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April (Apr.) is the fourth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, and comes between March and May. It is one of four months to have 30 days. April always begins on the same day of the week as July, and additionally, January in leap years. April always ends on the same day of the week as December. The Month. April comes between March and May, making it the fourth month of the year. It also comes first in the year out of the four months that have 30 days, as June, September and November are later in the year. April begins on the same day of the week as July every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. April ends on the same day of the week as December every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In common years, April starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, April starts on the same day of the week as January of the previous year, and in leap years and years immediately after that, April finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year. In years immediately before common years, April starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year. April is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn/fall month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of October in the other. It is unclear as to where April got its name. A common theory is that it comes from the Latin word "aperire", meaning "to open", referring to flowers opening in spring. Another theory is |
August (Aug.) is the eighth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between July and September. It has 31 days. It is named after the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar. August does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August always ends on the same day of the week as November. The Month. This month was first called "Sextilis" in Latin, because it was the sixth month in the old Roman calendar. The Roman calendar began in March about 735 BC with Romulus. October was the eighth month. August was the eighth month when January or February were added to the start of the year by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. Or, when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers disagree). In 153 BC January 1 was determined as the beginning of the year. August is named for Augustus Caesar who became Roman consul in this month. The month has 31 days because Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in 45 BC. August is after July and before September. August, in either hemisphere, is the seasonal equivalent of February in the other. In the Northern hemisphere it is a summer month and it is a winter month in the Southern hemisphere. No other month in common years begins on the same day of the week as August, but August begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August ends on the same day of the week as November every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart. In common years, August starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the previous year, and in leap years, June of the previous year. In common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, August starts on the same day of the week as February |
Art is a creative activity. It produces a product, an object. Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a work of art, for others to experience. Some art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay bowl that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a "craft". Those who make art are called artists. They hope to affect the emotions of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner creativity. "The arts" is a much broader term. It includes drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, performance art, dance, music, poetry, prose and theatre. Types of art. Art is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the performing arts, where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content. What "art" means. Some people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind, spirit and soul. Art can also be an Idea or a concept that is expressed visually. An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired. The first and broadest sense of "art" means "arrangement" or "to arrange." In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors or forms next to each other to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting look. Art can also be an existing object that is presented and called art, this is called re contextualizing. This is often done by placing the object in a frame or a special setting like a Gallery were the new setting gives the object a different meaning or message. (Marcel Duchamp, "Fountain," 1917) The difference |
A is the first letter of the English alphabet. The small letter, a, is used as a lowercase vowel. Overview. When it is spoken, ā is said as a long a, a diphthong of ĕ and y. A is similar to Alpha of the Greek alphabet. That is not surprising, because it means the same sound. "Alpha and Omega" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from beginning to the end. In musical notation, the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below B and above G. A is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, The A-Team. A capital a is written "A". Use a capital A at the start of a sentence if writing. A is also a musical note, sometimes referred to as "La". Origin. The letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's aleph. This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head. This Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the Etruscans in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language. Using the letter. The letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like æ, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, such as the word "pad". Other sounds of this letter are in the words "father", which developed into another sound, such as in the word "ace". Use in mathematics. In algebra, the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities. In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label line segments, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle. Its letter shape is referred to abstractly in Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge's 5th postulate, the basis for, as one of the Millennium Prize Problems, the Hodge Conjecture. |
Air is the Earth's atmosphere. Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in outer space. Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and 0.1 percent other gases. Animals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere. In breathing, the lungs put oxygen into the blood, and send back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it animals die of asphyxia. Air can be polluted by some gases (such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), smoke, and ash. This air pollution causes various problems including smog, acid rain and global warming. It can damage people's health and the environment. There are debates about whether or not to act upon climate change, but soon enough the Earth will heat up too much, causing it to become too hot and not support life. Some say fewer people would die of cold weather, and that is true but there is already a huge amount of people dying from heat and that number is and will keep increasing more and more. Since early times, air has been used to create technology. Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use propellers to move air over a wing, which allows them to fly. Pneumatics use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity. Air is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen. Air is one of the 4 classical elements (water, air, earth and fire). Main history. Original atmosphere. At first it was mainly a hydrogen atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasions—for example, the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from practically |
Spain is divided in 17 parts called autonomous communities. "Autonomous" means that each of these autonomous communities has its own executive, legislative, and judicial powers. These are similar to, but "not" the same as, states in the United States of America, for example. Spain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities. Before then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called "historic communities": Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia. The Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows: List of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices): Spain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: Ceuta and Melilla. They are called "autonomous cities" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities. |
Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS (London, 23 June 1912 – Wilmslow, Cheshire, 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician and computer scientist. He was born in Maida Vale, London. Early life and family. Alan Mathison Turing was born in Maida Vale, London on 23 June 1912. His father was part of a family of merchants from Scotland. His mother, Ethel Sara, was the daughter of an engineer. Education. Turing went to St. Michael's, a school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-sea, when he was five years old. "This is only a foretaste of what is to come, and only the shadow of what is going to be.” – Alan Turing. The Stoney family were once prominent landlords in North Tipperary. His mother Ethel Sara Stoney (1881–1976) was daughter of Edward Waller Stoney (Borrisokane, North Tipperary) and Sarah Crawford (Cartron Abbey, Co. Longford), who were Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry. She was educated in Dublin at Alexandra School and College. On 1 October 1907, she married Julius Mathison Turing, who was Reverend John Robert Turing and Fanny Boyd, in Dublin. Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912. He would go on to be regarded as one of the greatest figures of the twentieth century. Alan was a brilliant mathematician and cryptographer. He became the founder of modern-day computer science and artificial intelligence. He designed a machine at Bletchley Park to break secret Enigma encrypted messages used by the Nazi German war machine to protect sensitive commercial, diplomatic and military communications during World War 2. This made the single biggest contribution to the Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. It possibly saved the lives of an estimated 2 million people, and shortened World War II. In 2013, almost 60 years later, Turing received a posthumous Royal Pardon from Queen Elizabeth II. Today, the “Turing law” grants an automatic pardon to men who died before the law came into force, |
Alanis Nadine Morissette (born June 1, 1974) is a Grammy Award-winning Canadian-American singer and songwriter. She was born in Ottawa, Canada. She began singing in Canada as a teenager in 1990. In 1995, she became popular all over the world. As a young child in Canada, Morissette began to act on television, including 5 episodes of the long-running series, "You Can't Do That on Television". Her first album was released only in Canada in 1990. Her first international album was "Jagged Little Pill", released in 1995. It was a rock-influenced album. "Jagged" has sold more than 33 million units globally. It became the best-selling debut album in music history. Her next album, "Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie", was released in 1998. It was a success as well. Morissette took up producing duties for her next albums, which include "Under Rug Swept", "So-Called Chaos" and "Flavors of Entanglement". Morissette has sold more than 60 million albums worldwide. She also acted in several movies, including Kevin Smith's "Dogma", where she played God. About her life. Alanis Morissette was born in Riverside Hospital of Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario. Her father is French-Canadian. Her mother is from Hungary. She has an older brother, Chad, and a twin brother, Wade, who is 12 minutes younger than she is. Her parents had worked as teachers at a military base in Lahr, Germany. Morissette became an American citizen in 2005. She is still Canadian citizen. On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario "MC Souleye" Treadway. Jagged Little Pill. Morissette has had many albums. Her 1995 album "Jagged Little Pill" became a very popular album. It has sold over 30 million copies worldwide. The album caused Morissette to win four Grammy Awards. The album "Jagged Little Pill" touched many people. On the album, Morissette sang songs about many different things. These things include: Discography. Selected songs. Morissette has written many songs. Some of her most famous songs are: |
Adobe Illustrator is a computer program for making graphic design and illustrations. It is made by Adobe Systems. Pictures created in "Adobe Illustrator" can be made bigger or smaller, and look exactly the same at any size. It works well with the rest of the products with the Adobe name. History. It was first released in 1986 for the Apple Macintosh. The latest version is Adobe Illustrator 2024, part of Adobe Creative Cloud. |
Andouille is a type of pork sausage. It is spicy (hot in taste) and smoked. There are different kinds, all with different combinations of pork meat, fat, intestines (tubes going to the stomach), and tripe (the wall of the stomach). Other sorts are "French andouille" and "German andouille"; they are less spicy than Cajun. Cajun has extra salt, black pepper, and garlic. Andouille makers smoke the sausages over pecan wood and sugar cane for a maximum of seven or eight hours, at about 175 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius). |
Farming is growing crops and keeping animals for food and raw materials. Farming is a Significant part of agriculture. History. Farming started thousands of years ago, but no one knows for sure how old it is. The development of farming gave rise to the Neolithic Revolution as people gave up nomadic hunting and became settlers in cities. Farming and domestication probably started in the Fertile Crescent (the Nile Valley, the Levant and Mesopotamia). The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt. Wheat and barley are some of the first crops people grew. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC. Livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats were taken to the Americas, from the Old World. The first of those horses, came with the Spanish conquistadors (or soldiers and explorers) in the 1490s. Moving those cattle, sheep, goats and horses, were part of the Columbian Exchange. People probably started agriculture by planting a few crops, but still gathered many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than hunter-gatherers can feed on the same amount of land. This allowed the human population to grow to such large numbers as there are today. Types. Many people still live by subsistence farming, on a small farm. They can only grow enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. The yield is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and it is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less educated, and they have less money to buy equipment. Drought and other problems sometimes cause famines. Where yields are low, deforestation can provide new land to grow more food. This provides more nutrition for the farmer's family, but can be bad for the country and the surrounding environment over many years. In some countries, farms are often fewer and larger. During the 20th century they have become more productive because farmers are able to grow better varieties of plants, use more fertilizer |
In mathematics, arithmetic is the basic study of numbers. The four basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, although other operations such as exponentiation and roots are also studied in arithmetic. Other arithmetic topics includes working with negative numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages. Overview. Most people learn arithmetic in primary school, but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic. Applications. A few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include carpenters, plumbers, mechanics, accountants, architects, doctors, and nurses. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, science, and engineering. Some arithmetic can be carried out mentally. A calculator can also be used to perform arithmetic. Computers can do it more quickly, which is one reason Global Positioning System receivers have a small computer inside. |
