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Biogenic sulfide corrosion is a bacterially mediated process of forming hydrogen sulfide gas and the subsequent conversion to sulfuric acid that attacks concrete and steel within wastewater environments. The hydrogen sulfide gas is biochemically oxidized in the presence of moisture to form sulfuric acid. The effect of sulfuric acid on concrete and steel surfaces exposed to severe wastewater environments can be devastating | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Biorock (also seacrete) is a cement-like engineering material formed when a small electric current is passed between underwater metal electrodes placed in seawater causing dissolved minerals to accrete onto the cathode to form a thick layer of limestone. This 'accretion process' can be used to create building materials or to create artificial 'electrified reefs' for the benefit of corals and other sea-life. Discovered by Wolf Hilbertz in 1976, biorock was protected by patents and a trademark which have now expired | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Brucite is the mineral form of magnesium hydroxide, with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2. It is a common alteration product of periclase in marble; a low-temperature hydrothermal vein mineral in metamorphosed limestones and chlorite schists; and formed during serpentinization of dunites. Brucite is often found in association with serpentine, calcite, aragonite, dolomite, magnesite, hydromagnesite, artinite, talc and chrysotile | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Calcium silicate hydrates (or C-S-H) are the main products of the hydration of Portland cement and are primarily responsible for the strength of cement-based materials. They are the main binding phase ("the glue") in most concrete. Only well defined and rare natural crystalline minerals can be abbreviated as CSH while extremely variable and poorly ordered phases without well defined stoichiometry, as it is commonly observed in hardened cement paste (HCP), are denoted C-S-H | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
California Artificial Stone Paving Co. v. Molitor, 113 U | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Camden bench is a type of concrete street furniture. It was commissioned by Camden London Borough Council and installed in Camden, London, in 2012. It is designed specifically to influence the behaviour of the public by restricting certain uses and behaviours and instead to be usable only as a bench, a principle known as hostile architecture | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cast stone or reconstructed stone is a highly refined building material, a form of precast concrete used as masonry intended to simulate natural-cut stone. It is used for architectural features: trim, or ornament; facing buildings or other structures; statuary; and for garden ornaments. Cast stone can be made from white and/or grey cements, manufactured or natural sands, crushed stone or natural gravels, and colored with mineral coloring pigments | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A cement accelerator is an admixture for the use in concrete, mortar, rendering or screeds. The addition of an accelerator speeds the setting time and thus cure time starts earlier. This allows concrete to be placed in winter with reduced risk of frost damage | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cement chemist notation (CCN) was developed to simplify the formulas cement chemists use on a daily basis. It is a shorthand way of writing the chemical formula of oxides of calcium, silicon, and various metals.
Abbreviations of oxides
The main oxides present in cement (or in glass and ceramics) are abbreviated in the following way:
Conversion of hydroxides in oxide and free water
For the sake of mass balance calculations, hydroxides present in hydrated phases found in hardened cement paste, such as in portlandite, Ca(OH)2, must first be converted into oxide and water | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cement clinker is a solid material produced in the manufacture of Portland cement as an intermediary product. Clinker occurs as lumps or nodules, usually 3 millimetres (0. 12 in) to 25 millimetres (0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cement kilns are used for the pyroprocessing stage of manufacture of portland and other types of hydraulic cement, in which calcium carbonate reacts with silica-bearing minerals to form a mixture of calcium silicates. Over a billion tonnes of cement are made per year, and cement kilns are the heart of this production process: their capacity usually defines the capacity of the cement plant. As the main energy-consuming and greenhouse-gas–emitting stage of cement manufacture, improvement of kiln efficiency has been the central concern of cement manufacturing technology | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Climbing formwork, also known as jumpform, is a special type formwork for vertical concrete structures that rises with the building process. While relatively complicated and costly, it can be an effective solution for buildings that are either very repetitive in form (such as towers or skyscrapers) or that require a seamless wall structure (using gliding formwork, a special type of climbing formwork).
Various types of climbing formwork exist, which are either relocated from time to time, or can even move on their own (usually on hydraulic jacks, required for self-climbing and gliding formworks) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete and Constructional Engineering was a magazine published in London, England, by Concrete Publications from 1906 to 1966. The magazine chronicled in its pages the increasing popularity of reinforced concrete as a construction material in the early and mid twentieth century.
