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Line of Control | military personnel sides risk shot snipers moving vehicles bunker peepholes meals.the civilian population loc points ahead forward post complicated situation.shelling firing sides along loc resulted civilian deaths.bunkers constructed civilian populations protection periods cfvs.india pakistan usually report casualties sides loc media blaming side firing side claiming adequate retaliation.according happymon jacob reasons cfvs along loc include operational reasons defence construction like observation facilities rule gun lack bilateral mechanisms border management personality traits emotional state soldiers commanders politicostrategic reasons proportional response land grab sniping triggered better revenge firing accidental cfvs civilian related lack clarity line reasons like testing new boys honour prestige humiliation fun gamesmanship.jacob ranks operational reasons main cause cfvs followed retributive politicostrategic reasons . |
Line of Control | landmines ieds mines laid across indiapakistan border loc .small stretch land rows fencing mined thousands landmines.– india–pakistan standoff thousands acres land along loc mined.civilians military personnel sides died mine improvised explosive device iedrelated blasts many injured.january april military personnel killed indian side. |
Line of Control | posts bunkers reinforced sandbagged concrete posts bunkers among first line defence along loc.armed soldiers man positions enough supplies least week.posts bunkers allow soldiers sleep cook keep watch enemy positions round clock.posts located remote locations.animals sometimes used help transport loads posts animals reared. |
Line of Control | living quarters forward facing bunker located distance apart.locations posts follow preordained plan rather locations used first kashmir war following ceasefire line minor adjustments made .indian loc fencing india constructed kilometre mi barrier along kilometres mi– kilometres mi loc .fence generally remains yards indiancontrolled side.stated purpose exclude arms smuggling infiltration pakistanibased separatist militants. |
Line of Control | barrier referred antiinfiltration obstacle system aios consists doublerow fencing concertina wire – feet .–.height electrified connected network motion sensors thermal imaging devices lighting systems alarms.act fast alert signals indian troops alerted ambush infiltrators trying sneak in.the barriers construction began slowed early hostilities india pakistan increased.november ceasefire agreement building resumed completed late .loc fencing completed kashmir valley jammu region september . |
Line of Control | according indian military sources fence reduced numbers militants routinely cross indian side disputed region .proposal upgraded smart fence indian side accepted.border villages number villages lie indian fence zero line.pakistan constructed border fence however number villages lie near zero line.tithwal area villages front indian fence. |
Line of Control | total number fence zero line indian side estimated villages least one million people spread districts adjacent loc rajouri bandipora.infiltration military crossloc movement according indian ministry home affairs terrorists attempted infiltrate india .infiltration one indias main issues – india–pakistan standoff.decrease infiltration years.select number individuals successful ministry reported successful infiltrations. |
Line of Control | indian loc fence constructed defensive mindset counter infiltration.reduction infiltration also points reduction support activities within pakistan.balakot airstrike indian planes crossed loc first time years.crossing points pakistan india officially designated five crossing points following kashmir earthquake—nauseritithwal chakotiuri hajipururi rawalakotpoonch tattapanimendhar.according azad jammu kashmir cross loc travel trade authority act following crossing points listedrawalakot–poonchchakothi–urichaliana–tithwaltatta pani–mendherhaji peer–silli kottrade points include chakothi – salamabad rawalakot titrinote – poonch chakkandabagh.ordinance passed .between according travel trade authority figures muzaffarabad indian kashmiris crossing pakistan crossed indian side. |
Line of Control | crossing legally civilians easy.number documents required verified countries including proof family side.even shortterm temporary crossing invites interrogation government agencies.indian pakistani military use crossing points flag meetings exchange sweets special occasions festivals.october first time years crossloc trade conducted two sides. |
Line of Control | trade across loc barter trade.ten years trade worth nearly pkr crore ₹ crore equivalent ₹ billion us million passed chakothi – salamabad crossing.chilliana – teetwal teetwal crossing across neelum river muzaffarabad kupwara.usually open summer months unlike two crossings open movement people trade.tithwal bridge first built rebuilt twice. |
Line of Control | chakothi – salamabad salamabad crossing point kamran post road chakothi uri baramulla district jammu kashmir along loc.major route cross loc trade travel.banking facilities trade facilitation centre planned indian side.english name bridge uri translates bridge peace.indian army rebuilt kashmir earthquake mountain pakistani side caved in. |
Line of Control | route opened trade closed years.srinagar–muzaffarabad bus crosses bridge loc.tetrinote – chakan da bagh road connects kotli tatrinote pakistan side loc indian poonch district jammu kashmir chakan da bagh crossing point.major route cross loc trade travel.banking facilities trade facilitation centre planned indian side benefit traders.most flag meetings indian pakistani security forces held here. |
Line of Control | tattapani – mendhar fourth border crossing tattapani mendhar opened november .impact civilians line control divided kashmir two closed jhelum valley route way kashmir valley pakistani punjab.ongoing territorial division severed many villages separated family members.families could see along loc locations neelum river unable meet.certain locations women pakistan side loc instrumental influencing infiltration ceasefire violations approached nearby pakistani army camps directly insisted infiltration stop reduces indias cross loc firing. |
