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bonding agencies, private investigators, private dispute resolution organizations and private aggressor containment agencies as required. Instead of having to pay for restitution, victims sell restitution rights to the RTR agencies. This arrangement can be compared to the contractual nature of the Goðorð system employe... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
this defensive use of force is an arguable point among anarcho-capitalists. Retributive justice, meaning retaliatory force, is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho-capitalist society. Some believe prisons or indentured servitude would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anar... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
for violating the sanctity of his property rights. Benson opines that despite the lack of objectively measurable losses in such cases, "standardized rules that are generally perceived to be fair by members of the community would, in all likelihood, be established through precedent, allowing judgments to specify payment... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
the teller's call for help. However, the robber's loss of reputation would be even more damaging. Specialized companies would list aggressors so that anyone wishing to do business with a man could first check his record. The bank robber would find insurance companies listing him as a very poor risk and other firms woul... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
their liberties. In fact, according to Rothbard, the American Revolutionary War was the only war involving the United States that could be justified. Some anarcho-capitalists, such as Samuel Edward Konkin III, feel that violent revolution is counter-productive and prefer voluntary forms of economic secession to the ext... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
natural rights, but instead present economic justifications for a free-market capitalist society. Such a latter approach has been offered by David D. Friedman in "The Machinery of Freedom". Unlike other anarcho-capitalists, most notably Rothbard, Friedman has never tried to deny the theoretical cogency of the neoclassi... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
is naturally enforced because individuals are automatically held accountable for their actions via tort and contract law. Communities of sovereign individuals naturally expel aggressors in the same way that ethical business practices are naturally required among competing businesses that are subject to the discipline o... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
theories such as communism, syndicalism and mutualism. These anarchists believe capitalism is incompatible with social and economic equality and therefore do not recognize anarcho-capitalism as an anarchist school of thought. In particular, they argue that capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
contradictory concepts and actions under the same portmanteau term. These two contradictory concepts are what I would call 'free-market capitalism' on the one hand, and 'state capitalism' on the other". "The difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism", writes Rothbard, "is precisely the difference b... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
an authoritarian enforcement of political ideology, such as redistribution of private property. According to this argument, the free market is simply the natural situation that would result from people being free from authority and entails the establishment of all voluntary associations in society, such as cooperatives... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
would have the authority to in essence exact a tax and re-allocate the resulting resources to a larger group of people. This body would thus inherently have political power and would be nothing short of a state. The difference between such an arrangement and an anarcho-capitalist system is precisely the voluntary natur... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
the conclusion that "we find that all of the current anarchists are irrational collectivists, and therefore at opposite poles from our position. That none of the proclaimed anarchist groups correspond to the libertarian position, that even the best of them have unrealistic and socialistic elements in their doctrines". ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
authority that will coerce the noninvasive as well as the invasive. Perhaps, then, we could call ourselves by a new name: nonarchist". Classical liberalism is the primary influence with the longest history on anarcho-capitalist theory. Classical liberals have had two main themes since John Locke first expounded the phi... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
wrote: "The state is the great fiction by which everybody seeks to live at the expense of everybody else". Henry David Thoreau wrote: "I heartily accept the motto, 'That government is best which governs least'; and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to t... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
individual liberty and property and opposed all but the most minimal economic regulations. The "normative core" of classical liberalism is the idea that in an environment of "laissez-faire", a spontaneous order of cooperation in exchanging goods and services emerges that satisfies human wants. Some individualists came ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
by competing private providers. One of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of privatizing protection of individual liberty and property was France's Jakob Mauvillon in the 18th century. In the 1840s, Julius Faucher and Gustave de Molinari advocated the same. In his essay "The Production of Security", Molinari... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
Ralph Raico argues that what these liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism". Unlike the liberalism of Locke, which saw the state as evolving from society, the anti-state liberals saw a fundamental conflict betw... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
few. The anti-state liberal tradition in Europe and the United States continued after Molinari in the early writings of Herbert Spencer as well as in thinkers such as Paul Émile de Puydt and Auberon Herbert. In the early 20th century, the mantle of anti-state liberalism was taken by the Old Right. These were minarchist... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
hold of the right-wing in the United States, stressing anti-communism. This induced the libertarian Old Right to split off from the right and seek alliances with the (now left-wing) antiwar movement, and to start specifically libertarian organizations such as the Libertarian Party. Rothbard was influenced by the work o... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