History
The magazine was founded in 1906 by architect and founder of the Concrete Institute (later The Institution of Structural Engineers), Edwin Sachs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A concrete canoe is a canoe made of concrete, typically created for an engineering competition.
In spirit, the event is similar to that of a cardboard boat race—make the seemingly unfloatable float. However, since concrete and other poured surfaces are an integral part of a civil engineer's education, concrete canoes typically feature more development than cardboard boats | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete chipping is a process which requires trained chippers or a robotically-controlled machine with an Ultra High Pressure water source (20,000 psi) to enter the drums of ready-mix concrete trucks and central mixers to break away the dried concrete along the drums’ walls. Human teams use tools such as the handheld jackhammer and chisel to manually remove hardened material. The robotically controlled machine, commercially referred to as a "Ready Jet," removes the dried concrete by cutting the concrete with ultra high pressure water, causing the concrete to delaminate from the interior of the mixer drum | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete cone is one of the failure modes of anchors in concrete, loaded by a tensile force. The failure is governed by crack growth in concrete, which forms a typical cone shape having the anchor's axis as revolution axis.
Mechanical models
ACI 349-85
Under tension loading, the concrete cone failure surface has 45° inclination | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete cover, in reinforced concrete, is the least distance between the surface of embedded reinforcement and the outer surface of the concrete (ACI 130). The concrete cover depth can be measured with a cover meter. The purpose of concrete cover is to protect the reinforcement from corrosion, fire, and other potential damage | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete degradation may have many different causes. Concrete is mostly damaged by the corrosion of reinforcement bars due to the carbonatation of hardened cement paste or chloride attack under wet conditions. Chemical damages are caused by the formation of expansive products produced by various chemical reactions, by aggressive chemical species present in groundwater and seawater (chlorides, sulfates, magnesium ions), or by microorganisms (bacteria, fungi | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A concrete float is a tool used to finish a concrete surface by making it smooth. A float is used after the surface has been made level using a screed. In addition to removing surface imperfections, floating will compact the concrete as preparation for further steps | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete landscape curbing (or concrete landscape bordering) is an alternative to plastic or metal landscape edging. Landscape curbing is made with various elements of concrete depending on the climate where it is being used. Concrete landscape curbing has become more popular over the last decade with suppliers offering a variety of styling options | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In civil engineering, concrete leveling is a procedure that attempts to correct an uneven concrete surface by altering the foundation that the surface sits upon. It is a cheaper alternative to having replacement concrete poured and is commonly performed at small businesses and private homes as well as at factories, warehouses, airports and on roads, highways and other infrastructure.
Causes of settlement
Concrete slabs can be susceptible to settlement from a wide variety of factors, the most common being an inconsistency of moisture in the soil | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A concrete mixer (also cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate (e. g. sand or gravel), and water to form concrete | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A concrete moisture meter is a type of moisture meter used by installers of flooring to measure the moisture levels of concrete. These meters have been used for decades to measure the moisture content in different materials and substances. Concrete meters have evolved from the successful wood moisture meter as flooring contractors tried to use their wood meters to measure the moisture in concrete | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A concrete plant, also known as a batch plant or batching plant or a concrete batching plant, is equipment that combines various ingredients to form concrete. Some of these inputs include water, air, admixtures, sand, aggregate (rocks, gravel, etc. ), fly ash, silica fume, slag, and cement | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A concrete pump is a machine used for transferring liquid concrete by pumping. There are different types of concrete pumps.
A common type of concrete pump for large scale construction projects is known as a boom concrete pump, because it uses a remote-controlled articulating robotic arm (called a boom) to place concrete accurately | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete recycling is the use of rubble from demolished concrete structures. Recycling is cheaper and more ecological than trucking rubble to a landfill. Crushed rubble can be used for road gravel, revetments, retaining walls, landscaping gravel, or raw material for new concrete | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Concrete Series was a series of books about the use of concrete in construction that was published by Concrete Publications Limited of Dartmouth Street, London, from the 1930s to the 1960s.
