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Freshwater phytoplankton is the phytoplankton occurring in freshwater ecosystems. It can be distinguished between limnoplankton (lake phytoplankton), heleoplankton (phytoplankton in ponds), and potamoplankton (river phytoplankton). They differ in size as the environment around them changes
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Gelatinous zooplankton are fragile animals that live in the water column in the ocean. Their delicate bodies have no hard parts and are easily damaged or destroyed. Gelatinous zooplankton are often transparent
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High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) regions are regions of the ocean where the abundance of phytoplankton is low and fairly constant despite the availability of macronutrients. Phytoplankton rely on a suite of nutrients for cellular function. Macronutrients (e
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Holoplankton are organisms that are planktic (they live in the water column and cannot swim against a current) for their entire life cycle. Holoplankton can be contrasted with meroplankton, which are planktic organisms that spend part of their life cycle in the benthic zone. Examples of holoplankton include some diatoms, radiolarians, some dinoflagellates, foraminifera, amphipods, krill, copepods, and salps, as well as some gastropod mollusk species
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The Journal of Plankton Research is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on plankton. It is published by Oxford University Press and the editor-in-chief is John R. Dolan (Centre national de la recherche scientifique)
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Low-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (LNLC) regions are aquatic zones that are low in nutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, or iron) and consequently have low rate of primary production, as indicated by low chlorophyll concentrations. These regions can be described as oligotrophic, and about 75% of the world's oceans encompass LNLC regions. A majority of LNLC regions are associated with subtropical gyres but are also present in areas of the Mediterranean Sea, and some inland lakes
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Marine microorganisms are defined by their habitat as microorganisms living in a marine environment, that is, in the saltwater of a sea or ocean or the brackish water of a coastal estuary. A microorganism (or microbe) is any microscopic living organism or virus, that is too small to see with the unaided human eye without magnification. Microorganisms are very diverse
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Marine prokaryotes are marine bacteria and marine archaea. They are defined by their habitat as prokaryotes that live in marine environments, that is, in the saltwater of seas or oceans or the brackish water of coastal estuaries. All cellular life forms can be divided into prokaryotes and eukaryotes
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Marine protists are defined by their habitat as protists that live in marine environments, that is, in the saltwater of seas or oceans or the brackish water of coastal estuaries. Life originated as marine single-celled prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) and later evolved into more complex eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are the more developed life forms known as plants, animals, fungi and protists
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Microbial symbiosis in marine animals was not discovered until 1981. In the time following, symbiotic relationships between marine invertebrates and chemoautotrophic bacteria have been found in a variety of ecosystems, ranging from shallow coastal waters to deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Symbiosis is a way for marine organisms to find creative ways to survive in a very dynamic environment
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Marine viruses are defined by their habitat as viruses that are found in marine environments, that is, in the saltwater of seas or oceans or the brackish water of coastal estuaries. Viruses are small infectious agents that can only replicate inside the living cells of a host organism, because they need the replication machinery of the host to do so. They can infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea
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Microalgae or microphytes are microscopic algae invisible to the naked eye. They are phytoplankton typically found in freshwater and marine systems, living in both the water column and sediment. They are unicellular species which exist individually, or in chains or groups
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MOCNESS is the acronym for Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sensing System and is a net system for plankton in the ocean. The system is towed behind a research vessel with a speed of up to 2. 5 knots and consists of five to twenty nets with a mesh size from 64 μm to 3 mm and an area of 0
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Mycoplankton are saprotrophic members of the plankton communities of marine and freshwater ecosystems. They are composed of filamentous free-living fungi and yeasts that are associated with planktonic particles or phytoplankton. Similar to bacterioplankton, these aquatic fungi play a significant role in heterotrophicmineralization and nutrient cycling
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Nanophytoplankton are particularly small phytoplankton with sizes between 2 and 20 µm. They are the autotrophic part of nanoplankton. Like other phytoplankton, nanophytoplankton are microscopic organisms that obtain energy through the process of photosynthesis and must therefore live in the upper sunlit layer of ocean or other bodies of water
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An NPZ model is the most basic abstract representation, expressed as a mathematical model, of a pelagic ecosystem which examines the interrelationships between quantities of nutrients, phytoplankton and zooplankton as time-varying states which depend only on the relative concentrations of the various states at the given time. One goal in pelagic ecology is to understand the interactions among available nutrients (i. e
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In aquatic biology, the paradox of the plankton describes the situation in which a limited range of resources supports an unexpectedly wide range of plankton species, apparently flouting the competitive exclusion principle which holds that when two species compete for the same resource, one will be driven to extinction.