nothing is more needed today than a revival and development of the largely forgotten legacy they left to political philosophy". He thought they had a faulty understanding of economics as the 19th century individualists had a labor theory of value as influenced by the classical economists and Rothbard was a student of A... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung". He held that the economic consequences of the political system they advocate would not result in an economy with people... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
Doctrine: An Economist's View". He says that first of all Tucker was wrong to think that that would cause the money supply to increase because he says that the money supply in a free market would be self-regulating. If it were not, then inflation would occur so it is not necessarily desirable to increase the money supp... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
because banking was unregulated. Tucker held a labor theory of value and as a result he thought that in a free market people would be paid in proportion to how much labor they exerted and that if they were not then exploitation or "usury" was taking place. As he explains in "State Socialism and Anarchism", his theory w... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay. As an Austrian economist, Rothbard did not agree with the labor theory and believed that prices of goods and services are proportional to marginal utility rather than to labor amounts in the free market. He did not think that there was anything exploitative about people r... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
upon which they agree is that defense of liberty and property should be provided in the free market rather than by the state. Tucker said: "[D]efense is a service like any other service; that it is labor both useful and desired, and therefore an economic commodity subject to the law of supply and demand; that in a free... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
and that the State, like almost all monopolists, charges exorbitant prices". After studying the Yurok, Hupa, and Karok Indians and some of their Northern California neighbors, Walter Goldsmidt reported "a culture which reflects in surprising degree certain structural and ethical characteristics of emergent capitalistic... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
enterprise, its members think of him more as an integrating core than as a head who in any way dominates". The kinfolk had a mutual duty to support each other in disputes with members of other families. They did not settle these disputes through warfare, but through arbitration by a voluntarily contracted "monkalun". B... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
no common property; and almost all property was individually owned as Pospisil remarks: Benson observes: Those who were rich and considered to be honest and generous became leaders called "tonowi". However, they held no coercive authority over others. Legal disputes were handled through contractual arbitration, which w... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions". While not directly labeling it anarcho-capitalist, he argues that the legal system of the Icelandic Commonwealth comes close to b... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system". Commenting on its political structure, libertarian scholar Roderick Long remarks: Long observes how the system of free contract between farm... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
owned a churchstead. This gave an unfair advantage to some chieftains who at least in part did not need to rely upon the voluntary support of their clients in order to receive some income. This gradually lead to the concentration of power in the hands of a few big chieftains, enabling them to restrict competition and e... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
to the research of Terry L. Anderson and P. J. Hill, the Old West in the United States in the period of 1830 to 1900 was similar to anarcho-capitalism in that "private agencies provided the necessary basis for an orderly society in which property was protected and conflicts were resolved" and that the common popular pe... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
property rights developed from the bottom up, the western frontier was anarcho-capitalistic. People on the frontier invented institutions that fit the resource constraints they faced". In his work "For a New Liberty", Murray Rothbard has claimed ancient Gaelic Ireland as an example of nearly anarcho-capitalist society.... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
settled by private arbiters called "brehons" and the compensation to be paid to the wronged party was insured through voluntary surety relationships. Commenting on the "kings" of tuaths, Rothbard states: Many libertarian historians have cited law merchant, admiralty law and early common law as examples of anarcho-capit... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
a real-world example of a stateless society and legal system. Since the fall of Siad Barre's government in January 1991, there had been no central government in Somalia until the establishment of the Transitional National Government and its successor the Transitional Federal Government. While some urban areas such as M... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
travel, trade and marriage, which survives "to a significant degree" throughout Somalia, particularly in rural Somalia where it is "virtually unaffected". MacCallum credits the Xeer with "Somalia's success without a central government, since it provides an authentic rule of law to support trade and economic development... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
common law dispute resolution system in Somalia makes possible basic economic order. MacCallum compares the Xeer to the common law in 6th century Scotland, and notes that there is no monopoly of either police nor judicial services, a condition of polycentric law. Nonetheless, many anarcho-capitalists argue that Somalia... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
by anarcho-capitalists David D. Friedman and Murray Rothbard. Some critics argue that anarcho-capitalism turns justice into a commodity; private defense and court firms would favour those who pay more for their services. Randall G. Holcombe argues that defense agencies could form cartels and oppress people without fear... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
argues that an anarcho-capitalist society would inevitably transform into a minarchist state through the eventual emergence of a monopolistic private defense and judicial agency that no longer faces competition. He argues that anarcho-capitalism results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world. Pau... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