Line of Control | popular culture documentaries covering loc related events include journey river vitasta raja shabir khans line control historytvs kargil valour victory.number bollywood films kargil conflict involved depictions scenes line control including loc kargil lakshya gunjan saxena kargil girl .bollywood films include uri surgical strike bajrangi bhaijaan streaming television shows avrodh .see also india–pakistan relationstransport india pakistanactual ground position line – line separation near siachen glacier references notescitationsbibliographywirsing robert g. war peace line control clive schofield ed.boundary territory briefing volume number isbn page numbers cited per edocumentbharat meenakshi kumar nirmal eds. |
Line of Control | .filming line control indo–pak relationship cinematic lens.routledge.isbn .— budha kishore genre development age markets nationalism war filmjacob happymon .line control travelling indian pakistani armies. |
Line of Control | penguin random house india.isbn .print version— jacob happymon .line fire ceasefire violations india–pakistan escalation dynamics.oxford university press. |
Line of Control | isbn .ebook versionzakaria anam .great divide journey pakistanadministered kashmir.india harper collins.isbn .hafeez mahwish . |
Line of Control | line control loc trade ray hope.strategic studies.institute strategic studies islamabad.–.issn . |
Line of Control | jstor – via jstor.arora rk kumar manoj november comprehensive integrated border management system implementation challenges pdf occasional paper no.observer research foundationdurrani major general retd mahmud ali july enhancing security cooperative border monitoring experiment proposal india pakistan sandia multiprogram laboratory operated sandia corporation lockheed martin company united states department energy cooperative monitoring center sandia national laboratories doi.osti reading akhtar shaheen .living frontlines perspective poonch kotli region ajk pdf.journal political studies. |
Line of Control | .— akhtar shaheen .living frontlines perspective neelum valley pdf.margalla papers.archived original pdf july .bali pawan akhtar shaheen july kashmir line control grassroots peacebuilding pdf united states institute peacejacob happymon ceasefire violations jammu kashmir pdf united states institute peace isbn kira altaf hussain september crossloc trade kashmir line control line commerce pdf igidr mumbai—kira altaf hussain .line control line commerce. |
Line of Control | economic political weekly.–.issn .jstor – via jstor.padder sajad a. .crossline control trade problem prospects. |
Line of Control | journal south asian studies.–.ranjan kumar singh sarhad zero mile hindi parijat prakashan isbn relevance simla agreement.editorial series.khan study group.archived original october . |
Control grid | retrieved september .reportssmart border management indian perspective pdf ficci pwc india september smart border management contributing us trillion economy pdf ficci ernst young india photographsloc line control photo gallery.outlook india.retrieved september .— photos — photoscontrol grid usually consists cylindrical screen helix fine wire surrounding cathode surrounded turn anode.control grid invented lee de forest added grid fleming valve thermionic diode create first amplifying vacuum tube audion triode.operation valve hot cathode emits negatively charged electrons attracted captured anode given positive voltage power supply.control grid cathode anode functions gate control current electrons reaching anode.negative voltage grid repel electrons back toward cathode fewer get anode. |
Control grid | less negative positive voltage grid allow electrons increasing anode current.given change grid voltage causes proportional change plate current timevarying voltage applied grid plate current waveform copy applied grid voltage.relatively small variation voltage control grid causes significantly large variation anode current.presence resistor anode circuit causes large variation voltage appear anode.variation anode voltage much larger variation grid voltage caused thus tube amplify functioning amplifier. |
Control grid | construction grid first triode valve consisted zigzag piece wire placed filament anode.quickly evolved helix cylindrical screen fine wire placed single strand filament later cylindrical cathode cylindrical anode.grid usually made thin wire resist high temperatures prone emitting electrons itself.molybdenum alloy gold plating frequently used.wound soft copper sideposts swaged grid windings hold place. |
Control grid | variation frame grid winds fine wire onto rigid stamped metal frame.allows holding close tolerances grid placed closer filament cathode.effects grid position placing control grid closer filamentcathode relative anode greater amplification results.degree amplification referred valve data sheets amplification factor mu.also results higher transconductance measure anode current change versus grid voltage change. |
Control grid | noise figure valve inversely proportional transconductance higher transconductance generally means lower noise figure.lower noise important designing radio television receiver.multiple control grids valve contain one control grid.hexode contains two grids one received signal one signal local oscillator.valves inherent nonlinearity causes original signals appear anode circuit also sum difference signals. |
Control grid | exploited frequencychanger superheterodyne receivers.grid variations variation control grid produce helix variable pitch.gives resultant valve distinct nonlinear characteristic.often exploited r.f.amplifiers alteration grid bias changes mutual conductance hence gain device. |