"Not to be confused with building extensions which are also called additions." In mathematics, addition, represented by the symbol formula_1, is an operation which combines two mathematical objects together into another mathematical object of the same type, called the sum. Addition can occur with simple objects such as numbers, and more complex objects and concepts such as vectors and matrices. Addition has several important properties. It is commutative, meaning that the order of the operands does not matter, and it is associative, meaning that when one adds more than two numbers, the order in which addition is performed does not matter (see "Summation"). Repeated addition of 1 is the same as counting. Addition of 0 does not change a number. Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and multiplication. Arithmetic. In arithmetic, addition is the operation where two or more numbers called "addends" are used to make a new number, which is the "sum" or total that is expressed with the equals sign. The symbol for addition, in infix notation, is the plus sign "+" placed between the operands. Counting examples. For example, there are objects in two groups (as shown on the right). The objects are various shapes, where one group has 3 of them while the other has 2. When the two groups combine into one, the overall amount (sum) of the shapes become 5. Vertical Addition. The animation above demonstrates the addition of seven hundred eighty six and four hundred sixty seven. The problem's digits have been separated into units, tens and hundreds (see Place value). First, the units 6 and 7 are added together to make 13, so 1 ten and 3 units, with the 3 written below and the 1 ten carried to the tens column. Next, in the tens column, the 1, 8, and 6 are added together to make 15 tens, so 1 hundred and 5 tens, with the 5 written below and the 1 hundred carried to the hundreds column. Finally, in the hundreds column, 1, 7, and 4 are added together to make 12 hundreds, so 1 thousand |
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country and sovereign state located in the southern hemisphere, in Oceania. Its capital city is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney. It is mostly a desert country. Australia is the sixth biggest country in the world by land area, and is part of the Oceanic and Australasian regions. Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and other islands on the Australian tectonic plate are together called Australasia, which is one of the world's great ecozones. When other Pacific islands are included with Australasia, it is called Oceania. 27 million people live in Australia, and about 85% of them live near the east coast. The country is divided up into six states and two territories, and more than half of Australia's population lives in and around the cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. The first people to live in the country were the Indigenous Australians: many of them died from smallpox during colonisation. Australia is known for its mining (coal, iron, gold, diamonds and crystals). It produces wool, and is the world's largest producer of bauxite. Its emblem is a flower called the golden wattle. Australia is also known for its animals. The national symbols of Australia are the kangaroo and the golden wattle. Scientifically, perhaps even more important are its two monotreme mammals: the platypus and the echidna. Geography. Australia's landmass of is on the Indo-Australian plate. The continent of Australia, including the island of Tasmania, was separated from the other continents of the world many millions of years ago. Because of this, many animals and plants live in Australia that do not live anywhere else. These include animals like the kangaroo, the koala, the emu, and the kookaburra. The duck-billed platypus and the echidna are completely unique. People first arrived in Australia more than 50,000 years ago. These native Australians are called the Australian Aboriginals. For the history of Australia, see History of Australia. Most of the Australian colonies, having been settled from Britain, became mostly independent democratic states |
American English, or US English, is the dialect of English that is spoken in the United States. It is different from other types of English like British English. Most types of American English came from local dialects in England. During the 18th and 19th centuries, pronunciation changed less in America than in England. Use. Many people today know about American English even if they live in a country that speaks another type of English. They hear and read American English through the media, such as movies, television, and the Internet, where the most common form of English is American English. Because people all over the world use English, many new words are used. English has been changing that way for hundreds of years. For example, the millions who speak Indian English frequently add American English words to go along with its British English base and many other words from the various Indian languages. Some people learn American English as it is spoken in the United States. For example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English to sound more like their customers who call from America. Those people often keep using American English in everyday life. Spelling. There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often has more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. Vocabulary. There are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English.: Regional accents. General American English is the kind most spoken in mass media. It more vigorously pronounces the letter "r" than some other kinds do. Non-rhoticity ("R"-dropping) is frequent in certain places in which "r" is not pronounced after a vowel such as in the words "car" and "card," which sound like "cah" and "cahd" in places like the Boston area. Here are some regional accents of American English: |
Aquaculture is the farming of fish, shrimp, abalones, algae, and other seafood. Aquaculture supplies fish, such as catfish, salmon, and trout. It was developed a few thousand years ago in China. Aquaculture supplies over 20% of all the seafood harvested. Fish farming has been practiced, in some parts of the world, for thousands of years. Goldfish originated about a thousand years ago in carp farms in China, and the Roman Empire farmed oysters and other seafood. Today, half of the seafood eaten in the U.S. is farmed. To help meet the growing global demand for seafood, aquaculture is growing fast. The environmental impact of fish farming varies widely, depending on the species being farmed, the methods used and where the farm is located. When good practices are used, it's possible to farm seafood in a way that has very little impact to the environment. Such operations limit habitat damage, disease, escapes of farmed fish and the use of wild fish as feed. |
An abbreviation is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot. In English. The English language occasionally uses the apostrophe mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark. Borrowed Latin phrases. More often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the Latin language, which include i.e. [id est] ("that is"), e.g. [exempli gratia] ("for example") and et al. [et alia] ("and others"). Some new abbreviations have been created by scientists, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the Internet. People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are acronyms. Examples. Here are examples of common acronyms: The word "radar" is an acronym for "Radio Detection and Ranging". The name of the large computer company IBM comes from the words "International Business Machines". The name of the part of the United States government that sends rockets into outer space is NASA, from the words "National Aeronautics and Space Administration". When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write "LOL" to mean "Laughing Out Loud". People sometimes write "ASAP" for "As Soon As Possible". |
In many mythologies and religions, an angel is a good spirit. The word angel comes from the Greek word "angelos" which means "messenger". Angels appear frequently in the Old Testament, the New Testament, Qur'an and Aqdas. Different references to angels throughout the Bible suggest different kinds and ranks of angels, such as seraphs (Hebrew plural: seraphim) or cherubs (Hebrew plural: cherubim). This resulted in medieval theologians outlining a hierarchy of such divine messengers, including not only cherubs and seraphs, but also archangels, powers, principalities, dominions and thrones. The study of angels is called angelology. In the Bible. Angels are powerful spirits that obey God's commands. They sometimes appear to humans in a human form. They can deliver messages to people in person or in dreams. Angels that are named in the Bible are Michael (called a "chief prince"), Gabriel (known for telling Mary that she would be the mother of Jesus), and Raphael (in the Apocryphal Book of Tobit). The Ethiopian Book of Enoch also lists four Archangels which watch over the four parts of heaven; Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and Uriel. Lucifer is also known as an angel in the Bible. Appearances in Genesis. God, in the Book of Genesis sends an Angel with a sword made out of fire to keep Adam and Eve from going back to the Garden of Eden. Appearances in Exodus. In the Book of Exodus, an Angel comes to a bush and makes a fire but the bush doesn't burn. When Moses sees this, he comes close to the Bush and he hears God speak to him. On the way to Egypt, Moses forgets to circumcise his son so an Angel tries to kill him but then Zipporah circumcises him and the Angel lets Moses live. Angels are also there when God gives the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai. Appearances in Leviticus. In the Book of Leviticus, the Ark of the Covenant, has statues of two angels called Cherubim on top of it. Appearances in Numbers. |
Ad hominem is a Latin word for a type of argument. It is a word often used in rhetoric. Rhetoric is the science of speaking well, and convincing other people of your ideas. Translated to English, "ad hominem" means "against the person". In other words, when someone makes an ad hominem, they are attacking the person they are arguing against, instead of what they are saying. The term comes from the Latin word "homo", which means human. "Hominem" is a gender neutral version of the word "homo". In ancient Rome it referred to all free men, or in other words, all free human beings. Ad hominem can be a way to use reputation, rumors and hearsay to change the minds of other people listening. When a social network has already excluded or exiled one person, or applied a negative label to them, this can work more often. It is most of the time considered to be a weak and poor argument. In courts and in diplomacy ad hominems are not appreciated. Ad hominems are not wrong every time. For example, when people think that someone can't be trusted, things that they have said previously can be doubted. What an ad hominem argument looks like. In logic, a proof is something that starts with premises, and goes through a few logical arguments, to reach a conclusion. Ad hominem example. In this example it can be seen that the (completely unrelated) fact that person A is uneducated and poor is used to prove that abortion should not be illegal. |
Native Americans (also called Aboriginal Americans, American Indians, Amerindians, or Indigenous peoples of the Americas) are the indigenous peoples and their descendants, who were in the Americas before Europeans arrived. Name. The people are sometimes called Indians, but that may be confusing, because it is the same word used for people from India. When Christopher Columbus explored the area, he did not know about the Americas. He was in the Caribbean but thought he was in the East Indies and so he called the people Indians. Today, some think that it is racism to use Indian for a Native American. There are different Native American tribes, with many different languages. Some tribes were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place. Others lived in one place and built cities and kingdoms. Many Native Americans died after the European settlers came to the Americas. One reason is that diseases came with the Europeans but were new to the Native Americans. There were also battles with the Europeans. Many native people were hurt, killed, or forced to leave their homes by settlers, who took their lands. Origins. The ancestors of Native Americans came to the Americas from Asia. Some of them may have come to the Americas 15,000 years ago, when Alaska was connected to Siberia by the Bering land bridge. The earliest people in the Americas came from Siberia when there was an ice bridge across the Bering Strait. The cold but mainly grassy plain, called Beringia, was a land bridge that connected Siberia with Canada. It is believed that a few thousand people arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum and that they moved into the Americas sometime after 16,500 years before the present (BP). That would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted but before the land bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP. Before the European colonization of the Americas and Russian expansion to the Russian Far East, Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits. The culture remains in the region today, with others. In 2012, the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary |
An apple is the edible fruit of a number of trees, known for its juicy green or red fruit. The tree (Malus spp.) is grown worldwide. The fruit is low-cost, popular, and common all over the earth. Applewood is a type of wood that comes from this tree. The apple tree comes from southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and northwestern part of China. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe. They were brought to North America by European settlers. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures. Apples are generally grown by grafting, although wild apples grow readily from seed. Apple trees are large if grown from seed, but small if grafted onto roots (rootstock). There are more than 10000 known variants of apples, with a range of desired characteristics. Different variants are bred for various tastes and uses: cooking, eating raw and cider production are the most common uses. In addition to that, when it comes to food toxicity, the seeds in apples can be fatal, but only if they've been crushed. Apples contain amygdalin, which can release cyanide when digested. Though the amount in apple seeds is generally low and requires significant ingestion to be harmful (killing or paralyzing you) but it is still important to address such issue. Trees and fruit are attacked by fungi, bacteria and pests. In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production. Worldwide production of apples in 2013 was 90.8 million tonnes. China grew 49% of the total. Botanical information. The apple tree is a small, leaf-shedding tree that grows up to tall. The apple tree has a broad crown with thick twigs. The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals. They are 5 to 12 centimetres long and 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) wide. It has a sharp top with a soft underside. Blossoms come out in spring at the same time that the leaves begin to bud. The flowers are |
The Abrahamic religions, are a group of religious communities of faith that claim descent from the religion of the ancient Israelites and the worship of the God of Abraham. The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic. The term derives from patriarch Abraham, a major biblical figure from The Hebrew Bible. The major Abrahamic religions are Christianity, Islam, Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith. |
