or price of provisions fixed by the proivortof Paris, or by the fheriffk.AFFORCEMENT, among old law-writers, denotes afortrefs or place of ftrength.AFFORCIAMENTUM curia, a term ufed in oldchartetaly for the fummoning a court in an extraordi¬nary manner.AFFORESTING, in old law-books, is the turning,lands into a foreft ; as the converting a foreft to otherufes is called difajforejling, or deaff'orejling.AFFRAY, orAffrayment, inlaw, formerlyfignifiedthe crime of affrighting other perfons, by appearingin unufual armour, brandishing a weapon, <bc. but atprefent, affray denotes a Ikirmifh or fight betweentwa or more.AFFREIGHTMENT, a term ufed in fome law-booksfor the freight of a fhip.AFFRI, or Afra, a term met with in old law-book'sfor horfes, bullocks, or any heart ufed in ploughing.AFFRONTEE, in heraldry, an appellation given to a-nimals facing one another on an.efcutcheon, a kind ofbearing, which is otherwife called confrontse, andHands oppofed to a do fee.AFFUIAGE, in ancient cuftoms, denotes, the right orprivilege of cutting-wood in a foreft for.fuel.AFILIATION. See Affiliation..AFOBA, in botany,, an obfolete name of the phafeolus-or kidncy-bcan. See Phaseolds.AFRA wv/r, an obfolete name of the melcagris, or tur¬key. See Meleagris.Afra, or Afrum, in botany, a fynonime of a fpeciesof gnaiafciim. See Guaiacum.AFRICA, one of the four principal divifions of "the:earth.- | ||
1 | A-B | 53 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | AFT < 3* ) A G Aearth ; divided from Europe on the N. by the Medi¬terranean fca ; from America on the W. by the At¬lantic ocean ; from the countries towards die fouth-pole, by the Great South-fea ; from the ifland ofMadagafcar in the E. by the Mozambique channel ;and from Afia alfo on the E. by the Red-fea. It isalfo joined to Afia by a narrow neck of land betwixtthe Mediterranean and Red-fea, called the ifihnius ofSuez : Hence Africa is a peninfula fomewhat refcm-bling a pyramid, whofe bafe from Tangier to the ifthmusof Suez is about 2000 miles; its perpendicular, fromthe vertex at the cape of Good Hope to Buria, 3600miles; and from cape Verd, to cape Guard a Fui, itis 3500. The fituation of this quarter on the globeis betwixt 35. o. S. and 36. o. N. lat. and betwixt17. 35. W. and 53. 21. E. long. Hence it lies,for the mod part, within the- tropics ; by whichmeans, in many places, the heat is alraoft infupporta-ble. Along the coafts, it is in general reckoned abun¬dantly fruitful, and its produce excellent. The Ro¬mans very juftly confidered Africa as the patria fc-rarum, for there is no other place breeds the numberor the variety. In this quarter there are feveral defarts,fome of them of vaft extent, covered with fand, by-Which whole caravans have been fometimes fmothered.The principal rivers are the Nile and the Niger, thefirft of which difembogues itfelf into the Mediterranean,after traverfing Abyffinia, Nubia, and Egypt; and thelaft into the Atlantic ocean, by a weftern courfe fromUpper Ethiopia. Geographers are not yet agreed a-bout the fources of either of thefe rivers; according tofome, their fources are not far diftant from each other.There are fome mountains in Africa remarkably high,particularly in Abyffinia and Barbary, in which laft isthe famous mount Atks, which feparates Barbary fromBiledulgerid. The prevailing religions here, are Ma-hometanifm and Paganifm: Chriftianity only takesplace among the Abyffmians and European fettlemepts.The government in Africa is in general defpotic, andthe inhabitants black. In the divifion, geographershave gone varioufty to work; we (hall confine our-felves to the more general, viz. Egypt, Barbary,Guiney, Congo, Caffraria, Abyssinia, Nu¬bia, and Nigritia, with the iflands that furroundit; for which, fee thefe articles.Afrjca, is alfo a confiderable fea-port town of Barba¬ry, about feventy miles S of Tunis.Africa, Afrique, is likewife a finall town of France,fituated in the province of Gafcony, and generality ofMontauban.AFRICAN company, a fodety of merchants, eftablilhedby King Charles II. for trading to Africa; whichtrade is now laid open to all his majqfty’s fubjefts,paying 10 per cent, for maintaining the forts.AFSAGERS, perfons appointed by the burgo-maftersof Amfterdam, to prefide over the public fales madein that city.AFT, in the fea-language, the fame with abaft. SeeAbaft.AFTER-BIRTH, in midwifery. See Midwifery, andJjECUNDINES.,AFTER-MATH, in hulbandry, fignifies the grafs whichfprings or grows up after mowing.AFTER-PAINS, in midwifery, pains in the groin, <bc.after child-birth. See Midwifery, title. After-pains.AFTER-SWARMS, in the management of bees, arethofe which leave the hive fome time after the firft hasfwarmed. See Apis.AFTO, in botany. See Erysimum.AGA, in the Turkilh language, fignifies a great lord orcommander. Hence the Aga of the janiffaries is thecommander in chief of that corps; as the general ofthe horfe is denominated fpahiclar aga. See Janis¬saries, and Spahi.AGADES, or Agdes, a people or kingdom of Africa,lying on the northern bank of the river Niger, betwixtthe kingdoms of Cano on the E. and Tombut on theW. with that of Zaara on the N.Agades, or Andegast, the capital city of the faidkingdom.Agades, is alfo the Moorilh name for the town of San-ta-Cruz, in the the kingdom of Sus.AG AG, or Argaga, a kingdom of Africa, dependenton the kingdom of Monomotapa.AGAI, in commerce. See Agio.Aga 1, is alfo the name of a people of Ethiopia, inhabi¬ting near the fource of the Nile, and profefling a kindof Chriftanity.AGALLOCHA, in botany, the trivial name of the ex-ccecaria. See Excoecaria.AGALMATA, in antiquity, a term originally ufed forany kind of ornaments in a temple, but afterwards forthe ftatues only.AGANIPPIDES, in ancient poetry, a defignation givento the mufes, from a fountain of mount Helicon calledAganippe.AGAPJE, or Agapes, in church-hiftory, certain love-feafts kept by the ancient Chriftians, as a token ofBrotherly charity and mutual benevolence.However innocent the original intention of thelefeftivals might have befn, abufes in time got footingin thepi, and gave great occafion to fcandal; fo thatit became neceffary to forbid the kifs of charity be¬tween different fexes, as well as }0 have any beds orcouches in the place where they affembled.AGAPETyE, in church-hiftory, a kind of nuns amongthe primitive Chriftians, who attended on and fervedthe clergy.At firft there was nothing fcandalous in thofe fo-cieties, though they gave great offence afterwards,and were wholly abolifiied by tfie council of Lateran,in 1139.AGARENI, a name ufed by fome writers for the A-rabs, as being defeended from Agar, or Hagar, Abra¬ham’s hand-maid.AGARICOyh^ar, -in botany, a fynonime of the agari-cus alneus, or alder-agaric.Agarico-pylorus, a fynonime of the boletus verficolor.See Boletus.AG ARICUS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia fun¬gi. Of this genus there are 28 fpecies, 24 of whicharg | ||
1 | A-B | 54 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | A G E (3are natives of Britain, Several fpecies of the agaricgrow upon the trunks of the larch, the oak, and othertrees. It is of a fpungy fubftance, refembling thejnuffiroom, and irregular in its figure and fize. Thisplant has of late been tried for flopping haemorrhagesafter amputations: but the fuccefs has not been fo re¬markable as to bring it into general ufe.Mineral Agaric, a marley earth refembling the vege¬table of that name in colour* and texture. It is foundin the fiffures of rocks, and on the roofs of caverns;< and is fometimes ufed a? an aflringent in fluxes, hae¬morrhages, <bc.AGASYLLIS, a name ufed by the Greeks for ammo¬niac. See Ammoniac.AGAT, is a ftone refembling the onyx in colour, but,in place of zones, is adorned with lines or fpots ofvarious colours, which run into fo many figures, asto refemble trees, flowers, fruits, herbs, <bc. Ofthe agat there are feveral fpecics, diftinguifhed fromeach other chiefly by their colour; as, the white-veined agat, the lead-coloured agat, the flefh-colour-ed agat, &c.Agat, is alfb the name of an inftrument ufed by gold-wire-drawers, fo called from the agat in the middle ofit, which forms its principal part.AGATA, or St Agata di Goti, a city and bifhop’sfee of Naples, and province of Principato, fituatedalmoft in the middle between Capua and BeReventum.AGATONSI, a fmall ifland of the Archipelago, fitu¬ated between that of Lefbos and the continent.AGATTON, a town of Africa, on the coaft of Gui-ney, fituated near the mouth of the river Formofa, a-bout eighty miles fouth of Benin.AGATY, in botany, a fynonirae of the sefehynomene.See ZE sCHYNOMENE.AGAVE, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mona-gynia clafs. Under this genus Linnaeus ranks 4 fpe¬cies of the Aloes, viz. the america, vivipara, virgi-nica, and feetida. See Aloe.AGAZES, a name given to the inhabitants of Paraguayin S. America.AGDE, a fmall but well inhabited city of France, inthe province of Languedoc, near the mouth of theliver Eraut, about thirty miles S. W. of Montpelier.It is the fee of a bilhop.AGE, a certain portion or part of duration applied tothe exigence of particular objects: thus we fay, theage of the world, the age of Rome, fac. that is, thetime or number of years elapfed fince the creation ofthe world, or the building of Rome. See Astro¬nomy, Of the divifion of time.The ancient poets alfo divided the duration of theworld into four ages or periods; the firft of whichthey called the golden age, the fecond die Jilver age,the third the brazen age, and the fourth the iron age.Age, in law, fignifies a certain period of life, whenperfons of both fexes are enabled to do certain adts:thus, a man at twelve years of age ought to take theoath of allegiance to the king in a leet; at fourteenhe may marry, chufe his guardian, and claim hislands held infoccagc.Vol. I. No. 2.7 ) AGETwenty-one Is called full age, a man or v/oman be¬ing then capable of adting for themfelves, of mana¬ging their affairs, making contradts, difpoling of theireftates, and the like.Age-.prier, ectatem precari, inlaw, is when an adtionheing brought againft a perfon under age, for landsdefeended to him, he, by motion or petition, (hewsthe matter to the court, praying the addon may beftaid till his full age; which the court generally a-grees to.Age of the moon, in aftronomy, the time elapfed finceher laft conjunddon with the fun. See Astronomy.AGED A, in geography, a fmall town and river of Por¬tugal, fituated in the province of Beiran, between thecities of Oporto and Coimbra.AGEMA, in Macedonian antiquity, was a.body of fol-diery, not unlike the Roman legion. See Legion.AGEMOGLANS, or Agiamoglans, or Azamo-glans, in the Turkifli cuftoms, Chriftian childrenraifed every third year, by way of tribute, from theChriftians tolerated in the Turkifli empire.AGEN, an ancient city of France, in the province ofGuienne, fituated on the river Garronne, about fixtymiles S. E. of Bourdeaux. It is a bifhop’s fee, andthe capital of the Agenore.AGENDA, among philofophers and divines, fignifies■die duties which a man lies under an obligation toperform: thus, we meet with the agenda of a Chri-Itian, or the duties he ought to perform, in oppofitidnto the credenda, or things he is to believe.Agenda, among merchants, a term fometimes ufed fora memorandum book, in,which is fet down all the bn~finefs to be tranfadted during the day, either at homeor abroad.AGENHINE, the fame with hogenhine. See Hoce4-AGENOIS. SeeAcEN.AGENORIA, in mythology, the goddefs of courageand induftry, as Vacuna was of indolence.AGENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any adlive poWftror caufe. Agents are either natural or moral. Na¬tural agents are fuch inanimate, bodies as have a powerto adt upon other bodies in a certain and determinatemanner, as gravity, fire, <bc. Moral agents, on thecontrary, are rational creatures, capable of regulatingtheir addons by a certain rule.Agent, is alio ufed to denote a perfon intruded withthe management of an affair, whether belonging to afociety, company, or private perfon.Agents of bank and exchange, in the commercial po¬lity of France, are much the fame with our exchange-brokers.Agent and patient, in law, is faid of a perfon who isthe doer of a thing, and alfo the party to whom it isdone.Agents in rebus, in antiquity, fignifies officers employ¬ed under the empeiors of Conftantinople, and differ¬ing only in name from the frumentarii, whom theyfiicceeded. See Frumentaru.AGER, in Roman antiquity, a certain portion of landallowed to each citizen. See Agrarian Law.- K Ac E R,3 | ||
1 | A-B | 55 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | A G H ( 38 ) • A G M■Acer, is alfo ufed by middle-age writers, for ari acre ofland. See Acre.Ager miner aliurn, among chemifts, Ggnifiesthe elementof water, as water is fuppofed to be the origin of mi¬nerals.Ager natures, a name fometimes applied to the uterus,as it nouriffies the femen in the lame manner as theearth nouriffies feeds/Ager, in geography, a fmall town of Catalonia in Spain,fituated near the fource of the river Noguera.AGERATUM, or Maudlin, in botany, a genus ofthe fyngenefia polygamia aequalis clafs. The recep¬tacle is naked ; the pappus has five ariftae or auns; thecalix is oblong; and the ftylus a little longer than theflower. There are three fpecies of the ageratum, viz.the conyzoides, the ciliare, and the altilfimuni, all na¬tives of America.AGERATUS lapis, a Gone ufed by the ancients indying and dreffing leather.AGERIUM. See Agistment.AGGA, or Agonna, a Britifn fettlement on the gold-coaft of Guiney. It is fituated under the meridian ofLondon, in 6 degrees of N. lat..Agger, in the ancient military art, a bank or rampart,compofed of various materials, as earth, boughs oftrees, 6c.The agger of the ancients was of the fame naturewith what the moderns call linej.AGGERHUYS, a city of Norway, capital of the pro¬vince of the fame name. It is fubjedl to Denmark,and fituated in 28. 35. E. long, and 59. 30. N. lat.AGGIA-SARAI, a town fituated on the Ihore of theCafpian fea, between Turkcftan and the country ofBulgar.AGGLUTINANTS, in pharmacy, medicines of a glu¬tinous or vifeid nature, given with a view to (Lengthenthe folids.Aqglutinants, among furgeons. See Vulnera-R1ES.AGGLUTINATION, in a general fenfe, denotes thejoining two or more things togedier, by means of aa proper glue or cement.Agglutination, among phyficians, the adherenee ofnew fubftance, or the giving a glutinous quality to theanimal fluids.Agglutination, is alfo a term ufed by aftronomersto denote the meeting of two or more Ears in thefame part of the zodiac, or the feeming coalition offeveral ftars.AGGRAVATION, a term ufed to denote whateverheightens a crime, or renders it more black,AGGREGATE, in a general fenfe, denotes the fum offeveral things added together, or the colledtion of theminto one whole. Thus, a houfe is an aggregate ofHones, wood, mortar, 6c. It differs from a mixedor compound, inafmueh as the union in thefe lafl ismore intimate than between the parts of an aggregate.See Chemistry, Of ynixts.AGGRESSOR, among lawyers,, denotes the. perfonwho began a quarrel, or made the firft atTault.AGHER, Ac her, or Aug her, a town of Ireland,which fends two members to parliament. It is fitua¬ted in the fouthern part of Uliter, not far from Clo-gfier.AGHRIM, a town of Ireland, in the county of Wick¬low, and province of Leinfter, fituated about thirteenmiles fouth-weft of Wicklow.AGIADES, in the Turkifii armies, a kind of pioneersemployed in fortifying camps, and the like offices.AGIASMA. See Hagiasma.AGIGENSALON, a town of Turkey, upon the roadfrom Conftandnople to Ifpahan, about a day’s journeyfrom the city of Tocia.AGILD, or Agilde, in old law-books, denotes a per¬fon of fo little account, that whoever killed him wasliable to no fine or other punifhment.AGILITY, an aptitude of the feveral parts of the bo¬dy to motion; or it may be defined, the art or talentof making the bell ufe of our (Length.AGILLARIUS, in old law-books. See Hayward.AGINCOURT, a village of the French Netherlands ;famous on account of the vidtory obtained by Henry V.of England over the French, in 1415.AGIO, in commerce, a term chiefly ufed in Hollandand at Venice, where it denotes the difference betweenthe value of bank-ftock and the current coin.Agio of affurance, the fame with what we call policyof affurance. See Policy of affurance.AGIST. See the next article.AGISTMENT, Agistage, or Agistation, in law,the taking in other people’s cattle to graze at fo muchper week. It is alfo ufed in a metaphorical fenfe, forany tax,'burcLn, or charge; thus, the tax levied-forrepairing th'fe banks of Romney marffi was. called agi-JiameniutH.AGISTOR, or Agistator, an officer belonging toforeftsj who has the care of cattle taken in to be gra¬zed, and levies the moneys due on that account.AGISTALIA anitnalium in frefta, in old law-books^fignifies the drift of cattle or j)eafts in a foreft.AGITATION, the adt of ffiaking a body, or tolling itbackwards and forewards.AGITATOR, in antiquity, a term fometimes ufed fora charioteer, efpecially thofe who drove in the circus'at the curule games.AGITATORS, in the Engliffi hiftory,. certain officersfet up by the army, in 1647, to take care of its in--ter efts.Cromwell joined the agitators, only with a view toferve his own ends; which being once accompliffied,he found means to get them aboliffied.AGLA, or Aqutla, a town of Africa in the kingdomof Fez, fitnated not far from the river Guarga.AGLAOPHOTIS, in botany,, an ohfolete name of,theppsonia. See P^onia.AGLECTS, Aglets, or Acleeds, in botany. SeeAnthera..AGLIA, in geography, a fortrefs of Peidmont, withthe title of marquifate, fituated in the Canavois.AGMOT, or Agket, the name of a town, diftridl,and river of Africa, in the empire of Morocco.AGMEN, in the Roman art of war, denoted an army. | ||
1 | A-B | 56 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | A G- O ( gor rather a part of it, in march : Thus we read of theprimum agmen, or van-guard medium agmen, ormain body ; and the pojlresnum agmen, or rear-guard.AGMONDESHAM, in geography. See Amersham.AGNABAT, a town of Tranfylvania, fubjedt to thehoufe of Aufiria, fituated about ten miles north-eaftof Hermandadt.AGNANO, a lake of the kingdom of Naples, in theprovince of Lavoro.AGNANTHUS, in botany, a fynonime of the cornu-tia. See Cornutia.AGNATE, in Scots law, any male relation by the fa¬ther’s fide. See Law, title, Minors, and their tu¬tors and curators.AGNEL, an ancient French coin, otherwife called mou-ton d'or. See Mouton d'or.AGNELET, an ancient French coin, worth about twen¬ty fols.AGNO, a river of Naples, which, taking its rife In themountainous parts of Terra di Lavoro, walhes thetown of Acerra, and, pafling between Capua and A-verfa, falls into the Mediterranean, about feveri milesN. ofPuzzoli.AGNOETAl, in church-hiftory, a fedt of heretics, focalled on account of their maintaining, that Chrift,with refpedt to his human nature, Was ignorant ofmany things, and particularly of the day of judgment,an opinion which they built upon the text, Markxiii. 32.AGNOMEN, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fourth orhonorary name, given to a perfon on account of fomeextraordinary adlion, virtue, or other accomplifhment.Thus, the agnomen Africanus was bedowed uponPublius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his great at-chievements in Africa.AGNON, a fmall river of Bourgogne in France, other-wife called Jgnon.AGNONE, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in. the pro¬vince of the Hither Abruzzo, called by fome Anclone.AGNOS, in ichthyology, an o'ofolete name of the ura-nofcopus. See Uranoscopus.AGNUS, or Lamb, in zoology i the young of the ovisor Iheep. See Ovis.Agnus cajius, in botany, the trivial name of a fpeciesof the vitex. See Vitex.Agnus Dei, in the church of Rome, a cake of waxdamped with the figure of a lamb fupporting a crofs.Thefe being confecratsd by the pope with great fo-lcmnity, arid didributed among the people, are fup-pofed to have great virtues ; as, to preferve tliofe whocarry them worthily, and with faith, from all mannerof accidents; to expel evil fpirits, tic. It. is alfo apopular name for that part of the maf3, where thepried ftrikes his bread thrice, and fays the. prayer be¬ginning with the words Agnus Dei.AGNUS Scythicus, in botany, the name of a fidlitiousplant faid to grow in Tartary, refembling a lamb.AGOBEL, a fmall town of Africa, in the empire ofMorocco, and province of Kea.AGOG A, among ancient naturalids, denoted a. drain forcarrying eft water from a mine.9 ) AGOAGOGE, among ancient muficians, a fpecies of modu¬lation, wherein the notes proceeded by contiguous de¬grees.AGON, in the public games of the ancients, a term ufedindifferently for any conted or difpute, whether re-fpe&ing bodily exercifes, or accomplilhments of themind. Thus poets, muficians, tic. had their agones,as well as the athletas. It was alfo ufed for one ofthe miniffers employed in the heathen facrifices, whofebufinefs it was to drike the victim.Agon, in Roman antiquity, a place near the Tiber,where the curule games were celebrated, otherwifecalled circus Flamtnineus.Agon, among phyficians. See Agony.AGONALIS, in Roman antiquity. See Sal 11.AGONALIA, in Roman antiquity, fedivals celebratedin honour of Janus, or of the god Agonius, whom theRomans invoked before undertaking any affair of im¬portance.AGONENSES. See Salit.AGONISMA, in antiquity, denotes the prize given to>the vidtor in any combat or difpute.AGONISTARCHA,-in antiquity, the officer who di-redted the preparatory exercifes of the athletas; tho’'fome make him the fame with the agonotheta. SecAgonotheta.AGONISTIC A, a term ufed to denote the fcience ofwhatever belonged to the agones, or public exercifesof the ancients.AGONISTICI, in church-hidory, a name given byDonatus to fuch of his difciples1 as he fent to fairs,markets, and other public places, to propagate hisdodtrine.AGONISTICON, a term ufed by phyficians for coldwater, as being fuppofed to combat the febrile heat..AGONIUM, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the dayon which the rex facrorum facrificed a vidtim, as wellas for the place where the games were celebrated,otherwife called Agon.AGONOTHETA, or Agonothetes, in Grecianantiquity, was the prefidenu or fupeiintendant of thefacred games; who not only defrayed the expencesattending them, but infpedted the manners and dif-eipline of the athletae, and adjudged the prizes to thevictors.AGONUS, in ichthyology, a.fynonyme of the clupeaalofa. See Clupea.-AGONY, any extreme pain. It is alfo ufed for the pangsof death.AGONYCLITJE, or Agonyclites, in church-hi-dory, a.ledt of chriftians, in the fcvqnth century, whoprayed always Handing,, as thinking it unlawful tokneel.AGORdSUS, in heathen antiquity, an appellation givento fuch deities as had datues in the market-places ;particularly Mercury, whole dame was.to be feen inalmoft every public place.AGORANOMUS, in Grecian antiquity, a roagidrate ofAthens, who had the regulation of weights and mea-fures, of the prices of proviiions, isc.AGGUGE3, | ||