Control grid | variation usually appears pentode form valve called variablemu pentode remotecutoff pentode.one principal limitations triode valve considerable capacitance grid anode cag.phenomenon known miller effect causes input capacitance amplifier product cag amplification factor valve.instability amplifier tuned input output cag large severely limit upper operating frequency.effects overcome addition screen grid however later years tube era constructional techniques developed rendered parasitic capacitance low triodes operating upper high frequency vhf bands became possible.mullard ec operated mhz. |
Control grid | anodegrid capacitance ec quoted manufacturers literature .pf higher many triodes era many triodes figures strictly comparable advance area.however early screengrid tetrodes cag ff around thousand times less.modern pentodes comparable values cag.triodes used vhf amplifiers groundedgrid configuration circuit arrangement prevents miller feedback. |
Switch statement | referencesmain reasons using switch include improving clarity reducing otherwise repetitive coding heuristics permit also offering potential faster execution easier compiler optimization many cases.history text introduction metamathematics stephen kleene formally proved case function ifthenelse function simplest form primitive recursive function defines notion definition cases following mannerf.function φ defined thusφx ... xn φx ... xn qx ... xn ... |
Switch statement | ..... |
Switch statement | ....φmx ... xn qmx ... xn φmx ... xn otherwisewhere q ... qm mutually exclusive predicates φx ... xn shall value given first clause applies primitive recursive φ ... φm q ... qm.kleene provides proof terms booleanlike recursive functions signof sg sign sg kleene first returns input positive − input negative.boolosburgessjeffrey make additional observation definition cases must mutually exclusive collectively exhaustive.offer proof primitive recursiveness function boolosburgessjeffrey .the ifthenelse basis mccarthy formalism usage replaces primitive recursion muoperator. |
Switch statement | typical syntax languages programmers write switch statement across many individual lines using one two keywords.typical syntax involvesthe first select followed expression often referred control expression control variable switch statementsubsequent lines defining actual cases values corresponding sequences statements execution match occursin languages fallthrough behaviour break statement typically follows case statement end said statement.wellsin languages e.g.pli control expression optional control expression alternative begins clause containing boolean expression match occurs first case expression evaluates true.usage similar ifthenelseifelse structures languages e.g. |
Switch statement | perl.in languages e.g.rexx control expression allowed alternative begins clause containing boolean expression match occurs first case expression evaluates true.each alternative begins particular value list values see control variable may match cause control goto corresponding sequence statements.value listrange values usually separated corresponding statement sequence colon implication arrow.many languages every case must also preceded keyword case when.an optional default case typically also allowed specified default otherwise else keyword.executes none cases match control expression. |
Switch statement | languages c case matches default omitted switch statement simply exits.others like pli error raised.semantics semantically two main forms switch statements.the first form structured switches pascal exactly one branch taken cases treated separate exclusive blocks.functions generalized if–then–else conditional number branches two.the second form unstructured switches c cases treated labels within single block switch functions generalized goto.distinction referred treatment fallthrough elaborated below. |
Switch statement | fallthrough many languages matching block executed execution continues end switch statement.include pascal family object pascal modula oberon ada etc.well pli modern forms fortran basic dialects influenced pascal functional languages many others.allow multiple values execute code avoid needing duplicate code pascaltype languages permit number values per case given commaseparated list range combination.languages derived c language generally influenced fortrans computed goto instead feature fallthrough control moves matching case execution continues falls statements associated next case source text.also allows multiple values match point without special syntax listed empty bodies. |
Switch statement | values special conditioned code case body.practice fallthrough usually prevented break keyword end matching body exits execution switch block cause bugs due unintentional fallthrough programmer forgets insert break statement.thus seen many language wart warned lint tools.syntactically cases interpreted labels blocks switch break statements explicitly change control flow.languages influenced c javascript retain default fallthrough others remove fallthrough allow special circumstances. |
Switch statement | notable variations cfamily include c blocks must terminated break return unless block empty i.e.fallthrough used way specify multiple values.in cases languages provide optional fallthrough.example perl fall default case may explicitly using continue keyword.prevents unintentional fallthrough allows desired.similarly bash defaults falling terminated allow fallthrough instead.an example switch statement relies fallthrough duffs device. |
Switch statement | compilation optimizing compilers gcc clang may compile switch statement either branch table binary search values cases.a branch table allows switch statement determine small constant number instructions branch execute without go list comparisons binary search takes logarithmic number comparisons measured number cases switch statement.normally method finding optimization occurred actually looking resultant assembly machine code output generated compiler.advantages disadvantages languages programming environments use case switch statement considered superior equivalent series else statements iseasier debug e.g.setting breakpoints code vs. call table debugger conditional breakpoint capabilityeasier person readeasier understand consequently easier maintainfixed depth sequence else statements may yield deep nesting making compilation difficult especially automatically generated codeeasier verify values handled.compilers issue warning enum values handled.additionally optimized implementation may execute much faster alternative often implemented using indexed branch table.example deciding program flow based single characters value correctly implemented vastly efficient alternative reducing instruction path lengths considerably. |