Ecological paradox
The paradox of the plankton results from the clash between the observed diversity of plankton and the competitive exclusion principle, also known as Gause's law, which states that, when two species compete for the same resource, ultimately only one will persist and the other will be driven to extinction. Coexistence between two such species is impossible because the dominant one will inevitably deplete the shared resources, thus decimating the inferior population
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Parasagitta elegans, the elegant arrow worm, is a small arrow worm in the family Sagittidae, previously named Sagitta elegans
Morphology
Parasagitta elegans (prev. Sagitta elegans). Body of adult animal can grow up to 45 mm, is narrow, firm and opaque (this image: animal very see-through
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The order Pennales is a traditional subdivision of the heterokont algae known as diatoms. The order is named for the shape of the cell walls (or valves or frustules) of pennate diatoms, which are elongated in valve view. The valves may be linear or oval in shape, and usually bear bilaterally symmetrical ornamental patterns
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Picoplankton is the fraction of plankton composed by cells between 0. 2 and 2 μm that can be either prokaryotic and eukaryotic phototrophs and heterotrophs:
photosynthetic
heterotrophic They are prevalent amongst microbial plankton communities of both freshwater and marine ecosystems. They have an important role in making up a significant portion of the total biomass of phytoplankton communities
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A plankton net is equipment used for collecting samples of plankton in standing bodies of water. It consists of a towing line and bridles, nylon mesh net, and a cod end. Plankton nets are considered one of the oldest, simplest and least expensive methods of sampling plankton
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The spring bloom is a strong increase in phytoplankton abundance (i. e. stock) that typically occurs in the early spring and lasts until late spring or early summer
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Thin layers are concentrated aggregations of phytoplankton and zooplankton in coastal and offshore waters that are vertically compressed to thicknesses ranging from several centimeters up to a few meters and are horizontally extensive, sometimes for kilometers. Generally, thin layers have three basic criteria: 1) they must be horizontally and temporally persistent; 2) they must not exceed a critical threshold of vertical thickness; and 3) they must exceed a critical threshold of maximum concentration. The precise values for critical thresholds of thin layers has been debated for a long time due to the vast diversity of plankton, instrumentation, and environmental conditions
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A video plankton recorder (VPR) is towed underwater video microscope system, which photographs small to fine-scale structure of plankton, from 50 micrometers and up to a few centimeters in size. A VPR consists of five general components: cameras (with magnifying optics), strobe, additive sensor and flight control, underwater platform and interface software for plankton identification.
Technical aspects
In order to obtain high-quality and low-noise images, charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors are used in the camera system
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Pomology (from Latin pomum, "fruit", + -logy, "study") is a branch of botany that studies fruits and their cultivation. Someone who researches and practices the science of pomology is called a pomologist. The term fruticulture (from Latin fructus, "fruit", + cultura, "care") is also used to describe the agricultural practice of growing fruits in orchards
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The U. S. Department of Agriculture's Pomological Watercolor Collection is an archive of some 7,500 botanical watercolors created for the USDA between the years 1886 and 1942 by around five dozen artists
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Plant taxonomy is the science that finds, identifies, describes, classifies, and names plants. It is one of the main branches of taxonomy (the science that finds, describes, classifies, and names living things).
Plant taxonomy is closely allied to plant systematics, and there is no sharp boundary between the two
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An alliance is an informal grouping used in biological taxonomy. The term "alliance" is not a taxonomic rank defined in any of the nomenclature codes. It is used for any group of species, genera or tribes to which authors wish to refer, that have at some time provisionally been considered to be closely related
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The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) is an informal international group of systematic botanists who collaborate to establish a consensus on the taxonomy of flowering plants (angiosperms) that reflects new knowledge about plant relationships discovered through phylogenetic studies.