1 | A-B | 57 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | A G RAGOUGES, a river of France, which, after wateringpart of Auvergne, falls into the Sible.AGRA, a city of the Hither India, and capital of a king¬dom of the fame name. It is fituated on the riverJemma, and is a large, populous, and beautiful city,where the Mogul frequently refides..AGRAM, a city and bifhop’s fee of Hungary, fituatednear the frontiers of Carniola.AGRARIAN laws, among the Romans, thofe relatingto the divifion and diftribution of lands; of whichthere were a great number; but that called the Agra¬rian law, by way of eminence, was publifhed bySpurius Caffius, about the year of Rome 268, for di¬viding the conquered lands equally among all thecitizens,and limiting the number of acres which each citizenmight enjoy.AGRARIUM. See Agistment.A G Rtown of Spain, in old Caftile, near-thefrontiers of Arragon, and about three leagues fouth-weft ofTaracon.Ag reda, is alfo a town ©f South America, fituated at the'foot of the mountains in the kingdom of Popaian.AGREEMENT, in law, fignifies the confent of feveralperfons to any thing done or to be done.AGRESSES, or Ogresses, in heraldry, a term fomk-times ufed for pellets. See Pellets.AGRESTjE, among phyficians, denotes unripe grapes,faid to be of a cooling nature.AGRI, or Acri, a river of the kingdom of Naples,which arifing in the Apennine mountains, not far fromMarfico Nuovo, falls into the gulph of Tarento.AGRIA, a town and river of Upper Hungary. Thetown is a bilhop’s fee, and fituated about thirty-fivemiles N. E. of Buda.( 4° )AGREDA,AGRICULTURE.AGRICULTURE is the art of aflifting the earth,by means of culture, manure, £jc. to bring forthplants in greater quantity, and likewife of a largerfize and better quality, than it would produce with¬out thefe alEftances.Agriculture is an art of fuch confequence to man¬kind, that their very exigence, efpecially in a Hate offociety, depends upon it. A compendious view, there¬fore, of every material difeovery that hath hithertoPAROf Vegetation, and therlP H E vegetation and ceconomy of plants is one ofthofe fubjeefts in which our knowledge is extremelycircumfcribed. Many hypothefes have been invented ;as many have been, or may eafily be, refuted. Hypo-thefes in matters that evidently exceed our powers domuch hurt : But they are likewife of fbme ufc. Theyincite to further inquiries ; and thefe inquiries are car¬ried on with greater fpirit, becaufe they are intended forthe purpofe of confuting. It is true this fpirit is not themoft friendly to impartial obfervation; but it makes usmore indefatigable in our refearches.Retailing theories is no part of our plan. A total in¬attention to the ftrutfure and ceconomy of plants is thechief reafon of the fmall progrefs that has been made inthe principles of vegetation, and of the inftability andfluctuation of our theories concerning it.To recall the.attention of philofophers and cultivators,to the only fource from which any folid theory can everbe formed on this fubjecl, we fhaU give a fhort deferip-been made in this art, mull be ufeful both to the farm¬er and philofopher.To accomplilh this end with the greater perfpicuity,the fubject (hall be divided into two parts. Underthe firft, Vegetation, and the Structure of Plants, ihallbe confidered. The fecond will contain the variousOperations upon the Soil, in order to prepare it for thereception and nourifhment of plants.For the eafe of the reader, each of thefe parts Ihallbe fubdivided into a number of fed ions.T I.StruBurc of Plants.tion of the ftrudure of plants, beginning with the feed,and tracing its progrefs and evolution to a ftate of ma¬turity.S e c t. I. Of Seeds.The feeds of plants are of various figures and fizes.Moft of them are divided into two lobes; though fome,as thofe of the creis-kind, have fix; and others, as thegrains of corn, are not divided, but intire.But, as the eflential properties of all feeds are thefame, when confidered with regard to the principles ofvegetation, our particular deferiptions Ihall be limited toone feed, viz. the great garden-bean. Neither is thechoice of this feed altogether arbitrary; for, after it be¬gins to vegetate, its parts are more confpicuous than ma¬ny others, and confequcntly better calculated for invelii-gation. ,This feed is covered with two coats or membranes.The | ||
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1 | A-B | 60 | 41 | 100 | Normal | 2,491 | 3,328 | A G R I C UThe outer coat is extremely thin, and full of pores ;but may be eafily feparated from the inner one, (whichis much thicker), after the bean has been boiled, or lain-a few days in the foil. At the thick end of the bean,there is a fmall hole vifible to the naked eye, immediatelyover the radicle or future root, that it may have a freepaffage into the foil. Plate IV. fig. I. A. When thefecoats are taken off, the body of the feed appears, whichis divided into two fmooth portions or lobes. Thefmoothnefs of the lobes is owing to a thin'filin or cuticlewith which they are covered.At the bafts of the bean is placed the radicle Qr futureroot, Plate IV. fig. 3. A. The trunk of the radicle,juft as it enters into the body of the feed, divides intotwo capital branches, one of which is inferted into eachlobe, and fends off fmaller ones in all diredHons throughthe whole fubftance of the lobes, Plate IV. fig. 7. A A.Thefe ramifications become fo extremely minute towardsthe edges of the lobes, that they require the fineft glaf-fes to render them vifible. To thefe ramifications Grewand Malpighius have given the name of feminal root;becaufe, by means of it, the radicle and plume, beforethey are expanded, derive their principal nourilhment.The plume, bud, or germ, Plate IV. fig. 3. is .in-clofed in two fmall correfponding cavities in each lobe.Its colour and confiftence is much the fame with thofeof the radicle, of which it is only a continuation; buthaving a quite contrary direction: For the radicle de-feends into the earth, and divides , into a great numberof fmaller branches or filaments ; but the plume afeendsinto the open air, and unfolds itfelf into all the beautifulvariety of item, branches, leaves, flowers, fruit, itc. Theplume in corn (hoots from the fmaller end of the grail),and, among maltfters, goes by the name of acrofpire.The next thing to be taken notice of is the fubftance,or parenchymatous part of the lobes. This is not a mereconcreted juice, but is curioufly organifed, and confiftsof a vaft number of fmall bladders refembling thofe in thepith of trees, Plate IV. fig. 4.Befides the coats, cuticle, and parenchymatous parts,there is a fubftance perfectly diftihdlfrom thefe, diftribu-ted in different proportions through the radicle, plume,and lobes. This inner fubftance appears very plainly ina tranfverfe fedlion of the radicle or plume. Towardsthe extremity of the radicle, it is one entire trunk; buthigher up, it divides into three branches.; the middleone runs diredly up to the plume, and the other two pafsinto the lobes on each fide,. and fpread out into a greatvariety of fmall branches through the whole body of thelobes, .Plate IV. fig. 7. This fubftance is very proper¬ly termed the feminal root: for when the feed is fown,the moifture is firft abforbed by the outer coats, which areevery where furnifhed with fap and air-veffels; fromthefe it is conveyed to the cuticle; from the cuticle itproceeds to the pulpy part of the Jobes; when it has gotthus far, it is taken up by the mouths of the fmallbranches of the feminal root, and paffes from one branchinto another, till it is all colledted into the main trunk,which communicates both with the plume and radicle,the two principal involved organs of the future plant.After this the fap, or vegetable food, runs in two oppo-Vol. I. No. 2. 2L T U R E. , 41fite directions; part of it afeends into the plume, and pro¬motes the growth and•expaflfion of that organ; and partof itjefeends into the radicle, for nourifhing and evol¬ving the root and its various filaments. Thus the plumeand radicle continue their progrefs in oppofite directions,till the plant arrives at maturity.It is here worth remarking, that every plant is reallypoffeffedof two roots, both of which are contained in thefeed. The plume and radicle, when the feed is firftdepofited in the earth, derive their nourhhment from thefeminal root: but, afterwards, when the radicle begins toftjoot out its filaments, and to ahforb fome moifture, not,however, in a fufficient quantity to fapply the exigenciesof the plume, the two lobes, or main body of the feed,rife along with the plume, affume the appearance of twoleaves, refembling the lobes of the lecd in fize and(hape, but having no refemblance to thofe of the plume,for which reafon they have got the name of dijjimilarleave?.Thefe dilKmilar leaves defend the young plume fromthe injuries of the weather, and at the fame time, byabforbing dew, air, <bc. aflift the tender radicle in nou-riftnng the plume, with which they have ftill a connec¬tion by means of the feminal root above deferibed. But,when the radicle or fecond root has defeended deep e-nough into the earth, and has acquired a fufficient num¬ber of filaments or branches for abforbing as much ali¬ment as is proper for the growth of the plume; then thefeminal, or dilfimilar leaves, their utility being entirelyfuperfeded, begin to decay and fall off.Plate IV. Fig. j. A, The foramen, or hole in thebean through which the radicle(hoots into the foil.Fig. 2. A tranfverfe fedtion of the bean ;the dotes being the branchesof the feminal root.Fig, 3. A, The radicle.B, The plume or bud..Fig. 4. A, A longitudinal fedtion of or\eof the lobes of the bean a lit¬tle magnified, to fliow the fmallbladders of which the pulpyor parenchymatous.part is com-pofed.Fig. 5> 6. A, A tranfverfe feetion of theradicle.B, A tranfverfe fedtion of theplume, (howing the organs orveffels of the feminal root.* Fig. 7. A, A view of the feminal rootbranched out upon the lobes.Fig. 8. The appearance of the radicle,plume, and feminal root, whena little further advanced ingrowth.Having thus briefly deferibed the feed, and traced itsevolution into three principal organic parts, viz. theplume, radicle, and feminal leaves, we (hall next take ananatomical view of the root, trunk, leaves, ere.L Sect, | |
1 | A-B | 61 | 42 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | 4 2A G 11 I CVS e c t. II. Of the Root.I n examining the root of plants, the firft thing thatprefents itfelf is the Ikin, which is of various colours indifferent plants. Every root, after it has arrived at acertain age, has a double fkin. The firfl is coeval withthe other parts, and exifls in the feed: but afterwardsthere is a ring fent off from the bark, and forms a fe-cond fit in; eg. in the root of the dandelion, towardsthe end of May, the original or outer fkin appears ftiri-veled, and is eafily feparated from the new one, whichis frefher, and adheres more firmly to the bark. Peren¬nial plants are fupplied in this manner with a new fkinevery year; the outer one always falls off in the autumnor winter, and a new one is formed from the bark inthe fucceedihg fpring. The fkin has numerous cellsor veffels, and is a continuation of . the parenchymatouspart of the radicle. However, it does not con fid folcljrof parenchyma; for the microfcope fhews that there aremany tubular lignous veffels interfperfed through it.When the'fkin is removed, the true cortical fubflanceOr bark appears, which is alfo a continuation of the pa¬renchymatous part of the radicle, but greatly augment¬ed. The bark is of very different fizes. In moll trees,it is exceeding thin in.proportion to the wood and pith.On the other band,7:n carrots, it is almoft one half of thefemidiameter of the root; and, in dandelion, it is near¬ly twice as thick as the woody part.i. The Bark is compofcd of two fubftances ; the pa¬renchyma, or pulp, which is the principal part; and a fewrhoody fibres. The parenchyma is exceedingly porous,and has a great referoblance to a fpunge; for it fhrivelsconfiderably when dried, and dilates to its former dimen-flons when infufed in water. Thefe pores or veffels arenot pervious fo as to communicate with each other, butcenfift of difHr.ff little cells or bladders, fcarcely vifiblewithout the afiiftance of the microfcope. In all roots, thefecells are conflantly filled with a thin watery liquor. Theyitre generally of a fpherical figure; though in fome roots,as the buglofs and dandelion, they are oblong. In manyroots, as the horfe-raddifli, peony, afparagus, potatoe, err.the parenchyma is of one uniform ftruffurc. But in o-fhers it is more diverfified, and puts on the fhape of raysrunning from the centre towards the circumference ofthe bark. Thefe rays fometimes run quite through thebark, as in lovage; and fometimes advance towards themiddle of it, as in melilot and raeft of the leguminous andumbelliferous plants. Thefe rays generally ftand at anequal diflance from each other in the fame plant; butthe diftance varies greatly in different plants. Neither arethey o,f equalizes : In carrot they are exceedingly fmall,and fcarcely difcernible ; in melilot and cherval, theyare thicker. They are likewife more numerous in fome.plants than in others. Sometimes they are of the famethicknefs from one edge of the bark to the other; andfome grow wider as they approach towards the fkin. Theveffels with which thefe rays are amply furnifhed, arefuppofed to be air-veffels, becaufe they are always foundto be dry, and not fo tranfpareut as the veffels which e-vidcntly contain die fap.t T U R E.‘In all roots, there are lignous veffels difperfed in dif¬ferent proportions through the parenchyma of the bark.Thefe lignous veffels run longitudinally through thebark in the form of fmall threads, which are tubular, asis evident from the rifing of the fap in them when a rootis cut tranfverfely. Thefe lignous fap-veffels do not run'in direff lines through the bark, but, at fmall distances,incline towards one another in fuch a manner, that theyappear to the naked eye to be inofculated; but the mi¬crofcope difeovers them to be only contiguous, and bra¬ced together by the parenchyma, Thefe braces -or co-arffations are very various both in fize and number indifferent-roots; but in all plants they are mod mime-*rous towards the inner edge of the bark. Neither arethefe veffels Angle tubes, but, like the nerves in animals,are bundles of twenty or thirty fmall contiguous cylin¬drical tubes, which uniformly run from the extremityof the root, without fending off any branches, or fuf-fering any change in their fize or fhape.In fome roots, as parfnip, efpecially in the ring next,the inner extremity of the bark, thefe veffels contain akind of lymph, which is fweeter than the fap containedin the bladders of the parenchyma. From this circum-ftance they have got the name of lympb-dutts.Thefe lymph-duffs fometimes yield a mucilaginous,lymph, as in the comphrey; and fometimes a white milkyglutinous lymph, as in the angelica, fonchus, burdock,fcorzonera, dandelion, <bc. The lymph-duffs are fup¬pofed to be the veffels from which the gums and bal-fams are fecemed. The lymph of fennil, when expofedto the air, turns into a clear tranfparent balfam ; andthat of the fcorzonera, dandelion, <&c. condenfes into agum.The fituation of the veffels is various. In fome plants;they Hand in a ring or circle at the inner edge of thebark, as in afparagus ; in others, they appear in lines,Or rays, as in berage; in the parfnip, and feveral otherplants, they are molt confpicuous toward the outer edgeof the baric; and in the dandelion, they are difpofedin the form of concentric circles.2. The Wood of roots is that part which appearsafter the bark is taken off, and is firmer and lefs porousthan the bark or pith. It confifts of two diftinff fub¬ftances, viz. the pulpy, or parenchymatous, and thelignous. The wood is connected to the bark by largeportions of the bark inferted into it. Thefe infertionsare moftly in' the form of rays,' tending to the centre ofthe pith,, which are eafily difeernibie by the eye in a tranf-verfe feffion of moft roots. Thefe infertions, like thebark, confift of many veffels, moftly of a round or, ovalfigure, xThe lignous veffels are generally difpofed in collateralrows running longitudinally through the root. Some ofthefe contain air, and others fap. The air-veffels are localled, becaufe they contain no liquor. 7*hefe air-vef-fels are diftinguilhed by being whiter than the others.q. The Pith is the centrical part of the root. Someroots have no pith, as the ftramonium, nicotiana,others have little or none at the extremities of the roots,but have a confiderable quantity of it near the top.The pith, like every other part of a plant, is derivedfrom | |
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1 | A-B | 64 | 45 | 100 | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | A G H I C Ufrom the feed: But in fome it is more immediately deii-ved from the bark. For the infertions of the bark run¬ning in betwixt the rays of the wood, meet in the centre,and confiitute the pith. It is owing to this circumftance,that among roots which have no pith in their lowerparts, they are amply provided with it towards the top,as in columbine, lovage, &c.The bladders of the pith are of very different fizes,and generally of a circular figure. Their pofition ismore uniform than in the bark. Their fides are notmere films, but a compofition of fmall fibres or threads ;which gives the pith, when viewed with a microfcope,the appearance of a piece of fine gauze, or net-work.We fiiall conclude the defeription of roots, with ob-fervingj that their whole fubftance is nothing but a con¬geries of tubes and fibres, adapted by nature for the ab-forption.of nourifhment, and of courfe the extenfion andaugmentation of their parts.Plate IV. Fig. 9. A tranfverfe fedion of the rootof wormwood, as it appears4 to the naked eye.Fig. 10. A fedion of fig. 9. magnified.A A, The (kin, with its vcffels.B B B B, The bark. The roundholes, C C C, <&c. are thelymph-du&s of the bark.All the other holes are lit-. tie cells and fap-veffels.D D D, Parenchymatous infer-tiens from the bark, withthe cells, &c.EEEE, The rays of the wood,in which the holes are theair-veffels.N. B. This root has no pith.Sect. III. Of the Trunks Stalky or Stem.In deferibing the trunks of plants, it is neceffary topreiqife, that whatever is faid with regard to them, ap¬plies equally to the branches,The trunk, like the root, confifts of three parts, viz.the bark, wood, and pith. Thefe parts, though fub-ftantially the fame in the trunk as in the root, are-inmany.cafes very different in their texture and appearance.1. The fkin of the bark is compofed of very minutebladders, incerfperfed with longitudinal woody fibres, asin the nettle, thillle, and moft herbs. The outfide of thefkin is vifibly porous in fome plants, particularly the cane„The principal body of the bark is compofed of pulpor parenchyma, and innumerable veffels much larger thanthole of the (kin. The texture of the pulpy part, tho’the fame fubftance with the parenchyma in roots, yet fel-dom appears in the form of rays running towards thepi th ; aud when thefe rays do appear, they do not ex¬tend above half way to the circumference. The veffelsQf the bark are very differently lituated, and defined forvarious purpofes in different.plants. For example, in thebark of the Pine, the imnolf are lymph-duffs, and ex¬ceedingly fmail; the outmofl are gum or refini'croUs vefrL T U R E. 45fels, deftined for the fecretion of turpentine; and are folarge, as to be diftinctly vifible to the naked eye.2. The Wood lies betwixt the bark and pith, andconfifk of two parts, viz. a parenchymatous, and lig-nous. In all trees, the parenchymatous part of the wood,though much diverfified as to fize and confidence, is uni¬formly difpofed in diametrical rays, or infertions runningbetwixt fimilar rays of the lignous part.The true wood is nothing but a congeries of old driedlymph-duds. Between the bark and the wood a newring of thefe duds is formed every year, which graduallyIooies its foftnefs as the cold feafon approaches, and, to¬wards the middle of winter, is condenfed into a folidring of wood. Thefe annual rings, which are diftindlyvifible in mod trees when cut through, ferve as naturalmarks to diftinguifli their age, Plate V. fig. 1, 2.The rings of one year are fometimes larger, fometimeslefs, than thofe of another, probably owing to the favour-ablenefs or unfavourablencfs of the feafon.3. The Pith, though of a different texture, is ex¬actly of the fame fubftance with the parenchyma of thebark, and tjie infertions of the wood. The quantity ofpith is various in different plants. Indead of being in-creafed every year like the wood, it is annually dirai-niflied, its veffels drying up, and affuming the appearanceand (trudure of wood; in fo much that in old trees thereis fearce fuch a thing as pith to be difeerned.A ring of fap-veffels are ufually placed at the outer,edge of the pith, next the wood. In the pine, fig, andwalnut, they are very large. The parenchyma of thepith, is compofed of fmall cells or bladders, of the fame,kind with thofe of the bark, only of a larger fize. Thegeneral figure of thefe bladders is circular; though infome plants, as the thidle, and boiage, they are angular.Though the pith is originally one conneded chain ofbladders ; yet as the plant grows old, they fhrivel, andopen in different diredic-ns. In the walnut, after a cer¬tain age, it appears in the form of a regular tranfverfehollow divifion. In fome plants, it is altogether want¬ing ; in others, as the fonchus, nettle, &c. there is onlya tranfverfe partition of it at every joint. Many othervarieties might be mentioned; but thefe. muff be left tothe cblervation of the reader.Plate V. Fig. 1. A tranfverfe fedion of , abranch of a(h, as it appearsto the eye."Fig. 2. The fame fedion magnified.A A, The bark.BBB, An arched ring of fap-veffels next the (kin.C C C, The parenchyma of the.bark with its cells, and ano¬ther arched ring of lap-vef-fels.D D, A circular line'of lymph-duds immediately below theabove arched ring.E E, The wood.F, The firlt year’s growth.G, The fecond.H,. The | |
1 | A-B | 65 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | AGRICULTURE.Plate V, Fig. 2, H, The third year’s growth.I I I, The true wood.K K, The great air veflels,L L, The Idler ones.M M M, The parenchymatousinfertions of the bark repre-fented by the white rays.N, O, The pith, with its blad¬ders or cells.perly fpeaking, the flowers of this year, but of the laft.For example, mezereon generally flowers in January ;but thefe flowers were completely formed in the monthof Auguft preceeding. Of this faft any one may fatis-fy himfelf by feparating the coats of a tulip root aboutthe beginning of September; and he will find that thetwo innermoft form a kind of cell, in the centre ofwhich Hands the young flower, which is not to make itsappearance till the following April or May.Sect. IV. Of the Leaves.The leaves of plants confift of the famefubftance withthat of the trunk. They are full of nerves, or woodyportions, running in all directions, and branching out in¬to innumerable fmall threads, interwoven with the Pa¬renchyma like fine lace or gauze.The Ik in of the leaf, like that of an animal, is full ofpores, which both ferve for perfpiration, and for theabforption of dews, air, fee. Thefe pores, or orifices,differ both in fhape and magnitude in different plants,which is the caufe of that variety of texture or grain pe¬culiar to every plant.The pulpy or parenchymatous part, corififts of veryminute fibres, wound up into fmall cells' or bladders.Thefe cells are of various fizes in the fame leaf.All leaves, of whatever figure, have a marginal fibre,by which all the reft are bounded. The particularfhape of this fibre determines the figure of the leaf.The veflels of leaves have the appearance of inofcula-.ting 5 but, when examined by the microfcope, they arefound only to be interwoven, or laid along each othef.What is called air-veflels, or thofe which carry nofap, are vifible even to the naked eye in fome leaves.When a leaf is flowlv broke, they appear like fmallwoolly fibres, connected to both ends of the brokenpiece.Plate VI.Fig. 1. The appearance of the air-vef-fels to the eye, in a vine leafdrawn gently afunder.Fig 2. A fmall piece cut off that leaf.Fig. 3. The fame piece magnified, inwhich the veflels have theappearance of a fcrew.Fig. 4. The appearance of thefe veflelsas they exift ip the leaf be¬fore they are ftretched out.Sect. V. Of the Flower.It is needlefs here to mention any thing of the tex¬ture, or of the veflels, fee. of flowers, as they are pret¬ty fimilar to thofe of the leaf. It would alfo be foreignto our prefent purpofe, to take any notice of the charac¬ters and diftinftions of flowers. Thefe belong to .thefcience of Botany, to which the reader is referred.There is one curious faft, however, which muft notbe omitted, viz. That every flower is perfedlly formed inall its parts many months before it appears outwardly ;that is, the flowers which appear this year, are not, pro¬Plate VI. Fig. 5. Exhibits a view of the tulip-rootwhen diflefted in September,with the young flower towardsthe bottom.S e c t. VI. Of the Fruit.In deferibing the ftru&ure of fruits, a few exam¬ples (hall be taken from fuch as are moft generallyknown.1. A Pear, befides the fldn, which is a produftionof the fldn of the bark, confifts of a double parenchymaor pulp, fap, and air-veflels, calculary, and acetary.The outer parenchyma is the fame fubftance continuedfrom the bark, only its bladders are larger and more fuc-culent.It is every where interfperfed with fmall globules orgrains, and the bladders refpeft thefe grains as a kindof centres, every grain being the centre of a number ofbladders. The fap and air-veflels in this pulp are ex¬tremely fmall.Next the core is the inner pulp or parenchyma, whichconfifts of bladders of the fame kind with the outer, onlylarger and more oblong, correfponding to thofe of thepulp, from which it feems to be .derived. This innerpujp is much fourer than the other, and has none of thefmall grains interfperfed through it; and hence it hasgot the name of acetary.Between the ^cetary £\nd outer pulp, the globules orgrains begin to grow larger, and gradually unite into ahardftony body, efpecially towards thecorculum, or ftoolof the fruit; and from this circumftance it has been cal¬led the calculary.Thefe grains are not derived from any of the organi-cal parts of the tree, but feem rather to be a kind ofconcretions precipitated from the fap, fimilar to the pre¬cipitations from wine, urine, and othei liquors.The core is a roundiih cavity in the centre of thepear, lined with a hard woody membrane, in .which thefeed is incldfed. At the bottom of the core there is afmall dudl or canal, which runs up to the top of thepear; this canal allows the air\o get into" the core, forthe purpofe of drying and ripening the feeds.Plate VII. Fig. I. A tranfverfe feftion of a pear,as it appears to the nakedeye.A, The Ikin, and a ring of fap-veflelsB, The outer parenchyma, orpulp. | ||
1 | A-B | 66 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | VxSTE .L e VP | ||
1 | A-B | 67 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | |||