Switch statement | implemented switch statement essentially becomes perfect hash.in terms controlflow graph switch statement consists two nodes entrance exit plus one edge option.contrast sequence if...else if...else statements additional node every case first last together corresponding edge.resulting controlflow graph sequences ifs thus many nodes almost twice many edges adding useful information.however simple branches statements individually conceptually easier complex branch switch statement.terms cyclomatic complexity options increase k− given k cases. |
Switch statement | switch expressions switch expressions introduced java se march preview feature.whole switch expression used return value.also new form case label case l righthandside single expression.also prevents fall though requires cases exhaustive.java se yield statement introduced java se switch expressions becomes standard language feature. |
Switch statement | example alternative uses many languages evaluate expressions inside switch blocks runtime allowing number less obvious uses construction.prohibits certain compiler optimizations common dynamic scripting languages enhanced flexibility important performance overhead.php example php constant used variable check first case statement evaluates constant executedthis feature also useful checking multiple variables one value rather one variable many values.cobol also supports form others forms evaluate statement.pli alternative form select statement control expression omitted altogether first evaluates true executed. |
Switch statement | ruby ruby due handling equality statement used test variable’s classruby also returns value assigned variable doesn’t actually require case parameters acting bit like else statement assembler switch statement assembly language exception handling number languages implement form switch statement exception handling exception raised block separate branch chosen depending exception.cases default branch exception raised also present.early example modula use try...except syntax except defines case.also found delphi scala visual basic .net.alternatives alternatives switch statements bea series ifelse conditionals examine target one value time. |
Switch statement | fallthrough behavior achieved sequence conditionals without else clause.a lookup table contains keys case values values part case statement.in languages actual data types allowed values lookup table.languages also possible assign functions lookup table values gaining flexibility real switch statement.see control table article detail this.lua support caseswitch statements httpluausers.orgwikiswitchstatement .lookup technique one way implement switch statements lua language builtin switch.in cases lookup tables efficient nonoptimized switch statements since many languages optimize table lookups whereas switch statements optimized unless range values small gaps.nonoptimized nonbinary search lookup however almost certainly slower either nonoptimized switch equivalent multiple ifelse statements.a control table may implemented simple lookup table also customized accommodate multiple conditions multiple inputs required usually exhibits greater visual compactness equivalent switch occupy many statements.pattern matching used implement switchlike functionality many functional languages. |
Perceived control | see also algorithmic efficiencybranch tablecontrol tableduffs deviceindex mapping references reading stephen kleene th reprint introduction metamathematics northholland publishing company amsterdam nl isbn george boolos john burgess richard jeffrey computability logic fourth edition cambridge university press cambridge uk isbn paperback.cf page .two important dimensions whether object control past future whether object control outcome behavior process.history cognitive revolution completed around changed psychology.influenced idea pavlov physiologists scientists turned interest direction observable.away subjectivity objective investigation behavior became trustworthy allocable.revolution helped developing fields study perceived control. |
Perceived control | goal seeking human motivation became important many theories.in white introduced theory called effectance motivation human drive control explained innate need able handle situation obtainment control environment.in julian rotter published publicationgeneralized expectancies internal versus external control reinforcement.” used term perceived control first time.work influenced multiple disciplines psychology sociology economics health care.publication scientific work concept perceived internal control differed mostly two branches.one believed perceived control fixed personality trait therefore refers concepts like self efficacy competence spoke perceived control cognitive process influenced environmental clues could manipulated systematically.relates concepts illusion control learned helplessness mindfullness.“a series studies provide strong support hypotheses individual strong belief sic control destiny likely alert aspects environment provide useful information future behavior b take steps improve environmental condition c place greater value skill achievement reinforcements generally concerned ability particularly failures resistive subtle attempts influence him.” rotter perspective perceived control either seen personality trait cognitive processing either case enhances functioning survival. |