History
The Concrete Series was a book series about the use of concrete in construction that was published by Concrete Publications Limited of Dartmouth Street, London, from the 1930s to the 1960s. The series was published at a time when concrete was increasingly being used in building design and for public works such as road building | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete ships are built primarily with ferrocement (reinforced concrete) hulls, reinforced with steel bars. This contrasts against more traditional materials, such as pure steel or wood. The advantage of ferrocement construction is that materials are cheap and readily available, while the disadvantages are that construction labor costs are high, as are operating costs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings, consisting of a flat, horizontal surface made of cast concrete. Steel-reinforced slabs, typically between 100 and 500 mm thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner mud slabs may be used for exterior paving (see below). In many domestic and industrial buildings, a thick concrete slab supported on foundations or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concretene is a graphene-enhanced admixture for concrete that delivers savings on cost and CO2 emissions. The formulation has been developed by Nationwide Engineering Research & Development (NERD) in collaboration with The University of Manchester’s Graphene Engineering Innovation Centre (GEIC).
Laboratory tests and real-world projects have shown that Concretene offers significant benefits in compressive, tensile and flexural strength, as well as faster curing times and reduced permeability to water and salts | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category of coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A cover meter is an instrument to locate rebars and measure the exact concrete cover. Rebar detectors are less sophisticated devices that can only locate metallic objects below the surface. Due to the cost-effective design, the pulse-induction method is one of the most commonly used solutions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Creep and shrinkage of concrete are two physical properties of concrete. The creep of concrete, which originates from the calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) in the hardened Portland cement paste (which is the binder of mineral aggregates), is fundamentally different from the creep of metals and polymers. Unlike the creep of metals, it occurs at all stress levels and, within the service stress range, is linearly dependent on the stress if the pore water content is constant | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Decorative concrete is the use of concrete as not simply a utilitarian medium for construction but as an aesthetic enhancement to a structure, while still serving its function as an integral part of the building itself such as floors, walls, driveways, and patios.
The transformation of concrete into decorative concrete is achieved through the use of a variety of materials that may be applied during the pouring process or after the concrete is cured, these materials and/or systems include but are not limited to stamped concrete, acid staining, decorative overlays, polished concrete, concrete countertops, vertical overlays and more.
Concrete statues
Concrete statues are made by pouring concrete into a latex mold | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Diamond grinding is a pavement preservation technique that corrects a variety of surface imperfections on both concrete and asphalt concrete pavements. Most often utilized on concrete pavement, diamond grinding is typically performed in conjunction with other concrete pavement preservation (CPP) techniques such as road slab stabilization, full- and partial-depth repair, dowel bar retrofit, cross stitching longitudinal cracks or joints and joint and crack resealing. Diamond grinding restores rideability by removing surface irregularities caused during construction or through repeated traffic loading over time | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Concrete electrical resistivity can be obtained by applying a current into the concrete and measuring the response voltage. There are different methods for measuring concrete resistivity.
Laboratory methods
Two electrodes
Concrete electrical resistance can be measured by applying a current using two electrodes attached to the ends of a uniform cross-section specimen | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC), also called Strain Hardening Cement-based Composites (SHCC) or more popularly as bendable concrete, is an easily molded mortar-based composite reinforced with specially selected short random fibers, usually polymer fibers. Unlike regular concrete, ECC has a tensile strain capacity in the range of 3–7%, compared to 0. 01% for ordinary portland cement (OPC) paste, mortar or concrete | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The environmental impact of concrete, its manufacture, and its applications, are complex, driven in part by direct impacts of construction and infrastructure, as well as by CO2 emissions; between 4-8% of total global CO2 emissions come from concrete. Many depend on circumstances. A major component is cement, which has its own environmental and social impacts and contributes largely to those of concrete | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
According to the Equivalent Concrete Performance Concept a concrete composition, deviating from the EN 206-1, can still be accepted, provided that certain conditions are fulfilled.
Conditions
A concrete composition not composed by the standard EN 206–1, can be acknowledged, only if the new concrete shows a performance equal to the standardized concrete concerning environmental classes. Cement content and water-cement ratio are important elements hereby | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Firezone is a 1988 computer wargame developed by Arcadia and published by Personal Software Services (PSS) for the Amstrad CPC. It is part of PSS' Wargamers series. Ports for Commodore 64, Amiga, Atari ST, and MS-DOS were released later | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
First Samurai, alternatively titled The First Samurai, is a 1991 beat 'em up platform game developed by Vivid Image and published by Image Works. The First Samurai was originally released in September 1991 for the Amiga and Atari ST, and was later ported to the Commodore 64, MS-DOS and the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It was followed by a sequel, Second Samurai, in 1994 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Football Manager 2 is the second game in the Football Manager series.