1 | A-B | 68 | null | Normal | 2,466 | 3,328 | Plate TIL' -/ ft,//. .1,,,/a/ | ||
1 | A-B | 69 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | * | ||
1 | A-B | 70 | null | Normal | 2,431 | 3,328 | A G R I C Vpulp, with its veffels, andlignous fibres interfperfcd.Plate VII. Fig. i. C, The inner parenchyma, of ace-tary, with its veflels, whichare larger than the outer one.D, The core and feeds.Fig. a. A piece cut off fig. i.Fig. 3. Is fig. 2. magnified.A A A,The fmall grains or globuleswith the veffels radiated fromthem.Fig. 4. A longitudinal fedtion of the pear,Ihewing a different view of thefame parts with thofe of fig. 1.A, The channel, or dudt, whichruns from the top of the pearto the bottom of the core.2. In a Lemon, the parenchyma appears in three dif¬ferent forms. The parenchyma of the rind is of a coarfetexture, being compofed of thick fibres, woven into largebladders. Thofe neareft the furface contain the eflentialoil of the fruit, which burlls into a flame when the Ikinis fqueezed over a candle. From this outmoft parenchy¬ma nine or ten infertions or lamellae are produced, whichrun between as many portions of the pulp, and unite in¬to one body in the centre of the fruit, which correfpondsto the pith in trunks or roots. At the bottom and topof the lemon, this pith evidently joins with the rind,without the intervention of any lamellae. This circum-ftance (hows, that the pith and bark are actually con-nedtedin the trunk and roots of plants, though it is dif¬ficult to demonftrate the connexion, on account of theclofenefs of their texture, and the minutenefs of theirfibres. Many veffels are difperfed through the whole ofthis parenchyma; but the largeft ones (land on the inneredge of the rind, and the outer edge of the pith, juft atthe two extremities of each lamella.The fecond kind of parenchyma is placed betweenthe rind and the pith, is divided into diftindt bodiesby the lamellae ; and each of thefe bodies forms a largebag.Thefe bags contain a third parenchyma, which is aduller of fmaller bags, diftindt and unconnedted witheach other, having a fmall (talk by which they are fixedto the large bag. Within each of thefe fmall bags aremany hundreds of bladders, compofed of extremely mi¬nute fibres. Thefe bladders contain the acid juice ofthe lemon.From this Ihort (ketch of the ftrudture and compoli-tion of vegetables, both the farmer and philofophermaydraw very ufeful and important conclufions. Some ofthem will perhaps be taken notice of in the courfe of thistreatife.Plate V. Fig. 3. A longitudinal fedtion of a le-A A A, The rind with the vef-fcls that contain the effential■ j, oil.B B, The fubftance correfpond-Vol. I. No, 2. 3R E. 4 5ing to the pith, formed by theunion of the lamellae, or infer¬tions.C C, Its continuation and con-nedtion with the rind, inde¬pendent of the infertions.A tranfverfe fedtion of the lemon.B B B, 4dc. The nine pulpy bags,or feCond parenchyma, placedbetween the rind and the pith;and the duller of fmall bags,which contain the acid juice,inclofed in the large ones.C C, The large veffels that fur-round the pith.D D, Two of the large bags laidopen, Ihewing the feeds, andtheir connedtion with the la¬mellae or membranes whichform the large bags.Sect. VII. Of the nature and motion of theSap.The veffels in the roots of plants abfoTb moifture fromthe earth, and convey ft to the trunk, branches, leaves,ijc. This juice, when it firft. enters into the root, iscrude; but as it afeends into the other parts of the plant,it undergoes feveral changes, by means of the differentconfigurations of the veflels peculiar to each part. Thusthe leaves, flowers, fruit, and feed, have all fomethingpeculiar in the ftrudture and arrangement of their veffds,v^iich produces confiderable changes in the nature of thefap. It is not known how thefe changes are produced:but how the ftomachs of animals make chyle from ani¬mal and vegetable fubftances, or how urine, faliva, bile,<bc. is fecreted from the common mafs of blood, is aslittle known. The fap likewife moves in a lateral or ho¬rizontal diredlion.Philofophers are greatly divided about what they callthe circulation of the fap. Some contend, that it re¬turns to the root betwixt the bark and wood. But Hales,who has made many accurate experiments on the fubjedt,has ftiown, that it does not circulate, but afeends anddefeends in the fame veffels; that it afeends in hot wea¬ther, and defeends in cold, like the fpirits in. a thermo¬meter.Vegetables begin to abforb fap about the beginning ofSpring, and foon after (hoot out their buds, leaves, andflowers.When plants are in a Hate of vegetation, efpecially inhot weather, there is a great deal of fuperfluous fap ab-forbed; but the fuperfluous parts are carried off by tran-fpiration. Every part of a plant tranfpires; but thegreateft quantity paffes by the leaves.Some have afligned the tranfpiration of plants, as thecaufe of the motion of the fap. It is undoubtedly onecaufe of this motion; becaufe, if the tranfpiration beflopped, at a time when all the veffels are full, the mo¬tion of the fap mull Hop of courfe. But then there is aprevious and principal caufe, viz. that power in the vef-L T UPlate V. Fig. 3.Fig. 4. | ||
1 | A-B | 71 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 4 6 AGRICULTURE.fels, whatever it is, that firft puts the Tap in motion, be¬fore any tranfpiration has commenced.Heat, moifture, and air, are the three chief circum-ftances that promote the afcent of the fap. Hence no¬thing is more favourable to vegetation than warm weatheraccompanied with rain: on the other hand, cold dryweather is its greateft enemy. In a wet, cold feafon,every thing rots; and in hot dry weather every thing isparched. But the circumftances mod favourable to ve¬getation are cloudy, hot weather, inclinable to thunder,fucceeded by plentiful rains..Sect. VIII. Of the Food of Plants.It is thought to be an important queftion in agriculture,whether the feveral kinds of plants require the fame, ordifferent nourilhment.Upon a fuperficial view of this queftion, it would appearvery improbable, that the fame matter could nourilh fucha variety of plants, differing fo effentially in fmell, tafte,figure, fee. Much, however, may depend upon the in¬ternal ftrudture and arrangement of the veffels. Onething is certain, that if the veffels in any plant be un¬commonly fmall, parts will be rejedted by that plantwhich would be abforbed by one whofe veffels are larger.Nay, changes may be made in the crude homogeneousnourilhment, by a fmall difference in the figure or adtionof the veffels.It is- given out as a fadt, by writers on this fubjedt,that one plant will ftarve another, by robbing it of itsnourilhment. This does not feem toaffedl .either fide ofthe queftion; for it may ftarve its neighbour, either byextending its roots, and requiring a greater quantity ofnourilhment than the other; or it may abforb the pecu¬liar food which is neceffary for the growth of the otherplant. In either cafe, the plant is deprived of a properquantity of nourilhment.It is likewife propofed as a difficulty. Why a poifonousplant and its antidote will grow in the fame foil, and verynear each other. This argument is of the fame natureWith the former. It may be owing either to thefe plantsimbibing different juices from the earth, or to peculiari¬ties in the ftrudture and adtion of their vefl’els. Thefe,and many other ambiguous fads, have been advanced onboth fides of this queftion, which we lhall not fpend timeiii enumerating. .■The argument drawn from grafted plants, feems moredired and decilive. A ftalk of a lemon, grafted on abranch of an orange-tree, grew, ripened its fruit, andpreferred the figure and all the other qualities belong¬ing to a lemon. This plainly indicates, that the or¬ganisation of the lemon had given a different modifica¬tion to the juices of the orange, through the interven¬tion of which it received its nourilhment.It is alfo certain, that the different parts of the fameplant have frequently various fmells, taftes, fee. althoughthe nourilhment derived from the root mult be the fame.This is an evidence, that the different ftrudlire of partsin the lame plants is capable of producing very fenliblechanges in the nature and quality of the fap.Repeated experiments Ihow, .that many plants of veryoppofite qualities, and even trees, have been nourilhedand brought tQ maturity by the pureft water alone.It is obferved, op the other hand, that different plantsrequire different foils.. This is certainly true : But whatthen ? Does not this difference in foil rather depend up¬on the greater or'leffer quantity, than any peculiar qua¬lity in the food ? Thyme grows bell in a dry foil; butit will grow equally well in earth carried from a marlhto die top of a mountain.The roots of plants are fitted to abforb every fluid thatcomes within their reach. They have been found byexperiment to imbibe fluids that adtually poifon them.From this circumftance it may be fairly concluded, thatthey have not, like animals, the fagacity of chufing thefood that is moft proper for nourilhing them, and reject¬ing that which is either hoxiops or lels nourilhing.Mr Dickfon, author of an excellent .treatife on agri¬culture, pubhlhed in 1765, has endeavoured to fix theparticular ingredients that enter into the compofition ofthe food of vegetables. He contends, that neither earth,water, air, oil, nor fait-, can be called the food of plants;but he thinks that it confifts of a combination of all thefefubftances. His arguments in fupport of this theory arechiefly drawn from the chemical analyfis, which lhows,•that all thefe fubftances may be extorted from vegetablesby the force of fire; and from a confideration that a dueadmixture of thefe fubftances (or fitch things as con¬tain them) is favourable, and even neceffary, to vegeta¬tion.His laft argument is good : But whoever attempts todifeover the properties of plants, or the ingredients oftheir food, from a chemical analyfis, will probably neverdo much fervice to the fcience of agriculture. Fire anda retort is capable of torturing either animals or vege¬tables into forms and qualities which never exifted eitherin thefe bodies, or in their food.We fliall conclude this fedtion with obferving, that thefarmer, in nourilhing his plants, Ihould be directed entire¬ly by experience. If he knows, that- putrid animaland vegetable fubftances, that lime, foot, marie, fee.when applied with judgment, affift the growth of hisplants, and augment his crop, it is of little confequencewhether he be acquainted with their chemical analyfis,or the particular mode of their operation. We do notmean that he Ihould continue obftinately in the old beat¬en track, as it is called ; but rathep that he Ihould trywhether he can by any means improve upon the oldmethod, and that his pradiice Ihould be diredted accord¬ing to the fuccefs of thefe trials.PART | ||
1 | A-B | 72 | 47 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | AGRICULTURE. 47PART II..0/ the various Operations upon the Soil, in order to prepare it for the Recep¬tion and Nourifoment of Plants.Sect. I. Of Manures.17 Very fubftance which promotes the growth of plantsis denominated a manure.As to the operation of manures, fome maintain, thatthey give to the earth an additional quantity of the vege¬table food; others, that they are of no other ufe thanto divide the foil, and therefore that tillage may be fub-ftituted’in their place. This laft opinion was embracedby Mr Tull, and is the fundamental principle in hishorfe-hoeing hulbandry. A minute divifion of the foilwill do. a great deal; but the experience of all agesfhows that it will do much more by the addition of ma¬nure.In Scotland, it is the univerfal pra&ice to dung lands,that are in conftact tillage, at leafl once’ in five years ;and it eonfifts with obfervation, that the ground is con-fiderably enriched the firft year, but that the crops gra¬dually decline till the virtues of the dung are entirely ex-haufted.Some manures lofe their virtue by being long expofedto the air. If dung be kept after it is fufficiently rotted,the moft valuable part of it will evaporate. Others, aslime and marks, are of an oppofite nature: the longerthey are expofed to the air, their utility to the land isimproved, trom this circumftance it is probable, thatmarles and lime attraCt fomething from the air which ren¬ders them more favourable to vegetation.There is a great variety of fubftances which, whenlaid upon land, a<5t as manures. But the moft ufual ma¬nures in this country are dung, lime, marles, afhes, foot,fea-weed, fhells, &c.Of Dung.Dung is properly the excrement of animals ; but whatcommonly goes by that name, is a mixture of excre-• ments, putrefied vegetable and animal fubftances. Ifdunghills be kept after they are fufficiently rotted, theoily and more volatile, parts, which are the beft ingre¬dients,- fly off. They ffiould likewife be placed in adry fituation, and raifed high at the fides, to preventthefe parts from being carried off by water ; for muchwater prevents the uniform putrefaction of dunghills ofthis mixed kind.To promote a proper putrefaction, the dung fhouldnot be laid in fmall heaps, but fpread thick upon the dung¬hill ; for by this means the fermentation commences foon-er, the natural fap is preferved, and the dung is prevent¬ed from being burnt, or fre-fanged, as it is termed byfarmers. Dung, when burnt in this manner, is dry,white, and ufelefs as a manure. It is agreed, that dung¬hills ought to be covered, to prevent the exhalation ofvegetable food. But the difficulty is, how to execute it;.-Some propofe a thin layer of earth for this purpofe;others, that a pit fhould be dug, built with flags at thefide, and covered with a roof. The former would an;fwer very well, were it not for the additions that areconflantly making to dunghills; and the latter is foexpenfive, that few people will chufe to make trial ofit. When dung comes from the liable or byre, it is mixedwith ftraw; which abforbs the moifture, and prevents itfrom exhaling till the ftraw itfelf putrefies. When inthis fituation, if it be laid thick upon the top of thedunghill, there being but a fmall furface expofed to theair, the juices will be tolerably well preferved.As dung thus lofes its beft qualities by being expofedto the fun and weather, it ought to be plowed in as foonas poflible, after being laid upon land. If fufficientlyputrefied, it fhould be plowed in with a fhallow furrow,as its juices are waffied down by the rain : It fhould like-wife be fpread very equally; for when large pieces liefcattered up and down, they become a nidus to infeCts• and vermin.Of Lime.Lime being of an alkaline nature, attra&s acids ;Hence it is fuppofedto communicate to the foil a powei?of attracting the vegetable food from the air. Limeis a heavy fubftance, and penetrates deep into the- foil;it fomctimes even finks below the reach of the plow.By fermenting with acids, it breaks down and dividesthe foil into fmall particles, and makes it foft, mellow;and evidently in a ftate of fermentation. It likewife dif-folves oils, and all animal and vegetable fubftances, andconverts them into vegetable food. This quality ren*.ders it peculiarly uleful in deftroyirg root-weeds.Thefe being the general properties of lime, it is flip-pofed to have a twofold operation upon land. When alarge quantity is ufed, efpecially after being long expo-fed to the air, it promotes vegetation by giving a kind offtimulus to the foil, and making it exert itfelf. Thisoperation of lime is not merely hypothetical; for expe¬rience fhcws, that land thoroughly limed may be reducedto a poorer condition by cropping, than if it had notbeen limed at all. It is even poflible to reduce limedland to a caput mortuum; and the more frequently andthe better the land is plowed, it is the fooner reducedto this ftate.Lime alfo enriches land, by augmenting the vegetable"aliment. When intended for this purpcfe, only a fmallquantity fhould be employed; as a fmall quantity oflime is fufiicienl to impregnate a large quantity of earth,’and | |
1 | A-B | 73 | 48 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | yj.8 A G II I C Uand to communicate to it as high a degree of an abforb-ing quality as it is capable of receiving.Thefe different operations of lime is confirmed byexperience, and agreeable to the pi'aftice in thofe parts ofScotland where lime is mod ufed. When employed forthe purpofe of improving barren lands, it is laid on inlarge quantities, to give a ftimutus to the foil, and makeit exert all its vigour; and when applied to land alreadyimproved, it is ufed in fmall quantities, and repeatedonce every third or fourth, year, to prevent too greatan exertion, and impoverishing the land, by exhauft-ing too much of the vegetable food.The lands in Scotland capable of the greateft im¬provement by lime, are the out-field and muir lands.The out-field land is generally kept three years in tillage,and carries three crops of oats ; it is then allowed toreft fix years, and after that is brought again into tillage.This method of cultivating out-field land is found, bycalculation, to be fufficiently able to bear the expence,and allow a reafonable profit to the farmer, befides theimprovement the lands derive from the lime.Is England, lime is fometimes ufed as a top dreffingfor wheat. The method is this: They fow their wheatwithout laying on any manure ; and in the beginning ofFebruary, for every acre of land, they take 20 bufhels ofunflaked lime, and 4 bufhels of fand, or brick-rubbifh.Towards the end of the month, the lime is flaked andmixed with the fand : In the laft week of the month, thisis fcattered byway of top-dreffing over the green wheat;and as rain generally fucceeds, it is foon wafhed downto the roots of the plant, and gives them a, vigour andftrength of grov/jh that is aftonifhing to people who havenever feen this method praftifed. But, if the weatherinclines to be dry, the quantity of fand muft be doubled,to prevent the plants from being burnt by the eorrofivequality of the lime.Of Maries.The general characters by which marie is bed diftin-guifhed, are thefe : It attracts and ferments with acids,and does not bake in the fire like potter’s earth, whichdiftinguifhes it fufficiently from clay; upon being expo-fed for fome time to the air and weather, it diflolves likequick-lime, and falls intp a fine powder; when dry, itis friable and unftuous like lead-ore; when wet, it isfeft and flippery to the touch; whereas virgin-earthis rough and gritty.There are a great variety of marles; but they aregenerally reduced to three kinds: The clay, the ftone,and the ffiell marie.The clay and ftone marles are nearly of the fame na¬ture ; but the fhell-marle differs from both.Of Clay and Stone Maries.Though, plants will not grow in thefe marles, whenpure ; yet, when mixed with foil, they become an excel¬lent manure.Stone and clay marles are poffeffed of much the famequalities with lime, and confequently aft nearly in theL T U II E.fame manner upon the foil. They communicate to thefoil a power of attracting the vegetable food from theair, diffolve the vegetable food, and prepare it for en¬tering the roots of plants. They likewife attradt oilsfo ftrongly, that they are frequently ufed for extractinggreafy fpots out of cloth; they are therefore fuppofed toattradt oil from the air and earth, which is the chief in¬gredient in the nouriffiment of plants.Both the clay and ftone marles are long of diffolving.Large pieces of the ftone-marle are fometimes found un-difl'olved many years after'it has been laid on the landThis renders it neceffary to lay on a large quantity 0.them, left their effedts ffiould not at firft appear.As marie may "be ufed with fafety in greater quanti¬ty than lime, it muft communicate to the foil a ftrongerpower of attracting the vegetable food, and confequentlyit ought always to be preferred. Marie is likewife pre¬ferable to lime in this refpedt, that it is longer of diffol¬ving; and therefore the land will continue to carry bet¬ter crops for feveral years longer after it has been marledlHowever, if the foil be foft and fpungy, the marie, likelime, will fink below the reach of the plough, and pre¬vent thofe advantages which might naturally be expeftedfrom it.Though marie is preferable to lime as a manure j yet itmuft be confidered, that their operation upon the earthis the fame; confequently, when marlfed land has beenexhaufted with crops, it cannot receive much benefitfrom an immediate application of marie a fecond time ;for the fame reafon, it can receive as little advantage fromlime: Dung therefore, as it contains a great propor¬tion of the vegetable food, which lime and marles dimi-nifh, is the moft proper manure for marled or limedlands exhaufted with ciops.What was faid with regard to the application of lime,in fmaller or larger quantities, to barren lands and landsin good o*!er', may be faid with equal propriety withregard to ftone and clay marles.Of Shell-marie.This marie is of a different nature from the ftoneand clay marles. It does not diffolve with water, butabforbs and fwells with it like a fpunge: It attradb acidsmore forcibly. But the principal difference betwixt theIhell-marle and the other marles confifts in this, thatthe ihell-marle contains a great quantity of oil..This marie is therefore fuppofed to promote vegeta¬tion, by increafing the food of plants, by communicatingto the foil a power of attracting this food from the air,by dividing the foil into fmall particles, and by preparingthe vegetable food for being abforbed by their roots.As ihell-marle does not exhauft land like lime and theother marles, it may be repeated as often as the huf-bandman pleafes. Its effefts are likewife more fudden.Of Jfies.The aihes of vegetables contain a large quantity ofalkaline fait: Hence they attraft acids more ftronglythan any other fubftances.The | |
1 | A-B | 74 | 49 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 49AGRICULTURE.The operation of afhes upon the foil muft therefore beof the fame nature with that of lime, only it is more vio¬lent and hidden, and confequently it is fooner over.This is confirmed by experience. After land has beenmanured with afhes, .the firft crop is commonly very lux¬uriant ; but a fecqnd crop almoft entirety exhaufts theland. Hence afhes fhould be laid on in fmall .quantities,and fhould not be applied to land exhaufted by lime ormarie; neither fhould they be repeated, or followed bythefe manures.Burnt turf is generally recommended as a manure.Turfs are chiefly compofed of vegetables ; their afhes,therefore, muft be of the fame nature with thofe of woodor any other vegetable fubftance. It is found by experi¬ence, that the burning of turfs turns out to advantagein proportion to the number of roots they contain; andtherefore land, with a tough fward of graft, is m ftproper to be improved in this manner.In burning turf, the heaps muft be covered in fuch amanner as to prevent the flame from breaking out; o-therwife the mod ufeful part of the afhes will fly off.To prevent burnt land from being exhaufted, one ortwo crops only fhould be. taken, and then the landought to be laid out in graft. Its fertility will beready increafed, if a little dung be added after therft crop.Of Soot.Soot contains oil, fait, and earth. It promotes ve¬getation in the fame manner as dung or fliell-marle.Soot is generally applied in the Spring as a top-dreffingto winter corn or graft. The effects of foot ufed in thisway are fo fudden, that they evidently appear after thefirfl rain. But its virtues are commonly exhaufted by aTingle crop. However, when the effects of foot are o-ver, the foil is not exhaufted, as by afhes or lime; it maytherefore be repeated as often as the farmer thinks pro¬per ; or it may be followed with advantage by afhes,lime, or marie.Of Sea-weed.All plants that grow upon rocks, within reach of thefea, are good manures. Thefe are frequently loofenedand driven a-fhore by the tide. They are of a foft pul¬py nature, and Toon putrefy.Sea-weeds promote vegetation in the fame manner asdung or foot; but their effects are not fo lafting as dung.However, they are preferable to dung in this refped, thatthey do not produce fo many weeds.They may be applied to land in any fituation, and arepeculiarly proper for land that is exhaufted by lime orafhes. When their effects ceafe, the land is not injured,and any kind of manure may bp ufed after them.The oftener fea-weeds are applied, the land becomesthe richer. This is confirmed by experience. Thelands near the fhores, where the weeds have been longufed as manures, are among the richeft in Scotland, andhave been kept almoft conftantly in tillage.Vol. I. No. 3. 3Of Shells.Beds of fhells are to be met with in many places, butparticularly near the fea-fhore.Thefe fhells ferment with acids, and, like other ani-mal-fubftances, contain oil, fait, and earth. Their ope¬ration is fuppofed to be of the fame kind with that offhell-marle: But, as they take a long time to diffolve,their effetts muft be flower and weaker: They oughttherefore to be applied in large quantities, otherwifetheir operation will be hardly perceptible.Shells exhauft the land, but not near fo much as limeor afhes; it is therefore improper to ufe them immedi¬ately after thefe manures.When fhells are found below the furface of the ground,as they generally are, they fhould be expofed to the airfor fome time before they are ploughed in: This notonly afEfts their fermentation, but promotes their pu¬trefaction.Of Vegetables in an entire Statet or foven forManure.It is a practice in many places, particularly in Eng¬land, to fow turnip, peafe, buck-wheat, 6'c. and toplough them down for manur ing the land.This practice 4s thought by fome people to be attend¬ed with no advantage; becaufe the plants, when plough¬ed down, can convey no more food to the foil than theytake from It. But it ought to be confidered, that fomeof the plants employed in this manner pulh their rootsbelow the reach of the plough, and fuck up the food tothe furface; the feed that is fown likewise contains agreat proportion of vegetable food; befides what theplants, when growing, may derive from the air, <tyc. Fromthefe circumftances it may be inferred, that they aftual-ly return more nourifhment to the foil than they extractfrom it. The covering of the furface is alfo an advan¬tage : Every farmer knows, that when the foil has beencovered for a confiderable time by a ftrong crop of peafe,or any other corn laid down, the foil, though natural¬ly hard and ftiff, becomes foft, mellow, and free.Of Water.Rain-water contains a confiderable quantity of ve¬getable food. When it falls upon land that has a defeent,by running off, it muft carry along with it fome of thefineft particles of the foil and the vegetable food contain¬ed in them. If this water, then, is let in upon a field, andallowed to fettle, the land will receive from it not onlythe vegetable food contained in the water itfelf, butlikewife what is contained in the particles of earth carriedoff from the higher grounds.This method of manuring can only be ufed in fieldswhich lie on the fides of rivers, or fuch as can be eafilydrained. In praCtifing it, the water muft not be allowedto run off violently, otherwife it does more hurt thangood. Land in graft is mod proper for this kind ofN manuring. | |