Perceived control | historical research year martin e.p.seligman coined term learned helplessness.terms perceived control seligmans term learned helplessness described perceived control situation leads specific outcome behavior.seligman confronted dogs situation accompanied total lack perceived control ultimately lead dogs give situation.learned passiveness helplessness. |
Perceived control | seligman transferred experiments humans speculating perceived control related development instance depression.research schulz hansua perceived control focuses causal relationships ones control psychological physiological wellbeing correlation factors.study done pensioners living retirement home participants gain control lose control.could either decide wanted students visit influence scheduling students visit.results show pensioners control visitors felt better healthier pensioners influencegroup.study describes perceived control cognitive process manipulates persons health motivation.therefore selfefficacy important factor influencing effectiveness perceived control. |
Perceived control | blittner goldberg merbaum reasoned person believes abilities success perform better change behavior.a study sastry ross concluded cultural differences perceived control too.according researchers perceived control seen important people living western countries asians.additionally asians make association perceived control mental wellbeing.difference explained different focuses cultures.western culture appreciates individualism personal success leads people feel urge controlling process performance. |
Perceived control | people likely understand perceived control personality trait.scientific models two process model perceived control two process model perceived control first proposed rothbaum weisz snyder.according twoprocess model people attempt gain control bringing environment line wishes primary control also bringing line environmental forces secondary control.four manifestations secondary control consideredattributions severely limited ability serve enhance predictive control protect disappointment.attributions chance reflect illusory control since people often construe chance personal characteristic akin ability luck.attributions powerful others permit vicarious control individual identifies others.all preceding attributions may foster interpretive control individual seeks understand derive meaning otherwise uncontrollable events order accept them.four factor model perceived controlin december fred b. bryant published research introducing “fourfactor model perceived control”.referred twoprocess model perceived control proposed rothbaum et al.states people’s controlling responses classified either attempts change world e primary control attempts change oneself fit world e secondary control. |
Perceived control | bryant added two factors model positive negative experience.explained perceived control results selfevaluation one’s ability toavoiding – primarynegative controlavoiding according bryant defined “the perceived ability avoid negative outcomes”.dependent .degree personal control bad things .frequency bad things occurring . |
Perceived control | likelihood bad things occurring.coping – secondarynegative controlcoping according bryant defined “the perceived ability cope negative outcomes”.dependent .ability cope bad things .much one bothered bad things .long bad things affect one’s feelings.obtaining – primarypositive controlobtaining according bryant defined “the perceived ability obtain positive outcomes”. |
Perceived control | dependent .degree personal control good things .personal responsibility good things .frequency good things occur .likelihood good things occur.savouring – secondarypositive control savouring according bryant defined “the perceived ability savor positive outcomes”. |
Perceived control | dependent .ability enjoy good things .much one pleased good things .long good things affect one’s feelings .frequency feeling top world . |
Perceived control | frequency feeling overjoyed.applications clinical perspective study conducted wallston et al.stated perceived control influence health two conscious forms health behavior e.g.eating healthy health status e.g.obesity. |
Perceived control | furthermore also affect unconscious way impacting physiological processes directly proven rodin .states internal events unpredictability loss control affect catecholamine neurohormonal immune changes.wallston et al.go explaining also connection locus control perceived control health outcomes.locus control concept developed julian b. rotter says person attribute certain events life internally responsible externally outside sources accountable them.study kaplan atkins reinsch dealt ideas. |
Perceived control | wanted see individual differences loci control predict amount exercise tolerance health status criteria pulmonary disease patients.results showed health internals efficient control felt higher exercise tolerance turn better overall health status was.hand relationship efficiency beliefs outcomes case health externals.there also several studies relationship perceived control cancer.cancer diagnosis greatly reduce perceived control patient beliefs have.loss perceived control found correlate greater psychological distress. |
The Cross of Changes | referencesfollowing unexpected worldwide commercial success first enigma album mcmxc a.d. cretu began write record music new album a.r.t.studios home studio ibiza spain.cretu samples songs several artists including vangelis u black sabbath.the cross changes commercial success.became enigmas second consecutive number one album united kingdom peaked number nine billboard united states sold two million copies.four singles released return innocence eyes truth age loneliness carlys song originally written especially film sliver deep. |