Algebra (from Arabic: الجبر, transliterated "al-jabr", meaning "completion") is a part of mathematics. It uses variables to represent a value that is not yet known or can be replaced with any value. When an equals sign (=) is used, this is called an equation. A very simple equation using a variable is: formula_1. In this example, formula_2, or it could also be said that "formula_3 equals five". This is called "solving for" formula_3. Besides equations, there are inequalities ("less than" and "greater than"). A special type of equation is called the function. This is often used in making graphs because it always turns one input into one output. Algebra can be used to solve real problems because the rules of algebra work in real life and numbers can be used to represent the values of real things. Physics, engineering and computer programming are areas that use algebra all the time. It is also useful to know in surveying, construction and business, especially accounting. People who do algebra use the rules of numbers and mathematical operations used on numbers. The simplest are adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. More advanced operations involve exponents, starting with squares and square roots. Algebra was first used to solve equations and inequalities. Two examples are linear equations (the equation of a straight line, formula_5 or formula_6) and quadratic equations, which has variables that are squared (multiplied by itself, for example: formula_7, formula_8, or formula_9). History. Early forms of algebra were developed by the Babylonians and Greek geometers such as Hero of Alexandria. However the word "algebra" is a Latin form of the Arabic word "Al-Jabr" ("casting") and comes from a mathematics book "Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah", ("Essay on the Computation of Casting and Equation") written in the 9th century by a Persian mathematician, Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, who was a Muslim born in Khwarizm in Uzbekistan. He flourished under Al-M |
An atom is an extremely small piece of matter. All normal matter – everything that has mass – is made of atoms. This includes solids, liquids, and gases. The atom cannot be broken to parts by chemistry, so people once thought it was the smallest piece of matter that could exist. There are over 100 different kinds of atoms, called chemical elements. Each kind has the same basic structure, but a different number of parts. Atoms are very small, but their exact size depends on the type. Atoms are from 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers across. One nanometer is about 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. This makes one atom impossible to see without special tools. Scientists learn how they work by doing experiments. Atoms are made of three kinds of subatomic particles. These are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons have much more mass. These are in the middle of the atom, called the nucleus. Lightweight electrons move quickly around them. The electromagnetic force holds the nucleus and electrons together. Atoms with the same number of protons belong to the same chemical element. Examples of elements are carbon and gold. Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes. Usually an atom has the same number of electrons as protons. If an atom has more or less electrons than protons, it is called an ion, and has an electric charge. Atoms can join by chemical bonds. Many things are made of more than one kind of atom. These are chemical compounds or mixtures. A group of atoms connected by chemical bonds is called a molecule. For example, a water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The forming or breaking of bonds is a chemical reaction. Atoms split if the forces inside are too weak to hold them together. This is what causes radioactivity. Atoms can also join to make larger atoms at very high temperatures, such as inside a star. These changes are studied in nuclear physics. Most atoms on Earth are not radioactive. They are rarely made, destroyed, or changed into another kind of atom. History |
Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial bodies. Stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae are studied, as are supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation. Astronomy includes the development, physics, chemistry, meteorology and movement of celestial bodies. The big questions are the structure and development of the universe. Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. The patterns of stars in the night sky were called constellations by the Arabs. They used the positions of the stars to navigate, and to find when was the best time to plant crops. Astrophysics is an important part of astronomy. A related subject, cosmology, is concerned with studying the universe as a whole, and the way the universe changed over time. Astronomy is not the same as "astrology", a belief that the motion of the stars and the planets may affect human lives. There are two main types of astronomy, "observational" and "theoretical" astronomy. Observational astronomy uses telescopes and cameras to "observe" or look at stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Theoretical astronomy explains what we see. It predicts what might happen. Observations show whether the predictions work. The main work of astronomy is to explain puzzling features of the Universe. For many years the most important issue was the motions of planets. Many other topics are now studied. Day-time astronomy is possible. First, there's the Sun, but observing directly is dangerous. It is too bright, and can burn your eyes and can cause permanent blindness. To look at the Sun you need proper shields and equipment. Some other individual bright stars and planets can be seen during daylight hours through a telescope or a powerful pair of binoculars. History of astronomy. Ancient history. Early astronomers used only their eyes to look at the stars. They made maps of the constellations and stars for religious reasons and calendars to work out the time of year. Early civilisations such as the Maya people and the Ancient Egyptians built simple observatories and drew maps of the stars positions. They also began to think about the place of Earth in the universe. For a long time people thought Earth was the center of the universe |
Architecture is the process of designing structures and buildings. It uses both art and engineering. Examples include houses, churches, hotels, office buildings, roads, tunnels and bridges. Architecture is the profession of an architect. Usually, a person must study at an institution of higher education (university) to become an architect. There were architects long before there was higher education. They learnt by being an apprentice to an established architect. Architecture can do small designs, such as for a garage, or large designs, such as for a whole new town. The capital cities of Brasília, and Canberra were designed. Architects often work with structural engineers to make structurally sound buildings. History. In the past, people built huts and wood houses to protect themselves from the weather. For safety, they were often close together. Great civilizations like the Ancient Egyptians built large temples and structures, like the Great Pyramids of Giza. The Ancient Greeks and Romans made what we now call "Classical Architecture". The Romans, working over 2000 years ago, copied the arch from the Etruscans, who copied it from the Mesopotamians. Classical architecture was formal, and it always obeyed laws. It used symmetry, which really means balance, and it used proportion between shapes. The Golden Mean was a rule which said, (to put it simply) if you are making a room, or any other thing, it will work best if you always make the long side 1.6 times as long as the short side. There are many 'laws' in classical architecture, like how high the middle of an arched bridge needs to be (which depends on how wide the bridge needs to be). These laws were learned from thousands of years of experience and they are often used today. However, today more notice is taken of specific facts, such as what wind speeds occur once or twice in a century. Several bridges have blown down because that was not properly taken into consideration. In some parts of the world, like India, the architecture is famous for carving the stone on temples and palaces. Different architectural styles occur in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Africa, Mexico, and Central and South America. Architects in |
Anatomy is the study of the bodies of people and other animals. Anatomy is the study of the inside of the body and outside the body. Anatomy notes the position and structure of organs such as muscles, glands and bones. A person who studies anatomy is an anatomist. The history of anatomy dates back to 1600 BC when Egyptians began studying human anatomy. They discovered the functions of many organs like the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart etc. and were the first to discover the structure and functions of the lymphatic system. For long periods the dissection of deceased people was forbidden, and correct ideas about human anatomy was a long time coming. Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools and teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching and research. Gross anatomy studies parts of the body that are big enough to see. Micro-anatomy studies smaller parts. Body systems. There are different organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system (the system that gets blood around the body), the muscular system (the system that contains muscles), the nervous system (the system that controls the nerves,and the brain) and the skeleton (the bones). Anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are similar basic medical sciences. |
An asteroid is a minor planet that orbits within the inner solar system. It is a small object in the Solar System that travels around the Sun. It is like a planet but smaller. They range from very small (smaller than a car) to 600 miles (1000 km) across. A few asteroids have an asteroid moon. The name "asteroid" means "like a star" in the ancient Greek language. Asteroids may look like small stars in the sky, but they really do move around the Sun. Like planets, asteroids do not make their own light. Because of this, some people think "asteroids" is not a good name, and think that the name "planetoid" ("like a planet") would be a better name. Asteroids are the leftover rock and other material from the formation of the Solar System. These rocks were too small to come together to make a planet. Some are made of carbon or metal. Depending on what's on the surface, they are classified into various asteroid spectral types including Type M (metal), Type S (stone), and Type C (carbon). Most asteroids in our Solar System are in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Many are not in the main asteroid belt. The ones that come close to Earth are called Near-Earth asteroids. Some scientists think asteroids striking the Earth killed off all the dinosaurs and caused some of the other extinction events. Media told in 2025, about the chemical substances that were (found on, or) sampled from asteroid Bennu: "traces of brine" and "all five nucleobases that make up DNA and RNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil". The sample was taken in 2020, and the space capsule with sample, landed in the United States in 2023. History. Giuseppe Piazzi found the first asteroid, in 1801. He called it Ceres, and it is the biggest object in the asteroid belt. Others, like Juno, Pallas, and Vesta were found later. In the 1850s, so many had been found that they were numbered by a Minor planet designation starting with 1 Ceres. Today, astronomers using computerized telescopes find thousands of asteroids every month. Asteroid impact prediction is one of their purposes. |
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is a country in Asia. It borders Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. Kabul is the capital city. Afghanistan is currently governed by the Taliban, after the collapse of the internationally recognized Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on 15 August 2021. In early times people passed through it with animals and other goods as it connected China and India with Central Asia and the Middle East. More recently, Afghanistan has been damaged by many years of war. There are not enough jobs. The country is around in size. There are 40.976 million people in Afghanistan. There are about 3 million Afghan refugees (people who had to leave the country) in Pakistan and Iran. In 2011 Kabul, had about 3,691,400 people living in it. United Nations Human Rights Council decided in October 2021 to appoint an independent expert, known as a United Nations special rapporteur on Afghanistan, to find out about violations carried out by the Taliban and others who are now part of a big conflict. Economy. The economy does not have growth (as April 2024), of that kind that is called GDP growth, according to Worldbank.org. In regard to the mining industry: In 2024, Chinese engineers broke ground for a mine; "The deposit is estimated to [... have] 11.5 million tons of copper ore". Geography. Afghanistan has many mountains. The mountains are called the Hindu Kush and Himalayas. The tallest mountain in Afghanistan is Mount Nowshak. There are plains (which have soil that is good for growing plants) and foothills. Parts of the country are also dry, especially the Registan Desert. Afghanistan has snow and glaciers in the mountains. Amu Darya is the big water stream, or river. The country has a lot of a valuable stone called lapis lazuli, which was used to decorate the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun. Climate. Afghanistan has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. Having no water sometimes causes problems for farmers. Sandstorms happen |
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country in southern Africa. It shares borders with Namibia in the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the north, and Zambia in the east. Its west border touches the Atlantic Ocean. Its coastline is 1600 kilometers. Angola's capital is Luanda. The country has many natural resources. Angola is the seventh largest country in Africa. The capital and most populated city of Angola is Luanda. Angola is a member state of the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone and the Southern African Development Community. History. Portugal built up its power in Angola from the late 15th to the middle 20th century. After independence there was a civil war from 1975 to 2002. Cuba and the Soviet Bloc supported the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). South Africa supported the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) until the end of apartheid. The war ended after the rebel leader Jonas Savimbi was killed. Geography. Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, the Republic of the Congo via the exclave of Cabinda, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. Climate. Angola's average temperature on the coast is in the winter and in the summer. It has two seasons; dry (May to October) and hot rainy (November to April). Demographics. Angola had a population of 25,789,024 in 2014. Provinces. Angola is divided into eighteen provinces. See List of settlements in Angola for the cities and towns in the country. |
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a country in South America. Argentina is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest country in the world. Spanish is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking Italian, German, English, Quechua and even Welsh in Patagonia. In eastern Argentina is Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, Tucumán, Mar del Plata, Salta, Santa Fe, and Bahía Blanca. Argentina is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: "Islas Malvinas") and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe. They are united by citizenship and not necessarily by ethnicity. Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality. History. The name Argentina comes from the Latin "argentum" (silver) as the Spanish conquistadors believed the area had silver. In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order). The oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the Inca Empire conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the Guaraní developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef. Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent. Argentina declared |