1 | A-B | 75 | 50 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 50 AGRICULTURE.manuring. The firmnefs of the furface prevents any of •the foil from being Carried off when the water is drain¬ing, and the grafs intangles the mud, fisc. and hindersthem from going along with the Water.This operation fhould be performed in the fpring. Irithat feafon grafs-lands differ lead from being -over-. flowed.Sect. Ill, Of Soils with respect toManures.. Soils are very different in their natures, and compo¬sed of Very different ingredients: Some foils containmore, and others lefs, of the food neceffay for the nou¬rishment of plants. It is neceffary to inquire into thefedifferences, in order to difcover what manures are moilproper for each kind.The foils mod common in Scotland are the blackloamy, the clay, the fandy, and the moffy. Of thefethere are many varieties, according to the different pro¬portions of that particular kind of earth from which tljeyare denominated. Some foils are even fo blended, thatit is difficult to determine what kind of earth molt pre¬vails in them.Of the black Loamy Soil.Pure loam feems to be nothing elfe but the earth ofputrefied vegetables, accumulated by the fucceffive de¬cay of natural or artificial crops. In cultivated lands,ilung and other manure greatly increafe the quantity ofthe loam.The principal qualities of loam are thefe : When al¬lowed to red, it acquires a degree of cohefion, but ne¬ver becomes fo hard and tough as clay: When turnedup and expofed to the air, it becomes free and open,and eafily crumbles down : When dry, it readily admitswater, and fwells and retains it like fhell-marle; how¬ever, it only retains a proper quantity, and allows thered to run off. It alfo contains oil, fermentswith acids,and is of an abforbent nature.There is no foil altogether pure; but that foil whichhas loam in its compofition .poddies in fome degree allthe qualities of loam; and thefe qualities are unquedion-ably the mod proper for nourifhing plants.Its oils and fairs afford food to the plants; the abfor¬bent quality of which it is pofieffed, alfo. at tracts vegetablefood from the air; its friablenefs, aad fermenting w'ith' acids, give an eafy paflage to. the roots to acquire thisI’ood.Experience, the only fare guide in ffibjedts of this,kind, fhows that a loamy foil is mod fruitful. Somefoils, when well limed or dunged, may bear as greatcrops as the loamy foil; but then they require a fupplymuch fooner. The loamy foil has likewife another ad¬vantage over every other : It does not differ fo muchfrom drought or rain, as clay and fandy foils. .All land called in-field land has a certain quantity ofloam in, its compofition, probably owing to the dungwhich is laid from time to time upon it. This is the on¬ly didindtion betwixt out-field and in-field land.■ The foil which contains a great proportion of loam, re¬quires very little manure. It may be kept coridantly ingood heart by proper tillage and good management.The common loamy foil -requires manure, and nokind of manurb is; improper for it; dung, however, isunquedionably the bed. Lime, unlefs managed withcare, is in danger of hurting a loamy foil by exhaud- .ing it.Of the Clay-Soil.The riched kind of clay-foil is that which confids ofclay and loam. To difcover the nature of this foil, itis neceffary to know the qualities of clay.Clay is a very folid body, and its parts adhere firmlytogether: It does not eafily admit water, but is capableof containing a great quantify, fwells but little, and doesnot eafily part with it. When dry, clay- is very hard,and becomes the harder the more Suddenly it is dried.In the procefs of drying, it contracts unequally, andbreaks out into rents or fiflures where the cohefion isweaked. It ferments with acids, but has no oil in itscompofition.From 9. dight view of thefe qualities it appears, thata clay-foil is not fo well adapted for the nourilhment ofplants as the loamy: it is more fubjeft to receive in¬juries from drought or rain. In a rainy feafon, as it isaverfe to part with the water after it once admits it, theroots of plants will be much weakened or dedroyed bybeing long foaked in the water. On the other hand, ina very c^ry feafon, it becomes fo hard, that the rootscannot penetrate deep enough to fearch for food.Thefe obfervations are fully confirmed by experience.For it is well known to the hulbandman, that the pro¬duce of clay-foils are extremely uncertain, as they ar6liable .to be dedroyed by dry or wet feafons. Thefe foilslabour under another difadvantage; as they repel water,efpecially when it falls in fmall quantities, they reap nobenefit from dews or flight Ihowcrs.The clay-fcil is faid to contain vegetable food, but doesnot allow it to be eafily difl’clved: and hence lime, marles,or allies, are the mod proper manures for it, as they divideit into fmall particles. . Thefe manures likewife commu¬nicate to it a greater power of abforption ; and thereforethey will enable it both to receive andtranfmit water morereadily, and of courfe make it lefs fubjedt to be injuiedby the weather. Clay-foils, when mixed with loam,are very rich; but, when mixed with fand or till, theyare very poor. Poor clay-foils require fuch manures ascontain the greated quantity of vegetable food; there¬fore dung, fhell-marle, fea-weed, fic. are the bed ma¬nures for them.Of the Sandy Soil.There are two kinds of fand that enter into the com¬pofition of foils; the one confids of fmall particles offlint, the other 01 broken fliells. | |
1 | A-B | 76 | 51 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | A G R I C UThe fandy-fsil which is compofed of flinty particles,eafily receives and tranfmits water; and confequently ishot capable of containing a fufficient quantity for promo¬ting the growth of plants: Its particles do not adhere,and is therefore unable to fupport plants that have fewroots and grow high. Befides, it is fcfbeptible of great¬er heat from the fun than any othgr pail, which is apt toparcA the plants. As this foil contains no oil, it mull:be very defective in vegetable food; and, as it has noabforbent quality, it will receive but a fmall fupply fromthe air.• From the qualities of this foil, the manures molt pro¬per for it are eafily difeovered. Clay will make it firmer,and enable it to retain the water; but clay contains lit¬tle vegetable food. Dung will fupply it with the foodof plants ; but will not render it firm, or make it retainwater, Mofs will help it to retain water, and fupply itwith vegetable food; but will not make it firmer. Amixture'of clay and dung, or of clay and mofs,. feemstherefore to be the mod proper manure for this foil.The qualities of a fandy fo;l compofed of brokenfhclls, are' nearly the fame with thofe of the formerkind. The only differences are, that it ferments withacids, contains oil, and is capable of belng'diffolved.Hence this foil mull have h larger qnantity of vegetablefood, and mult alfo receive a greater fupply from theair. mixture of dung and clay, or of mofs and clay,is likewife the moll proper manure for this foil: But ifany fubflance could be found that could reduce the par¬ticles of the fliells to a flate of putrefaction, it wouldbe preferable to any thing hitherto known for improvinga foil of this kind.Of the Moffy Soil.Moss principally conlilts either of Jive or at leafluncorrupted vegetables. It mull therefore have fait andoil in its composition. It does not eafily putrefy, foldprevents other bodies from putrefying. It fwells withwater like a fp.unge, and does not eafily part with it.To render the moffy foil fit for nourifhing plants, thevegetables in it mull be reduced to a flate of putrefaction.This will not only fupply it with vegetable food, butJikewife render it firmer, and make it more eafijy partwith water. Hence thofe manures which ferment moflviolently with acids, as the clay and flone marles, feemto be the melt proper for this foil. Thefe marles willnot only raife a violent fermentation, but fill up the.pores, and make the foil more folid. When the mofs isdeep, or has not a folid bottom, lime is improper, be-caufe it will foon penetrate beyond the reach of theplough ; but, if it has a fol.d bottom, lime will anfwervery well.It is improper to fow upon this foil till the fermen¬tation raifed by the manure is completely finifhed; forthe violence of the fermentation fometimes throws thefeeds, a (id even the roots, out of the ground.Frequent ploughings make the moffy foil run muchinto weeds ; and from this circumltance, the practice ofploughing it but fddom is found to anfwer better.L T U R E. .51Sect. IV. Of the Impediments to Ve¬getation.1. Weeds, as an Impediment to Vegetation.Every vegetable that grows in afield, different fromthe particular plant that is intended to be cultivated, maybe called a need.Weeds injure the plants we defire to cultivate, by rob¬bing them of part of their nourifhment, and by preventingthe fpreading of their roots. Some weeds, as quicken¬ing grafs, extend and interweave their roots in fuch amanner that- it is difficult to pulverife the foil by tillage.It is therefore of great importance to the farmer to knowhow weeds may be dellroyed. Weeds are generally di¬vided into three claffes, viz. thofe that are propagatedby the feed; thpfe that are propagated by the roots;and fhrubs.Of dejlroying Weeds that are propagated lySeed.Weeds are very different in their natures. Some,if prevented from vegetating,- die in a lew years by lyingmoill in the earth ; others will lie many years in thisfituation, without lofing the power of vegetating.The firft kind may be dellroyed, by turning the landinfelled w'ith them into grafs for five or fix years; andboth kinds may be rooted out by allowing them to vege¬tate, and then tearing up the young plants before theybegin to flower.In order to promote the vegetation of the weeds thatare intended to be dellroyed, the land ought to be wellploughed; if a little dung, or other manure, be applied,the crop of weeds will be • increafed, and their deduc¬tion will be rendered more general.Several weeds, as the thillle, dandelion, rag-weed, &c.are furnilhed with a kind of down, by which they floatin the air, and are carried to great dillances by the wind.Farmers Ihould be as careful to root out all weeds ofthis kind from the roots of hedges, banks of fences, ire.as from their arable land; for although they may havethe appearance of being inoffenfive in that fituation, theyare tranfported from thence in great quantities by thewind into the adjacent fields.There is another great fource of weeds, but too littleattended to by farmers. It is a general practice, tothrow the feeds that are feparated from the corn in win¬nowing upon the dung-hill; and by this means they arecarried out with the dung, and again fown upon the land.Of dejlroying Weeds that are propagated bythe Root.There are many different kinds of weeds propagatedby the roots. Some of them infelt land that is in til¬lage, and others land that is in grafs.Thofe that infell land in tillage may be dellroyed byturning it into grafs for fwne years. This is the molleffectual | |
1 | A-B | 77 | 52 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 52 A G R I C Ueffectual means of rooting out quicken-grafs, and otherroot-weeds of the fame nature,. If the foil be hard andftiff, it is the fooner cleared of weeds by being laid Outin grafs; But a foft fpungy foil requires to be in grafsfix or feven years before the weeds are deftroyed.Thofe weeds that infeft lands in grafs, are eafieft de¬ftroyed by turning the land into tillage. Neither is itnecelfary to continue it long in this fituation ; for theweeds commonly difappear after the firft ploughing.But as, in fome cafes, it may he inconvenient to turna field infefted with weeds from tillage into grafs, orfrom grafs into tillage, it is neceffary to confider whetherthe fame may not be accompliffied, without altering thefituation of the land.When land is in tillage, the weeds may be deftroyedby frequently ftirring and turning it over in dry weather;for when the weeds are difplaced, die drought preventsthem from taking root again.Land cannot be made too fine, nor the furface toofmooth, when it is intended to be freed of feed-weeds ;becaufe by that the greateft number are brought to ve¬getate : But, when intended to be freed of root-weeds,the rougher the furface, the weeds are the more eafilydeftroyed; becaufe the drought has the eafier accefs totheir roots.If grafs-lands be infefted with weeds, and it is incon¬venient to turn them into tillage, the only way of de-ftroying the weeds, is to an them frequently, or pullthem up by the roots.Some lands, after being in grafs a few years, are lia¬ble to be over-run with fog r In this .cafe, rolling, bymaking the furface firmer, will be of great ufe in de-ftroying the fog. This weed, as well as others, maybe deftroyed by depriving it of air. This may be doneby covering the furface with a crop of peafe, potatoes, orother plants that lie thick on the furface. A deeptrenching will, in fome cafes, anfwer the fame intention.Of deflroying Shrubs, as Furze, Broom, Bram¬ble, See.i. FURZE.The common method of deftroying furze (or whins)is by grubbing them out with a hoe. But it is impoffibleto root them out fo compleatly as to prevent theirfpringing again, efpecially if the 'land be continued ingrafs. The moft effectual method, therefore, is to bringthe land into tillage immediately after the whins havebeen grubbed up. As long as it continues in tillage, nowhins will appear; but if turned into grafs, they growas numerous as ever.To prevent this return of whins, the young plants thatappear after the land is turned into grafs, ftiould be pul¬led up by the roots. Unlefs they are very thick, this isneither troublefome nor expenfive : When the ground ismoift, it may be performed by young boys. If any ofthem rife afterwards, which is commonly the cafe, thefame operation muft be repeated every feafon till theland is compleatly cleared of them.There is another fcheme of management which in aL T U R E.few years will effectually deftroy whins. It is certainthat the feeds of whins will not vegetate unlefs they areallowed to lie in the earth undifturbed for a confiderabletime. As long as land is left in tillage, although therebe many whin-feeds in it, yet they never vegetate.Whin-plaints do not even appear till two years after theland has been allowed to reft, or has been turned intografs. Now, if a fcheme of management be followed, bywhich the land is turned from tillage into grafs, andfrom grafs into tillage, the whins by degrees will bewholly eradicated. ,It was obferved above, that before lands infefted withwhins can be improved, the whins muft be grubbedup. This operation is both tedious and expenfive.The following method of rooting them out by the ploughis more expeditious, lefs expenfive, and has been triedwith fuccels.This work muft be performed by a ftrong Scotchplough, with a well redd beam. As it requires greatforce to tear up the roots, fix horfes ftiould be yoked inpairs. Two drivers are likewife neceffary, to prevent thehorfes from ftepping afide. As the whins in rifing areapt to entangle or choke the beam, another man is alfoneceffary to pufti them off with a pitch-fork. A ploughyoked and attended in this manner, will plow downwhins near three feet high, with roots above four feetlong, and an inch in diameter. This operation Ihouldbe performed in the winter, when the land is well foakedwith rain.After the land has been -ploughed in this manner, itIhould be allowed to lie till fummer, when the whinstom up by the plough may be burned, the land harrow¬ed, and the roots gathered. Afterwards the land maybe dreffed according to the judgment of the farmer; onlythe fecond ploughing Ihould be acrofs, that any rootswhich have been left may be tom up.But when the whins are fo ftrong that it is impoffrble toplough them down, they may be burned ; and if the landbe allowed to lie a few years after, it may be ploughedwithout: much difficulty.2. BROOM.Broom is not fo bulhy, and does not cover the fur¬face fo much as whins; and therefore land infeftedwith it is more eafily cleared. Though the methods re¬commended for deftroying whins will moft effectuallydeftroy broom, a more fimple and lefs expenfive one will•fufficiently anfwer the purpofe.If broom, efpecially when it is old, be cut fo low asto take away all the leaves, it will never fpring again,A kind of feythe has lately been invented, by whichbroom may be cut in this manner with great expedition.If this method be obferved, it is unneceffary to bringland from grafs into tillage in order to clear-it ofbroom. *3, BRAMBLE.This plant is of a very different nature from whin orbroom. The root finks deep into the earth, and fpreadsvery wide. Though cut in the winter, it rifes andcomes to fuch perfection as to carry fruit in the fummer.It | |
1 | A-B | 78 | 53 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | A G R I C EIt is therefore a difficult matter to clear land of bram¬ble, efpecially when it is ftony; for the bramble puftiesand interweaves its roots among the ftones, which rendersit neceflary to dig out the ftones before it can be fuffi-ciently rooted up by ploughing or tearing. How¬ever, digging out the ftones, and ploughing the land infucli a manner as is moft proper for cutting and tearingup the roots of bramble, may be the more lafely. recom¬mended, as they at the fame time ferve many other■ufeful purpofes.2. Of Water, as an Impediment to Vege¬tation.Some plants require a greater, and fome a lefler pro¬portion of water in their food. The plants ufually cul¬tivated in our fields are of the latter kind, and are eafi-ly injured by an over-proportion of water. Hence, wa¬ter may be confidcred as an impedement to vegetation;and it becomes neceflary to confider the moft proper me¬thods of conveying it off the land.Of draining Land.Some lands are wet from their fituation, being expo-fed to overflowings from higher grounds, and having noproper defcent to allow the water to run off.The bottom of fome land is of fuch a nature as toforce out, in fprings, the water that runs below the fur-face. Springs fometimes bteak out, becaufe the chan¬nels, in which they run, reach the furface; and fome¬times becaufe they are interrupted.in th'eir courfe, whichmakes them force their way above ground.The wetnefs of land is fometimes occationed by vio¬lent and frequent rains; and.lometimes all thefe caufesmay concur in rendering land wet.*Land that is wet from its fituation may be drained inthis manner : Although the wet land be lb low, as torender it difficult to carry off the-water; yet the watermay be intercepted by a-drain, before it reaches the lowground.Land, wet by fprings, lies generally in a Hoping dr-reftion, which makes it the more eafy to drain. Whenthe water runs near the furface," before it breaks out, itmay be intercepted by a drain'drawn acrofs the decli¬vity, a little above the place where it firft makes its ap¬pearance. But, if the channel lies deep, the diainftiouldbe drawn dire&ly acrofs where it fprings up.But, when the wetnefs of the land is owing to theclimate, or a rainy feafon, the welter cannot be inter¬rupted by drains • however, obftru6fions may be remo-.ved, fo as to allow the water to run off as quickly aspoilible. To drain land in this fituation, it is neceffaryto lay it up in ridges properly placed, and to cut fmalidrains acrofs thefe ridges, communicating with each o-ther, and with the furrows. By this method all thefurrow's betwixt the ridges become drains; the water,as it falls upon the ridges, immediately makes its wayto the furrows; and, if it meets with an interruption inany of them, it is conveyed by the drains acrofs theVol. I. No.' 3. * jL T U R E. 53ridges into fome other furrow, along which it Is carriedoff the field.There are two kinds of drains, viz. open drains, andhollow drains. Hollow drains differ from open ones,in being filled with loofe ftones, covered with turff, brufti*wood, or ftraw, and a layer of earth thick enough to al¬low a plough to go'eafily through above. Thefe hollowdrains are attended with two advantages; no land isJolt by them, and they are no impediment in ploughing.Open drains, however, are in moft cafes preferable tohollow ones: They alone are capable of .intercepting o-verflowings from higher grounds, and for carrying offwater that falls in rain. The water in thefe cafes beingalways on the furface, will run freely over hollow drains,efpecially when fituated on a declivity. But hollow drainsmay be ufed with advantage in land wet by fprings ; be¬caufe nothing more is required than to continue the chan¬nels of the water below ground, and not allow it tobreak out, till it arrives at a place where it can do noharm.It will not be improper here to mention, that fomefoils retain water much longer than others, and confe-quently are more liable to be damaged by water. Soilsthat have a large proportion of clay, or of mofs, are ofthis kind. As thefe foils naturally retain water like aJpunge, carting drains, and laying the land up in ridges,will not convey it away. To drain fuch lands, their na¬ture, and power of retaining water, muft be changed byculture.The clay-foil can only be drained by frequent ftirring, andthe application of fuch manures as raife a fermentation.Thefe operations open the pores of the foil, and therebyafford a free pafl'age to tjie water.The mofly foil, on the other hand, is too open andporous, but is poffefled of an abforbing quality, by whichit retains the water. To drain this foil, it is neceflarvto condenfe it, and, if pofiible, to deftroy its quality ofretaining water. Frequent ftirrings, and fetch manures asraife a fermentation, and tend to putrefy the mofs, arefaid to render it firm and folid, and thereby both pre¬vent it from receiving fo large a quantity of-water, and:deftroy the quality of retaining it.Of draining Marifkes.The foil of marifhes, being compofed of diflblved ve¬getables, duft blown in by the winds, and earth wafheddown from the high grounds with which they are gene¬rally furrounded, is light and fpungy, but very rich andvaluable when drained.In draining a marifti, all the ftagnating water fhouldbe firft carried off by a large open drain, with a fufficierttfall, and as deep as the bottom of the marifti. Whenthe ftagnating water is conveyed away, the earth by de¬grees will fubfide, and become folk! ; and fome landwill thus be gained on each fide : The bottom, likewifefoon becomes firm enough to allow the drain to be gra¬dually carried forward through the middle of the mariih,’If the fprings, which fnpply the water, rife near themiddle of the marifti, tiffs principal drain, with a fewblanches on each fide, where the firings are largeft orO moft | |