Change detection | special limited edition released .track listing original edition special limited edition released november carat goldplated disc three additional remixes.all tracks written curly m.c.. personnel musicmichael cretu credited curly m.c.– music lyrics vocals production instruments programming arrangements engineeringsandra cretu – vocals voicespeter cornelius – guitarjens gad – guitarandreas harde credited angel x – vocalslouisa stanley – voicesfabrice cuitad credited david fairstein – lyricsproductionproduced engineered michael creturecorded a.r.t.studios ibizaspainall songs published enigma songs except track enigma songswanho music track ensign musicdata alphawanho charts singles billboard north america certifications references external links short article albumdetails release different countrieslyrics songs albumchange dependent variable detected compensatory change independent variable recommended.examples post office department provide application models.regression control chart differs traditional control chart four main aspectsit designed control varying rather constant average.the control limit lines parallel regression line rather horizontal line.the computations much complex.it appropriate use complex situations.referencesgeneral problem concerns detecting whether change occurred whether several changes might occurred identifying times changes.specific applications like step detection edge detection may concerned changes mean variance correlation spectral density process.generally change detection also includes detection anomalous behavior anomaly detection.introduction time series measures progression one quantities time.instance figure shows level water nile river .change point detection concerned identifying whether behavior series changes significantly. |
Change detection | nile river example volume water changes significantly dam built river.importantly anomalous observations differ ongoing behavior time series generally considered change points long series returns previous behavior afterwards.mathematically describe time series ordered sequence observations x x … displaystyle xxldots .write joint distribution subset x b x x … x b displaystyle xabxaxaldots xb time series p x b displaystyle pxab .goal determine whether change point occurred time τ displaystyle tau finite time series length displaystyle really ask whether p x τ displaystyle pxtau equals p x τ displaystyle pxtau .problem generalized case one change point.the problem change point detection narrowed specific problems. |
Change detection | offline change point detection assumed sequence length displaystyle available goal identify whether change points occurred series.example post hoc analysis often approached using hypothesis testing methods.contrast online change point detection concerned detecting change points incoming data stream.algorithms online change detection using sequential analysis online approach change test must make tradeoff common metricsfalse alarm ratemisdetection ratedetection delayin bayes changedetection problem prior distribution available change time.online change detection also done using streaming algorithms.offline change detection basseville section . |
Change detection | discusses offline changeinmean detection hypothesis testing based works page picard maximumlikelihood estimation change time related twophase regression.other approaches employ clustering based maximum likelihood estimation use optimization infer number times changes via spectral analysis.offline approaches cannot used streaming data need compare statistics complete time series cannot react changes realtime often provide accurate estimation change time magnitude.applications change detection change detection tests often used manufacturing quality control intrusion detection spam filtering website tracking medical diagnostics.linguistic change detection linguistic change detection refers ability detect wordlevel changes across multiple presentations sentence.researchers found amount semantic overlap i.e.relatedness changed word new word influences ease detection made sturt sanford stewart dawydiak . |
Change detection | additional research found focussing ones attention word changed initial reading original sentence improve detection.shown using italicized text focus attention whereby word changing italicized original sentence sanford sanford molle emmott well using clefting constructions tree needed water.kennette wurm van havermaet .changedetection phenomena appear robust even occurring crosslinguistically bilinguals read original sentence native language changed sentence second language kennette wurm van havermaet .recently researchers detected wordlevel changes semantics across time computationally analyzing temporal corpora examplethe word gay acquired new meaning time using change point detection. |
Change detection | see also structural break—change model structuredetection theoryhypothesis testingrecall ratereceiver operating characteristic references reading michèle basseville igor v. nikiforov april .detection abrupt changes theory application.prenticehall englewood cliffs n.j. isbn .h.vincent poor olympia hadjiliadis .quickest detection. |
Randomized controlled trial | cambridge university press.isbn .examples rcts clinical trials compare effects drugs surgical techniques medical devices diagnostic procedures medical treatments.participants enroll rcts differ one another known unknown ways influence study outcomes yet cannot directly controlled.randomly allocating participants among compared treatments rct enables statistical control influences.provided designed well conducted properly enrolls enough participants rct may achieve sufficient control confounding factors deliver useful comparison treatments studied.definition examples rct clinical research typically compares proposed new treatment existing standard care termed experimental control treatments respectively. |
Randomized controlled trial | generally accepted treatment available placebo may used control group participants blinded treatment allocations.blinding principle ideally also extended much possible parties including researchers technicians data analysts evaluators.effective blinding experimentally isolates physiological effects treatments various psychological sources bias.the randomness assignment participants treatments reduces selection bias allocation bias balancing known unknown prognostic factors assignment treatments.blinding reduces forms experimenter subject biases.a wellblinded rct considered gold standard clinical trials.blinded rcts commonly used test efficacy medical interventions may additionally provide information adverse effects drug reactions. |