As of 2016, four incremental versions of a classification system have resulted from this collaboration, published in 1998, 2003, 2009 and 2016. An important motivation for the group was what they considered deficiencies in prior angiosperm classifications since they were not based on monophyletic groups (i
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A botanical name is a formal scientific name conforming to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and, if it concerns a plant cultigen, the additional cultivar or Group epithets must conform to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). The code of nomenclature covers "all organisms traditionally treated as algae, fungi, or plants, whether fossil or non-fossil, including blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria), chytrids, oomycetes, slime moulds and photosynthetic protists with their taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups (but excluding Microsporidia). "The purpose of a formal name is to have a single name that is accepted and used worldwide for a particular plant or plant group
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In biological classification, class (Latin: classis) is a taxonomic rank, as well as a taxonomic unit, a taxon, in that rank. It is a group of related taxonomic orders. Other well-known ranks in descending order of size are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, order, family, genus, and species, with class ranking between phylum and order
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A cultivar is a kind of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, or carefully controlled seed production. Most cultivars arise from purposeful human manipulation, but some originate from wild plants that have distinctive characteristics
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Cultivated plant taxonomy is the study of the theory and practice of the science that identifies, describes, classifies, and names cultigens—those plants whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity. Cultivated plant taxonomists do, however, work with all kinds of plants in cultivation.
Cultivated plant taxonomy is one part of the study of horticultural botany which is mostly carried out in botanical gardens, large nurseries, universities, or government departments
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DPVweb is a database for virologists working on plant viruses combining taxonomic, bioinformatic and symptom data.
Description
DPVweb is a central web-based source of information about viruses, viroids and satellites of plants, fungi and protozoa. It provides comprehensive taxonomic information, including brief descriptions of each family and genus, and classified lists of virus sequences
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Ecocrop was a database used to determine the suitability of a crop for a specified environment. Developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) it provided information predicting crop viability in different locations and climatic conditions. It also served as a catalog of plants and plant growth characteristics
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In botanical nomenclature, a form (forma, plural formae) is one of the "secondary" taxonomic ranks, below that of variety, which in turn is below that of species; it is an infraspecific taxon. If more than three ranks are listed in describing a taxon, the "classification" is being specified, but only three parts make up the "name" of the taxon: a genus name, a specific epithet, and an infraspecific epithet.
The abbreviation "f
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Form classification is the classification of organisms based on their morphology, which does not necessarily reflect their biological relationships. Form classification, generally restricted to palaeontology, reflects uncertainty; the goal of science is to move "form taxa" to biological taxa whose affinity is known. Form taxonomy is restricted to fossils that preserve too few characters for a conclusive taxonomic definition or assessment of their biological affinity, but whose study is made easier if a binomial name is available by which to identify them
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Genus ( PL: genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclature, the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus
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A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study. The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sheet of paper (called exsiccatum, plur. exsiccata) but, depending upon the material, may also be stored in boxes or kept in alcohol or other preservative
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Hort. , in the taxonomy of plants, is an abbreviation used to indicate a name that saw significant use in the horticultural literature (usually of the 19th century and earlier), but was never properly published.