Gameplay
Gameplay is very similar to the first game, with mostly text based screens (although they are more colorful than the original and usually contain at least basic graphical elements). Input is mostly by moving a cursor (using either joystick or mouse depending on system), rather than entering numbers | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Gauntlet III: The Final Quest is a home computer game by U. S. Gold and Tengen it was released in 1991 for the Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, and Amstrad CPC | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Global Commander (known as The Armageddon Man in Europe) is a computer game developed by Martech in 1987 for the Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum.
Gameplay
The player's goal is to become the successful Global Commander by preventing conflict between the 16 member countries of the U. N | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Gridiron! is a football game by Bethesda Softworks.
Gameplay
Gridiron! is a game in which statistics for players are provided on an NFL DataDisc.
Reception
Wyatt Lee reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "Although this game is only available for the Amiga and Atari ST, the graphics are not as spectacular as one would expect for these machines | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Guy Spy and the Crystals of Armageddon is an action game by ReadySoft that was released for DOS, Atari ST, and Amiga in 1992. Guy Spy is a cartoon adventure similar to Dragon's Lair and Space Ace but with longer sections.
Plot
Guy is summoned before the chief of international security and informed that the evil Baron Von Max has located the whereabouts of the legendary Crystals of Armageddon | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Lampyridae are a family of elateroid beetles with more than 2,000 described species, many of which are light-emitting. They are soft-bodied beetles commonly called fireflies, lightning bugs, or glowworms for their conspicuous production of light, mainly during twilight, to attract mates. Light production in the Lampyridae is thought to have originated as an honest warning signal that the larvae were distasteful; this was co-opted in evolution as a mating signal in the adults | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A nightlight is a small light fixture, usually electrical, placed for comfort or convenience in dark areas or areas that may become dark at certain times, such as at night or during an emergency. Small long-burning candles serving a similar function are referred to as "tealights".
Uses and cultures
People usually use nightlights for the sense of security which having a light on provides, or to relieve fear of the dark, especially in young children | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Midnight is the transition time from one day to the next – the moment when the date changes, on the local official clock time for any particular jurisdiction. By clock time, midnight is the opposite of noon, differing from it by 12 hours.
Solar midnight is the time opposite to solar noon, when the Sun is closest to the nadir, and the night is equidistant from dusk and dawn | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Night combat is combat that occurs during the hours of darkness. It is distinguished from daytime combat by lower visibility and its reversed relation to the circadian cycle. Typically, night combat is favorable to the attacker, with offensive tactics being focused on exploiting the advantages to maximum effect | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Night diving is underwater diving done during the hours of darkness. It frequently refers specifically to recreational diving which takes place in darkness. The diver can experience a different underwater environment at night, because many marine animals are nocturnal | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A night owl, evening person or simply owl, is a person who tends to stay up until late at night, or to the very early hours of the morning. Night owls who are involuntarily unable to fall asleep for several hours after a normal time may have delayed sleep phase disorder.
The opposite of a night owl is an early bird – a lark as opposed to an owl – which is someone who tends to begin sleeping at a time that is considered early and also wakes early | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Night Work Conventions are International Labour Organization Convention conventions regulating the rights of night workers. They were specifically aimed at young persons, women or people in specific types of employment (industrial, non-industrial or bakeries) and conceived between 1919 and 1948. A more general instrument (not addressing young people however) was signed in 1990 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The nocturnal bottleneck hypothesis is a hypothesis to explain several mammalian traits. In 1942, Gordon Lynn Walls described this concept which states that placental mammals were mainly or even exclusively nocturnal through most of their evolutionary history, starting with their origin 225 million years ago, and only ending with the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago. While some mammal groups have later evolved to fill diurnal niches, the approximately 160 million years spent as nocturnal animals has left a lasting legacy on basal anatomy and physiology, and most mammals are still nocturnal | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Photuris bethaniensis is a species of firefly in the genus Photuris. Photuris bethaniensis, also known as the Bethany Beach firefly, is found in interdunal swale habitats along a 25 kilometre stretch of shoreline in Sussex County, Delaware. It is extremely rare and in decline | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Polar night is a phenomenon in the northernmost and southernmost regions of Earth where night lasts for more than 24 hours. This occurs only inside the polar circles. The opposite phenomenon, polar day, or midnight sun, occurs when the Sun remains above the horizon for more than 24 hours | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In commercial aviation, a red-eye flight refers to a flight that departs at night and arrives the next morning, especially when the total flight time is insufficient for passengers to get a full night's sleep.
The term derives from red eyes as a symptom of fatigue.