Randomized controlled trial | randomized controlled trial provide compelling evidence study treatment causes effect human health.the terms rct randomized trial sometimes used synonymously latter term omits mention controls therefore describe studies compare multiple treatment groups absence control group.similarly initialism sometimes expanded randomized clinical trial randomized comparative trial leading ambiguity scientific literature.rcts randomized controlled trials could never cases controls would impractical unethical use.term randomized controlled clinical trial alternative term used clinical research however rcts also employed research areas including many social sciences.history first reported clinical trial conducted james lind identify treatment scurvy. |
Randomized controlled trial | first blind experiment conducted french royal commission animal magnetism investigate claims mesmerism.early essay advocating blinding researchers came claude bernard latter half th century.bernard recommended observer experiment knowledge hypothesis tested.suggestion contrasted starkly prevalent enlightenmentera attitude scientific observation objectively valid undertaken welleducated informed scientist.first study recorded blinded researcher conducted w. h. r. rivers h. n. webber investigate effects caffeine.randomized experiments first appeared psychology introduced charles sanders peirce joseph jastrow education.in early th century randomized experiments appeared agriculture due jerzy neyman ronald a. fisher. |
Randomized controlled trial | fishers experimental research writings popularized randomized experiments.the first published randomized controlled trial medicine appeared paper entitled streptomycin treatment pulmonary tuberculosis described medical research council investigation.one authors paper austin bradford hill credited conceived modern rct.trial design influenced largescale isis trials heart attack treatments conducted s.by late th century rcts recognized standard method rational therapeutics medicine.rcts cochrane library.improve reporting rcts medical literature international group scientists editors published consolidated standards reporting trials consort statements become widely accepted.randomization process assigning trial subjects treatment control groups using element chance determine assignments order reduce bias. |
Randomized controlled trial | ethics although principle clinical equipoise genuine uncertainty within expert medical community... preferred treatment common clinical trials applied rcts ethics rcts special considerations.one argued equipoise insufficient justify rcts.another collective equipoise conflict lack personal equipoise e.g.personal belief intervention effective.finally zelens design used rcts randomizes subjects provide informed consent may ethical rcts screening selected therapies likely unethical therapeutic trials.although subjects almost always provide informed consent participation rct studies since documented rct subjects may believe certain receive treatment best personally understand difference research treatment. |
Randomized controlled trial | research necessary determine prevalence ways address therapeutic misconception.the rct method variations may also create cultural effects well understood.example patients terminal illness may join trials hope cured even treatments unlikely successful.trial registration international committee medical journal editors icmje announced trials starting enrolment july must registered prior consideration publication one member journals committee.however trial registration may still occur late all.medical journals slow adapting policies requiring mandatory clinical trial registration prerequisite publication.classifications study design one way classify rcts study design. |
Randomized controlled trial | least common healthcare literature major categories rct study designs areparallelgroup – participant randomly assigned group participants group receive receive intervention.crossover – time participant receives receive intervention random sequence.cluster – preexisting groups participants e.g.villages schools randomly selected receive receive intervention.factorial – participant randomly assigned group receives particular combination interventions noninterventions e.g.group receives vitamin x vitamin group receives vitamin x placebo group receives placebo x vitamin group receives placebo x placebo y.an analysis rcts indexed pubmed december found parallelgroup trials crossover splitbody cluster factorial.outcome interest efficacy vs. effectiveness rcts classified explanatory pragmatic.explanatory rcts test efficacy research setting highly selected participants highly controlled conditions. |
Randomized controlled trial | contrast pragmatic rcts prcts test effectiveness everyday practice relatively unselected participants flexible conditions way pragmatic rcts inform decisions practice.hypothesis superiority vs. noninferiority vs. equivalence another classification rcts categorizes superiority trials noninferiority trials equivalence trials differ methodology reporting.rcts superiority trials one intervention hypothesized superior another statistically significant way.rcts noninferiority trials determine whether new treatment worse reference treatment.rcts equivalence trials hypothesis two interventions indistinguishable other. |