Austria (, ; ), officially the Republic of Austria ( ), is a country in Central Europe. Around Austria there are the countries of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. The people in Austria speak German, a few also speak Hungarian, Slovenian and Croatian. The capital of Austria is Vienna ("Wien"). History. Austria is more than a thousand years old. Its history can be followed to the ninth century. At that time the first people moved to the land now known as Austria. The name "Ostarrichi" is first written in an official document from 996. Since then this word has developed into the Modern German word "Österreich," which literally means "East Empire." Ancient times. There has been human settlement in the area that is now Austria for a long time. The first settlers go back to the Paleolithic age. That was the time of the Neanderthals. They left works of art such as the Venus of Willendorf. In the Neolithic age people were living there to dig for mineral resources, especially copper. Ötzi, a mummy found in a glacier between Austria and Italy, is from that time. In the Bronze Age people built bigger settlements and fortresses, especially where there were mineral resources. Salt mining began near Hallstatt. At that time, Celts began to form the first states. The Romans. The Romans came 15 B.C. to Austria and made the Celtic Regnum Noricum to a province. Modern Austria was part of three provinces, Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. The border in the north was the Danube. Holy Roman Empire. From the early Middle Ages, the area of modern-day Austria was a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The capital of the Holy Roman Empire was the Austrian city Vienna. The Austrian Habsburg family were the rulers of the Empire and the son of the Holy Roman Emperor held the title of Archduke of Austria. In 1806, France defeated the Holy Roman Empire and replaced it with the Confederation of the Rhine. Former Holy Roman Emperor Francis II became the Emperor of the new Austrian Empire |
Armenia (, "Hayastān"), officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country located in the Armenian Highlands, spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. History. The Hittites and Hayasa-Azzi may have played a significant role in the ethnicity of Armenians. It has an ancient cultural heritage. One of the earliest Armenian kingdoms such as Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia. The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official state religion in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The official date of state adoption of Christianity is 301. Foreign invasion. Between the 16th century and 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Iranian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule. 20th century. During World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian Genocide, perpetrated by Ottoman Young Turks. Around 1.5 million people were slaughtered and many more deported. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Empire ceased to exist and all non-Russian countries declared their independence. This led to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Administrative divisions. Armenia is divided into ten provinces, with the city of Yerevan having special administrative status as the country's capital. |
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of the human past. It looks at remains and objects left by the people who lived long ago. These remains may include old coins, tools, buildings, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived. Fieldwork. When archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging in the ground. As settlements (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings get buried. Usually, this is a natural process. A typical student project is to leave an object in a place where there is nothing going on. It will get covered rather quickly, because wind, water and plants will bury it. Sometimes buildings are deliberately buried to make way for new buildings. Ancient Rome, for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This process of natural or man-made burial is why archaeological fieldwork involves digging, and is expensive and takes a long time. When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to a base. Short term, the base is often on or near the site. Longer term, the results will usually go to a university or museum. Everything is written down on paper or entered into a computer. Gradually, they build up a picture of what happened long ago. Archaeologists publish their research so others can understand what they learned. Fields of interest. Archaeologists do not all study the same topics. They have specialties. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient China, or the Vikings. Archaeologists study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or study World War II. Marine archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea. Subdisciplines. There are many different ways of doing archaeology. these depend on the methods used, the things studied, and the environment. Some |
Animals (or Metazoa) are living creatures with many cells that make up the kingdom Animalia. Animals get their energy from other living things. Usually, they eat them or are parasites. Animals, plants, fungi, and some other living things have complex cells, so they are grouped together as eukaryotes. The study of animals is called zoology. The study of ancient life is called palaeontology. Most animals are mobile, meaning they can move around. Animals take in oxygen, and give out carbon dioxide. This cellular respiration is part of their metabolism (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different cell membranes to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi. Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their tissues. Grouping animals. There are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a biological classification. Several million species may exist, but biologists have only identified about one million. Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone, or spine; invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are the only group to have an adaptive immune system, which may be partly responsible for their size and success. Vertebrates are: Some invertebrates are: Life styles. The animal mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called herbivores. Other animals eat only meat and are called carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called omnivores. Some animals get their energy from photosynthetic protists that live inside them. The environments animals live in vary greatly. By the process of evolution, animals adapt to the habitats they live in. A fish is adapted to its life in water and a spider is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A |
Acceleration is a measure of how fast velocity changes. Acceleration is the change of velocity divided by the change of time. Acceleration is a vector, and therefore includes both a size and a direction. Acceleration is also a change in speed and direction, there is: Speed (a scalar quantity) (uses no direction) Velocity (a vector quantity) (uses a direction) The measurement of how fast acceleration changes is called jerk. Finding acceleration. Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object. Acceleration formula_1 can be found by using: formula_2 where formula_3 is the velocity at the start formula_4 is the velocity at the end formula_5 is the time at the start formula_6 is the time at the end Sometimes the change in velocity formula_7 is written as Δformula_8. Sometimes the change in time formula_9 is written as Δt. In difficult situations, the acceleration can be calculated using mathematics: in calculus, acceleration is the derivative of the velocity (with respect to time), formula_10. Units of measurement. Acceleration has its own units of measurement. For example, if velocity is measured in meters per second, and if time is measured in seconds, then acceleration is measured in meters per second squared (m/s2). Other words. Acceleration can be positive or negative. When the acceleration is negative (but the velocity does not change direction), it is sometimes called deceleration. For example, when a car brakes it decelerates. Physicists usually only use the word "acceleration". Newton's second law of motion. Newton's laws of motion are rules for how things move. These rules are called "laws of motion". Isaac Newton is the scientist who first wrote down the main laws of motion. According to Newton's Second Law of Motion, the force something needs to accelerate an object depends on the object's mass (the amount of "stuff" the object is made from or how "heavy" it is). The formula of Newton's Second Law of Motion is formula_11, where formula_12 is the acceleration, formula_13 is the force, and formula_14 the mass. This formula is |
Black pudding is an English name for zwarte pudding. It is food made by cooking down the blood of any mammal (usually pigs or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled. Types of black pudding. In Great Britain, blood sausage is called "black pudding". The ingredients include pig's blood, suet, bread, barley and oatmeal. Bury is well known for them. The most common kind of German "Blutwurst" is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is usually served warm. Other kinds of blood sausage include "boudin noir" (France), "boudin rouge" (Creole and Cajun) and "morcilla" (Spain). History. A legend says that blood sausage was invented in a bet between two Bavarian butchers drunk on the alcoholic drink absinthe during the 14th century. Homer's "Odyssey" from Ancient Greece says that "As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...". |
A boot device is used to start a computer. It is named after a boot which fits on the foot. The word bootstrap is also closely related, and means, to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better. It comes from the English phrase "pull yourself up by your own bootstraps." Before a computer can operate normally, it must have operating system instructions that tell it how to perform basic functions. A boot device loads the operating system into the memory of the computer. Devices that can boot a computer are usually boot disks or boot drives (normally a hard drive or Solid State Drive, but can be a floppy disk, flash drive or a CD). Some network computers use "boot chips" that get the operating system over a network. Web phones also use such chips to identify the user to the mobile phone network. Boot card standards may let many users boot kiosk computers with full privacy and access to all application software they own. There are also boot boards or boot "add-in" cards that are more permanent than boot cards. Some people refer to the boot device as just a boot and non-boot devices as data devices, although it is not the computer but the operating system that cares about the difference between these. Origin. The boot in boot device is the same as booting (or starting up). This is short for bootstrapping, or to start with simple stuff and make complex stuff out of it. |
A boot is a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well. Some boots are held on with "bootstraps" or "bootlaces". Some also have spats or "gaiters" to keep water out. Most have a very strong "boot sole", the bottom part of a boot. |
Bankruptcy is a legal process which happens when a person or an organization does not have enough money to pay all of its debts. Legally they are insolvent. Where it is a person who cannot pay their debts, the person's creditors may ask the court to appoint a "trustee in bankruptcy". This is a professional accountant who is appointed by the court, to take control of the bankrupt person's assets. Some assets are protected by law, but the trustee in bankruptcy will sell off all of the other assets and use the money to pay as much of that person's debts as possible. After the process is complete the person is "discharged from bankruptcy", and the person is free from any further liability to pay those claims, but normally that person will be limited in their ability to borrow money again because their credit rating will be damaged. Where it is an organisation which cannot pay its debts, the creditors may ask the court to appoint a "liquidator". The liquidator does a very similar job to the trustee in bankruptcy except that there are no assets which are protected so the liquidator can sell everything. Once all of the assets of the organisation have been sold, the organisation is then "dissolved" and no longer exists. Organisations do not get discharged from bankruptcy in the same way that a living person does. Insolvency or bankruptcy. People often confuse the terms bankruptcy and insolvency, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other. Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets. Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts. Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy. Alternatives to bankruptcy. Many countries have alternatives to bankruptcy to try and allow people and businesses to try and avoid the bankruptcy process. In various countries, individual people can try and reach "individual voluntary arrangements" (or IVAs) with their creditors. This means that the creditors agree to take less money to discharge their debts. There are similar processes for companies and other organisations, and |
Breakfast sausage is a type of fresh pork sausage made from seasoned ground meat mixed with bread crumbs. Breakfast sausage has a blander flavor than many other types of sausage, such as British or Italian-style sausages. History of breakfast sausages. The journey of breakfast sausages began centuries ago in Europe, with each European country adding its unique twist. For instance, Germany is known for its variety of wursts, while Italian sausages often feature fennel and garlic. This evolution reflects changes in societal norms and eating habits, transitioning from a means of preservation to a convenient breakfast option. Using breakfast sausages. Breakfast sausages are not cured or smoked like other types of sausages, which means that they have to be cooked soon after they are purchased (unless they are frozen). Uncooked sausages should be stored in the refrigerator or the freezer. Individuals handling them should wash their hands in hot soapy water, because uncooked pork is unhealthy for humans. Pork sausages have to be heated until all of the meat inside is cooked. They are usually fried or grilled in a pan until they are browned and served at breakfast, often with cooked eggs, pancakes, and toasted bread. Breakfast sausages are also used in other dishes, such as "toad in the hole" a cooked batter dish. Preparation and Cooking. Cooking breakfast sausages to perfection is an art. Frying in a pan over medium heat brings out rich flavors, while baking offers a healthier alternative with minimal attention. Grilling imparts a unique smoky flavor. Regardless of the method, the internal temperature should reach 160°F (71°C) to ensure they are cooked through. Types of breakfast sausages. Different types made from pork and beef mixtures as well as poultry can now be found. There are also vegetarian types that use textured vegetable protein in place of meat. Breakfast sausages are available in patties or slices from a large roll, or in weiner-like links of different lengths and thickness. Nutritional Information. Breakfast sausages are a good protein source but can be high in saturated fat and sodium. Leaner versions are available, and for those looking for |
A browser is a name given to any animal, usually a herbivorous mammal, which eats leaves and shrubs rather than grass. It is contrasted with grazers, which eat grass. |
Beekeeping or apiculture is the farming of honeybees. Uses. The keeping of bees is usually, and has been in the past, for honey. That is becoming less true. Instead, it is more used for crop pollination and other products. These are wax and propolis. There is only one queen bee in each hive and she is bigger than the rest. She lays all the eggs, which makes all the other bees in the hive her daughters and sons. However, they do not control the hive. Types of beekeeping. The largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for profit. Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a hobby. Urban beekeeping is a growing trend, and some have found that "city bees" are actually healthier than "rural bees" because there are fewer pesticides and greater biodiversity. Threats. Colony Collapse Disorder is a growing problem, along with mites. |