Origins and usage
"Hort
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Horticultural botany is the study of the botany of current and potential cultivated plants, with emphasis on the ornamental plants of horticulture, by a horticultural botanist or plantsman—plantsperson. "
Horticultural botanists
Professional horticultural botanists are employed by botanical gardens, large plant nurseries, university departments, and government agencies. The activities vary according to the mission goals and priorities of the institutions
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A horticultural flora, also known as a garden flora, is a plant identification aid structured in the same way as a native plants flora. It serves the same purpose: to facilitate plant identification; however, it only includes plants that are under cultivation as ornamental plants growing within the prescribed climate zone or region. Traditionally published in book form, often in several volumes, such floras are increasingly likely to be produced as websites or CD ROMs
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In biology, an identification key, taxonomic key, or biological key is a printed or computer-aided device that aids the identification of biological entities, such as plants, animals, fossils, microorganisms, and pollen grains. Identification keys are also used in many other scientific and technical fields to identify various kinds of entities, such as diseases, soil types, minerals, or archaeological and anthropological artifacts. Traditionally identification keys have most commonly taken the form of single-access keys
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In botany, an infraspecific name is the scientific name for any taxon below the rank of species, i. e. an infraspecific taxon or infraspecies
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The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN or ICNafp) is the set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal botanical names that are given to plants, fungi and a few other groups of organisms, all those "traditionally treated as algae, fungi, or plants". : Preamble, para. 8 It was formerly called the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN); the name was changed at the International Botanical Congress in Melbourne in July 2011 as part of the Melbourne Code which replaced the Vienna Code of 2005
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The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP), is a guide to the rules and regulations for naming cultigens, plants whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity. It is also known as Cultivated Plant Code. Cultigens under the purview of the ICNCP include cultivars, Groups (cultivar groups), and grexes
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The International Organization for Plant Information (IOPI) is an international organization founded on September 20, 1991. It runs a series of collaborative international projects aimed at establishing databases of plant classification information and is committee of the International Union of Biological Sciences. The Global Plant Checklist was its first objective to provide a list of all plants by merging data from existing sources
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Order (Latin: ordo) is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. It is classified between family and class. In biological classification, the order is a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes
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In botany, the phrase ordo naturalis, 'natural order', was once used for what today is a family. Its origins lie with Carl Linnaeus who used the phrase when he referred to natural groups of plants in his lesser-known work, particularly Philosophia Botanica. In his more famous works the Systema Naturae and the Species Plantarum, plants were arranged according to his artificial "Sexual system", and Linnaeus used the word ordo for an artificial unit
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Plant functional types (PFTs) is a system used by climatologists to classify plants according to their physical, phylogenetic and phenological characteristics as part of an overall effort to develop a vegetation model for use in land use studies and climate models. PFTs provide a finer level of modeling than biomes, which represent gross areas such as desert, savannah, deciduous forest. In creating a PFT model, areas as small as 1 km2 are modeled by defining the predominant plant type for that area, interpreted from satellite data or other means
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Plants of the World Online (POWO) is an online database published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It was launched in March 2017 with the ultimate aim being "to enable users to access information on all the world's known seed-bearing plants by 2020". The initial focus was on tropical African Floras, particularly Flora Zambesiaca, Flora of West Tropical Africa and Flora of Tropical East Africa
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The Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG) is an informal international group of systematic botanists who collaborate to establish a consensus on the classification of pteridophytes (lycophytes and ferns) that reflects knowledge about plant relationships discovered through phylogenetic studies. In 2016, the group published a classification for extant pteridophytes, termed "PPG I". The paper had 94 authors (26 principal and 68 additional)
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In botany, a section (Latin: sectio) is a taxonomic rank below the genus, but above the species. The subgenus, if present, is higher than the section, and the rank of series, if present, is below the section. Sections may in turn be divided into subsections
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In taxonomy, a segregate, or a segregate taxon is created when a taxon is split off from another taxon. This other taxon will be better known, usually bigger, and will continue to exist, even after the segregate taxon has been split off. A segregate will be either new or ephemeral: there is a tendency for taxonomists to disagree on segregates, and later workers often reunite a segregate with the 'mother' taxon
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In biology, a species (PL: species) is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour, or ecological niche
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In biology, a subgenus (plural: subgenera) is a taxonomic rank directly below genus.
In the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between the generic name and the specific epithet: e. g
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A tactical formation (or order) is the arrangement or deployment of moving military forces such as infantry, cavalry, AFVs, military aircraft, or naval vessels. Formations were found in tribal societies such as the pua rere of the Māori, and ancient or medieval formations which include shield walls (skjaldborg in Old Norse), phalanxes (lines of battle in close order), testudo formation and skirmishers.
Tactical formations include:
Flight Formations
Box
Coil: Similar to the Herringbone formation, the coil formation allows for 360 degree security while at the halt
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== Military Theory ==
Military Theory is the study of the theories which define, inform, guide and explain war and warfare. Military Theory analyses both normative behavioral phenomena and explanatory causal aspects to better understand war and how it is fought. It examines war and trends in warfare, beyond simply describing events in military history
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The Three Block War is a concept described by U. S. Marine General Charles Krulak in the late 1990s to illustrate the complex spectrum of challenges likely to be faced by Marines on the modern battlefield
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Total war is a type of warfare that includes any and all civilian-associated resources and infrastructure as legitimate military targets, mobilises all of the resources of society to fight the war, and gives priority to warfare over non-combatant needs.