to natural market processes, or by perpetual provision of superior quality products and services. Unless competitors are prevented from entering a market, the profit incentive, which is fueled by constant demand for improvement, proportionately draws them into it. Furthermore, as demonstrated by the medieval systems in... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
thus creating the incentive for people to work defending the rights of victims that otherwise would not be able to pay for the service. Many anarcho-capitalists believe that negative rights should be recognized as legitimate, but positive rights should be rejected. Some critics, including Noam Chomsky, reject the disti... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
choice ignores constraints due to both human and non-human factors, such as the need for food and shelter; and active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims. For instance, if a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself, the employer–employee relationship cou... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
libertarian critics of anarcho-capitalism who support the full privatization of capital, such as geolibertarians, argue that land and the raw materials of nature remain a distinct factor of production and cannot be justly converted to private property because they are not products of human labor. Some socialists, inclu... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
occupying and using it. Furthermore, the idea of perpetually binding original appropriation is anathema to socialism and traditional schools of anarchism as well as to any moral or economic philosophy that takes equal natural rights to land and the Earth's resources as a premise. Anarcho-capitalists counter that proper... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
determined, subject to a variety of factors and can not be politically manipulated without net negative consequences. The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism. Anarcho-capitalism has been examined in certain works of literature, particularly science fiction. An early exa... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
in a favorable light and sometimes not. Neal Stephenson's "Snow Crash" and "The Diamond Age", Max Barry's "Jennifer Government" and L. Neil Smith's "The Probability Broach" all explore anarcho-capitalist ideas. The cyberpunk portrayal of anarchy varies from the downright grim to the cheerfully optimistic and it need no... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
is indeed stateless in a semi-anarcho-capitalist way. The novelette was originally written to advertise Fuerle's 1986 economics treatise "The Pure Logic of Choice". "Sharper Security: A Sovereign Security Company Novel", part of a series by Thomas Sewell, is "set a couple of decades into the near-future with a liberty ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
forces. Anarcho-capitalist themes abound, including an exploration of not honoring sovereign immunity, privately owned road systems, a "laissez-faire" market and competing currencies. Sandy Sandfort's, Scott Bieser's and Lee Oaks's Webcomic "Escape from Terra" examines a market anarchy based on Ceres and its interactio... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
Aristophanes Aristophanes (; , ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion (), was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete. These, together with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known a... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play "The Clouds" as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of Socrates, although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher. Aristophanes' second play, "The Babylonians" (now l... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
play's Chorus, "the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all." () Less is known about Aristophanes than about his plays. In fact, his plays are the main source of information about him and his life. It was conventional in Old Comedy for the Chorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
comic "poet" in an age when it was conventional for a poet to assume the role of 'teacher' (didaskalos), and though this specifically referred to his training of the Chorus in rehearsal, it also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues. Aristophanes claimed to be writing for a c... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
figures in the arts (notably Euripides, whose influence on his own work however he once grudgingly acknowledged), in politics (especially the populist Cleon), and in philosophy/religion (where Socrates was the most obvious target). Such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative, yet ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
of other comic dramatists. An elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice and corruption, reduced the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences yet there is much uncertainty about the composition of those audiences. The theatres were cert... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
like Cleon) occupied the festival holiday with other pursuits. The conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience. The production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays. Throughout most of Aristophanes' c... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
that wealthy citizens might regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like Cleon. Thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of Athenian society, on whose generosity all dramatists depended for putting on their plays. When A... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
with Sparta. The plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. By the time his last play was produced (around 386 BC) Athens had been defeated in war, its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from being the political to... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations. Aristophanes won second prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BC with his first play "The Banqueters" (now lost). He won first prize there with his next play, "The Babylonians" (also now lost). It was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the City Di... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
author. The details of the trial are unrecorded but, speaking through the hero of his third play "The Acharnians" (staged at the Lenaia, where there were few or no foreign dignitaries), the poet carefully distinguishes between the "polis" and the real targets of his acerbic wit: Aristophanes repeatedly savages Cleon in... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