Causes and utilities
For the airline, overnight flights will enable more use of aircraft that would otherwise be idle at night | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Night skiing is the sport of skiing or snowboarding after sundown, offered at many ski resorts and mountains. There are usually floodlights – including LED lamps – along the piste which allow for better visibility. It typically begins after a resort's skiing-day ends (sunset), and ends between 8:00 PM and 10:30 PM | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The night sky is the nighttime appearance of celestial objects like stars, planets, and the Moon, which are visible in a clear sky between sunset and sunrise, when the Sun is below the horizon.
Natural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. Aurorae light up the skies above the polar circles | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Skyglow (or sky glow) is the diffuse luminance of the night sky, apart from discrete light sources such as the Moon and visible individual stars. It is a commonly noticed aspect of light pollution. While usually referring to luminance arising from artificial lighting, skyglow may also involve any scattered light seen at night, including natural ones like starlight, zodiacal light, and airglow | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Twilight is light produced by sunlight scattering in the upper atmosphere, when the Sun is below the horizon, which illuminates the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface. The word twilight can also refer to the periods of time when this illumination occurs. The lower the Sun is beneath the horizon, the dimmer the twilight (other factors such as atmospheric conditions being equal) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field by accumulating electric charges on two closely spaced surfaces that are insulated from each other. It is a passive electronic component with two terminals.
The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Capacitors are manufactured in many styles, forms, dimensions, and from a large variety of materials. They all contain at least two electrical conductors, called plates, separated by an insulating layer (dielectric). Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An action potential occurs when the membrane potential of a specific cell rapidly rises and falls. This depolarization then causes adjacent locations to similarly depolarize. Action potentials occur in several types of animal cells, called excitable cells, which include neurons, muscle cells, and in some plant cells | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An action potential pulse is a mathematically and experimentally correct Synchronized Oscillating Lipid Pulse coupled with an Action Potential. This is a continuation of Hodgkin Huxley's work in 1952 with the inclusion of accurately modelling ion channel proteins, including their dynamics and speed of activation.
The action potential pulse is a model of the speed an action potential that is dynamically dependent upon the position and number of ion channels, and the shape and make up of the axon | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are polarized electrolytic capacitors whose anode electrode (+) is made of a pure aluminum foil with an etched surface. The aluminum forms a very thin insulating layer of aluminum oxide by anodization that acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. A non-solid electrolyte covers the rough surface of the oxide layer, serving in principle as the second electrode (cathode) (-) of the capacitor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so ubiquitous that it is rare that an electrical product does not include at least one for some purpose. Capacitors allow only AC signals to pass when they are charged blocking DC signals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A back-to-back connection is the direct connection of the output of one device to the input of a similar or related device.
Telecommunications
In telecommunications, a back-to-back connection can be formed by connecting a transmitter directly to a receiver without a transmission line in between. This is used for equipment measurements and testing purposes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Body capacitance is the physical property of the human body that it acts as a capacitor. Like any other electrically conductive object, a human body can store electric charge if insulated. The actual amount of capacitance varies with the surroundings; it would be low when standing on top of a pole with nothing nearby, but high when leaning against an insulated, but grounded large metal surface, such as a household refrigerator, or a metal wall in a factory | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A capacitor electric vehicle is a vehicle that uses supercapacitors (also called ultracapacitors) to store electricity. As of 2010, the best ultracapacitors can only store about 5% of the energy that lithium-ion rechargeable batteries can, limiting them to a couple of miles per charge. This makes them ineffective as a general energy storage medium for passenger vehicles | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Capacitive coupling is the transfer of energy within an electrical network or between distant networks by means of displacement current between circuit(s) nodes, induced by the electric field. This coupling can have an intentional or accidental effect.
In its simplest implementation, capacitive coupling is achieved by placing a capacitor between two nodes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The capacitor plague was a problem related to a higher-than-expected failure rate of non-solid aluminium electrolytic capacitors between 1999 and 2007, especially those from some Taiwanese manufacturers, due to faulty electrolyte composition that caused corrosion accompanied by gas generation; this often resulted in rupturing of the case of the capacitor from the build-up of pressure.
High failure rates occurred in many well-known brands of electronics, and were particularly evident in motherboards, video cards, and power supplies of personal computers.