The term has been defined as "A war that is unrestricted in terms of the weapons used, the territory or combatants involved, or the objectives pursued, especially one in which the laws of war are disregarded. "In the mid-19th century, scholars identified total war as a separate class of warfare
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Trench warfare is the type of land warfare using occupied lines largely comprising military trenches, in which troops are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery. It became archetypically associated with World War I (1914–1918), when the Race to the Sea rapidly expanded trench use on the Western Front starting in September 1914. Trench warfare proliferated when a revolution in firepower was not matched by similar advances in mobility, resulting in a grueling form of warfare in which the defender held the advantage
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Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of naval warfare in which submarines sink merchant ships such as freighters and tankers without warning, as opposed to attacks per prize rules (also known as "cruiser rules") that call for warships to search merchantmen and place crews in "a place of safety" (for which lifeboats do not qualify, except under particular circumstances) before sinking them, unless the ship shows "persistent refusal to stop . .
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Upward Spiral is a term used by Paul Kennedy in his book The Rise and Fall of Great Powers to describe the continually rising cost of military equipment relative to civilian manufactured goods. According to Kennedy there is an upward spiral at work in "all areas" of military production which is "becoming increasingly divergent from the commercial". The desire for state-of-the-art weaponry is meant to be pushing up the cost
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A zero-defects mentality (also known as Zero Error Syndrome) exists when a command-and-control structure does not tolerate mistakes. This atmosphere is now widely acknowledged to be ineffective in both military and corporate life. The results of a zero-defects mentality can include careerism, reduced motivation and stifled innovation
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Military education and training is a process which intends to establish and improve the capabilities of military personnel in their respective roles. Military training may be voluntary or compulsory duty. It begins with recruit training, proceeds to education and training specific to military roles, and sometimes includes additional training during a military career
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An after action review (AAR) is a technique for improving process and execution by analyzing the intended outcome and actual outcome of an action and identifying practices to sustain, and practices to improve or initiate, and then practicing those changes at the next iteration of the action AARs in the formal sense were originally developed by the U. S. Army
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An aggressor squadron or adversary squadron (in the US Navy and USMC) is a squadron that is trained to act as an opposing force in military wargames. Aggressor squadrons use enemy tactics, techniques, and procedures to give a realistic simulation of air combat (as opposed to training against one's own forces). Since it is impractical to use actual enemy aircraft and equipment, surrogate aircraft are used to emulate potential adversaries
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An assault course (also called trim trail) is a trail (or course) that combines running and exercising. It was more popular in the 1970s than it is now. It is often used in military training
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A Battle Management Language (BML) is the unambiguous language used to command and control forces and equipment conducting military operations and to provide for situational awareness and a shared, common operational picture.
It can be seen as a standard digitized representation of a commander's intent to be used for real troops, for simulated troops, and for future robotic forces. BML is particularly relevant in a network centric environment for enabling mutual understanding
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The case method is a teaching approach that uses decision-forcing cases to put students in the role of people who were faced with difficult decisions at some point in the past. It developed during the course of the twentieth-century from its origins in the casebook method of teaching law pioneered by Harvard legal scholar Christopher C. Langdell
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A decision game is an exercise in which a teacher presents students with a scenario, asks them to take on the role of a character in that scenario, and then asks them to solve problems as if they were that character. If the scenario is based entirely upon a reliable historical narrative, a decision game is also a decision-forcing case. However, if any of the elements in the scenario are fictional, then the exercise is a fictional decision game
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Foot drill is a part of the training regimen of organized military and paramilitary elements worldwide. "Foot drill" or "Drill" stems from time since antiquity when soldiers would march into battle, be expected to gather in a formation, and react to words of command from their commanders once the battle commenced. Much of the drill done today is either ceremonial or implemented as a core part of training in the armed forces
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Land navigation is the discipline of following a route through unfamiliar terrain on foot or by vehicle, using maps with reference to terrain, a compass, and other navigational tools. It is distinguished from travel by traditional groups, such as the Tuareg across the Sahara and the Inuit across the Arctic, who use subtle cues to travel across familiar, yet minimally differentiated terrain.