1 | A-B | 79 | 54 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 54 A G R I C Umolt numerous, will, be fufficient. But, if the fpringsbe irregularly difperfed through the whole marilh, as isfrequently the cafe, fide-drains parallel to the principalone will be neceflary to intercept the water that comesfrom the higher grounds and fepplies the fprings. Crofsdrains, communicating with the parallel and principaldrains, are likewife neceffary; and (hould all be kept o-pen till the foil hath fully fubfided, and become firm;then the fide-drkins and crofs-drains may be convert¬ed into hollow-drains, in the manner above defcribed.But the principal drain, efpecially if the marilh be ex-tenfive, Ihould always remain open.S e c t. V. Of Tillage.Tillage is the operation of breaking the foil intofmall particles, by ftirring and turning it over, laying itup in ridges, isc. In this part of agriculture, it is ne-cefiary to be acquainted with the different foils properfor nourilhing plants; the inllruments belt adapted forftirring and turning them over; and the conftrudtion andmanner of ufing thefe inllruments.Soils, with refpedt to tillage, may be divided intoftiff and light, wet and dry, deep and (hallow. Thisdivifion is the more proper on this account, that the me¬thod of performing the operation of tillage has alwaysa reference to one or more of thefe qualities of foil, andto no other.The inllruments employed in tillage are various; asthe plough, the harrow, the roller, &c. which are a-gain greatly diverfified by differences arifing from theirconftrudion and particular ufes.i. Of the Scots Plough.In Scotland, this plough is Hill the moll commonand the moll generally underllood. If properly made,it is the bell plough for anfwering all purpofes, whenonly one is ufed; though others are, perhaps, more pro¬per for fome particular purpofes.The parts of which this plough is compofed are, thehead, the beam, the (heath, the wrell, the mold-board, thetwo handles, thp two rungs, the fock, and the coulter;the two lad are made of iron, and all the red of wood.The Head, Plate VIII. fig. i. is defigned for open¬ing the ground below. The length of the head fromA to B is about twenty inches, and the breadth fromA to D about five inches; C is the point upon which thefock is driven, and the length from B to C is about fixinches ; a is the mortoife into which the larger handle isfixed; and b is the mortoife into Which the (heath is fixed.The head is that part of the plough which goes inthe ground; therefore the (horter and narrower it is, thefriction will be the left, and the plough more eafilydrawn; but the longer the head is, the plough goesmore deadily, and is not fo eafiiy put out of its direc¬tion by any obdruftions that occur. Twenty inches isconfidered as a mean length; and five inches as the modconvenient breadth.The Skeath, fig. 2. E, is driven into the mortoife.L T U R E.fig. i. b, and thus fixed to the head A B. It is notperpendicular to the head, but placed obliquely, fo asto make the angle formed by the lines A B and E Babout 60 degrees. The (heath is about 13 inches long,befides what is driven into the mortoife b; about threeinches broad, and one inch thick.The (heath is fixed to the mold-board, as in fig. 11. E,in the fame manner as the wred is fixed to the head infig- 7-The Mold-board is defigned to turn over the earthof the furrow made by the plough ; and it is obvious,that, according to the pofition of the (heath, the mold-board will turn over the earth of the furrow more or lefsfuddeply. Befides, when it forms a lefs angle with thehead than 60 degrees, the plough is in great danger ofbeing choked, as the farmers term it.The Larger Handle, fig. 3. F A, is fixed to the head,by driving it into the mortoife a, fig. 1. It is placed inthe fame plane with the head; and its length from A Fis about five feet four inches, and its diameter at theplace where it is fixed to the beam is about two inchesand a half, and tapers a little to the top F. About teninches from A, there is a curve in the handle, which,when F is raifed to its proper height, makes the lowerpart of it nearly parallel to the (heath E B. This curveis defigned to llrengthen the handle. The proper pofi¬tion of the handle is, when the top F is about three feettwo inches higher than the bottom of the head A B.The longer the handles, the plough is the more eafilymanaged, becaufe the levers are more diffant from thecentre of motion. The higher the top of the handles,the plough is more eafily raifed out of the ground, pro¬vided they be no higher than the lower part of a man’sbread.The Beam, fig. 4. is fixed to the larger handle andthe (heath, all of which are placed in the fame planewith the head. The length of it, from H to I, is a-bout fix feet; its diameter is about four inches. Whenthe plough is in the ground, the beam (houldbe judhighenough not to be incommoded by any thing on the fur-face.The pofition of the beam depends on the number ofcattle in the plough. When two horfes are yoked, thebeam (hould be placed in fuch. a manner as to make theperpendicular didance betwixt the bolt-hole of the beamand the plane of the head about 2 x inches; when fourhorfes are yoked, two a-bread, this didance (hould onlybe about 18 inches.The Sock, fig. 5. B P, is fixed to the end of the head,and is about two feet long. In fitting the fock to thehead, the point ought to be turned a little to the landor left fide ; becaufe othery/ife, it is apt to come out ofthe land altogether. When turned to the left, it like¬wife takes off more land; when turned upwards, theplough goes (hallow; and when downwards, it goesdeeper.The Coulter, fig. 6. is fixed to the beam, and isabout two feet ten inches long, two inches and a halfbroad, (harp at the point and before, and thick on theback, like a knife. It is fixed and directed by wedges,fo as to make the point of it equal to, or rather a littlebefore | |
1 | A-B | 80 | 55 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | AGRICULTURE.before the pqint of the fock, and upon a line with theleft fide of the head. This oblique pofition enables itto throw roots, <bc. out of the land, which requires lefsforce than cutting or puihing them forward.The Wrest, fig. 7. B D, is fixed to the head, andis about 26 inches long, two broad, and one thick. Itis fixed to the head at B, in fuch a manner as to makethe angle contained between the lines A B and B Dabout 2J degrees. The wreft is feldom or never placedin the fame plane with the head, but gradually railedfrom the place where it is fixed to it; that is, from Bto K, as in fig. 8. The pofition of the wreft determinesthe nature of the furrow. When the wreft is wide andlow fet, this furrow is wide; and when it is narrow andhigh fet, the furrow is narrow.Fig. 9. reprefents the two Handles, fixed togetherby the two rungs. The larger handle has been alreadydefcribed ; the lefler one is a few inches fhorter, anddoes not require to be quite fo ftrong. The diftance ofthe handles at the little rung depends on the pofition ofthe wreft. Their diftance at M and P is about two feetfix inches. The lefler handle is fixed to the mold-boardat M, fig 10. and to the wreft K B, at L.Fig. 11. reprefents the plough complete, by joiningtogether figures 6. and 10. in the (heath E B. The wreftB K is fuppofed to make an angle with the head A B,as in fig. 7., and the handles joined together, as in fig. 9.After having given fuch a particular defcription of allthe parts and proportions of the Scots plough, it will ea-fily appear how it feparates, raifes, and turns over theearth of the furrow. If it had no coulter, the earthwould open above the middle of the fock,. and in a linebefore the (heath; but as the coulter opens the earth ina line with the left fide of the head, if the foil has anycohefion, the earth of the furrow will be wholly raifedfrom the left fide, and as the fock moves forward, willbe thrown on the right fide of the (heath, and by thecalling out of the mold-board, or the railing of the wreft,will be. turned over.This plough, though the beft general one, is not alto¬gether perfect. As the fock is high in the middle, andround on the (ides, and as the point of it is in a linewith the middle of the head, a great force is neceflary•to raife the earth of the furrow. Befides, as the (heathis nearly in a line with the point of the fock, and to theright of the left fide of the head, the earth of the fur¬row, as it is raifed, mud ftrike againft the (heath, and apart of it, inftead of being turned wholly to the right,will fall to the left fide. Thefe defeAs make the plough.heavy to draw; and, befides, this pofition of the (heathrenders the Scots plough improper for hoeing, as theearth that falls to the left buries the young plants in therows.To remedy the defedls arifing from the fock, it (houldbe made ftraight on the land-fide, fo as to be in a linewith the land or left fide of the head; and ftraight al(obelow, fo as to be in a line with the under fide of thehead, (loping on the furrow or left fide; and Iikewife onthe upper fide from the point, fo as to make it, at theroot, about feven inches broad, and three inches, thick;at the fame time (loping all the way from the land to55the furrow, fo as to form the furrow-fide into a (harpedge. It is obvious, that this fock will, meet withlefs refiftance than the common one, will raife the earthof the furrow wholly from the left fide, and turn it as itis raifed.To remedy the defed arifing from the (heath, it (houldbe brought a little nearer the larger handle, and another(heath (hould be fixed a little before it, to the left orland-fide of the head and beam; to this (heath the mold-board (hould be fixed. If this be done, the earth ofthe furrow, as it is raifed, will be refifted by the mold-board only, and wholly turned to the right.The Bridle, or Muzzle, is another article belong¬ing to the plough. It is fixed to the end of the beam,and the cattle are yoked by it. The muzzle commonlyufed is a curved piece of iron, fixed to the beam by abolt through it. In fig. 12. A B C is the muzzle, A Cthe bolt by which it is fixed to the beam; D is thefwingle-tree, or crofs-tree, to which the traces are fix¬ed ; and B is a hook, or cleek, as it is commonly called,which joins the muzzle and fwingle-trce.Someufe another kind of muzzle, fig. 13. A B C D.It is fixed to the beam by two .bolts, and has notches bywhich the cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed eitherto the right or the left of the beam. There are alfo dif¬ferent holes for the hind-bolt to pafs through, by whichthe draught may be fixed either above or below the beam.A D is the fore-bolt upon which the muzzle turns ; onB C are four notches, betwixt any two of which thecleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed. When the cleekis fixed at B, the plough is turned towards the firm land,and takes off a broader furrow; and when fixed at C,it is turned towards the ploughed land, and takes off anarrower furrow. E and F are the holes on each fidethrough which the hindmoft bolt pafles. When the boltis put through the higheft two, thefe holes being therebybrought to the middle of the beam, the fore-part of themuzzle is raifed above the. beam, and the plough is madeto go deeper; and when put through the lowed two, thefore-part of the muzzle is funk below the beam, and theplough is made to go (hallower. This muzzle may be foconftru&ed as to have the fame play with the commonone. Fig. 16. A is the end of the beam; B a plate ofiron funk into it, and, with a fimilar one in the other fide,is rivetted into it by bolts; C is the muzzle fixed tothefe plates of iron by the bolt D, which bolt may beput through any of the holes E E. From the conftruc-tion of this muzzle it is plain, that it has the fame playwith the common one, and that by it the land of theplough may be altered at pleafure.Of the Plough with the curved Mold-board.The mold-board of the Scots plough is not quiteftraight, but is caft out above, and more and more fo asit approaches the lefler handle.Ploughs with a curved mold-board commonly have nowreft, the mold-board ferving for both. The under¬pay of it, which ferves in place of the wreft, becomesparallel to the plane of the head as it approaches thehandle; and fometimes, after It has pafled the handle. | |
1 | A-B | 81 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | $6 A G R I C Uis made to turn inwards; and the fore-part of it, whichis flraight below, is more and more eurved the furtherup it comes, refembling the bow of a fiiip/jIf one mold-board be preferable to another, it mullbe either becaufe it throws the earth of the furrow moireproperly, or makes the plough more eafily drawn. Now,the ufe of the mold-board is to raife the earth, turn itover, and, if it be taken off narrow, to fhift it a littleto the right hand. The common mold-board, whenright made, performs all thefe operations gradually. Butthe Curved mold-board, as it is call out above in thefore-part, prevents the furrow from riling, and turns itover fuddenly. In land that eafily breaks in pieces, thecommon mold-board has the advantage, becaufe it raifesthe earth of the furrow higher than the other, and leavesit more loofe and open. But the curved mold-boardis preferable in land that is not eafily broke, for, byturning over the earth fuddenly, it is apter to tear itafunder.The plough is more eafily drawn by the commonmold-board, as it has lefs friction than the curved one.Of the Plough with the feathered Sock.The difference between the feathered and the com¬mon fock will be belt underftood by comparing their fi¬gures. Fig. 14. is the common fock, and fig. 15. thefeathered one.From the conftruftion of the feathered fock, it is ob¬vious, that it mull meet with greater refiftance than thecommon fock. However, when the plough takes off theearth of the furrow broader than that part of the fockwhich goes upon the head, it is more eafily drawn than theplough wjth the common fock; for the earth whigh thec ommon fock leaves to be opened by the wreft, is moree afily opened by the feather of the other fock. In lea,the feathered fock makes the plough go more eafily} be¬caufe the roots of the grafs, which go beyond the reachcf the plough, are more eafily cut by the feather thanthey can be torn afunder by the common fock. The fea¬thered fock is alfa t>f great ufe in cutting and deftroyingroot-weeds. The common fock, however, anfwers muchbetter in ftrong land.It is proper here to add, that in fitting the featheredfock to the head, the point of it fhould be turned a littlefrom the land, or a little to the right hand.L T U R E.eafy for the ploughman to keep the ridges fir sight, whichit is difficult to do without them.The difadvantages attending a wheeled plough arenearly equal to its advantages. It has too much-ma¬chinery, which is an inconvenience in any inftrument, Ifis improper for ploughing ridges acrofs. It is’sdfo veryinconvenient for ploughing narrow ridges; for it waftbe frequently altered in ploughing out a ridge. Thewheel that goes in the furrow being higher thaa the 0-ther, when both wheels are going upon the furfocc, thebeam muff be changed from its ordinary politico, andplaced in fuch a manner as to keep th$ plough even, andto make it go a little deeper than ordinary. When afurrow is made for the wheel to go in, the" be am mullbe altered again to its ordinary pofition ; and when theridge is near finilhed, fo that both wheels- are going infurrows, the pofition of the beam mtift be changed, tokeep the plough even, and to prevent it from going toddeep.Of the Four-coultered Plough...In England, this plough is faid to be ufed with fuc-cefs. But after repeated trials by thofe who attemptedto ufe it in Scotland, they have been obliged to giveit up.So many coulters in the ground at once mull meetwith many obftacles, which will give different directionsto the plough, according to the different parts of thecoulters to which the refiftance is applied. Befides, it isdifficult to place the planes of the coulters exactly paral¬lel to each other; and if this be not done, they will becontinually aCting upon the plough in different directions.When this plough is employed for breaking up grafs-rounds, which is the chief defign of it, the oblique po¬tion of the coulters is apt to raife the turf in fuch amanner as to intangle it betwixt them, and thereby en¬tirely flop the plough.This plough fhould always be made with wheels forregulating its direction; the planes of the coulters fhouldbe exaClly parallel to each other : The firft coulter muftbe fet almoft perpendicular, and fhould not go above twoinches deep; the fecond fhould Hope a little, and gofomewhat deeper than the firft, and fo on to the laft.Soft meadow-land, free from frones^ is beft adaptedto the nature of this plough.Of the Wheeled Plough. Of the Iron Plough.Th e Scots wheeled plough is formed by adding wheels This plough is formed upon the model of the old Scotsto the old Scots plough, and giving it a curved mold- plough; only the fever al parts of it are fliorter, and'theboard, or feathered fock, according to the inclination of head and fock are of one piece like the Englifh plough-the former. The advantage or di advantage of the .fhare.wheels is therefore the only thing to be ccnfidered in litis plough is lighter, and confequently more eafilythis place. ' drawn than any other plough ufed in Scotland; and, asThe following are the principal advantages, of wheels it is fhorter, the friction is alfo ditninifhed. Neither isto a plough of this kind. Wheels regulate the plough; the earth fo apt to flick to it, and cleg it while going,they make it go to a certain depth, take off the earth of But thefe are only feeming advantages ; for the lightnef*the furrow of a determinate breadth, and make 'the and fhortnefs of it render it extremely fubjeCt to changeplough very eafy to manage. Wheels like wife make it its direction upon meeting with the ieafl obilruCtion. Soft | ||
1 | A-B | 82 | null | Normal | 2,536 | 3,328 | |||
1 | A-B | 83 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | / . r’it1 '•* ■; i | ||
1 | A-B | 84 | 57 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | A G R I C Uland, Tvith few (tones, therefore, is the only land in whichit can be employed with advantage.The iron.plough is fubjedl to another iriconveniency.When any thing goes wrong, it cannot be redtified onthe field, but mult be carried to the fmithy, which isoften at a confiderable diftance.Of yoking Cattle in Ploughs.It is not eafy to determine whether horfes or oxen, orboth together, are molt proper for drawing ploughs; be-caufe, in this country, fuch a determination depends oncircumllances almoft as various as the number and Situ¬ation of farms in it. If, indeed, real labour alone wasfufficient to determine this point, oxen would be prefer¬red ; becaufe they will (land to the draught, and over¬come a refiftance which horfes would yield to. We(hall therefore confine this head to the manner ofyoking cattle, without regard to the kind of cattle em¬ployed.The chief queftion on this fubjedt is. Whether cattleIhould be yoked in pairs, or in a line before one an¬other ?The moft common way of yoking cattle is in pairs.Though this, upon the whole, be the beft method, yetit is fubjedt to fome difadvantages. In ploughing thefurrows betwixt the ridges, the cattle go upon theploughed land, and trea<j. it down with their feet, whichis peculiarly hurtful to wet land : When there is but asmuch of the ridge unploughed as the cattle have hardlyroom to go upon, they frequently give the plough awrong diredtion by going into the oppofite furrow; or,which is ftill worfe, they are apt to juftle the furrow-cattle upon the ploughed land.To remove thefe inconveniencies, yoking the cattle ina line has been recommended. But this method hasbeen attended with greater inconveniencies than thofe itis intended to remedy. When yoked in this manner,they go all in the furrow, which makes it neceffary togive the plough more land than ordinary, either bymeans of the fock or muzzle ; and confequently makesthe draught too heavy. Befides, when cattle are yokedin a line, it gives fome of them an opportunity of throw¬ing the chief burden upon the others. There is ftill an¬other inconveniency attends this method. When thecattle are all in a line, the whole force is applied to thediredtion of die traces of the hindmoft horfe; and confe-quendy it cannot have fuch an effedV on the plough aswhen a part of it is in a more horizontal diredtion.Each of thefe methods, however, may be ufed withadvantage in certain circumftances; yoking in pairs, as itis certainly the ftrongeft draught, Ihould be preferred inploughing ftiff land. On the other hand, yoking in aline anfwers beft in wet land, which is liable to be muchhurt by the treading of the cattle.Of Ploughing.Ploughing is the adtion of the plough in ftirringand turning over the foil. By opening the foil and en¬larging the furface, it gives it an opportunity of extradl-Vol. I. N0.3. 3L T U ' R E. 57ing the vegetable food from the air; and confequentlyincreafes the food of plants. Ploughing likewife dif-folves and reduces to a ftate of putrefadtion the dung,oils, and vegetable fubftances that happen to be mixedwith the foil, and prepares them for entering the rootsof plants. When properly managed, ploughing de-ftroys weeds, and drains the land when too wet. Hence,ploughing is one of the moft important operations inagriculture, and therefore merits the greateft atten¬tion.When ploughing is defigned to enrich the land, or in-creafe the food of plants, the furface cannot be made toouneven; becaufe the more of it is by this means expofedto the influence of the air.But when the intention of ploughing is to deftroy feed-weeds, the furface cannot be made too fmooth, nor themold too much broken ; becaufe, by this management,their vegetation is promoted, and confequently they maybe more completely deftroyed by ploughing them in.Again, if you plough with a view to remove wetnefs,the land muft be laid up in high ridges; for the greaterthe number of furrows, and the higher the ridges, thewater is more expeditioufly carried off.Thus the manner of ploughing muft always depend onthe object in view. It frequently happens indeed, thattwo or more of thefe objedts require our attention inploughing the fame piece of land. But the methods a-bove mentioned are perfedlly confident with each, andmay be combined fo as to anfwer any intention that mayoccur.In ploughing, there are fome general rules to be obfer-*ved, whatever be the objedt in view. Thus, land Ihouldnever be ploughed when it is wet, becaufe the intentionof it will be fruftrated, whatever may be the nature ofthe foil. A ftiff foil, when ploughed wet, dries fud-denly, and becomes hard. If a light foil be ploughed wet,the water hinders it from being reduced to fmall enoughparticles. Befides thefe difadvantages, the labour be¬comes very fevere on the cattle, and the land is muchhurt by their treading.With regard to ploughing lee, or opening up grafs-grounds, the common pradiice in Scotland is to ploughit as (hallow and narrow as poflible, and to fet the turfupon its edge. After this fingle furrow, the land isfown, and if it be good, a profitable crop may be ex-pedled; and the turf will be completely rotten before,next feafon.On the contrary, in breaking up of barren land, itIhould be ploughed deep, and the turf turned on itsback.Of Ridges.It was formerly obferved, that ploughing in ridgesremoves wetnefs, enlarges the furface, and confequentlyaffords more fpace for the plants to extradl nourilhmentfrom the foil.When the foil is wet, the ridges ought to be narrow,and fteep; becaufe, by this means, the number of drains-is increaJfed, and the water finds its way more eafily intothe furrows. They Ihould bkewife be raifed high in theP middle | |