limit or control Aristophanes: the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death. In the absence of clear biographical facts about Aristophanes, scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays. Inscriptions and summaries or comments by Hellenistic and Byzantine scholar... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
have used these same directors in many later plays as well (Philoneides for example later directed "The Frogs" and he was also credited, perhaps wrongly, with directing "The Wasps".) Aristophanes's use of directors complicates our reliance on the plays as sources of biographical information because apparent self-refere... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
their own plays and therefore the reference in the play could be either to Aristophanes or Callistratus. Similarly, the hero in "The Acharnians" complains about Cleon "dragging me into court" over "last year's play" but here again it is not clear if this was said in reference to Aristophanes or Callistratus, either of ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with Cleon following either the controversy over "The Babylonians" or a subsequent controversy over "The Knights". It has been inferred from statements in "The Clouds" and "Peace" that Aristophanes was prematurely bald. We know that Aristophanes w... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
son of Aristophanes, Araros, was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his father's play "Wealth II" in 388. Araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost plays "Aeolosicon II" and "Cocalus", and it is possible that the last of t... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
by the latter name appears in the catalogue of Lenaia victors with two victories, the first probably in the late 370s. Plato's "The Symposium" appears to be a useful source of biographical information about Aristophanes, but its reliability is open to doubt. It purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
no indication of any ill-feeling between Socrates and Aristophanes. Plato's Aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of Plato's own friendship with him (their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for Aristophanes, "reputedly" written by Plato, in which the play... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
the subject of Love and Aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory, a device he often uses in his plays. He is represented as suffering an attack of hiccoughs and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays. He tells the other guests that he is quite happy to ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
that other dramatists had incurred. Aristophanes survived The Peloponnesian War, two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations; this has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics despite his highly political plays. He was probably appointed to the Council of Five Hundred fo... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
by ancient commentators as a model of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer. A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
For Aristophanes' contemporaries the works of Homer and Hesiod formed the cornerstones of Hellenic history and culture. Thus poetry had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire. Aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous ref... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
subtle use of lyrics. He appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of Euripides in particular, so much so that the comic dramatist Cratinus labelled him a 'Euripidaristophanist' addicted to hair-splitting niceties. A full appreciation of Aristophanes' plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
expense of the unfortunate Pantocles. Such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays, allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audience's appetite for the next joke. <poem style="margin-left:2em"> Though to myself I often seem None comes close to Amynias, Clan, a man I once saw Now as p... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
for example, the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close. In "The Frogs", Aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit. Some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character, such ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
in the new rhetoric may use his talents to deceive the jury and bewilder his opponents so thoroughly that the trial loses all semblance of fairness” He is speaking to the “art” of flattery, and evidence points towards the fact that many of Aristophanes’ plays were actually created with the intent to attack the view of ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
of the sophistic education The chorus was mainly used by Aristophanes as a defense against rhetoric and would often talk about topics such as the civic duty of those who were educated in classical teachings. In Aristophanes’ opinion it was the job of those educated adults to protect the public from the deception and to... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
roughly all of the pupils studying with the sophists came from upper-class backgrounds and excluded the rest of the polis. Aristophanes believed that education and knowledge was a public service and that anything that excluded willing minds was nothing but an abomination. He concludes that all politicians that study rh... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
BC, by which time tragedy had already been long established there. The first comedy at the Lenaia was staged later still, only about 20 years before the performance there of "The Acharnians", the first of Aristophanes' surviving plays. According to Aristotle, comedy was slow to gain official acceptance because nobody t... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
Aristotle could distinguish between 'old' and 'new' comedy by 330 BC. The trend from Old Comedy to New Comedy saw a move away from highly topical concerns with real individuals and local issues towards generalized situations and stock characters. This was partly due to the internationalization of cultural perspectives ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
have developed around a complex set of dramatic conventions, and these were only gradually simplified and abandoned. The City Dionysia and the Lenaia were celebrated in honour of Dionysus, the god of wine and ecstasy. (Euripides' play "The Bacchae" offers the best insight into 5th century ideas about this god.) Old Com... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