Land navigation is a core military discipline, which uses courses that are an essential part of military training
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A live fire exercise (LFX) is a military exercise in which live ammunition and ordnance is used, as opposed to blanks or dummies. The term can also be found in non-military usage.
Military
Militaries usually use live-fire exercises as an opportunity to use real ammunition in a realistically created combat situation
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Low flying military training involves military aircraft flying at low altitude to prepare their aircrew, and other military personnel (e. g. air defence troops), for nap-of-the-earth flying in wartime
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Marking time is a military step in which soldiers march in place, moving their legs as in marching, but without stepping forward. The military drill command is "Mark Time!” to change from standing at attention to 'Marking Time' or to change from marching at 'Quick Time' to 'Marking Time'. The resulting action is to march in the same place, not to move in any direction
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Military step or march is a regular, ordered and synchronized walking of military formations.
History
The steady, regular marching step was a marked feature of Roman legions. Vegetius, the author of the only surviving treatise on the Roman Empire's military, De Re Militari, recognized the importance of:
constant practice of marching quick and together
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A U. S. Air Force military training leader (MTL) is a non-commissioned officer with specific duties
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The Partnership for Peace Consortium is a network of over 800 defense academies and security studies institutes across 60 countries. Founded in 1998 during the NATO Summit, the PfPC was chartered to promote defense institution building and foster regional stability through multinational education and research, which the PfPC accomplishes via a network of educators and researchers. It is based at the George C
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Passing out is the official graduation ceremony following the completion of a course by military or other uniformed service personnel at their respective training school, college, or military academy, largely in Commonwealth nations. Soldiers, sailors, or airmen take part in a passing out military parade upon completion of a basic training course. The military parade during the 'passing out' ceremony may also consist of military bands, and other displays of synchronisation discipline such as a flypast, which may also include acrobatics
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Military recruit training, commonly known as basic training or boot camp, refers to the initial instruction of new military personnel. It is a physically and psychologically intensive process, which resocializes its subjects for the unique demands of military employment.
Major characteristics
Initial military training is an intensive residential programme commonly lasting several weeks or months, which aims to induct newly recruited military personnel into the social norms and essential tasks of the armed forces
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Returned To Unit or RTU refers to a military member being returned to their home base or home unit, either due to their being medically unfit, their requesting to be withdrawn from training, or their being unfit for training or otherwise disorderly. As military members can only be court-martialed at their home base or unit, being RTU'd for misconduct can often be a precursor to further judicial punishment.
RTU'ing is a concept used during a period of specialist training, whereby a service person has been extracted or detached from their home unit
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The Special Patrol Insertion/Extraction (SPIE) system was developed as a means to rapidly insert and/or extract a reconnaissance patrol from an area that does not permit a helicopter to land. SPIE has application for rough terrain as well as water inserts/extracts. It is an adaptation of the STABO rig
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Sub-caliber training is used to save wear and expense when training with a larger gun by use of smaller weapons (sometimes, but not always, with very similar ballistic characteristics). The smaller weapons could be inserted into the larger weapon's barrel, externally attached to the barrel or mounted above the weapon.
Examples include 2
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A tactical decision game is a decision game that puts students in the role of the commander of a tactical unit who is faced with a challenging problem. While most tactical decision games depict problems faced by the commanders of military units, a growing number deal with the situations of types dealt with by police and firefighting organizations .
The tactical decision game is known by a variety of names
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A Tactical Engagement Simulation (TES) is a training system for using weapons. Laser transmitters are typically used instead of bullets, larger rounds, or shorter-range guided weapons such as anti-tank missiles. A laser transmitter is mounted on the weapon and aligned with the weapon's barrel
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Unifight (or Universal Fight) is a competitive training system with military applications. The competition is formed of two consecutive stages: the first stage is an obstacle course with close quarters battle – any missed obstacle disqualifies the contestant; the second stage is a bout of full-contact hand-to-hand combat.
