Split (1)

train · 21k rows

index int64 0 21k	title stringclasses 490 values	context stringlengths 151 4.06k	x float32 -1 1	y float32 -1 1	tile_index_64 int64 25 4.07k	tile_index_128 int64 51 16.3k	cluster int64 0 216	raw_cluster int64 -1 216	label stringclasses 217 values	deleted bool 1 class
20,900	French_and_Indian_War	Governor Vaudreuil, who harboured ambitions to become the French commander in chief (in addition to his role as governor), acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts Shirley had erected at t...	0.269991	-0.265997	1,512	5,969	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,901	French_and_Indian_War	The new British command was not in place until July. When he arrived in Albany, Abercrombie refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them. Montcalm took bold action against his inertia. Building on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison, Montcalm executed a strategic feint by moving his he...	0.283782	-0.268914	1,513	5,970	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,902	French_and_Indian_War	Loudoun, a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France's capital, Quebec. Leaving a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm, he began organizing for the expedition to Quebec. He was then ordered by William Pitt, the Secretary of St...	0.268161	-0.273445	1,512	5,969	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,903	French_and_Indian_War	French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757. In January they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga. In February they launched a daring raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the mai...	0.270685	-0.266662	1,512	5,969	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,904	French_and_Indian_War	Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping. The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory. ...	0.274506	-0.264195	1,512	6,097	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,905	French_and_Indian_War	The British failures in North America, combined with other failures in the European theater, led to the fall from power of Newcastle and his principal military advisor, the Duke of Cumberland. Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the military planning. He embarked on a plan for the 1...	0.282047	-0.267457	1,513	5,970	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,906	French_and_Indian_War	The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen famously and decisively defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia and Native American allies outside the fort the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga. Abercrombie sa...	0.285719	-0.263712	1,513	6,098	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,907	French_and_Indian_War	In the aftermath of generally poor French results in most theaters of the Seven Years' War in 1758, France's new foreign minister, the duc de Choiseul, decided to focus on an invasion of Britain, to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland. The invasion failed both militarily and politic...	0.311654	-0.274269	1,513	5,971	213	-1	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,908	French_and_Indian_War	British victories continued in all theaters in the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, when they finally captured Ticonderoga, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec (in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders), and victory at Fort Niagara successfully cut off the French frontier forts further to the west and south. T...	0.277787	-0.260396	1,512	6,097	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,909	French_and_Indian_War	In September 1760, and before any hostilities erupted, Governor Vaudreuil negotiated from Montreal a capitulation with General Amherst. Amherst granted Vaudreuil's request that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continu...	0.276447	-0.264714	1,512	6,097	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,910	French_and_Indian_War	The war in North America officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, and war in the European theatre of the Seven Years' War was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763. The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American posses...	0.283637	-0.246036	1,577	6,226	213	-1	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,911	French_and_Indian_War	Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French-speaking Roman Catholic residents. The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 resulted in land made available to migrants from Europe and the colonies further south. The British resettled many Acadians throu...	0.253903	-0.25438	1,512	6,096	213	213	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,912	French_and_Indian_War	Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and to some extent continues to govern relations between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations. Included in its provisions was ...	0.26492	-0.278049	1,512	5,968	213	-1	Canadian Historical Conflicts	false
20,913	French_and_Indian_War	For many native populations, the elimination of French power in North America meant the disappearance of a strong ally and counterweight to British expansion, leading to their ultimate dispossession. The Ohio Country was particularly vulnerable to legal and illegal settlement due to the construction of military roads t...	0.197868	-0.219583	1,574	6,348	212	212	Caribbean and Colonial History	false
20,914	Force	Philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects and simple machines, but thinkers such as Aristotle and Archimedes retained fundamental errors in understanding force. In part this was due to an incomplete understanding of the sometimes non-obvious force of friction, and...	0.028262	0.647787	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,915	Force	With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms. The Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means ...	0.005033	0.664486	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,916	Force	Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotle's view, the terrestrial sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different "natural places" therein. Aristotle believed that motionless objects on Earth, those composed mostly o...	0.541305	0.505474	3,121	12,386	151	-1	Philosophical Ideals and Challenges	false
20,917	Force	The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an ...	0.040437	0.639013	3,361	13,378	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,918	Force	Newton's First Law of Motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external net force or resultant force. This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force (see a more detailed description of this below). N...	0.02756	0.662115	3,424	13,633	87	-1	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,919	Force	For instance, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity, the laws of physics do not change from being at rest. A person can throw a ball straight up in the air and catch it as it falls down without worrying about applying a force in the direction the vehicle is moving. This is true even though another ...	0.036346	0.644482	3,361	13,506	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,920	Force	The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity. The rotational inertia of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year. Albert Eins...	0.036554	0.64184	3,361	13,506	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,921	Force	Newton's Second Law asserts the direct proportionality of acceleration to force and the inverse proportionality of acceleration to mass. Accelerations can be defined through kinematic measurements. However, while kinematics are well-described through reference frame analysis in advanced physics, there are still deep qu...	0.018217	0.659385	3,424	13,633	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,922	Force	Newton's Third Law is a result of applying symmetry to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects. The third law means that all forces are interactions between different bodies,[Note 3] and thus that there is no such thing as a unidirectional force or a force that acts on only one bo...	0.01036	0.655137	3,360	13,504	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,923	Force	This means that in a closed system of particles, there are no internal forces that are unbalanced. That is, the action-reaction force shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the center of mass of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the s...	0.022257	0.661856	3,424	13,633	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,924	Force	Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can provide an intuitive understanding for describing forces. As with other physical concepts (e.g. temperature), the intuitive understanding of forces is quantified using precise operational definitions that are consistent with direct observations and compared to a s...	0.009967	0.655249	3,360	13,504	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,925	Force	Forces act in a particular direction and have sizes dependent upon how strong the push or pull is. Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as "vector quantities". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar quant...	0.010875	0.651374	3,360	13,504	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,926	Force	Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of static equilibrium where several forces canceled each other out. Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive vector quantities: they have magnitude and direction. When two forces act on a point particle, the re...	0.010428	0.65616	3,360	13,504	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,927	Force	As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at right angles to each other. A horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Resolvin...	