outside the city, and it remained in the theatre throughout the festival, overseeing the plays like a privileged member of the audience. In "The Frogs", the god appears also as a dramatic character, and he enters the theatre ludicrously disguised as Hercules. He observes to the audience that every time he is on hand to... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
and its practitioners. Gods, artists, politicians and ordinary citizens were legitimate targets, comedy was a kind of licensed buffoonery, and there was no legal redress for anyone who was slandered in a play. There were certain limits to the scope of the satire, but they are not easily defined. Impiety could be punish... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
involved. For convenience, Old Comedy, as represented by Aristophanes' early plays, is analysed below in terms of three broad characteristics— topicality, festivity and complexity. Dramatic structure contributes to the complexity of Aristophanes' plays. However, it is associated with poetic rhythms and meters that have... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
had unique consequences for both the writing and the production of the plays in ancient Athens. The Lenaia and City Dionysia were religious festivals, but they resembled a gala rather than a church service. The development of New Comedy involved a trend towards more realistic plots, a simpler dramatic structure and a s... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
be summarized as follows: The rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs. In "The Acharnians" and "Peace", for example, there is no formal agon whereas in "The Clouds" there are two agons. The parabasis is an address to the audience by the choru... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end. The elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that Aristophanes' own understanding was less formal. The selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and sec... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows. Textual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis. However, there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays. For example, the parabasis proper in "The Clouds" (lines 518–62) i... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
of the strophe and antistrophe) and, unlike the typical parabasis, it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address. An understanding of Old Comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of Aristophanes' plays; on the other hand, a sensitive appreciation of the pl... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
it did so because, in Aristophanes, it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age. Indeed, according to one ancient source (Platonius, c.9th Century AD), one of Aristophanes's last plays, "Aioliskon", had neither a parabasis nor any choral lyrics (making it a type of Middle Comedy), wh... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
other times according to its reception of his plays. "Clouds" was awarded third (i.e. last) place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that Aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted. The circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their inf... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
were instrumental in the trial and execution of Socrates, whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosopher's disgraced associates (such as Alcibiades), exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial. The plays, in manuscript form, have been put to some surprising uses—as indi... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
translations of the plays by Andreas Divus (Venice 1528) were circulated widely throughout Europe in the Renaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages. Racine, for example, drew "Les Plaideurs" (1668) from "The Wasps". Goethe (who turned to Aristophanes for a warmer and mo... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet conservative, Prussian intellectuals interpreted Aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform. The avant-gardist stage-director Karolos Koun directed a version of "The Birds" under the Acropolis in 1959 that establi... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
of the plays is immeasurable. They have contributed to the history of European theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays. Thus for example the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan can give us insights into Aristophanes' plays and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas. The... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
a customary language of scholarship in classical studies. The standard modern edition of the fragments is Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci III.2. Aristophanes Aristophanes (; , ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion (), was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays su... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
Albert Schweitzer Albert Schweitzer, OM (14 January 18754 September 1965) was an Alsatian theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method current at this time, as well as the traditiona... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, in the part of French Equatorial Africa which is now Gabon. As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Move... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
mostly in German. His mother-tongue was Alsatian, a Germanic dialect, although he was also fluent in French and German. Schweitzer was born in Kaysersberg, Haute Alsace, the son of Louis Schweitzer and Adèle Schillinger. He spent his childhood in the Alsatian village of Gunsbach, where his father, the local Lutheran-Ev... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
arose after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years' War. Schweitzer, the pastor's son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of faith and purpose. Schweitzer's first language was the Alsatian dialect of... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
In 1893 he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor (at Saint-Sulpice, Paris), for whom Johann Sebastian Bach's organ music contained a mystic sense of the eternal. Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship thus began. From 1893 Schweitzer studied ... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
one-year compulsory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner in Strasbourg (under Otto Lohse) and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the Bayreuth Festival to see Wagner's "Der Ring des Nibelungen" and "Parsifal", which deeply impressed him. In 1898 he went back to Paris to write a PhD... | wiki_dpr/train-00000-of-00157.parquet |
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