History
In the last 10–20 years in the development of martial arts there fundamentally new trend – the emergence of new species based on the integration and aggregation from other sports
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Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics behind military tactics. Modern military engineering differs from civil engineering
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An area denial weapon is a defensive device used to prevent an adversary from occupying or traversing an area of land, sea or air. The specific method may not be totally effective in preventing passage, but is sufficient to severely restrict, slow down, or endanger the opponent. Some area denial weapons pose risks to civilians entering the area even long after combat has ended, and consequently are often controversial
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An assault pioneer is an infantryman who is responsible for:
The construction of tools for infantry soldiers to cross natural and man-made obstacles as well as breaching of enemy fortifications
Supervising the construction of field defensive works such as bunkers, support weapon firing positions, etc.
The use of demolitions, land mines and booby traps, as well as their clearance
Performing of all other normal infantry duties as the situation requiresAssault pioneers are lineal descendants of pioneers who have formed an essential part of armies since at least the time of the Roman legions. These pioneers were normally employed to march in front of the advancing army, clearing the route as necessary
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A blasting mat is a mat usually made of sliced-up rubber tires bound together with ropes, cables or chains. They are used during rock blasting to contain the blast, prevent flying rocks and suppress dust.
Use
Blasting mats are used when explosives are detonated in places such as quarries or construction sites
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A camouflet, in military science, is an artificial cavern created by an explosion. If the explosion reaches the surface then it is called a crater. The term was originally defined as a countermine dug by defenders to prevent the undermining of a fortress's walls during a siege
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Galeas per montes (galleys across mountains) is the name given to a feat of military engineering made between December 1438 and April 1439 by the Republic of Venice, when several Venetian ships, including galleys and frigates were transported from the Adriatic Sea to Lake Garda. The operation required towing the ships upstream on the river Adige until Rovereto, then transporting the fleet by land to Torbole, on the Northern shores of the lake. The second leg of the journey was the most remarkable achievement, requiring a land journey 20 km through the Loppio Lake and the narrow Passo San Giovanni
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Lightening holes are holes in structural components of machines and buildings used by a variety of engineering disciplines to make structures lighter. The edges of the hole may be flanged to increase the rigidity and strength of the component. The holes can be circular, triangular, elliptical, or rectangular and should have rounded edges, but they should never have sharp corners, to avoid the risk of stress risers, and they must not be too close to the edge of a structural component
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Military geology is the application of geological theory to warfare and the peacetime practices of the military. The formal practice of military geology began during the Napoleonic Wars; however, geotechnical knowledge has been applied since the earliest days of siege warfare. In modern warfare military geologists are used for terrain analysis, engineering, and the identification of resources
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Mobile barrages squad is an element of a combat or operational order in the form of a temporary military formation, which is created from units of engineering troops and army aviation.
The abbreviation for the temporary formation of troops or forces used in service documents is MBS. The main purpose of MBS is to set up mine blast barrages during combat and to destroy transport infrastructure on behalf of friendly forces
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Obstacles to troop movement represent either natural, human habitat originated, constructed, concealed obstacles, or obstructive impediments to movement of military troops and their vehicles, or to their visibility. By impeding strategic, operational or tactical manoeuvre, the obstacle represents an added barrier between opposing combat forces, and therefore prevent achievement of objectives and goals specified in the operational planning schedule. The constructed obstacles are used as an aid to defending a position or area as part of the general defensive plan of the commander
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A pioneer () is a soldier employed to perform engineering and construction tasks. The term is in principle similar to sapper or combat engineer.
Pioneers were originally part of the artillery branch of European armies
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Railway troops are soldiers who are also railway engineers. They build, repair, operate or destroy militarily relevant railway lines and their associated infrastructure.
History
The establishment of railway troops by the great powers followed the emergence, rapid growth and rising importance of the railway network, when the advantages of the railway for the transport of troops, heavy weapons and supplies became recognised
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Reconnaissance is the of the operational environment in reconnaissance operations of routes for military use, including methods of reconnoitering and classifying them for other troops. In a k during ll the primary purpose of conducting route reconnaissance is to find and report all enemy forces that can interfere with movement along a route, and to identify the limit of direct-fire range and terrain that dominates the route.
Route reconnaissance process
Preparation
Route reconnaissance includes creation of reconnaissance overlays to identify land and water features, bridge reconnaissance and classification, road reconnaissance and classification, special terrain reconnaissance such as that used during cross-country movement, at the landing areas, on the inland waterways, or when using footpaths and trails, engineer reconnaissance, and use of military route signs (standard signs, sign lighting, bridge signs)
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