A 2003 article in The Independent claimed that the cause of the faulty capacitors was due to a mis-copied formula | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Carbide-derived carbon (CDC), also known as tunable nanoporous carbon, is the common term for carbon materials derived from carbide precursors, such as binary (e. g. SiC, TiC), or ternary carbides, also known as MAX phases (e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A ceramic capacitor is a fixed-value capacitor where the ceramic material acts as the dielectric. It is constructed of two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer acting as the electrodes. The composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical behavior and therefore applications | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In electronics, a decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to decouple (i. e. prevent electrical energy from transferring to) one part of a circuit from another | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Dielectric absorption is the name given to the effect by which a capacitor, that has been charged for a long time, discharges only incompletely when briefly discharged. Although an ideal capacitor would remain at zero volts after being discharged, real capacitors will develop a small voltage from time-delayed dipole discharging, a phenomenon that is also called dielectric relaxation, "soakage", or "battery action". For some dielectrics, such as many polymer films, the resulting voltage may be less than 1–2% of the original voltage, but it can be as much as 15% for electrolytic capacitors | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Double-layer capacitance is the important characteristic of the electrical double layer which appears at the interface between a surface and a fluid (for example, between a conductive electrode and an adjacent liquid electrolyte). At this boundary two layers of electric charge with opposing polarity form, one at the surface of the electrode, and one in the electrolyte. These two layers, electrons on the electrode and ions in the electrolyte, are typically separated by a single layer of solvent molecules that adhere to the surface of the electrode and act like a dielectric in a conventional capacitor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A supercapacitor (SC), also called an ultracapacitor, is a high-capacity capacitor, with a capacitance value much higher than other capacitors but with lower voltage limits. It bridges the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries. It typically stores 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume or mass than electrolytic capacitors, can accept and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerates many more charge and discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor whose anode or positive plate is made of a metal that forms an insulating oxide layer through anodization. This oxide layer acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. A solid, liquid, or gel electrolyte covers the surface of this oxide layer, serving as the cathode or negative plate of the capacitor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Equivalent series inductance (ESL) is an effective inductance that is used to describe the inductive part of the impedance of certain electrical components.
Overview
The theoretical treatment of devices such as capacitors and resistors tends to assume they are ideal or "perfect" devices, contributing only capacitance or resistance to the circuit. However, all physical devices are connected to a circuit through conductive leads and paths, which contain inherent, usually unwanted, inductance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Practical capacitors and inductors as used in electric circuits are not ideal components with only capacitance or inductance. However, they can be treated, to a very good degree of approximation, as being ideal capacitors and inductors in series with a resistance; this resistance is defined as the equivalent series resistance (ESR). If not otherwise specified, the ESR is always an AC resistance, which means it is measured at specified frequencies, 100 kHz for switched-mode power supply components, 120 Hz for linear power-supply components, and at its self-resonant frequency for general-application components | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ferroelectric capacitor is a capacitor based on a ferroelectric material. In contrast, traditional capacitors are based on dielectric materials. Ferroelectric devices are used in digital electronics as part of ferroelectric RAM, or in analog electronics as tunable capacitors (varactors) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Film capacitors, plastic film capacitors, film dielectric capacitors, or polymer film capacitors, generically called film caps as well as power film capacitors, are electrical capacitors with an insulating plastic film as the dielectric, sometimes combined with paper as carrier of the electrodes.