1 | A-B | 85 | 58 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 58 AGRICULTURE.middle or crown ; for the higher they are raifed, themore is the furface enlarged. However, if the foil befhallow, the ridges fhould not be raifed high, as they de¬prive the furrows of foil.But, in low flat-lying ground, the ridges fhould bert'iade flat, in order to raife the furrows; for, in fomecafes, the higher the furrows are raifed, it is the moreeafy to find a fall for carrying off the water. Flatridges are alfo capable of being fown with greater ex-adtnefs.It is impracticable to give any general rule For layingout ridges. In fome fituations, narrow ridges are pre¬ferable to broad ones ; in others, flat ridges are betterthan fteep ones, ire. In laying out of ridges, therefore,every perfon mufl be determined in this point by the na¬ture and fituation of the foil, and the advantages ordifadvantages of the different kinds of ridges.But, whatever be the nature or fituation of the foil,the ridges fhould always be made ftratght. Iri plough-'ing crooked ridges, the cattle mufl often go in a diffe¬rent direction from the plough, and are obliged to takefhort turnings, which hurt the land by the treading ofthe cattle. Befides, when the ridges are crooked, thefall for the water is diminifhed. In all foils too, theridges fhould be made of the fame breadth throughout,and equal to one another. When they are unequal, it isdifficult to fow them with exaClnefs, or to alter themwhen neceffary ; and the plough muft often turn in themiddle of the ridge, which hurts the land by the tram¬pling of the cattle.Of the Pofttion of the Ridges.It is a matter of fome confequence to know howj idges fhould be placed, fo as beft to anfwer the fituationof the land.In lands that have a Hope, the ridges are commonlyplaced in a ftraight line from the top to the bottom ofthe declivity. -When the declivity is gentle, this pofi-tion is very proper, as it drains the land of water. Butwhen the declivity is great, this pofitiort allows the foilto be wafhed away by the'rain ; and the quantity of foilcarried off will always be in proportion to the violencewith which the current runs : Hence, in a foil fituated inthis manner, the ridges fhould be placed acrofs the de¬clivity, to prevent the foil from being carried down by thewater. Making the ridges very narrow will, in a goodmeafure, anfwer the fame purpofe; however, it is notfo proper as placing them acrofs the declivity.When land is very dry, crofs ridges are alfo of greatlife ; for they retain the water, and prevent the foil frombeing wafhed away.Of ploughing in Ridges.There are three different ways of ploughing inridges, viz. gathering, carting, and cleaving.By gathering, the crown and furrows of the ridge arekept in the fame pofition in which they were before :the plough begins in the crown, and plows out the ridge,turning die earth towards the crown,, where it firft en¬tered. Every ridge is ploughed by itfelf; or the halvesof two contiguous ridges may be ploughed together. Bythis method, as the earth on each fide is turned uponthe crown, and thrown up out of the furrows, the ridgemuft be raifed higher.By cajling, the crowns and furrows are likewife keptin theif former pofition: The ridges are ploughed inpairs : The plough may enter in the furrow betwixt theridges, and plough out the ridges, turning the earth to¬wards the furrow where it entered; or, the plough mayenter in the furrow on the right fide of the two ridges,then turn to the one on the left, and plough out theridges, turning the earth to thefe furrows, and from thefurrow that is betwixt them. By this method of plough¬ing, the ridges are kept of the fame height in the crown,and one of the furrows made a little higher, and the o-ther a little lower than before.Cleaving is the reverfe of gathering. The ploughenters in the furrow on the right-fide of the ridge, turnsto the furrow on the left-fide, and ploughs out theridge, turning the earth from the crown towards the fur¬rows. Every ridge is ploughed by itfelf, or the halvesof two contiguous ridges may be ploughed together. Ifthe ridge be raifed in the crown, this method of plough¬ing makes it flatter, by throwing foine of it into thefurrows. ,There is another method of ploughing ufed in fomeplaces, called ribbing. This method is performed bymaking furrows about two feet diftant from each other.One half of the furface is untouched by the plough ; andthe other half, which the plough turns up in making thefurrows, is thrown on the top of what remains fall. Theland may be ploughed in this manner either without re¬gard to ridges, or the plough may be made to enter andturn, as in gathering, carting, or cleaving. This kindof ploughing is feldom praifHfed, but in the beginning ofwinter, and upon land to be fown with barley, after twoadditional clean ploughings. Although fome modern im¬provers have condemned ribbing, it certainly has its ufes :It keeps the land dry; the rain that falls is confined tothe furrows, from whence it is eafily carried off; it pro¬motes the rotting of the ftubble, and expofes a greaterpart of the foil to the influence of the air. ', Of Harrows.The harrow is an inftrument employed for fmoothingthe furface after the land is ploughed. One horfe is fuf-ficient to draw the harrow commonly ufed in Scotland.Sometimes two of them go a-breaft, and fometimes three.When the furface is very rough, two are reckoned fuffi-cient for the attention of one perfon : But when threecan be ufed, they make better work, and are nearly e-qual to two pair.There are feveral kinds of harrows ufed in Scotland.The common one is fo well known that it needs no de-feription.When the land is rough, the harrows are apt to ftarr,and get a-top of each other. To prevent this, fome fixpieces of crooked timber to the out-fide bulls that arecontiguous to one another, which, by ftretching a littleover, | |
1 | A-B | 86 | 59 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | A G R I C Uover, keep the harrows in their proper place. Otherscouple the harrows in fuch a manner as to allow themto go before and fall back of each other, and at the fametime turn upon a hinge.When ftiflt land is ploughed wet, it rifes in largepieces, whieh, when dry, become fo hard, that thecommon harrows make no impreflion on them. To re¬duce this kind of land, a large harrow, called a break,has been contrived. Tire break-harrow is fonretimesmade of the fame figure with the common harrow, andfometimes in a triangular form. Both kinds are madeheavier or lighter according to the nature of the foil forWhich they are intended. Some of them are fo heavyas to require fix or eight cattle to draw them. But theheavieft kind are very improper for land infefted withlarge fall hones ; becaufe their weight hinders them fromdarting over the hones; and therefore they are often indanger of being torn afundcr by the cattle.There is another harrow, which, though little ufed,will be found to be very ufeful in many cafes. It is ofthe fame form with the common harrow, but muchbroader. The bulls are at a greater diflance, and cori-fcquently'the teeth thinner placed ; the teeth are longerthan thofe of the common harrow, but very little thick¬er ; and thofe in the fore-part Hope forward. It is madeof fuch a weight as to be eafily drawn by a couple ofhorfes. This harrow goes deeper, opens land better,hovers the feed deeper, and is more proper for tearingup roots than the common harrow.The French harrow is of a triangular form, with ajoint near the angle, to which the draught is fixed. Ithas two handles, by which it is either made to go deep,br fhallow, as occafion requires. Its principal ufe is tolevel deep ridges, which it does moft effeftually. It isdrawn acrofs the ridges: When, at the crown of thefridge, by prefling on the handles, the harrow finks down,and carries earth along with it to the furrows; and,When at the furrows, by lifting up the handles, the har¬row is brought out of the ground, and leaves the earthbehind. This operation, however, is extremely impro-Jier, unlefs the land be in a very dry fituatiou, and notiable to be damaged by water.Of Harrowing.Harrowing fmooths the furface, dedroys Weeds,and covers the feed after it is fown.When the intention of harrowing is to dedroy root-weeds, the harrows fhould be drawn acrofs the ridges.However, if fuch weeds are net fully tom up, the liar-rowing, by filling up the hollows, and defending thefronts from the drought, rather promotes their growth.For this reafon, harrowing is improper for dcilroyingroot-weeds, excepting after a fpring-fallcw, when theland is foon after to be ploughed for feed.But the fmoother the furface is made, and the merethe mold is broke, the vegetation of the feed-weeds isthe more effeftually promoted, and of courfe they arethe more liable to be deftroyed by harrowing. If thefeafon be favourable, the land may be harrowed feveraltimes, and as many crops of weeds dedroyed.L T U R E. 59A light fpungy foil can hardly get too much harrow¬ing ; for the more it is harrowed, it becomes the firiAer.But if the foil be lliff, the lefs harrowing it gets, thebetter, provided the purpofes propefed can be anfwered.The common method of harrowing after the feed isfown, is fird along the ridges, then acrofs, and then a-long again. When the ridges are flat, they may be har¬rowed either along or acrofs; and the work may be be¬gun or ended either way. But when the ridges arefleep, it is improper to begin by harrowing acrofs, be¬caufe too much of the feed will be drav/n into the fur¬rows.Of the Roller.The roller is intended for fmoothingthe furface, andmaking the land firmer. Rollers are fometimes made ofdone, fometimes of wood, and fometimes of iron : butthe only effential difference of rollers lies in their weight.As rollers, in different circumftances, require to belighter and heavier, they are generally condrufted fothat their weight can either be augmented or diminilhed.The common roller, in turning, is very fevere uponthe citttle, for it does not move on its axis, but is drag¬ged along the furface. To remove this inconvenience,a roller has lately been condru&ed with a divifion in thetaiddle, as if two rollers were joined together. Inturning, both parts of this roller move round their axis,the one forward, and the other back.Of Rolling.Rolling is pra&ifed with advantage, both on landlying in grafs, and in tillage. It preffes down mole¬hills, fmooths the furface, and makes pafture-grafs ftool,and grow thicker.Rolling upon land in tillage, not only fmooths the fur¬face, but breaks clods that the harrow cannot reduce.In a light foil, the roller fhould be applied immediatelyafter the feed is fown; it is peculiarly ufeful to thiskind of foil, by eor.denfing and making it firmer.Of Sowing.It is remarked by farmers, that the corn whieh is ear-lied fown is in general fooned ripe. However, as thisoperation depends on the nature of the weather, and anumber of other circumdanccs, no precifc time can befixed for performing it.The practice of fowing wheat, oats, barley, 6v. atdifferent times of the year, feerns not to depend fo muchon the different natures of thefe grains, as on the incon¬veniences which would attend the fowing them all at thefame time. It may however be obferved, that wheat,the only grain in this country which is fown befere win¬ter, fhould be fown as early as poflible, that its roots andleaves may be put forth before the frod comes cn.The mod common method of fowing is by the hand.This method requires great fkill and addrefs in the fower:For, at the fame time that he gives his arm a circularmotion, to cad the feed with drength, he mud open hishand | |
1 | A-B | 87 | 60 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 6o AGRICULTUR'E.hand gradually, that it may not fall in a heap, but be.pr.perly fcattered and fpread. It is remarkable, thatgood fowers, by the force of habit, take their handfulout of the fheet fo very exaftly, that they will fow anyquantity of feed on an acre, according as it is defignedto be thinner or thicker. , But this dexterity in a fewfowers, is itfelf an objedtion to the method of fowingby the hand; becaufe long practice and oblervation areneceflary to make a good lower : This remark is too welljuftified by experience; for good fowers are extremelyrare, and, in fome places of the country, hardly to begot. Befides, in fowing by the hand, efpecially whenthe land is uneven, the feed rebounds on the clods, fallsinto the cavities, and often the greateft part of it is col-lefted in the furrows.Different plants require to be fown at different depths.The fame feeds, however, may be laid deeper in lightthan in ftrong foils. Wheat requires to be placed twoinches and a half or three inches below the lurface:And it may be laid down as a general maxim in fowing,that fmall feeds Ihould always be placed nearer the fur-face than fuch as are larger. Befides the unequal di-.flribution of the feed when fown by the hand, too largea quantity of it may be ufed; for, as it is placed at dif¬ferent depths, that which is too deep nevet comes up,and that which lies on the furface, which may be obfer-ved on the beft harrowed land, is eat up by the birds.When feed is fown thin, and placed at equal difiances bya drill, a lefier quantity of it, by leaving room to fpreadand branch out, will produce even a better crop than alarger quantity fown irregularly by the hand. The faffhas been confirmed by repeated experiments both in ourown country and in France,Sect. VI. Of the Culture of par¬ticular Plants.Of the Culture of Wheat.Though wheat be the moft valuable grain that iscultivated in Scotland, there are many places where itcannot be fown with advantage; for it requires not onlya rich foil, but a warm climate.The Englifii writers mention about 13 or 14 differentkinds of wheat; but in Scotland we feldom ufe morethan two, viz. the white and the red wheat. The laftis reckoned the moft hardy plant, and fucceeds in fomefoils and climates where the white kind fails. Beardedwheat is ufed in fome places. This is likewife a hardyplant, and is not fo apt to lodge, or to be fhaken out bythe wind, as the other kinds. It fucceeds very well inwet land, and the grain produces a great quantity offlour.The white wheat moft commonly ufed in Scotland, isnot a particular fpecies, but a mixture of all the fpeciescultivated in England. This mixture is probably occa-fioned by want of care in providing ourfelves with fo¬reign feed. It is found by experience, that, in thiscountry at leaft, wheat degenerates; for which reafon afrefh fupply is every year brought from the Englifh gra¬naries, which generally confifts of a mixture of all thekinds. Now it is at leaft very probable, that thefe dif¬ferent kinds of wheat require different foils ; and there¬fore the farmer fhould endeavour to provide himfelf an¬nually with a quantity of unmixed wheat, of fuch kindsas are found tofucceed beft in Scotland.Wheat is commonly fown either upon land that hasbeen fummer-fallowed, or after a crop of peafe. In thelatter cafe, the feed cannot be fown till O&ober; but inthe former, it is generally fown in Auguft. However,in Scotland, we fow wheat from the beginning of Augufttill the middle of November. Some have tried fowingwheat in the fpring; but the plants were neither fo vi¬gorous, nor the grain fo large, as thofe that were fownin autumn. The fowing of oats in autumn has likewifebeen tried; but, though the crop was bulky, the quan¬tity of grain was not in proportion. Upon the whole,the month of O&ober feems to be the moft proper timefor fowing. wheat; when it is either earlier or later, it isfubjedt to a number of dangers.The quantity ufually fown upon a Scots acre, is fromthree to five firlots, Linlithgow meafure, which is themeafure always meant in this treatife. The proper quan¬tity, however, muft always depend upon the fituation ofthe land: in proportion as it is clean and rich, a fmallerquantity of feed is requifite; and in proportion as it ispoor and full of weeds, a larger quantity becomes necef-lary.A wet bed is moft proper for wheat-feed. In themonth of Auguft, or even the beginning of September, itis dangerous to fow,' if there be not as much moifture inthe land as to make the feed vegetate, efpecially if the feed■has been fteeped in brine, and dried with lime. Butthough the danger" be great in fowing when the land isvery dry, yet the beft fituation of land for receiving feedis when it contains no more moifture than is fufficient tomake the feed vegetate.When wheat-land is light, or well reduced by fal¬lowing, the feed Ihould be ploughed in, or the land al¬lowed to lie fome time after it is ploughed before thewheat be fown. By this the land acquires a degree offirmnefs before the harrows go upon it, and the feet ofthe cattle are prevented from preffing the feed too deepinto it.Wheat-land Ihould be ploughed fo as to raife theridges higher in the crown than is neceflary on other oc-cafions, in order to prevent it from being damaged by wa¬ter : If the ridges are made narrower than ordinary, thefame end will be ferved, becaufe the water finds its waymore eafily to the furrows. Hence the old pradtice iuScotland, of cleaving for peafe, and gathering for wheat,was well founded.When the wheat is fown, and the land harrowed, thefield fhould be carefully water-furrowed; and if therebe ridges at the ends for the ploughs to turn upon inploughing, a water-furrow Ihould likewife be drawn be¬twixt them and the ridges, and the communication be¬twixt thefe and the furrows opened up.Of | |
1 | A-B | 88 | 61 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | A G R I CUOf the Culture of Rye.Rye is a winter-grain, and thrives very well on landthat is improper for wheat. As there is hardly a goodmarket for this grain in Scotland, it.is but Jittle cultiva¬ted. In forric places, the land is prepared for it by afallow, and good crops are reaped in this way. It maybe fown in October, November, or early in the fpring.It may be fown after peafe or barley ; but it is improperto fow it after wheat or oats, as this would encouragethe growth of root-weeds, and greatly exhauft the land.'Rye is fometimes fown as a grafs-feed. If it.be fownwitji this view in September, upon'a well-prepared fal¬low, it will afford good feeding for fheep in March andApril; and after it is cut down, the land may be plough¬ed, and fown with barley. This practice, however, willnot anfwer in wet land.Of the Culture of Barley.There are four kinds of barley ufed in Scotland,the common barley, the Lincolnfhire barley, the High¬land barley, more commonly called rough bear, and theThanet.Thefe different kinds are fown at different feafons.The Lincolnfhire barley may be fown any time duringthe winter, or in the fpring; the common barley andThanet may be fown in April, the beginning of May,or even later ; and the rough bear may be fown in May,or the beginning of June: but’the precife time of fow-ing mult be determined by the weather and the fituationof the liind. When the feafon is favourable, the landfree from weeds, arid not too wet, Lincolnfhire barleymay be fown in February, and the other kinds foonerthan the periods above mentioned.When barley is fown in winter, or early in the fpring,‘the land ought to be ploughed forae time before; butwhen fown late in the fpring, or in the beginning of fum-mer, it ought to be fown immediately after it is plough¬ed. In winter, or early in the fpring, land is in no dan¬ger of becoming too dry, but in fummer, land is ve¬ry liable to become too dry for the purpofes of vegeta¬tion. The farmer fhould therefore endeavour to haveall his feed fown before the feafon be too far advanced.The quantity of barley fown on an acre is from twoto four firlots. When the land is clean and rich, twofirlots are fufficient y but when it is infefted with weeds,a larger quantity is neceffary.Barley has tender roots, and is not able to pufh themfar in quell of food; it is therefore neceffary to bringland deltined for barley into good tilth, and to enrich iteither by manures or frequent ploughings. Barley isoften fown upon land that has been fallowed, or after acrop of peafe. In fome places it is fown after a crop ofoats ; and fometimes it is repeated for two or three yearsfucceffvely upon the fame land.When barley is to be fown upon fallow, in {tiff landnot much in felled with annual weeds, it fhould be dreffedin November in the fame manner as for wheat; fo thatLincolnfhire barley may be fown, if the winter be favour-Vol. I. No. 3. 3L T U R E. 61able, or fpring barley upon the winter-furrow, if thefeafon proves unfavourable. But when barley is to befown after wheat, peafe, or oats, the land fhould beploughed as foon after harvefl as poffible, and laid up infucli a manner as to be belt expofed to the air and froft,and to fecure it againfl damage from rain. To anfwerthefe purpofes, barley-land is fometimes ribbed at thisfeafon: But ribbing ftirs only a fmall quantity of the foil;and therefore it is better to gather, it into narrow ridgesof four or fix furrows each, and to make proper drains'for carrying off the water. As the firfl ploughing forbarley-land is .defigned to cover the flubble, increale thevegetable food, and keep the land dry, it need: not bevery deep, but ought to be as broad as poffible, providedit be clean ploughed.If it be propofed to dung barley-land, the dung maybelaid on during the winter-frofl, and ploughed in as foonas the land is in proper condition. When,the dunging isdelayed till immediately before the latt ploughing, orfeed-furrow, the land, efpecially if it be of a ftiff na¬ture, is in danger of being battered fo as to rife in largeclods when ploughed.In {leering, the ploughing foould be as deep as theplough can go, and the foil allows : For by deep plough¬ing at this feafon, part of the earth that has been expo-fed to the air through the winter, and part of it turnedup by the ordinary ploughing, are mixed together for thenourilhment of the crop. In {leering, the. furrowsfoould not be fo broad as in the former ploughing; onthe contrary, the narrower they are the better. Crofs-ploughing is very proper at this feafon, if the land be fodry as to allow it.After {leering, the land foould be well harrowed. It>makes the weeds fpring, retains the fap, and, if the land,be tolerably dry, takes out the roots of the quickening-grafs. But, if. the land be in'no danger of lofing thefap, the harrowing may be delayed for fome time after itis ploughed; for by this method a greater number ofweeds are deflroyed.Though, in general, frequent plpughings are benefi¬cial, yet ploughing when the land is wet is defiruftive.When the fpring is wet, the barley-land in many places'is not in a proper condition to be fown. In this cafe,the fte.ering-furrow mull be omitted, and the land foouldget the feed-furrow as foon as it is in a proper condi¬tion.When barley is to be fown a fecond time upon thefame land, without any other crop intervening, twoploughings are fufficient.As our fummers in Scotland are fometimes very wet,barley-lapd foould. be water-furrowed, and dreffed up inthe fame manner as wheat-land.Of the Culture of Oats.The qat is a very hardy plant, and its roots areftrong, which enables it to procure food where manyother plants would ftarve ; and hence the practice of gi¬ving lefs culture to oats than to, any other grain.There are three kinds of oats ufed in Scotland, thewhite, the black, and the grey. The white is the moflQ__ common, | |
1 | A-B | 89 | 62 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 62 AGRICULTURE.common, and ufed in all the low countries ; the black isthe hardieft, and is ufed in the cold hilly countries ; andthe grey is often fown with fuccefs upon light gravel orfand. The white is again divided into two kinds, calledcold feed and hot feed. There is fcarcely any differencein appearance betwixt thefe; but the hot feed ripenseight or ten days before the cold. Experience muft de¬termine which of them ought to be chofen for feed.Though the oat be a hardy plant, and does not eafilydegenerate, yet the changing of feed is univerfally al¬lowed to be a good praftice. This change fhould alwaysbe made from a warm foil to a cold, and from a cold toa warm.Oats are often fown upon grafs-ground newly brokenup, or, which is the fame thing, upon lee once plough¬ed. They are likewife often fown after barley, fome-times after wheat, fometimes upon fallow, and fome-times they are repeated for fcveral years fucceffively uponthe fame land.In ploughing lea for oats, when the land is foft andmellow, the plough fhould go as fhallow as poffible ; andthe earth of the furrows fhould be fet upon its edges, toallow the harrows to have the greater impreflion in tearingk. But when the land is ftiff, or the turf very tough,it is neceffary to plough deeper, and to turn the turf ful¬ly over, fo that the harrows may raife a kind of moldupon its back to fill up the hollows, and to nourifii thefeeds. When oats are to be fown upon lee, the landought to be ploughed early in v/inter, that it may receivethe greater benefit from the air and froft.It is ufual to lime lea-ground intended for oats. Thisis a very good cuftom; for lime promotes the corruptionof the grafs-roots, by which the land is fooner reduced.It is likewife common to fpread the lime upon the fwardfome time before the land is ploughed: This is alfo veryproper; for the lime is intangled in the fward, and is notfo apt to penetrate too deep.Oats are generally fown after barley ; and the land isploughed as foon as the wheat-feed is made, and the bar¬ley-land has got the firft furrow. The iliff land, andland in danger of being damaged by wetnefs, fhould befirft ploughed, to give the one the benefit of the winter-froft, and to put die other out of danger. It is likewifean advantage to light and dry land to be ploughed earlyin the feafon, as it makes the ftubble rot fooner, andex-pofes the foil longer to the air.It was formerly obferved, that oats are fometimes fownupon fallow. In the hilly countries, they often fallow theland that has been in lea for fome years ; and they findthat this practice does better than giving it only oneploughing in the winter before the feed is lown. In thelow countries, this practice of fallowing for oats is foundto fucceed very well. The fallow for oats fhould be ma¬naged through the fummer in the fame manner as if forbarley or wheat. Before winter, it ought to get dielaft furrow, and be laid up in proper ridges, to preferveit dry during the winter.Oats may be fown in any of the winter-months, or indie month of March. Some people have fown oats foearly as die beginning of November, and have hadgood crops. Eut, if the land be properly laid up inwinter, it is better to delay die fowiog till Mareh.The quantity of oats generally fown upon an acre, isfrom four to five firlots ; and fhould always get adry bed.Of the Culture of Peafe.The pea is a grain very different from any of thofe'already mentioned. A crop of it is not fo valuable,though it is much ufed in fome places for bread.The ftraw of peafe ist reckoned better for feeding hor-fes than the ftraw of any other grain. A crop of peafedocs not require fuch a quantity of nourifliment as a cropof any of die other grains mentioned above. When thecrop is good, the ftraw covers the ground, and deftroysall the fmall weeds by depriving diem of a free commu¬nication with the air. Peafe likewife minutely dividethe particles of the foil; befides, they pufti their rootsmuch deeper than any of the white grains, and extradlpart of their ndurifhment from below die reach of theplough.There are two kinds of peafe cultivated in Scodand,the white and the grey. The white is njofl common,and confifts generally of a mixture of fcveral kinds. Allof thefe kinds feem to be fpecics of the pea cultivatedin pur gardens. The grey pea feems to be a fpecies ofthe vetch or tare. This is the hardieft plant of the two,and thrives on foils where the white pea does not fuccced.The ftraw of the grey peafe, and the peafe them-felves, are better for horfes than thofe of die white.The farmer Ihould therefore cultivate this pea where the,other does not thrive, although the value of the grain beinferior.The white pea, like the oats, is divided into hotfeed and cold feed. The fowing of the hot feed may bedelayed three weeks after the cold feed is fown, and yetthe peafe will come as foon to maturity.The time of fowing is from the firft of February to theend of April. The early fown peafe have die beft chanceto produce a crop of corn, and the late fown to producea crop of ftraw. However, when the land is clean andin good heart, the peafe may be fown early; becaufe, onfuch land, a good crop both of corn and ftraw may beexpected. But if the land be foul or wet, the fowingof peafe Ihould be delayed, as long as poffible ; becaufeon fuch land die crop is more precarious, and the failingof a crop of peafe gives fuch encouragement to weeds,as to endanger the following crops likewife. In fuch acafe, to prevent the bad confequences that may follow,the crop fhould be ploughed in ; for when a bad crop ofpeafe is allowed to ftand, it does more harm to the landthan all the value of the crop.The quantity of peafe fown upon an acre, is from 4to 5' firlots. If the intention of fowing peafe be to ob¬tain ftraw, and enrich the land, they fhould be thickfown; becaufe in that cafe they have a better chance todeftroy the weeds, and to cover the furface. But whenthe principal defign is to have a crop of corn, they fhouldbe diinner fown ; for, when thin fown, they have moreair, and fill better.Peafe are commonly fown after oats or barley, andfometimes | |
