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Gunther von Hagens True Anatomy for New Ways of Teaching. |
Branches of biology |
Morphology (biology) Affirming the consequent, sometimes called converse error, fallacy of the converse, or confusion of necessity and sufficiency, is a formal fallacy of taking a true conditional statement (e.g., "If the lamp were broken, then the room would be dark"), and invalidly inferring its converse ("The room i... |
Converse errors are common in everyday thinking and communication and can result from, among other causes, communication issues, misconceptions about logic, and failure to consider other causes. |
The opposite statement, denying the consequent, is a valid form of argument. |
Formal description |
Affirming the consequent is the action of taking a true statement and invalidly concluding its converse . The name affirming the consequent derives from using the consequent, Q, of , to conclude the antecedent P. This illogic can be summarized formally as or, alternatively, . |
The root cause of such a logic error is sometimes failure to realize that just because P is a possible condition for Q, P may not be the only condition for Q, i.e. Q may follow from another condition as well. |
Affirming the consequent can also result from overgeneralizing the experience of many statements having true converses. If P and Q are "equivalent" statements, i.e. , it is possible to infer P under the condition Q. For example, the statements "It is August 13, so it is my birthday" and "It is my birthday, so it is Au... |
Additional examples |
Example 1 |
One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example: |
If Bill Gates owns Fort Knox, then Bill Gates is rich. |
Bill Gates is rich. |
Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox. |
Owning Fort Knox is not the only way to be rich. Any number of other ways to be rich exist. |
However, one can affirm with certainty that "if someone is not rich" (non-Q), then "this person does not own Fort Knox" (non-P). This is the contrapositive of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true. |
Example 2 |
Here is another useful, obviously-fallacious example, but one that does not require familiarity with who Bill Gates is and what Fort Knox is: |
If an animal is a dog, then it has four legs. |
My cat has four legs. |
Therefore, my cat is a dog. |
Here, it is immediately intuitive that any number of other antecedents ("If an animal is a deer...", "If an animal is an elephant...", "If an animal is a moose...", etc.) can give rise to the consequent ("then it has four legs"), and that it is preposterous to suppose that having four legs must imply that the animal is... |
Example 3 |
Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example: |
If Brian had been thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower, then he would be dead. |
Brian is dead. |
Therefore, Brian was thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower. |
Being thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower is not the only cause of death, since there exist numerous different causes of death. |
Affirming the consequent is commonly used in rationalization, and thus appears as a coping mechanism in some people. |
Example 4 |
In Catch-22, the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being "Washington Irving"/"Irving Washington", who has been blocking out large portions of soldiers' letters home. The colonel has found such a letter, but with the Chaplain's name signed. |
"You can read, though, can't you?" the colonel persevered sarcastically. "The author signed his name." |
"That's my name there." |
"Then you wrote it. Q.E.D." |
P in this case is 'The chaplain signs his own name', and Q 'The chaplain's name is written'. The chaplain's name may be written, but he did not necessarily write it, as the colonel falsely concludes.See also |
List of fallacies |
Abductive reasoning |
Appeal to consequences |
Confusion of the inverse |
Denying the antecedent |
ELIZA effect |
Fallacy of the single cause |
Fallacy of the undistributed middle |
Inference to the best explanation |
Modus ponens Modus tollens Post hoc ergo propter hoc'' |
Necessity and sufficiency |
References |
Propositional fallacies |
Logic articles needing expert attention Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky (; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Russian film director, screenwriter, and film theorist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers in Russian and world cinema. His films explored spiritual and metaphysical t... |
Tarkovsky studied film at Moscow's VGIK under filmmaker Mikhail Romm, and subsequently directed his first five features in the Soviet Union: Ivan's Childhood (1962), Andrei Rublev (1966), Solaris (1972), Mirror (1975), and Stalker (1979). A number of his films from this period are ranked among the best films ever made.... |
Tarkovsky was the recipient of several awards at the Cannes Film Festival throughout his career (including the FIPRESCI prize, the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury, and the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury) and winner of the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival for his debut film Ivan's Childhood. In 1990, he was posthu... |
Life and career |
Childhood and early life |
Andrei Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in the Yuryevetsky District of the Ivanovo Industrial Oblast (modern-day Kadyysky District of the Kostroma Oblast, Russia) to the poet and translator Arseny Alexandrovich Tarkovsky, a native of Kropyvnytskyi, Ukraine, and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the... |
Andrei's paternal grandfather Aleksandr Karlovich Tarkovsky (in ) was a Polish nobleman who worked as a bank clerk. His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a Romanian teacher who arrived from Iași. Andrei's maternal grandmother Vera Nikolaevna Vishnyakova (née Dubasova) belonged to an old Dubasov family of Russian no... |
According to the family legend, Tarkovsky's ancestors on his father's side were princes from the Shamkhalate of Tarki, Dagestan, although his sister Marina Tarkovskaya who did a detailed research on their genealogy called it "a myth, even a prank of sorts," stressing that none of the documents confirms this version. |
Tarkovsky spent his childhood in Yuryevets. He was described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. His father left the family in 1937, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. He returned home in 1943, having been awarded a Red Star after bei... |
In 1939, Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No. 554. During the war, the three evacuated to Yuryevets, living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943, the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school, where the poet Andrei Voznesensky was one of his classmates. He studied piano at a ... |
In his school years, Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student. He still managed to graduate, and from 1951 to 1952 studied Arabic at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters... |
Film school student |
Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) and was admitted to the film-directing program. He was in the same class as Irma Raush (Irina) whom he married in April 1957. |
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