The dielectric films, depending on the desired dielectric strength, are drawn in a special process to an extremely thin thickness, and are then provided with electrodes. The electrodes of film capacitors may be metallized aluminum or zinc applied directly to the surface of the plastic film, or a separate metallic foil | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A force-sensing capacitor is a material whose capacitance changes when a force, pressure or mechanical stress is applied. They are also known as "force-sensitive capacitors". They can provide improved sensitivity and repeatability compared to force-sensitive resistors but traditionally required more complicated electronics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Franklin bells (also known as lightning bells) are an early demonstration of electric charge designed to work with a Leyden jar or a Lightning rod. Franklin bells are only a qualitative indicator of electric charge and were used for simple demonstrations rather than research. The bells are an adaptation to the first device that converted electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of continuous mechanical motion, in this case, the moving of a bell clapper back and forth between two oppositely charged bells | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A gimmick capacitor is a capacitor made by twisting two pieces of insulated wire together. The capacitance may be varied by loosening or tightening the winding. The capacitance can also be reduced by shortening the twisted pair by cutting | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Hybrid electric double layer (Hybrid EDL) is a model to describe the formation of electric double layer considering the contribution of electron transfer at liquid-solid interface, which is firstly proposed by Wang et al. in 2018. The major difference between the hybrid EDL model and the traditional EDL model is that the hybrid EDL model considers that there are both electrons and ions on the solid surface in the EDL, while the traditional EDL model considers that the solid surface has only adsorbed ions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Leyden jar (or Leiden jar, or archaically, sometimes Kleistian jar) is an electrical component that stores a high-voltage electric charge (from an external source) between electrical conductors on the inside and outside of a glass jar. It typically consists of a glass jar with metal foil cemented to the inside and the outside surfaces, and a metal terminal projecting vertically through the jar lid to make contact with the inner foil. It was the original form of the capacitor (also called a condenser) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A lithium-ion capacitor (LIC or LiC) is a hybrid type of capacitor classified as a type of supercapacitor. It is called a hybrid because the anode is the same as those used in lithium-ion batteries and the cathode is the same as those used in supercapacitors. Activated carbon is typically used as the cathode | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A MIS capacitor is a capacitor formed from a layer of metal, a layer of insulating material and a layer of semiconductor material. It gets its name from the initials of the metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) structure. As with the MOS field-effect transistor structure, for historical reasons, this layer is also often referred to as a MOS capacitor, but this specifically refers to an oxide insulator material | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET), most commonly fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It has an insulated gate, the voltage of which determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A motor capacitor is an electrical capacitor that alters the current to one or more windings of a single-phase alternating-current induction motor to create a rotating magnetic field.
There are two common types of motor capacitors, start capacitor and run capacitor (including a dual run capacitor). Motor capacitors are used with single-phase electric motors: 11 that are in turn used to drive air conditioners, hot tub/jacuzzi spa pumps, powered gates, large fans or forced-air heat furnaces for example | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A niobium electrolytic capacitor (historically also Columbium capacitor) is an electrolytic capacitor whose anode (+) is made of passivated niobium metal or niobium monoxide, on which an insulating niobium pentoxide layer acts as a dielectric. A solid electrolyte on the surface of the oxide layer serves as the capacitor's cathode (−).
Niobium capacitors are available in SMD packaging and compete with tantalum chip capacitors in certain voltage and capacitance ratings | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A polymer capacitor, or more accurately a polymer electrolytic capacitor, is an electrolytic capacitor (e-cap) with a solid conductive polymer electrolyte. There are four different types:
Polymer tantalum electrolytic capacitor (Polymer Ta-e-cap)
Polymer aluminium electrolytic capacitor (Polymer Al-e-cap)
Hybrid polymer capacitor (Hybrid polymer Al-e-cap)
Polymer niobium electrolytic capacitorsPolymer Ta-e-caps are available in rectangular surface-mounted device (SMD) chip style. Polymer Al-e-caps and hybrid polymer Al-e-caps are available in rectangular surface-mounted device (SMD) chip style, in cylindrical SMDs (V-chips) style or as radial leaded versions (single-ended) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pseudocapacitance is the electrochemical storage of electricity in an electrochemical capacitor known as a pseudocapacitor. This faradaic charge transfer originates by a very fast sequence of reversible faradaic redox, electrosorption or intercalation processes on the surface of suitable electrodes. Pseudocapacitance is accompanied by an electron charge-transfer between electrolyte and electrode coming from a de-solvated and adsorbed ion | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pseudocapacitors store electrical energy faradaically by electron charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte. This is accomplished through electrosorption, reduction-oxidation reactions (redox reactions), and intercalation processes, termed pseudocapacitance. A pseudocapacitor is part of an electrochemical capacitor, and forms together with an electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC) to create a supercapacitor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In neurophysiology, several mathematical models of the action potential have been developed, which fall into two basic types. The first type seeks to model the experimental data quantitatively, i. e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Ragone plot ( rə-GOH-nee) is a plot used for comparing the energy density of various energy-storing devices. On such a chart the values of specific energy (in W·h/kg) are plotted versus specific power (in W/kg). Both axes are logarithmic, which allows comparing performance of very different devices | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SAL electrolytic capacitors (SAL meaning solid aluminum) are a form of capacitor developed for high capacitance in a small package, with a long and robust service life. They are aluminum electrolytic capacitors with anodic oxidized aluminum oxide as dielectric and with the semiconducting solid manganese dioxide as electrolyte. They are made of etched and formed aluminum anodes, which are folded for the dipped pearl types or wound into a roll for the axial style | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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