1 | A-B | 90 | 63 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | A G R I C Ufometimes after wheat. Seldom more than one plough¬ing is given to peafe, and they are ufually fov/n imme¬diately after it. The reafon of this practice is, thatthe feed may be better covered; for the fooner that a-ny grain is fown after ploughing, it is always the deep¬er covered. If rain fails foon after peafe are fown, itmakes them fwell and come above-ground, and then they,are in danger of fplitting, and of being dedroyed byvermin.Sometimes peafe are fov/n and ploughed in. This an-fwers very well in light land, particularly' after a cropqf barley, the culture of which opens the foil.Land deligned for peafe is generally cloven. This isa good practice when the ridges are deep, as all of themwere formerly. As wheat or barley are commonly fownafter peafe, the land mull be ploughed before winter. Ga¬thering is the mofl proper way of ploughing before win¬ter, and this follows heft after cleaving. But if the ridgesbe not high, calling is the belt method of ploughing forpeafe ; or, if the ridges be flat and narrow', the land maybe ploughed in the ordinary way, r ever fine the formerploughing, and turning the furrows into the crowns.Though peafe are generally the lowelt-priccd grain, yetfometimes they rife to a great, price, when the prices ofother grains are moderate. This mikes the faving offeed an article of great importance. By fowing in drills,one firlot will ferve for an acre as compleatly as four inthe bread call-way: But the advantages of drilling fallto be conlidcrcd afterwards.Of the Culture of Beam.What has been faid with regard to the culture ofpeafe, may be applied to beans. However, it is necef-fary to obferve, that the bean puftes its roots furtherdown than the pea; and therefore requires a deeperfoil. The lands in Scotland, where beans are mofl com¬monly fown, and where they fucceed btll, are deep andwet clays., In fome lauds, the crops of beans are very great, andalmolt as valuable as any grain. There is no crop fuc-ceeds better in the drill-huibandry than a crop of beans.Of the Culture of Rye-grafs.Rye-grass is the moll common of all the artificial£ra!Tes cultivated in Scotland, and not the leaf! valu¬able. It is a fibrous-rooted plant, and binds the foil ;this circurnllance has led many to think, that it greatlyimpoverilhes land. However, the culture of this graXsis attended with fevcral peculiar advantages. It deftroysweeds, particularly the quickcning-grafs, and grows up-cn foils which will not anfwer for any of the other arti¬ficial graiTes. A fhallow, wet, fpungy foil, or onewhich has a mixture of mofs in it, is unfit for clover ofevery kind ; but experience fliows, that rye-grafs, whenunmixed with clover, will fuccced upon any of thefe foils.Rye-grafs is ufually fown along with a crop of barleyor oats. When fown along with barley, the field fhouldbe rolled, or well harrowed, to preferve the fap at thediy reason of the barley-feed. This precaution is notL T U R E. 63fo npceffary, whea the rye-grafs is fown along with oats ;bccaufe the land on which oats are fown is generallyfirmer, the fowing fcafon is earlier, and confequentlynot fo liable to be too dry.This grafs feldom hurts the crop of corn. On thecontrary, when the foil is loofc and open, it makes itfirm, and prevents the corn from lodging.Though the common method is to fow rye-grafs withcorn, yet, when the land is poor, it js better to fow itby itfelf, and Hill better to fummer-fallow, and fow itin autumn. But, as the land by fallowing is made open'and loofe, and as the ploughing and fowing are near therainy feafon, cattle ought not -to be allowed to paflureupon it during the winter, except in the time of hardfrolt. Even when fown in the fpring, the farmer fhouldnot allow much paduring on it, efpecially in wet weather.But, if fown by itfelf, cattle may fafely paflure uppn itin the winter, as the roots, having nothing to obdrudttheir progrefs, penetrate deeper, and fpread wider, thanwhen any other grain grows along with it. This prac¬tice, however, can only be followed with fafety in veryclean land; otherwife weeds are apt to rife along withit, and prevent the furface from being covered; which,of courfe will keep the foil open.Rye-grafs is fometimes fown for hay, and fometimesfor paflure. When for hay, from two to four firlots ar*commonly fown upon an acre.Rye-grafs rifes very early in the fpring, and, if .thafoil be dry and warm, affords good paflure all the win¬ter. It is very hardy, flands the froft, and, if continuedin paflure, does not weir out in many years. The beltway of managing it is, to eat it down in the fpring andbeginning of fummer, and then to let it red till autumn.When allowed to get up in fummer, it runs to feed,and becomes difagreeable to the cattle. Befides, by thismethod of managing rye-grafs, a good crop may be cx-»peCled in autumn.When propei ly managed, rye-grafs makes very goodhay; and there is fuch a demand for the feed, that the*farmer is often tempted to let it dand till the feed isperfected, and then to threfh it. When this is done,the hay can never be good; bccaufe the fap is exhauded,the dalk becomes dry and withered, and affords littleBourifhment to cattle. The hay ought therefore to bealways cut before the feed ripens. This practice not on¬ly makes tire bed hay, but is likewife of great advantageto the land; for, when plants are allowed to perfecttheir feeds, the land is much more exhauded, than whenthey are cut before that period.Of the Culture of Clover.Though clover be ufed for the fame purpofes as rye-grafs, it is, however, a plant of a very different nature-It has a large tap-root, which penetrates the foil perpen¬dicularly downward, and opens the earth and makes itfree: The roots of clover cannot penetrate the foil, un-lefs it be free and open. Hence, a dry, open, deepfoil, free from quicken-grafs, is the molt proper for thisplant.There arc fcveral kinds of clover cultivated in Scot¬land, | |
1 | A-B | 91 | 64 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 64 A G R I C Ulaud, dnUngnifhed by the colour of their flowers, viz.the red, the white, and the yellow. The red is thelargeft plant, has the ftrongcft ftalk. and brcadeft leaves.The yellow fometimes grows tall, but the ftalk is fmall:The white is the fmalleft plant, and is fometimes called/op-clover, from the refemblance its flowers bears to thefeof the bop.Both the feafons and methods of fowing clover arevarious. • Mod of the Englifh writers recommend theautumn, ft has frequently been tried, at this feafon, inScotland without fuccefs. When fown in fpring, it an-kivers much better in this country.The common way of fowing clover, both in Scotlandand England, is* along with wheat, oats, or barley, inthe fpring. This method is fometimes attended withdisadvantages. The clover fometimes hurts the corn,and the corn the clover. However, thefe diladvantagesare probably more than over-balanced by the corn’s pro¬tecting the clover from drought when very young, whichit is much expofed to, efpecially when fown in the fpring.As the lodging of corn delays all plants that are be¬low; to prevent this, the corn fown along with cloverought to be fown thin, and the land made very clean ofweeds. *Sometimes, in a wet feafon, the clover gets a-top ofthe corn, and deftroys the crop. This feldom happens-when it is fown with barley or wheat; becaufe it is muchlater in the feafon when fown with barley than whenfown with oats, and therefore is not fo far advanced atharveft; and the wheat is advanced fo far before the clo¬ver-feed is fown, that the clover can never get the betterof it. To prevent,the clover, then, from hurting the corn,it may be fown early in the feafon with wheat, or late inthe feafon with barley. The Thanet barley, from theftrength of its roots and ftalk, is not fo apt to lodge asthe common barley; and, of courfe, it is the moft pro¬per kind to be fown along with clover. But, as allkinds of barley are more apt to lodge than oats, and asthe feafon for fowing oats is more proper for fowing clo¬ver than the feafon of fowing barley, the farmer, whenit is equally convenient for him, Ihould prefer the fow¬ing of clover with oats. ^When clover is fown with barley or oats, after thefegrains are fown, and the land harrowed, the clover-feedis thin fown, and then the land is again harrowed orrolled. When the clover is fown with a crop of wheat,the clover is fown in the fpring, and afterwards thewheat is rolled. It is common to fow clover-feed with¬out any preparation given to the land; but it is betterto harrow it before fowing. The harrowing does noharm to the wheat, "and it makes the roller cover the feedmore effe&ually. Clover-feed may be fown in the famemanner amongft oats or early-fown barley. Some timeafter the corn has come up, the land may be harrowed,and the clover fown. If the weather be dry, the dif¬ferent parts of the operation lhould fucceed one anotheras quickly as poflible. The harrows lhould be imme¬diately followed by the fower, and the fower by theroller, to prevent the drought from penetrating too deep.The Engliflt writers differ widely as to the quantity&f clover-feed proper to be fown on an acre. However,L T . U R E.the farmers in Scotland, who fow clover with oats orbarley, find, that from io to 16 fo. of red, ot from1to 18 lb. of white clover on the acre, produces a ve-ry good crop.Clover, like rye-grafs, is fometimes fown for hay,fometimes for pafture, and fometimes for both. The redclover is the moft proper for hay, the white for pafture ;and, when both are intended, a mixture of the two a'n-fwers beft. When red clover is fown without beingmixed with any other kind, the' farmer ought to bringhis land into tillage again in two or three years : For, af¬ter the fecond year, a crop of this kind of clover is oflittle value.When white clover is fown by itfelf, the farmer muft:not expedt a crop of hay; for it feldom rifes to fuch aheight as to produce a good crop : But, to balance this,the field may be kept long in pafture, as this clover con¬tinues till wore out by the natural grafs of the foil.When a mixture of the two are fown, feme crops ofhay may be taken, and theil the land may be allowed tolie forae years longer for pafture. The red clover af¬fords the crops of hay ; and the white remains till thenatural grafs rifes. In this cafe, there is commonlyfown upon the acre, from 8 to 12 lb. of red clover,and from 6 to 8 of white. But thefe proportions maybe varied according to the judgment of the farmer.In Scotland, feldom more than one crop of hay in thefeafon fucceeds. The fecond crop is commonly fo late,that it is very difficult to get-the hay properly made. Itmay therefore be paftured on, or cut green for cattle.When clover is cut green for cattle, it is a proper wayto feed them upon a field that needs dung. This me¬thod is preferable to feeding them in ftalls ; it faves theexpence of carrying out the dung, and procures to theland the benefit of the i*rine, which is a very rich ma¬nure. v 'Before concluding this article, it muft be obferved,that red clover, while green, is dangerous to blade cat¬tle and fheep, when firft given them, efpecially if wetwith dew or rain. They ought therefore to be allowedit only fparingly at firft, and brought to it by degrees.1After being accuftomed to it for a few days, the dangeris over, and they may be allowed to ufe as much of itas they pleafe.Of the Culture of Clover mixed with Rye-grafs.Red clover makes the beft green forage for cattle.An acre of it will maintain more cattle than three orfour acres of common grafs: But then it is not fo properfor hay. Clover-hay is very troublefome in making, andis not reckoned fo good for feeding as fome other kindsof hay. It likewife hurts the land, by encouraging the'growth of quickening-grafs. To remedy thefe difadvan-tages, it is common to fow rye-grafs along with it. Clo¬ver, when mixed with rye-grafs, is eafier made intohay; the hay itfelf is much better; and the rve-grafs,by covering the furface, prevents the growth of thequickening-grafs. The quantity fown upon the-acre inthis way is from 8 -to 12 fo. of clover, and from 1 to 3firlots of rye-grafs. f | |
1 | A-B | 92 | 65 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | AGRICULTURE. 65Of the Culture of St-Foin.The writers on agriculture reckon this grafs prefer¬able to clover in many refpeCts: They fay, that it pro¬duces a larger erop; that it does not hurt eattle wheneaten green ; that it makes better hay ; that it continuesfour times longer in the ground j and that it will growon land that will bear no other crop. Thefe are greatadvantages: But, as we have fo little of that kind ofgrafs in Scotland, it cannot be expected that any direc¬tions ean be given concerning the manner of cultivatingit, founded upon experience. We muft therefore confineourfelves to fueh fads as are mentioned by authors of thebelt credit.St-foin has a very long tap-root, which is able topieree very hard earth! The roots grow very large, andthe larger they are, they penetrate to the greater depth;and hence it may be concluded, that this grafs, when itthrives well, receives a great pan of- its nourifhmentfrom below dieftaplc of the foil: of eourfe, a deep dry foilis beft for the eulture of St-foin. When plants drawtheir, nourifhment from that part of the foil that is nearthe furfaee, it is not of much eonfequanee Whether their^number be great or fmall. But the eafe is very differentwhen the plants receive their food, not only near, butalfo deep below the furfaee. Befides, plants that {hoottheir roots deep are often fupplied with moifhire, whenthofe near the furfaee are parched with drought.To render the plants of St-foin vigorous, it is necef-fary that they be {own thin. The bell method of doingthis is by a drill; beeaufe, when fown in this manner,not only the weeds, but alio the fupernumerary plants,ean eafdy be removed. It is feveral years before St-foincomes to its full ftrength ; and the number of plants fuf-fieient to flock a field, while in this imperfeCt ftate, willmake but a poor crop for the firft year or two. It istherefore lieeefikry that it be fown in fueh a manneras to make it eafy to take up plants in fueh numbers, andin fueh' order, as always to leave in the field the propernumber in their proper places. This can only be donewith propriety, by fowing the plants in rows by a drill.Suppofing a field to be drilled in rows at ten inches di-ftanee, the partitions may be hand-hoed, and the rowsdreffed in fueh a mannpr as to le&ve a proper number ofplants. In this (ituation the field may remain two years ;then one fourth of the rows may be taken out in pairs,in fueh a manner as to make the beds of fifty inches,with fix rows in eaeh, and intervals of thirty inches,whieh may be ploughed. Next year, another fourth ofthe rows may be taken out in the fame manner, fo as toleave double rows with partitions of ten inehes, and in-'tervals of thirty : All of whieh may be hoed at once oralternately, as it may be found mod -convenient.The'great quantity cf this grafs which the writers onthis iubject arffiire us may be ruifed upon an acre, and theexcellency and great value of the hay made of it, fhouldinduee farmers to make a complete trial of it, and even -to ufe the fpade in place of the hoe, Or hoe-plough, ifne cellar y.The plants taken up from a field of St-foin may be fetVol. I. No. 3. 3in another field; and if the tranfplanting of this grafsfueceeds as w'dl as the tranfplanting of lucern has donewith Mr Lunin de Chateauvieux, the trouble and ex¬pence will be fuffieiently reeompenfed by the largenefs ofthe crops. In tranfplanting, it is neceffary to cut off greatpart of the long tap-root: this will prevent it from lin¬king very deep into the foil, and make it pulh out largeroots in a Hoping direction from the cut end of the tap¬root. St-foin managed in this manner, will thrive evenon {hallow land that fias a Wet bottom, provided it be notoverftoeked with plants.Whoever inclines to try the eulture of this grafs inScotland, fhould take great pains in preparing the‘land,and making it as free from weeds as pofhble.Of the Culture of Lucern.Th£ writers on agriculture, ancient as well "as mo¬dern, beftow the higheft eneOmiums upon this grafs, asaffording excellent hay, and producing very large crops.Lucern remains at leafl ten or twelve years in the grfcind,and produces about eight tons of hay upon the Scotsacre. There is but little of it cultivated in Scotland.However, it has been tried in {everal parts of this coun¬try; and it is found, that, when the feed is good, itcomes up very well, and ftands the winter-frofl. Butthe ehief thing that prevented this grafs from being more*ufed in this country, is the difficulty of keeping the foilopen, and free from weeds. In a few years the furfacdbecomes fo hard, and the turf fo flrong, that it deffroysthe lucern before the plants have arrived at their greateft:perfection: fo that we cannot hope to cultivate lueernwith fueeefs, unlefs we fall upon fome mediod of de-ftroying the natural grafs, and prevent the furfaee frombecoming hard and impenetrable. This cannot be doneeffectually by any other means than horfe-hoeing. Thismethod was firft propofed by Mr Tull, and afterwardspra'Cttfed fueeefsfully by M. de Chateauvieux near Geneva.It may be of ufe therefore to give ft. view of that gen¬tleman’s method of cultivating lueern.He does not mention any thing particular as to themanner of preparing the land; but only obferves in ge¬neral, that no pains ihould be {pared in preparing it. Hetried the fowing of lucern both in rows upon the bedswhere it was intended to {land, and likewife the fowingit in a nurfery, and afterwards tranfplanting it into thebeds prepared for it. He prefers tranfplanting; beeaufe,when tranfplanted, part of the tap-root is cut off, andthe plant {hoots out a number of lateral branches fromthe cut part of the root, which makes it fpread its rootsnearer the furfaee, aftd confequently renders it more eafilycultivated: befides, this cireumflanee adapts it to a {hal¬low foil, in whieh, if left in its natural ftate, it wouldnot grow.The tranfplanting of lucern is attended with niany ad¬vantages. The land may be prepared in the fummer forreceiving the plants from the niirl’ery in autumn; by whichmeans the field muft be in a mueh better fituation than ifthe feed had been fown upon it in the fpring. By tranf¬planting, the rows ean be made more regular, and theintended diftances more exactly obferyed; and confe-R quently | |
1 | A-B | 93 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 66 AGRICULTURE.quently the hoeing can be performed more perfectly, andwith lefs expence. M. Chateauvieux likewife tried thelucern in Angle beds three feet wide, with Angle rows;in beds three feet nine inches wide, with double rows ;and in beds four feet three inches wide, with triple rows.The plants in the Angle rows were Ax inches afunder,and thofe in the double and triple rows were about eightor nine inches. In a courfe of three years he found, thata Angle row produced more than a triple row of the famelength. The plants of lucern, when cultivated bytranfplantation, fhould be at leaft Ax inches afunder, toallow them room for extending their crowns.He further obferves, that the beds or ridges ought tobe raifed in the middle; that a fmall trench, two orthree inches deep, fhould be drawn in the middle; andthat the plants ought to be fet in this trench, coveredwith earth up to the neck. He fays, that if the lucernbe fown in fpring, and in a warm foil, it will be readyfor tranfplanting in September; that, if the weather betoo hot and dry, the tranfplanting fhould be delayed tillOftober; and that, if the weather be unfavourable duringboth thefe months, this operation muft be delayed till fpring.He further direfts, that the plants fhould be carefullytaken out of the nurfery, fo as not to damage the roots;that the roots be left only about Ax or feven inches long;that the green tops be cut off within about two inches ofthe crown; that they be put into water as foon as takenup, there to remain till they are planted; and that theyfhould be planted with a planting-flick, in the f^me man¬ner as cabbages.He does not give particular direftions as to the timesof horfe-hoeing; but only fays in general, that the in¬tervals fhould be flirred once in the month during thewhole time that the lucern is in a growing flate. Helikewife obferves, that great care ought to be taken notto fuffer any weeds to grow among the plants, at leaftfor the Arft two or three years; and for this purpofe,that the rows, as well as the edges of the intervalswhere the plough cannot go, fhould be weeded by thehand. _Of the Culture of Potatoes.The potatoe is one of the moft ufeful roots that arecultivated in this country, and is raifed in a very differ¬ent manner from any of the other roots. It has a num¬ber of eyes in it, each of which produce a feparate plant.The largeft potatoes are the beft for feed; becaufe, whencut according to the eyes, and properly fown, the plantsare not in danger of crowding each other. The plantfends out roots in every direction to a conAderable di¬ftance, and upon thefe the potatoes are formed.There are feveral kinds both of the white and red po¬tatoes. They fucceed beft in a light dry foil; andthough there be but a fmall mixture of loam in it, if to¬lerably rich and properly cultivated, it feldom fails toproduce a good crop. But a good crop is not to be ex-pedted from a ftiff wet foil, unlefs it be laid up in ridgesfo as to make it dry, and a conAderable quantity of dunglaid on to render it open.When the crop of potatoes is the chief point in view.the land fhould have a ploughing before winter, efpe-cially if the foil be not very free and open. If dung beneceffary, the proper time for laying it on is before thisploughing. When the potatoes are to be planted, whichmay be done any time in March or beginning of April;the land muft again be ploughed in narrow furrows, andthe potatoes dropped into every fecond furrow. But ifthe land be open and very loofe, they may be droppedinto every furrow; and as the plough opens the furrowfor the fecond row, it buries the Arft row at a properdepth. The furrow fhould not be very deep ; and twohorfes are fufficient. It is better in this cafe to makethe horfes go a-breaft than in a, line; becaufe, as one ofthem only goes in the furrow, the potatoes are not fo liableto be hurt or difplaced. This method of planting themby the plough is greatly preferable to the dibble or plant¬ing-flick.When a fmall quantity is intended to be cultivated,they may be planted with the fpade. A fmall crofs-trench or furrow fhould be opened with the fpade at theend of the ridge. Into this furrow drop the potatoesat proper diftances; and, in making the next furrow,the roots laid in the Arft will be covered in the fame man¬ner as is done by the plough.According to the diftance of the rows made by theplough, the diftance of the plants in the rows fhould beregulated: One plant in a fquare foot is fufficient to al¬low them to be properly hoed. When planted in everyfecond furrow ploughed narrow, the rows will be about12 or 14 inches afunder. The plants may be placed atthe fame diftance in the rows.It is unneceflary to harrow the land after the po¬tatoes are planted: This operation may be delayed tillthe weeds appear, which gives the farmer an opportunityof deftroying them without any additional labour. Tho’potatoes be planted early in the fpring, or even beforewinter, they do not come up till May. Before that timethe weeds are far advanced; and, if they be not deftroyedby the harrows, the land muft be hoed. Indeed, thegoodnefs of the crop depends fo much upon preventingthe weeds from coming to any height, that it is necefia-ry to hoe potatoes frequently. If the rows be wide, akind of breaft-hoe may be ufed to throw the earth a lit¬tle on each Ade, by which it will be raifed about theplants.When two or three plants are in one piece, as oftenhappens in light land, they fhould be cleaned with thehand at the root, and only one ftalk left to-each plant.This not only gives air to the roots, but alfo preventsmuch of the nourifhment from going into the llalks.When the hulk that contains the feed, or the apple,as it is commonly called, is completely formed, the ftalksmay be cut down and given to cows.- Milk-cows havebeen tried with this food •, they eat it very freely, and itgives no bad flavour to the milk.The time of taking up potatoes is commonly regulatedby the market. But, if nothing be in view but thelargenefs of the crop, they ought to Hand till Odtober,or as long as they can be conveniently taken up before thefroft fets in. The moft expeditious method of takingthem up is by the plough: Eight or nine perfons toattend | ||