0.012571	0.64694	3,360	13,504	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,928	Force	Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the applied force is opposed by static friction, generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no movement, the static friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting...	0.002827	0.660667	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,929	Force	A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as weighing scales and spring balances. For example, an object suspended on a vertical spring scale experiences the force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the "spring reaction force...	0.016033	0.653973	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,930	Force	Dynamic equilibrium was first described by Galileo who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and logic. Galileo realized that simple velocity addition demands that the concept of an "absolute rest frame" did not exist. Galileo concluded that motion in a constant velo...	0.032671	0.650509	3,361	13,506	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,931	Force	A simple case of dynamic equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with kinetic friction. In such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the applied force. This results in zero net force, but since the object started with a non-z...	0.022461	0.661158	3,424	13,633	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,932	Force	The notion "force" keeps its meaning in quantum mechanics, though one is now dealing with operators instead of classical variables and though the physics is now described by the Schrödinger equation instead of Newtonian equations. This has the consequence that the results of a measurement are now sometimes "quantized",...	0.010776	0.660653	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,933	Force	However, already in quantum mechanics there is one "caveat", namely the particles acting onto each other do not only possess the spatial variable, but also a discrete intrinsic angular momentum-like variable called the "spin", and there is the Pauli principle relating the space and the spin variables. Depending on the ...	-0.005736	0.655892	3,359	13,503	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,934	Force	In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as a mathematical by-product of exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum (4-m...	0.001629	0.658612	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,935	Force	All of the forces in the universe are based on four fundamental interactions. The strong and weak forces are nuclear forces that act only at very short distances, and are responsible for the interactions between subatomic particles, including nucleons and compound nuclei. The electromagnetic force acts between electric...	0.008117	0.657938	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,936	Force	The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of unification of disparate ideas. For example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation....	0.000122	0.650069	3,360	13,504	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,937	Force	What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determ...	0.021344	0.653803	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,938	Force	Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances. In particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an inverse square law. Further, N...	0.026907	0.650962	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,939	Force	In this equation, a dimensional constant is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has come to be known as Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant, though its value was unknown in Newton's lifetime. Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of using a torsion bala...	0.027457	0.649724	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,940	Force	It was only the orbit of the planet Mercury that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet (Vulcan) that would explain the discrepancies; however, despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When Albert Einstein formulated ...	0.049616	0.636485	3,361	13,379	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,941	Force	Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory that best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved space-time – defined as the shortest space-tim...	0.04997	0.638576	3,361	13,379	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,942	Force	Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of vector multiplication called Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field. The connection between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified electromagnetic fo...	-0.009555	0.6645	3,423	13,631	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,943	Force	The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell unified a number of earlier theories into a set of 20 scalar equations, which were later reformulated into 4 vector equations by Oliver Heaviside and Josiah Willard Gibbs. These "Maxwell Equations" fully describe...	-0.027378	0.641325	3,359	13,502	87	-1	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,944	Force	However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the photoelectric effect, and the nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modific...	-0.03081	0.64497	3,359	13,502	87	-1	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,945	Force	It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli exclusion principle.[citation needed] Since electrons are fermions, they cannot occupy the s...	0.002752	0.658194	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,946	Force	The strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between hadrons (the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei) as the nuclear force. Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons, which form part of the virt...	0.0043	0.659146	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,947	Force	The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravi...	0.009042	0.664803	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,948	Force	The normal force is due to repulsive forces of interaction between atoms at close contact. When their electron clouds overlap, Pauli repulsion (due to fermionic nature of electrons) follows resulting in the force that acts in a direction normal to the surface interface between two objects.:93 The normal force, for exam...	0.015678	0.652048	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,949	Force	Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings that are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable. They can be combined with ideal pulleys, which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are co...	-0.004094	0.661605	3,423	13,631	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,950	Force	Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to describe how forces affect idealized point particles rather than three-dimensional objects. However, in real life, matter has extended structure and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an object. For situations whe...	0.010225	0.659413	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,951	Force	where is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress-tensor is being calculated. This formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the matrix diagonals of the tensor) as well as shear terms associated with forces that act parallel to th...	0.008153	0.661415	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,952	Force	Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position, angular velocity for velocity, and angular momentum for momentum. As a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentu...	0.018221	0.650027	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,953	Force	where is the mass of the object, is the velocity of the object and is the distance to the center of the circular path and is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curv...	0.018256	0.649302	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,954	Force	A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between kinetic or potential forms. This means that for a closed system, the net mechanical energy is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related direct...	0.014267	0.660208	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,955	Force	For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often due to macrophysical considerations that yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of microstates. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potent...	0.011607	0.656263	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,956	Force	The connection between macroscopic nonconservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with statistical mechanics. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change the internal energies of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of heat. Accord...	0.006796	0.668854	3,424	13,632	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false
20,957	Force	The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the kilogram-force (kgf) (sometimes kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass. The kilogram-force leads to an alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the metric slug (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass that ...	0.021903	0.650093	3,360	13,505	87	87	Energy and Physics Concepts	false

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