British English or UK English is the dialect of English that is spoken in the United Kingdom. It is different in some ways from other types of English such as American English. British English is widely spoken in most countries that were once part of the British Empire. Use in other countries. American English is used in the United States. In Canada, the accent sounds very similar to American English, but Canadian English has a few differences. Canada has mixed the spelling rules of American and British English to form its own spelling rules. Most members of the Commonwealth of Nations learn British English, and American English is often learnt in the Americas, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. The United Kingdom and Ireland use British layout keyboards, and Australia, South Africa, Canada, New Zealand and the United States use American layout keyboards. In Continental Europe, English as a second language is sometimes taught in American English except in Scandinavia and the Netherlands, where British English is taught. Pronunciation. In the United Kingdom, the spelling remains the same, but the pronunciation varies in the local dialects. For example, a person from a place near London may not pronounce the "r" the same as a person from Scotland. Across the country, the accent is different. Liverpool people may speak with a "Scouse" accent, and Birmingham people speak with a "Brummie" accent. In London, the "Cockney" accent was once commonm but it is almost never heard today. All regional accents became less extreme in the 20th century. That is generally attributed to the arrival of radio and television. Another factor is the increased mobility of people. A similar process has been noted in the United States, where regional differences are much less noticeable than they used to be. Spelling. There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often has more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. Many British English rules are also used in other countries. Most of those countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Vocabulary. In British English, "dock" refers to the water in the space between two "piers" or "wharfs". In American English, the "pier" or "wharf" could be called a "dock", and the water between would be a "slip". Here are other common differences: British English – American English |
"Being is also a present tense part of to be" The word being means a living person or animal. ‘Human being’ means the same as ’person’. Men, women, and children are human beings. Some people write stories or make movies about beings from other planets. Most religions talk about supernatural beings, for example spirits, angels, devils, gods, or God. |
Beijing is the capital of the People's Republic of China. The city used to be known as Peking. It is in the northern and eastern parts of the country. Having more that 21 million residents, it is one of the most populous capital cities. The city of Beijing has played a very important role in the development of China. Many people from different cities and countries come to Beijing to look for better chances to find work. Nearly 15 million people live there. Beijing hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 2008, and the Winter Olympic Games in 2022. It is the only city that has hosted both. Beijing is well known for its ancient history. Since the Jin Dynasty, Beijing has been the capital of several dynasties (especially the later ones), including the Yuan, Ming, and Qing. There are many places of historic interest in Beijing. Name. The Mandarin Chinese name of the city is "Běijīng", which means "The Northern Capital". It got this name when the Yongle Emperor of the Ming family of rulers moved most of his government from Nanjing ("The Southern Capital") in the early 1400s. In Chinese, Beijing's name is written Today, people spell it "Beijing" because they use the pinyin way of spelling, which shows what the name should sound like in Mandarin. People used to spell it "Peking" because that was the spelling used by some of the first people from Europe to visit the Ming and write home about it; the Jesuits' work was made popular by their French brother Du Halde. It then became the official Chinese Postal Map spelling around 1900 and continued to be used until pinyin became more popular. Beijing was also known as Beiping ("City of Northern Peace") between 1928 and 1949, when the Nationalists moved the Chinese capital to Nanjing and Chongqing. History. The center of Beijing was settled in the 1st millennium BC. In those days, the Kingdom of Yan (燕, Yān) set up their capital where Beijing is today. They called it Ji (蓟, Jì). After the Kingdom of Yan was destroyed, |
A bottle is a container used to carry liquids. Bottles can have many different sizes. Bottles are usually made of glass or plastic. Drinks such as milk, wine, lemonade, soft drinks, and water are often put into bottles. Other liquids put into bottles include chemicals like bleach or detergent, and some kinds of medicines. |
The word berry is used for many different kinds of small fruits that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are raspberry, strawberry, sutberry, lingonberry and blueberry. When botanists talk about "berries", they mean a simple fruit produced from a single ovary. They sometimes call this "true berry", to distinguish it from "false berries". By that statement of how words are used, grapes or tomatoes are true berries. The berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the pericarp which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary. Berries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more animals towards them and spread their seeds. Some fruits that are called "berries" in English are not "true berries" by the use of words above. These include raspberries, strawberry, sutberry, blackberries, cranberries, and boysenberries. Some true berries do not have "berry" in their name. These include tomatoes, bananas, eggplants, guavas, pomegranates and chillies. Pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, oranges and lemons are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons). |
A beard is the hair growing on the lower part of a man's face. The hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is a mustache. When a man has hair only below the lower lip and above the chin, it is called a soul patch. Some men have a lot of hair and a big beard, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their beards, or cut their beard so it does not get very long. Some animals also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a beard. |
In light, black is the absence of all color. It is a shade. In painting, however, the black pigment is the combination of all colors. In heraldry, black is called "sable". It is the opposite of white. Black in science. In science, an object that is black absorbs the light that hits it. Because these objects do not reflect any light, the human eye can't see any color coming from that object. The brain then sees these objects as black. A way to create black objects is to mix pigments. A pigment works by reflecting only the color of the pigment. For example, a blue pigment absorbs all colors except blue. By mixing pigments in the right quantities, black can be made. In sunlight, black objects become warm more quickly than other colored objects because they absorb more light. Meaning of black. Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, safety, birth, male, evil and mystery. Black is a dark color, the darkest color there is. Black, along with grey and white, is a "neutral" color. This means that it is not a "hot" color or a "cool" color. Black is a color seen with fear and the unknown. It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and power. It can be a formal, elegant and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes). |
Bubonic plague is the best-known form of the disease plague caused by the bacterium "Yersinia pestis". The name "bubonic plague" is specific for this form of the disease, which enters through the skin, and travels through the lymphatic system. The plague was spread by fleas on rats. This method of spreading disease is called a zoonosis. If the disease is left untreated, it kills about half its victims in three to seven days. The bubonic plague was the disease that caused the Black Death, which killed tens of millions of people in Europe, in the Middle Ages. Symptoms of this disease include coughing, fever, and black spots on the skin. Different kinds of the same disease. There are different kinds of Bubonic plague. The most common form of the disease is spread by a certain kind of flea, that lives on rats. Then there is an incubation period which can last from a few hours to about seven days. Septicemic plague. Sepsis happens when the bacterium enters the blood and makes it form tiny clots. Pneumonic plague. This happens when the bacterium can enter the lungs. About 95% of all people with this form will die. Incubation period is only one to two days. The abortive form. This is the most harmless form. It will result in a small fever. After that, the victim's body produces antibodies that protect against all forms of the disease for a long time. History. The first recorded epidemic was in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), It was called the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived after long treatment. The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million (6th century outbreak) to 50 million people (two centuries of recurrence). During the 1300s, this epidemic struck parts of Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Almost a third of the people in Europe died of it. Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying that it broke people's trust in one another. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer of the time, described |
Biology is the science that studies life, living things, and the evolution of life. Living things include animals, plants, fungi (such as mushrooms), and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea. The term 'biology' is relatively modern. It was introduced in 1799 by a physician, Thomas Beddoes. People who study biology are called biologists. Biology looks at how animals and other living things behave and work, and what they are like. Biology also studies how organisms react with each other and the environment. It has existed as a science for about 200 years, and before that it was called "natural history". Biology has many research fields and branches. Like all sciences, biology uses the scientific method. This means that biologists must be able to show evidence for their ideas and that other biologists must be able to test the ideas for themselves. Biology attempts to answer questions such as: Modern biology is influenced by evolution, which answers the question: "How has the living world come to be as it is?" History. The word "biology" comes from the Greek word "βίος" ("bios"), "life", and the suffix "-λογία" ("logia"), "study of". |
Botany is the study of plants. It is a science. It is a branch of biology. It is also called plant biology, and sometimes phytology. Scientists who study botany are called botanists. They study how plants work. Branches of botany. Recent trends. University departments of botany are often now merged into a wider group of specialities, including cell biology, genetics, ecology, cytology, palaeontology and other topics. This gives students and research workers access to a wider education and a wider range of research techniques. |
Belgium (officially the Kingdom of Belgium; , , ) is a country in Western Europe. Its capital, Brussels, is the home of many organizations including the European Union and NATO. Belgium is bordered by The Netherlands in the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast and France to the south. Belgium has an area of . Around 11.6 million people live in Belgium. It is a founding member of the European Union and is home to its headquarters. Regions. There are three regions in Belgium. The regions are mainly based on language and culture. Flanders and Wallonia are both split up into five provinces each. The population is about 60% Dutch-speaking, 39% French-speaking, and 1% German-speaking (the so-called "Deutschbelgier"). To look after all these groups, Belgium has a complex system of government with highly autonomous regions. History. The name 'Belgium' comes from "Gallia Belgica". This was a Roman province in the northernmost part of Gaul. Before Roman invasion in 100 BC, the "Belgae", a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples, lived there. The Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings. A slow shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to change into the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the region into Middle and West Francia. They were vassals either of the King of France or of the Holy Roman Emperor. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. Southern Netherlands were ruled by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs. This made up most of modern Belgium. After the , the Low Countries were added into the French First Republic. This ended Austrian rule in the area. Adding back the Low Countries formed the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This happened at the end of the First French Empire in |
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country. The country has about 212 million people. The capital of Brazil is Brasília. Brazil was named after brazilwood, which is a tree that once grew very well along the Brazilian coast. Brazil has the most Portuguese speakers in the world and is the only country in the Americas where Portuguese is an official language. History. The first people to come to Brazil came around 9,000 B.C. That group of indigenous people is often called the South American Indians and probably came from North America. They practiced hunting, foraging, and farming. Over thousands of years, many different indigenous people were living there. Pedro Álvares Cabral was the first European to see Brazil. He saw it in 1500. He was from Portugal and the Portuguese kingdom claimed Brazil. Soon, Portugal colonized Brazil and created colonies all along the coastline. They began to import black slaves from Africa and force them to work. Because of the violence of the slave masters, many of these slaves would run away into the forest and create their own communities called quilombos. In the late 1500s and early 1600s, the Dutch and the French tried to take some land in Brazil. Dutch, French, and Portuguese started moving inland further than the Treaty of Tordesillas said they could. This caused some fights with the Spaniards (people from Spain) and indigenous people in the area. In 1822, Brazil claimed to be its own country and not a part of Portugal anymore. Soon there was civil war. Meanwhile, the quilombos survived and Brazil was bringing in more slaves than any other country in the Americas, even though many countries were beginning to legally abolish slavery. This led to an increase in slave revolts, especially in the 1860s and 1880s, which forced the government to change the system to keep the country stable. Slavery was legally abolished in 1888. In 1889, there was a military coup, and Pedro II had to leave the country. In 1889, Brazil became a republic. The only people who could |
Britain may mean: Britain may also refer to: |
Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with chemical elements and compounds, and how they work together and change. In other words, chemistry is the branch of science about fundamental properties of matter and chemical reactions. Chemistry is the study of the substances and their transformations (or change). History. In history, people studied elements to figure out how to do things such as turn lead into gold, but they did not manage to do it. This early form of chemistry was called alchemy. During the 18th century, alchemists became chemists when they began using the scientific method. Chemists separated the air into many parts and isolated the noble gases from it. They also processed special minerals from a mine in Sweden to get rare earth metals. Radioactivity was also discovered. 118 different elements have been found. Some are very common, like oxygen. Many are very rare and expensive, like platinum. Some cannot be found on earth and can only be made in labs, like rutherfordium. Since the 1920s, the increased understanding of physics has changed chemists' theories about chemical reactions. With smaller and faster computers, chemists have built better tools for analyzing substances. These tools have been sent to study chemicals on Mars. Police also use those tools to study evidence from crime scenes. Types of chemistry. There are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit. Theoretical chemistry tries to explain chemical data with mathematics and computers. A large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry. Concepts of chemistry. Basic concepts. The basic unit of an element is called an atom |
Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of computation and practical techniques for their application. Computer science is the science of information. Computer scientists study different ways of reading, using, and encoding information. There are many different areas within computer science. In some areas, scientists only work with ideas "on paper". In other areas they use those ideas to make things like computers and computer programs. A person who works in computer science will often need to understand logic and mathematics. Common tasks for a computer scientist. Asking questions. This is so people can find new and easier ways to do things, and the way to approach problems with this information. While computers can do some things easily (like simple math, or sorting out a list of names from A-to-Z), computers cannot answer questions when there is not enough information, or when there is no real answer. Also, computers may take too much time to finish long tasks. For example, it may take too long to find the shortest way through all of the towns in the USA - so instead a computer will try to make a close guess. A computer will answer these simpler questions much faster. Answering the question. Algorithms are a specific set of instructions or steps on how to complete a task. For example, a computer scientist wants to sort playing cards. There are many ways to sort them - by suits (diamonds, clubs, hearts, and spades) or by numbers (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King, and Ace). By deciding on a set of steps to sort the cards, the scientist has created an algorithm. The scientist then needs to test whether this algorithm works. This shows how well and how fast the algorithm sorts cards. A simple but slow algorithm is: pick up two cards and check whether they are sorted correctly. If they are not, reverse them. Then do it again with another two, and repeat them all until they are all sorted. This is called a bubble sort. This method will work, but it will take a very long time. A better algorithm is: find the first card with the smallest suit and smallest number (2 of diamonds |
A computer is a machine that uses electronics to input, process, store, and output data. Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists. Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a hard drive, or a sensor. The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in software programs. A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform. Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around. The data is then saved on a storage device, shown on a display, or sent to another computer. Computers can be connected together to form a network such as the internet, allowing the computers to communicate with each other. The processor of a computer is made from integrated circuits (chips) that contains many transistors. Most computers are digital, which means that they represent information using binary digits, or bits. Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand, model, and purpose. They range from small computers, such as smartphones and laptops, to large computers, such as supercomputers. Characteristics. Two things that define a computer are that it responds to a specific instruction set in a well-defined manner, and that it can execute a stored list of instructions called a program. There are four main actions in a computer: inputting, storing, outputting and processing. Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where automation is useful. Some examples are controlling traffic lights, vehicles, security systems, washing machines and digital televisions. Computers can be designed to do almost anything with certain information. Computers are used to control large and small machines that, in the past, were controlled by humans. Most people have a personal computer at home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading, writing, or playing games. Hardware. Modern computers are electronic computer hardware. They do mathematical arithmetic very quickly, but computers do not really "think." They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The software uses the hardware |
A continent is a large area of the land on Earth that is joined. There are no strict rules for what land is considered a continent, but in general the Earth is known to have seven continents; these being, Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Oceania (or Australia). Statistics. The most populous continent by population is Asia, followed by Africa. The third most populous continent is Europe. The fourth most populous is North America, and then South America. In sub-Saharan Africa, the largest age group are denarians (in their teens). In north Africa, the largest age group are vicenarian (in their twenties). In Europe, most people are tricenarian (in their thirties) or quadragenarian (in their forties). Continents. Geologists use the term "continent" to mean continental crust, a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than oceanic crust, which is why it "floats" higher than oceanic crust on the underlying mantle. This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins. Australia. Some sources say that Australia is one of the seven continents. Others say that Australia is part of a larger continent, such as Australasia, or Oceania. Oceania is a region which includes Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Australasia includes at least all countries on the Australian continental plate. This includes the islands of New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand and a number of smaller islands. It is on the south-eastern side of the Wallace Line, with distinct differences in its biology from the Asian side of the line. "It includes all the islands of the Malay Archipelago... as well as the various groups of islands in the Pacific. The term has been used in very different senses". Zealandia. Zealandia is an almost entirely submerged land mass, and 93% of it still remains under water. Zealandia may have broken off the Australian plate between 85 and 130 million years ago. North and South America. North America and South America together are often described as one continent, "the |
The Greek classical elements are fire, air, water, and earth. In Greek philosophy, science and medicine, these make up a whole. The image below has two squares on top of each other. The corners of one are the classical elements. The corners of the other are the properties. Galen said these elements were used by Hippocrates to describe the human body. The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air). In Chinese Taoism the elements are metal, wood, water, fire, earth (). |
China ( Pinyin: Zhōngguó) is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and a nation in East Asia. The official name is People's Republic of China or PRC. The latest Chinese Civil War (19271949) resulted from two different political powers today: China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, having the oldest continuous civilization near the Yellow River region. There is archaeological evidence found that is over 5,000 years old. China also has one of the world's oldest writing systems (and the oldest in use today). China has been the source of making many major inventions. Geographically, China’s longest river is the Yangtze River, which runs through mega cities and is home to many species. It is the world’s third longest river. Origins. The first recorded use of the word "China" is dated to be 190. It is derived from "chīnī", a Persian adjective meaning 'Chinese' which was popularized in Europe by Marco Polo. History. Ancient (2100 B.C. 1500 A.D.). Ancient China was one of the first civilizations, and was active since the 2nd millennium BC as a feudal society. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing, with the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt. Ancient China reached its golden age during the Tang Dynasty (c. A.D. 10th century). Home of Confucianism and Daoism. Before the Qin Dynasty united China, there were many small feudal states, nominally loyal to the Zhou King, which typically fought each other for hundreds of years in battles for control of China. The majority of these states were ruled by relatives and clansmen of the Zhou royal house and carried the surname Ji (姬), and were tied by family bonds to the Zhou king, to whom they were ritually subordinate, as members of collateral or lesser lineages. A minority of these states, such as the Qin and Chu, were ruled by non-Zhou clansmen, and were awarded their fiefs on account of some merit. Over time |
A country is a distinct territory with defined borders, boundaries, people and government. Most countries are sovereign states while others make up one part of a larger state. The people that live in a country are referred to as a nation. The government that runs the country is called the state. Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States, Canada and other countries. Number of countries. There is no universally accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are, however the minimum answer is 195, though there are 193 United Nations members. This can be developed on even further by adding the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, The Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Denmark which could add anywhere from three to eleven more countries. There are multiple organisations that have their own lists of countries, one example being the Travellers Century Club which recognises 330 countries as of January 2022. Disputed countries. Palestine is classified as a country. However, there is an ongoing dispute over Palestine’s independence with Israel. There are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition. For example, Kosovo, Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Northern Cyprus, Chechnya, Tibet, East Turkestan and Somaliland. These are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries. There is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often any of these territories may be counted as countries purely based on opinion. If all of the above were added the list of U.N members there could be anything up to 211 countries. There are, however, many more territories with unique political circumstances that could also be counted. Depending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be many more than 193 countries in the world. The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions. Constituent country. Constituent country is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries are part of a sovereign state. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former Yugoslavia, and |
Colchester is a city in the northern part of the English county of Essex. It has a population of 130,245 people. People believe that Colchester is the oldest Roman town in England. History. Before Roman times, Colchester was "Camulodunon". This is a Celtic name that came from Camulos. Camulos was the Celtic god of war. The Romans called Colchester "Camulodunum" (written "CAMVLODVNVM") and made it the capital of Roman Britain. Colchester was attacked and burnt by Boudicca in 61 AD. The Romans moved their capital of Britannia to Londinium (now London), but Camulodunum remained an important city until the fifth century, when the Saxons conquered the region. The Roman town of "Camulodunum", officially known as "Colonia Victricensis", reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD. It may have reached a population of 30,000 in those centuries, but when the Romans withdrew from Britannia in 410 AD it probably had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants. The church at the Benedictine abbey of Saint John the Baptist was destroyed in 1539. This action was part of the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII. Only a gate remains, that people still go to visit. King Cunobelinus (or "Cunobelin") was from Colchester. Until 2022, Colchester was officially a town, not a city. On 5 September, Queen Elizabeth II signed letters patent to grant it city status. This was planned as part of her Platinum Jubilee celebrations. However, she died three days later. On 29 September, these letters were publicly released. Twin cities. Colchester is twinned with the following cities: |
Cartography is making maps. It is part of geography. How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using computers and people usually see maps on computer screens. Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer. Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world. Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps. For many centuries maps were usually carefully drawn onto paper or parchment. Now they are made on a computer which makes them look neater with accurate images. Maps are of two main types: General maps are produced in a series. Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail. Thematic maps are now very common. They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social data. |
A creator is a person who creates something. In some religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) God (or Allah meaning the God in Arabic) is the most important and original creator of the whole universe - including Man who is made "in his image" (see Genesis) to observe it and control it like God. The idea that anything that a person is creating, like an idea, can be owned as property comes from the ethical traditions and legal codes that came from these religions. In other traditions (Buddhism, Native American mythology) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the universe. Stewardship of home, land and all of Earth is a test for participating in this, or just good sense. |
Chorizo is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula. It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it. In the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used. Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking. Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal. It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork. Chorizo can be fresh. Also it can be dried. It can be spicy or not spicy depending on the recipe. There are many ways to eat chorizo. It can be sliced and eaten as a snack, or cooked. Dishes like stews, soups and rice dishes also use Chorizo. In Spain, chorizo is served as a small plate of food with drinks. In Latin America, chorizo is served with beans and eggs for breakfast. To make chorizo, the pork is cut into small pieces. Then it is mixed with spices and other ingredients. The mixture is then put into a casing. Casing is a thin, tube-like skin. Casing is made from the intestine of a pig. The chorizo is then left to dry for a few weeks. By doing this chorizo gets its special flavor and texture. There are many kinds of chorizo. Recipe of chorizo also different in different countries. In Spain, there are two main kinds of chorizo: chorizo de verdeo, and chorizo de cantimpalo. Chorizo de verdeo made with white wine and chorizo de cantimpalomade with red wine. In Latin America, chorizo is made with a mixture of chili peppers and other spices. It makes chorizo spicy. There are a few different ways to cook with chorizo. One popular way is to slice the chorizo and fry it in a pan until it is crispy. It can then be added to dishes like soups, st |