1 | A-B | 94 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | T U R E.A G R I C tattend the plough are fufficient. After the field is onceploughed, it ought to be harrowed, by which fome ofthe potatoes will be raifed ; and, when thefe are gather¬ed, it Ihould be ploughed a fecond time.Of the Culture of Turnips.Turnips have been long cultivated in England, and,in fome places, are eftee'med one of the mod valuablecrops that can be raifed. The trials made in Scotlandhave been very fuccefsful, which gives great encourage¬ment to proceed.The goodnefs of the crop depends more on the open-nefs of the foil than its richnefs. Land newly broke upis particularly proper for turnips. Though this kind ofland be naturally poor, yet, with the affiftance of a lit¬tle dung, it feldom fails to produce an excellent crop.The land intended for turnips (hould be ploughed andlaid up in ridges before winter, that it may have thebenefit of the froft. This winter-ploughing, however,is unneceflary when the land is dry and light: Thefpring is early enough for this kind of land. It mayget a fecond ploughing in the end of May, and a thirdin the middle or end of June, when the feed is to befown. Though three ploughings are here mentioned,no particular number is intended ; for the land ought tobe ploughed over and over, till it be thoroughly pul-verifed. If dung be ufed, it Ihould be well rotted, andlaid on before the laft ploughing.Turnip-feed is ufually fown by the hand; and abouthalf a pound is fufficient for an acre. It Ihould be mix¬ed with land; that it may be fcattered the more equally.But fowing by a drill is better than fowing by the hand,as, in this way, the plants can be more eafily hoed, andthinned. Turnips Ihould be hoed as foon as the plantscan be eafily diftinguilhed; for they gsow quickly,and, if they meet with any obftrudiion from weeds,they are apt to become fickly* and, when this happens,they can never be recovered fo as to produce a goodcrop.Turnips may be cultivated with great fuccefs by thenew husbandry. They have been tried in jingle, double,and triple^ rows, and, in alleys, from four to fix feetwide, according to the fituation of the land. The poor¬er the land is, or the more difficult to be reduced, thealleys ought to be the wider. After the ridges are form¬ed, the turnip Ihould be drilled upon the crowns; and,as foon as they come up, and are paft all danger fromthe fly, they Ihould be horfe-hoed.The turnip is proper food, either for Iheep or blackcattle. When the land is dry and needs manure, thefheep may be folded on it: But the fold muft be removedevery day; for it is improper to allow them to eat moreat once than they can confume in that time. Whenthe land is wet, or very rich, the turnip may be pulled,and the fheep fed with them on another field that needsmanure. But, when defigned for black cattle, theymuft be pulled up and given them, either in ftalls orin another field, ■ as the farmer fhall find mod conve¬nient.Of the Culture of Carrot.The carrot is but rarely cultivated in our fields : In¬deed, the prefent market does not encourage the cultiva¬tion of this plant. But they have lately been found to beexcellent food for horfes; they eat them greedily, andare well fed by them. Carrots are not difficult to raifea very fmall field is fufficient, and the trial may eafily bemade by any farmer, at a very fmall expence.The beft crops of carrots, in our gardens, are produ¬ced by trenching. When the foil is hard below, thoughit be well dunged, it does not produce a good crop.Whenever the roots reach the hard foil, they becomeforked, i. e. the roots divide, which prevents them fromgrowing large. Trenching makes the earth deep, and,by throwing what was on the furface into the bottom ofthe trench, lays good foil below for the roots to extendthemfelves into. Something like this muft be done inour fields before we can expert a good crop.M. de Chateauvieux tried to raife a crop of carrotsby the horfe-hoeing hufbandry, and was very fuccefsful.He fowed them in beds fix feet broad, on the 4th ofMay. He ftirred the alleys with the fpade on the 15 thand 27th of July, and a third time on the 6th of Septem¬ber. They were digged up on the 8th of November,meafured from 18 to 25 inches in length, and from twoto four in diameter, and weighed from 25 to 33 ounces.Land that has a hard bottom of clay or till is improper;and it is vain to expert that> fuch land can be preparedfor carrots by the plough, without great trouble and ex¬pence. But, when land has a foft bottom, a good cropof carrots may be raifed at a fmall expence by horfe-hoeing.As the feed, in this country, muft be fown in March,the land Ihould get a ploughing before winter, and belaid out in beds or ridges of the breadth propofed whenthe carrots are to be fown; the furrows betwixt thefe'ridges Ihould be made as deep as poffible, becaufe it isupon thefe furrows that the rows of carrots are to befown. A fecond ploughing in winter fliould reverfe thefirft, and turn the furrows into crowns; and,, beforethe carrots are fown, one bout of the plough may raifethe crown of the ridge ftill higher. Upon thefe crownsthe feed muft be foVn out of the hand, into a fmalltrench, drawn as ftraight as poffible, and covered with arake.When the weeds firft appear, the remaining part ofthe ridges may be ploughed out, turning the earth to therows, and taking care not to go fo near as to cover theplants. Before the feed is fown, which is fome time in-March, inftead of ploughing the whole ridge, the ploughIhould only go once about on the crown, to prevent thebad effedls of too much moifture.As foon as the plants can be eafily diftinguilhed,- theyIhould be hand-hoed, and thinned where they ftand toothick; and after this the alleys muft be regularly hoed,as dire died in the culture of turnips.It is natural to expedl, that carrots raifed in this wayIhould be freer from worms, and much better everyway, | ||
1 | A-B | 95 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | <53 A G R I CJ Uway, than thofe railed in our gardens, except fuch as arefown upon newly trenched ground.Sect. VI. Principles and Advanta¬ges of the New Husbandry.The general principles of the new hulbandry may bereduced to two, viz.- the promoting the growth ofplants by hoeing, and the laving of feed; both ofwhich are equally profitable to the farmer.But, before illustrating thefe principles and advanta¬ges, it will be necelTary to defcribe the inflruments thatare commonly ufed in cultivating land by this new me¬thod.Plate IX. fig. i. is a marking plough. The principal-rife of this plough is to Itreight and regulate the ridges.The firlt line is traced by the eye, by means of threepoles, placed in a Itreight line. The plough draws thefirlt furrow iti the direction of this line; and, at thefame time, with the tooth A, fixed in the block of woodnear the end of the crofs-poll or Aider B B, marks thebreadth of the ridge at the diftance intended. .Theploughman next traces the fecond line or rutt made bythe tooth, and draws a fmall furrow along it; and con¬tinues in this manner till the whole field is laid out in{freight and equidiftant ridges.—Fig; 2. is a plough for breaking up lee, or turning upthe bottom of land when greatly exhaufted. By its con-ftru&ion, the width and depth of the furrows can be re¬gulated to a greater certainty than by any other hithertoknown in this country. Its appearance is heavy; buttwo horfes are fufficient to plough with it in ordinaryfree land; and'only four are necefiary in the ftiffeft clay-foils. This plough is likewife eafily held and tempered.A, is the fword fixed in the fixers B» which runs thro’a mortoife at the- end of the beam E, and regulates thedepth of the furrow, by railing or depreffing the beam ;it is fixed by putting the pin D, through the beam andfword, and is moveable at E.t—Fig. 3. is a jointed break harrow with 24 teeth Aia-ped like coulters, and Handing at about an angle of 80degrees. By this inftrumentthe land is finely pulverifed,and prepared for receiving the feed from the drill. Itrequires four horfes in ftiff, and two in open land. Thisharrow is likewife ufed for levelling the ridges; this isdone by prefiing it down by the handles where the ridgeis high, and railing it up when low.—Fig. 4. is an angular weeding harrow, which mayfollow the break when necefiary. The feven hindmoftteeth lliould Hand at a more acute angle than the reft,in order to colleft the weeds, which the holder can dropat pleafure, by railing the hinder part, which is fixed tothe body of the harrow by two joints.—Fig. 5. is a pair of harrows with lhafts. This har-rowis ufed for covering the feed in the drills, the horfegoing in the furrow.—Fig. 6. is a drill-plough, conftruded in fuch a man¬ner as to fow at once two rows of beans, peafe, or wheat.L T U R E.This machine is eafily wrought by two horfes. A, isthe happer for containing the feed ; B, circular boxesfor receiving the feed from the happer; C C, two fquareboxes which receive the feed from fmall holes in the cir¬cular boxes, as they turn round; and laft of all, the feedis dropped into the drills through holes in the fquareboxes, behind the coulters D. The cylinder E fol¬lows, which, together with the wheel F, regulates thedepth of the coulters, and covers the feed; the harrow Gcomes behind all, and covers the feed more completely.H H, two Aiders, which, when drawn out, prevent thefeed from falling into the boxes ; and, I, is a ketch whichholds the rungs, and presents the boxes from turning,and lofing feed at the ends of the ridges.—Fig. 7. is a fingle hoe-plough of a very fimple con-ftru&ion, by which the earth, in the intervals, is ftir-Fed and laid up, on both fides, to the roots of the plants,and, at the fame time, the weeds are deftroyed. A Athe mold-boards, which may be raifed or deprefied atpleafure, according as the farmer wants to throw theearth higher or lower upoh the roots.Advantages of Horfe-hoeing.The advantages of tillage before fowing have alreadybeen pointed out. In this place we muft, confine our-felves to the utility of tillage after fowing. This kindof tillage is moft generally known by the name of horfe-hoeing.Land fowed with wheat, however well it may be culti¬vated in autumn, finks in the winter; the particles getnearer together, and the weeds rife; fo that in fpring,the land is nearly in the fame fituation as if it never hadbeen ploughed. This, however, is the feafon when itftiouId branch and grow with moft vigour; and cohfe-quently ftands moft in need of ploughing or hoeing, todeftroy the weeds, to fupply the roots With frefii earth,and, by dividing anew the particles of the foil, to allowthe roots to extend and colled nouriftiment.It is well known, that, in gardens, plants grow withdouble vigouf after being hoed or tranfplanted. Ifplants growing in Arable land could be managed with eafeand fafety in this manner, it is natural to exped, thattheir growth would be promoted accordingly. Expe¬rience ftiows, that this is not only practicable, but at¬tended with many advantages.In the operation of hoeing wheat, though fome. of theroots be moved or broke, the plants receive no injury;,for this very circumftance makes them fend forth a greaternumber of roots than formerly, which enlarge their pa-fture, and confequently augment their growth.Sickly wheat has often recovered its vigour after agood hoeing, efpecially when performed in weather notvery hot or‘dry.Wheat, and fuch grain as is fown before winter, re¬quires hoeing more than oats, barley, or other grainfown in the fpring ; for, if the land has been Wellploughed before the fowing of fpring-corn, it neither hastime to harden nor to produce many weeds, not havingbeen expofed to the winter’s fnow and rain. | ||
1 | A-B | 96 | null | Normal | 2,456 | 3,328 | TlatelS.vv\***' //><// f. . ' | ||
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1 | A-B | 98 | 69 | 100 | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | A G II I GUOf Sowing.As, in the practice of the new hufoandry, plants growwith greater vigour than by the old method, the landfhould be fowed thinner. It is this principle of the newhufbandry that has been chiefly objected to; for, uponobferving the land occupied.by a fmall number of plants,people are apt to look upon all the vacant fpace as loft.But this prejudice will foon be removed, when it is con-fidered, that, in the beft land cultivated in the commonmethod, and fown very thick, each feed produces but.one or two ears; that, in the fame land fown thinner,every feed produces two or three ears ; and that a finglefeed fometimes produces eighteen or twenty ears.In the common method, as there are many moreplants than can find fufficient nourifliment, and as it isimpoffible to aflift them by hoeing, numbers die beforethey attain maturity, the greateft part remain fickly anddrooping; and thus part of the feed is loft. On the con¬trary, in the new method, all the plants have as muchfood a» they require; and as they are, from time totime, affifted by hoeing, they become fo vigorous as toequal in their production the numdrous, but fickly plantscultivated in tire common method.Of Hoeing.The new hufbandry is abfolutely impracticable inlands that are not eafily ploughed. Attempting to cul¬tivate land according to this hufbandry, without attend¬ing to this circumftance, that it is practicable in no land,excepting fuch as have already been brought into goodtilth by the old method, has gone far to make it con¬temptible iu many places.When a field is in good tilth, it fhould be fown.fothin as to leave fufficient room for the plants to extendtheir roots. After being well ploughed and harrowed,it mud be divided into rows, at the diftance of 30 inchesfrom one another. On the fides of each <tf thefe rows,two rows of wheat mud be fowed fix inches diftant fromeach other. By this means there will be an interval oftwo feet wide betwixt the' rows, and every plant willhave room enough to extend its roots, and to fupply itwith food. The intervals will likewife be fufficient forallowing the earth to be hoed or tilled without injuringthe plants in the rows;The firft hoeing, which fhould be given before thewinter, is intended to drain away the wet, and to dif-pofe the earth to be mellowed by the frofts. Thefe twoends will be anfwered by drawing two fmall furrows ata little diftance from the rows, and throwing the earthtaken from the furrows into the middle of the intervals.This firft hoeing fhould be .given when the wheat is inleaf.The fecond hoeing, which is intended to make theplants branch, fhould be given after the hard frofts- areover. To do this with advantage, after ftirring theearth a little, near the rows, the earth which was thrownin the middle of the intervals fhould be turned back in¬to the furrows. This earth, having been mellowed by theVol. I. No. 3. 3L T IT R E. 69winter, fupplies the plants with excellent food, and makesthe roots extend.The third hoeing, which is intended to invigorate theftalk, fhould be given when the ears of the corn beginto fhew themfelves. This hoeing may, however, be veryflight.But the laft hoeing is of the greateft importance, asit enlarges the grain, and makes the ears fill at their ex¬tremities. This hoeing ihould be given when the wheatis in bloom ; a furrow muft be drawn in the middle ofthe interval, and the earth thrown to the right and lefton the foot of the plants. This fupports the plants,prevents them from being laid, and prepares the groundfor the next fowing, as the feed is then to be put in themiddle of the ground that formed the intervals.By this fucceifive tillage, or hoeing, good crops willbe obtained, provided the weather is not very unfavour¬able.But as ftrong, vigorous plants are longer before theyarrive at maturity, corn railed in the new way is laterin ripening than any other, and muft therefore be fownearlier.In order to prepare the intervals for fowing again,fome well-rotted dung may be laid in the deep furrowsmade in the middle of the intervals; and this dung muftbe covered with the earth that was before thrown to¬wards the rows of wheat. But, if the land does not re¬quire mending, the deep furrow is filled without anydung. This operation fhould be performed immediatelyafter harveft, that there may be time to give the land aflight ftirring before the rows are fowed ; which fhouldoccupy the middle of the fpace which formed the inter¬vals during the laft crop. The intervals of the fecondyear take up the fpace occupied by the ftubble of thefirft.Suppofing dung to be neceflary, which is denied bymany, a very fmall quantity is fufficient ; a fingle layer,put in the bottom of each furrow, will be enough.Summary .cf the Operations necejfary in execu-tingtheNew Husbandry with t/je Plough.1. It is indifpenfibly neceflary that the farmer beprovided with a drill and hoe-plough.2. The new hufbandry may be begun either with thewinter or fpring corn.3. The land muft be prepared by four good plough-ings, given at different times, from the beginning of A-pril to the middle of September.4. Thefe ploughings muft be done in dry weather, toprevent the earth from kneading.5. The land muft be harrowed in the fame manner asif it were fowed in the common way.6. The rows of wheat fhould be fowed very ftraight.7. When the field is not very large, a line muft beftrained acrofs it, by which a rill may be traced with ahoe for the horfe that draws the drill to go in; and,when the rows are fown, fifty inches muft be left betwixteach rill. But, when the field is large, flakes at fivefeet diftance from each other, muft be placed at the twoends. The workman muft then trace a fmall furrow, .S with | |
1 | A-B | 99 | 70 | null | Normal | 2,406 | 3,328 | 7o A G . R I C Uwith a plough that has no mold-board, for the horfe togo in that draws the drill, diredting himfelf with his eyeby the ftakes.8. The fowing fhould be Unified about the end ofSeptember, or beginning of Odlober.9. The furrows muft be traced the long way of theland, that as little ground as poffible may be loft in head¬lands!- 10. The rows, if it can be done, fhould run downthe'Hope of the land, that the water may get the ea-fier off.11. The feed-wheat muft be plunged into a tub oflime-water, and ftirred, that the light corn may come tothe furface and be flammed off.12. The feed muft next be fpread on a floor, and fre¬quently ftirred, till it is dry enough to run through thevalves of the happer of the drill.13. To prevent fmut, the feed may be put into a lyeof afhes and lime.14. After the happers of the drill are filled, thehorfe muft go fldwly along the furrow that was traced.That a proper quantity of feed may be fown, the a -perture of the happer muft be.fuited to the fize of thegrain.15. As the drill is feldom well managed at firft, thefield fhould be examined after the corn has come up, andthe deficiencies fupplied.16. Stiff lands that retain the wet, muft be ftirred orhoed in Odlober. This fhould be done by opening a fur¬row in the middle of the intervals, and afterwards fillingit up by a furrow drawn on each fide, which will raifethe earth in the middle of the intervals, and leave twofmall furrows next the rows, for draining off the water,which is very hurtful to wheat in winter.17. The next ftirring muft be given about the end ofMarch, with a light plough. In this ftirring, the fur¬rows made to drain the rows muft be filled up by earthfrom the middle of the intervals.A G RAGRIFOLIUM, in botany. See AquiFOLiUM.AGRIMONIA, Agrimony, in botany, a genus ofthe dodecandria digynia clafs. There are three fpeciesof this genus, viz. the eupatoria, repens, and agri-monoides ; of which the eupatoria only is a native ofBritain. The calix of the eupatoria is quinqueden-tated; it has five petals, and two feeds in the bottomof the calix. It is faid to be good in obftrudtions ofthe liver, <bc.AGRIMONOIDES, in hotany, the trivial name of afpecies of the agrimonia.AGRIMONY. See Agrimonia.Em/i Agrimony. See Eupatorium.Water-hemp-Agrimony. See Bidens.AGRIOCINARA, in botany. See Cinara.AGRIPPA, in midwifery, a term applied to childrenbrought forth with their feet foremoft. See Mid¬wifery.r L T U R E,18. Some time in May, the rows muft be evened,which, though troublefome at firft, foon becomes eafy,as the' weeds are foon kept under by tillage.19. In June, juft before the wheat is in bloom, ano¬ther ftirring muft be given with the plough. A deepfurrow muft be made in the middle of the intervals, andthe earth thrown upon the fides.of the rows.20. When the wheat is ripe, particular care moft be ta¬ken in reaping it, to trample as little as pofiible on theploughed land.21. Soon after the wheat is carried off the field, the. intervals muft be turned up with the plough, to preparethem for the feed. The great furrow in the middle>muft not only be filled, but the earth raifed as much aspoffible in the middle of the intervals.22. In September, the land muft be again fowed witha drill, as above directed.23. In October, the ftubble muft be turned in forforming the new intervals; and the fame managementmuft be obferved as diredled in the firft year.We pretend not to determine whether the old or new■ hufbandry be preferable in every country.With regard to this point, the climate, the fituationof particular land, {kill and dexterity in managing themachinery, the comparative expcnce in railing crops, andmany other circumltances, muft be accurately attendedto before a determination can be given. One obferva-tion, however, may be made in favour of the new huf¬bandry:—Though the particular modes of cultivatingland by it are perhaps too limited to be univerfally ad¬opted ; yet it has been of great ufe in railing fufpicionsconcerning the old method, and in turning the views ofphilofophers and farmers towards improving in general.Many real improvements in agriculture have been theconfequcnces of thefe fufpicions; and as this fpirit ofinquiry remains in full vigour, particularly in our owncountry, a folid foundation is laid for expedling ftill fur¬ther improvements in this ufeful art.A G RAGRIUM, in nat. hift. See Natrum.AG ROM, the name of a difeafe incident to the inhabi¬tants of the Eaft-Indies, by which their tongues chapand cleave in different places.AGROPOLI, a fmall town in the kingdom of Naples,and province of the Hither Principato.AGROSTEMMA, or Cockle, in botany, a genus ofthe decandria pentagynia clafs. The calix is mono-phyllous ; the petals are five, and ungulatcd; andthe capfule one-valved. There are four fpecies ofthe agroftemma, viz. the githago, a native of Bri¬tain; the coelirofa, a native of Sicily; the coronalia,a native of Italy; and the flos Jovis, a native of Swit¬zerland.AGROSTIS, bent-greifs, in botany, a genus of thetriandria digynia clafs. The calix has two valves,terminated by a beard or aun. There are fifteen fpeciesof theagroftis, eight of which are natives of Britain.AGROS- |
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