Creativity is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music. As a personal ability it is difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging who and what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things that are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity. Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals, and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar. Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay writers and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court. Creativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as ingenuity (the ability to come up with new ideas) or individual capital - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity. |
The Cathar faith was a version of Christianity. They were usually considered Gnostics. The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word "katharos" meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, "The Gnostics") or "the pure ones". They used a bible in the language people spoke. Most other Western Christians used a Bible in Latin. Latin was spoken only by the priests. Doctrines. The Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god. They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god. They were famous for a belief in a form of reincarnation and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing. They were opposed to the doctrine of sin. Women were prominent in the faith. They were pacifists. They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and cows milk. The only exception to this was fish. Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water. They preached tolerance of other faiths. They rejected the usual Christian rules of marriage and only believed in the New Testament. An earlier 10th-century Bulgarian heresy, Bogomilism and also Manichaeism started some of these trends. Problems. In 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began. In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was "full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites" and "worshipping the wrong God", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In 1166, the Council of Oxford in England wiped out the English Cathars. They were also suppressed in Northern France. In 1167, Cathar bishops met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Languedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became "Perfects". |
Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that deals with the universe. NASA defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe". Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it". Modern cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics. Though the word "cosmology" is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's "Cosmologia Generalis"), the study of the universe has a long history. History. Until the Renaissance people thought the universe was only the planets up to Saturn, and stars. With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe. Early in the 20th century, astronomers thought the Milky Way was the entire universe. Later, with astrophotography and spectroscopy, astronomers (for example Edwin Hubble) showed that the Milky Way was only one of many galaxies. Modern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. This made physicists realize that the universe changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift. Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926. The Big Bang model was then proposed by Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929. Later the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation was made. This was found by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. All of these discoveries have been supported in the 21st century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites. Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS. An astronomical survey looks at a place in space. A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts. On 1 December 2014, at the |
A church is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together. These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology. The following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called chapels. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese. Each diocese has a cathedral. In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of bishops. History of church buildings. In the early days of Christianity people met in private buildings. Church buildings are mentioned for the first time around A.D. 260 when the Emperor Galienus ordered an end of a persecution and to return the places of worship. In the third century we hear of large church buildings. We do not know, how these early buildings looked. Only in Dura-Europos (Syria) a building was discovered, which had been a private house modified for Christian services. After the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in A.D. 337, Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages. The parts of a church. There are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts: In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church. Traditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called pews. Some churches may now have replaced their p |
A city is a place where many people live close together. A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a "city center" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center. Definition. No rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called "city," and other places are called "town." Some things that make a city are : In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities ) Size of cities. The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city. Cities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Siena in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Siena, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years. Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines. U.S.A. usage. In the US, the word "city" is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named "city" to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities |
Cooking is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it. Methods. Cooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven. It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue). The heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal. It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity. There are several different ways to cook food. Boiling cooks food in hot water. Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil. Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air. Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it. People often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it. Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked. Usually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan. Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire. Cooks. A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a "cook" or a "chef". The word "cooker" means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food. Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples. |
To chat is to talk about ordinary things that are not usually very important. However, important issues can also classify as “chat”, for instance when organising gatherings, meetings or events, such as air show attendance. A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ. There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin. Online Chat is real time, text-based, digital communication between two or more parties. |
A cup is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking. These include: Cup may also mean: |
A crime (or misdemeanor or felony) is an act done by a person which is against the laws of a country or region. A person who does this is called a criminal. The basic idea of what things are called "crimes" is that they are thought to be things that might cause a problem for another person. Things like killing another person, injuring another person, or stealing from another person are crimes in most countries. Also, it can be a crime to have or sell contraband such as guns or illegal drugs. The latter two often fall under the category of victimless crime When some criminals make money from crime, they try to stop the police finding out where the money came from by money laundering. Men and boys commit many more crimes than women and girls. Etymology. The word "crime" is derived from the Latin root "cernō", meaning "I decide, I give judgment". Originally the Latin word "crīmen" meant "charge" or "cry of distress." The Ancient Greek word κρίμα, "krima", from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to an intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong. In 13th century English "crime" meant "sinfulness", according to the Online Etymology Dictionary. It was probably brought to England as Old French "crimne" (12th century form of Modern French "crime"), from Latin "crimen" (in the genitive case: "criminis"). In Latin, "crimen" could have signified any one of the following: "charge, indictment, accusation; crime, fault, offense". Definition. England and Wales. Whether a given act or omission constitutes a crime does not depend on the nature of that act or omission; it depends on the nature of the legal consequences that may follow it. An act or omission is a crime if it is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings. Scotland. For the purpose of section 243 of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, a crime means an offence punishable on indictment, or an offence punishable on summary conviction, and for |
Time Cube was a personal website created in 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as "Time Cube". It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four "corners". He also said that all of modern physics is wrong. Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested. On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil". Some of his comments were racist and discriminatory towards black people, Jews, and gay people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand. Ray spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in January 2002. At MIT, a professor tried to cancel the lecture before it happened. Ray believed this was proof of a conspiracy to keep information about Time Cube hidden. Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the Georgia Institute of Technology in April 2005. Ray died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. His website went down in August 2015. It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016. |
The Census of Marine Life was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000. Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it. It was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle. The purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans. |
Maize or Indian corn (called corn in some countries) is "Zea mays", a member of the grass family "Poaceae". It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup. Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as "corn". Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods. Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte. The genus "Zea". There are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica. |
Civics is the study of government. It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen. In college, civics is usually called political science. Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city. Theories of civics can be grouped as: It contains the rule and regulations of the citizen to make the country democratic |
Calculus is a branch of mathematics that describes continuous change. There are two different types of calculus. Differential calculus divides ("differentiates") things into small ("different") pieces, and tells us how they change from one moment to the next, while integral calculus joins ("integrates") the small pieces together, and tells us how much of something is made, overall, by a series of changes. Calculus is used in many different sciences such as physics, astronomy, biology, engineering, economics, medicine and sociology. History. In the 1670s and 1680s, Sir Isaac Newton in England and Gottfried Leibniz in Germany figured out calculus at the same time, working separately from each other. Newton wanted to have a new way to predict where to see planets in the sky, because astronomy had always been a popular and useful form of science, and knowing more about the motions of the objects in the night sky was important for navigation of ships. Leibniz wanted to measure the space (area) under a curve (a line that is not straight). Many years later, the two men argued over who discovered it first. Scientists from England supported Newton, but scientists from the rest of Europe supported Leibniz. Most mathematicians today agree that both men share the credit equally. Some parts of modern calculus come from Newton, such as its uses in physics. Other parts come from Leibniz, such as the symbols used to write it. They were not the first people to use mathematics to describe the physical world — Aristotle and Pythagoras came earlier, and so did Galileo Galilei, who said that mathematics was the language of science. But both Newton and Leibniz were the first to design a system that describes how things change over time, and can predict how they will change in the future. The name "calculus" was the Latin word for a small stone the ancient Romans used in counting and gambling. The English word "calculate" comes from the same Latin word. Differential calculus. Differential calculus is used to find the rate of change of a variable—compared to another variable. Variables can change their value. This is different from numbers because numbers are |
A coin is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. The earliest coins were in Lydia, in what is Turkey today, in 7th Century BC. They were made from electrum, an alloy found in riverbeds. Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints. Appearance. Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a king or ither important person's head on it. The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin". A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it. You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries. Collecting. Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little. |
A conceptual metaphor or cognitive metaphor is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction: The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: "Metaphors we live by". "The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman. A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second. Political metaphors. There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives. |
Crust is a piece of bread where the edge where it is harder and darker. Crust can also mean: |
Comedy (from ), in modern times, is an entertainment with generally funny content. It is able to make people laugh. This definition was used for theatre plays, and was first used in Ancient Greece. Aristotle defined this as “Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type- not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain.” To him, the lampooners became writers of Comedy and the truly artistic ones became writers of Tragedy. Comedy is also a media genre that is for television shows or movies that are either funny or silly. People who are known for acting in comedies are termed as comedians or comedic actors. History. Satire. The ancient Greeks had comedies, which were presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia. One of the best-known comedy authors of the time was Aristophanes (about 446386 BC). One of his works, "The Clouds" was performed 425 BC. The work did not survive completely, but a later version did survive. It is a satire against Socrates, and pictures the great philosopher as a swaggering con artist. Some of the accusations were re-used at Socrates' trial, twenty years later. Typical for satire are that the author criticizes society, and living people. Satyr plays. Another type of Ancient Greek theatre was the satyr play. This was mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment. The modern equivalent would be knock-about comedy. Humour. Humour, or 'New Comedy' is not about criticizing people or ideas, but rather about showing characters in funny situations. The most important Greek playwright of this type was probably Menander. The best known Roman comedy writer was Plautus. He often used Greek comedies for his plays. Many comedy plays were written in the 1500s by the British writer William Shakespeare. Shakespeare |
A comet is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as "dirty snowballs". They are very different from asteroids. The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night. They have long "tails", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind. The hard centre of the comet is the "nucleus". It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us. "Periodic" comets visit again and again. "Non-periodic" or "single-apparition" comets visit only once. Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object. History of comets. For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and |
Cytology is the study of the cells, especially their appearance and structure. Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their environment. There are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see nucleus, and do not have a membrane, or wall, around them. Eukaryotic cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main organelles of a cell and their uses are: |
A Christian () is a person who believes in Christianity, an Abrahamic monotheistic religion. Christianity is mostly about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, in the Bible's New Testament and interpreted or prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.1 billion followers around the world. Views of the Bible. Christians consider the Holy Bible to be a sacred book, inspired by God. The Holy Bible is a combination of the Hebrew Bible, or Torah, and a collection of writings called the New Testament. Views on the importance of these writings vary. Some Christian groups prefer to favor the New Testament. Others believe the entire Bible is equally important. Also, while many Christians prefer to consider the Bible as fully true, not all Christian groups believe that it is completely accurate. Who is a Christian? The question of "Who is a Christian?" can be very difficult. Christians often disagree over this due to their differences in opinion on spiritual matters. In countries where most persons were baptized in the state church or the majority Christian church, the term "Christian" is a default label for citizenship or for "people like us". In this context, religious or ethnic minorities can use "Christians" or "you Christians" as a term for majority members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a very secular (though formally Christian) society. Persons who are more devoted to their Christian faith prefer not to use the word so broadly. They only use it to refer to those who are active in their Christian religion and really believe the teachings of Jesus and their church. In some Christian movements (especially Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism), to be a born-again Christian is to undergo a "spiritual rebirth" by believing in the Bible's teachings about Jesus and choosing to follow him. Church life. Many Christians choose to go to church. Most Christians believe this to be a sign of their religious devotion to God and an act of worship. However, some Christian groups think that one can be a Christian without ever going to a church. Though there are many different viewpoints on the issue, most Protestants believe all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not those Christians go to an actual church each week. On the other hand, Catholics in the past have believed that their Roman Catholic Church is the only true church. |
Cheese is a dairy product that is made from milk from many different animals milk. There are many types of cheese, such as cheddar, Swiss, and provolone. Many things affect the form, texture, colour and flavour of a cheese. These include the milk (cow or goat), if the milk has been pasteurized, the amount of butterfat, bacteria and mold in the cheese, how the cheese is made, how much fat is in the cheese, and how old the cheese is. Origin. People have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made. It is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC. Classification. There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include: There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues. Different types of cheese include: |
The constitution of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. It tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed. Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution "(see Rule of Law )". On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation. The UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a "de facto" or "unwritten" constitution. The United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution. The Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments. |
A circle is a round, two-dimensional shape. All points on the edge of the circle are at the same distance from the center. The radius of a circle is a line from the center of the circle to a point on the side. Mathematicians use the letter formula_1 for the length of a circle's radius. The center of a circle is the point in the very middle. It is often written as formula_2. The diameter (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter formula_3 for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius (formula_3 equals formula_5 times formula_1): formula_7 The circumference (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is the line that goes around the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter formula_8 for the length of this line. The number formula_9 (written as the Greek letter "pi") is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter (formula_9 equals formula_8 divided by formula_3). As a fraction the number formula_9 is equal to about formula_14 or formula_15 (which is closer) and as a number it is about formula_16. The area, formula_17, inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by formula_9 (formula_17 equals formula_9 times formula_1 times formula_1). formula_23 Calculating π. formula_9 can be measured by drawing a circle, then measuring its diameter (formula_3) and circumference (formula_8). This is because the circumference of a circle is always equal to formula_9 times its diameter. formula_28 formula_9 can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods. Most methods used for calculating the value of formula_9 have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing trigonometry and calculus. However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series |
Capitalization (North American spelling), or capitalisation (British spelling), is a process to make one letter or more uppercase. The first letter of a sentence is capitalised in many languages, as are the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people and places. In German, however, all nouns are capitalized. In the Latin alphabet, which is used in English, these are the uppercase or capital letters or majuscules: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z These are the lowercase or small letters or minuscules: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z The homonym "(to) capitalize" is a different word and it means "to fully fund as an investment". Names of capitalization styles. There are many ways to use capitalization and they have names. Sentence case. "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." Sentence case is the standard case used in English prose and in many other languages. Only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule. Title case. When something is written in title case (also known as capital case or headline style), all words are capitalized, except for certain minor words, such as "the", "of" or "and". All caps. When something is written in all caps (or all-caps), every single letter is uppercase, with no exceptions. Camel case. Camel case (or CamelCase) is the practice of writing compound words or phrases so that each next word or abbreviation is capitalized. It can either start with a lowercase or uppercase letter. Common examples are PowerPoint or iPhone. |
Folk religions: 23.2%<br> Non religion: 17.9% In 1960, Cuba reached a population of 5,876,052. In the 1970 Census, Cuba registered a population of 7,077,190. In the 1981 Census, the population increased to 8,553,395. (due to economic crisis the 1990s census had to be postponed to 2002). In the 2002 Census, Cuba recorded a population of over 10,000,000 inhabitants. In the 2012 Census, the population reached its peak of 11,113,128 people. The most inhabited city is Ciudad de la Habana with a recorded population of 2,106,146. Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean Sea. The country is made up of the big island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud island ("Isle of Youth"), and many smaller islands. Havana is the capital city of Cuba. It is the largest city. The second largest city is Santiago de Cuba. In Spanish, the capital is called "La Habana". Cuba is near the United States, Mexico, Haiti, Jamaica and the Bahamas. People from Cuba are called Cubans ("cubanos" in Spanish). The official language is Spanish. It is the largest island of the West Indies and the second most populous island (after Hispaniola) of the West Indies. Cuba is warm all year. In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Cuba. He claimed it for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba became a Spanish colony until the Spanish–American War of 1898. In 1812 Jose Aponte led the First Cuban rebellion against the Spanish monarchy. After the Spanish-American war, it was a protectorate of the United States. It gained independence in 1902. In 1959, guerrilla fighters led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara overthrew Cuba's dictator, Fulgencio Batista, in what became the Cuban Revolution. The United States had supported Castro in 1958 by stopping the sale of weapons to the Batista government, At first |
A cube is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron. A cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called "cubic". Surface area of cube=6l^2 Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2 Volume of cube=l^3 Relative 2-dimensional shape. The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth. The 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles. A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice. A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes. |
Cost of living is the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place. It is measured using a list of things people need, like food and housing. Governments measure cost of living to give welfare (money or benefits for poor people) and to set minimum wage. When the cost of living is higher than people can pay, a cost of living crisis happens. Causes for a cost of living crisis can be poverty, people making less money due to inflation, increased cost of needed items, and problems with the economy. This crisis can cause health effects right away and in the future. |
December (Dec.) is the twelfth and last month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between November (of the current year) and January (of the following year). It has 31 days. With the name of the month coming from the Latin "decem" for "ten", it was the tenth month of the year before January and February were added to the Roman calendar. December always begins on the same day of the week as September, and ends on the same day of the week as April. December's flower is the Narcissus. Its birthstone is the turquoise. Some of the holidays celebrated in December are Christmas, New Year's Eve, Kwanzaa, and Hanukkah. The Month. December is the twelfth and last month of every calendar year in the Gregorian calendar, and is one of seven months of the year to have 31 days. December 31 is followed by January 1 of the following year. December begins on the same day of the week as September every year, as each other's first days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart. December ends on the same day of the week as April every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In common years, December starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the previous year, and in leap years, October of the previous year. In common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, December both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year. In years immediately before common years, December starts on the same day of the week as June of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and November of the following year. In years immediately before common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year. December is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is June, its |
Dublin () is the capital of the Republic of Ireland, and the biggest city on the island of Ireland. In 2011, there were over 1.1 million people living in the Greater Dublin Area. Dublin was built by the Vikings upon the river Liffey. The river divides the city into two parts, North Dublin and South Dublin. Many famous writers lived in Dublin. Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw were born in Dublin. James Joyce is probably Dublin's best known and most international writer. Dublin is home to Ireland's largest stadium for all sports, Croke Park. It can hold up to 85,000 people. Croke Park is the usual venue for all Ireland hurling and football finals. The Aviva Stadium hosts rugby and soccer. |
Dance is a performing art. It is described in many ways. It is when people move to a musical rhythm. They may be alone, or in a group. The dance may be an informal play, a part of a ritual, or a part of a professional performance. There are many kinds of dances, and every human society has its own dances. Dancing is not a sport, though it does have some athletic aspects. Dance is an art. Some people dance to express their feelings and emotions, or to feel better. Dance can be used to tell a story. In some societies, dance goes with song as well as music. Dancing is sometimes done as sport and has similar athletic aspects. People who want to learn to dance can go to dance schools. It may take years of practice to become an experienced and capable dancer. Dancing is a good form of exercise because it is more fun than most other forms. It is a good way to lose weight. To plan a dance is called "choreography", done by a choreographer. Often this goes with music, and fits into a certain style. Dances may be planned in detail, or they may be whatever dancers feel like doing. However, most dancing does follow some general style or pattern. One style is the couple dance, where (usually) a man and a woman dance together. Other dances need an ensemble, a group of people together to make it work. Some styles of dance are lyrical, ballet, ballroom, tap, acrobatics, jazz, musical theater, contemporary, modern, hip hop, and western. History. People have always danced. Many cultures have their own dances. There are pictures, on pottery and stone, which show dances from several thousand years ago, in Egypt and Greece. Sachs divides early dances into 'Imageless dances' and 'Image dances'. By 'imageless dances' he meant dances which have no set form but aim at getting the dancers into a state of ecstasy. In this state the dancer(s) seem changed, in a trance, and are often thought of (by their society) as being 'possessed by spirits'. These dances are done on certain occasions: marriage, war, famine, |
The dissolution of the monasteries was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him. This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England. |
A deadline is a time by which some task must be completed. Very often, it means a time limit that is set in place by an authority - for example, a teacher tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her principal that every student had the same chance to do the work. Deadlines may also be set by a time horizon that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of nature. For example, by sunset one must do those tasks requiring daylight. However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself. A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the physical horizon where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things. |
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