Randomized controlled trial | randomization advantages proper randomization rcts includeit eliminates bias treatment assignment specifically selection bias confounding.it facilitates blinding masking identity treatments investigators participants assessors.it permits use probability theory express likelihood difference outcome treatment groups merely indicates chance.there two processes involved randomizing patients different interventions.first choosing randomization procedure generate unpredictable sequence allocations may simple random assignment patients groups equal probabilities may restricted may adaptive.second practical issue allocation concealment refers stringent precautions taken ensure group assignment patients revealed prior definitively allocating respective groups.nonrandom systematic methods group assignment alternating subjects one group cause limitless contamination possibilities cause breach allocation concealment.however empirical evidence adequate randomization changes outcomes relative inadequate randomization difficult detect.procedures treatment allocation desired proportion patients treatment arm.an ideal randomization procedure would achieve following goalsmaximize statistical power especially subgroup analyses. |
Randomized controlled trial | generally equal group sizes maximize statistical power however unequal groups sizes may powerful analyses e.g.multiple comparisons placebo versus several doses using dunnetts procedure sometimes desired nonanalytic reasons e.g.patients may motivated enroll higher chance getting test treatment regulatory agencies may require minimum number patients exposed treatment.minimize selection bias.may occur investigators consciously unconsciously preferentially enroll patients treatment arms.good randomization procedure unpredictable investigators cannot guess next subjects group assignment based prior treatment assignments. |
Randomized controlled trial | risk selection bias highest previous treatment assignments known unblinded studies guessed perhaps drug distinctive side effects.minimize allocation bias confounding.may occur covariates affect outcome equally distributed treatment groups treatment effect confounded effect covariates i.e.accidental bias.randomization procedure causes imbalance covariates related outcome across groups estimates effect may biased adjusted covariates may unmeasured therefore impossible adjust for.however single randomization procedure meets goals every circumstance researchers must select procedure given study based advantages disadvantages.simple commonly used intuitive procedure similar repeated fair cointossing. |
Randomized controlled trial | also known complete unrestricted randomization robust selection accidental biases.however main drawback possibility imbalanced group sizes small rcts.therefore recommended rcts subjects.restricted balance group sizes smaller rcts form restricted randomization recommended.major types restricted randomization used rcts arepermutedblock randomization blocked randomization block size allocation ratio number subjects one group versus group specified subjects allocated randomly within block. |
Randomized controlled trial | example block size allocation ratio would lead random assignment subjects one group other.type randomization combined stratified randomization example center multicenter trial ensure good balance participant characteristics group.special case permutedblock randomization random allocation entire sample treated one block.major disadvantage permutedblock randomization even block sizes large randomly varied procedure lead selection bias.another disadvantage proper analysis data permutedblockrandomized rcts requires stratification blocks.adaptive biasedcoin randomization methods urn randomization widely known type relatively uncommon methods probability assigned group decreases group overrepresented increases group underrepresented. |
Randomized controlled trial | methods thought less affected selection bias permutedblock randomization.adaptive least two types adaptive randomization procedures used rcts much less frequently simple restricted randomizationcovariateadaptive randomization one type minimization probability assigned group varies order minimize covariate imbalance.minimization reported supporters detractors first subjects group assignment truly chosen random method necessarily eliminate bias unknown factors.responseadaptive randomization also known outcomeadaptive randomization probability assigned group increases responses prior patients group favorable.although arguments made approach ethical types randomization probability treatment effective ineffective increases course rct ethicists yet studied approach detail.allocation concealment allocation concealment defined procedure protecting randomization process treatment allocated known patient entered study important rcts. |
Randomized controlled trial | practice clinical investigators rcts often find difficult maintain impartiality.stories abound investigators holding sealed envelopes lights ransacking offices determine group assignments order dictate assignment next patient.practices introduce selection bias confounders minimized randomization possibly distorting results study.adequate allocation concealment defeat patients investigators discovering treatment allocation study underway study concluded.treatment related sideeffects adverse events may specific enough reveal allocation investigators patients thereby introducing bias influencing subjective parameters collected investigators requested subjects.some standard methods ensuring allocation concealment include sequentially numbered opaque sealed envelopes snose sequentially numbered containers pharmacy controlled randomization central randomization. |
Randomized controlled trial | recommended allocation concealment methods included rcts protocol allocation concealment methods reported detail publication rcts results however study determined rcts unclear allocation concealment protocols publications both.hand study metaanalyses concluded results rcts inadequate unclear allocation concealment tended biased toward beneficial effects rcts outcomes subjective opposed objective.sample size number treatment units subjects groups subjects assigned control treatment groups affects rcts reliability.effect treatment small number treatment units either group may insufficient rejecting null hypothesis respective statistical test.failure reject null hypothesis would imply treatment shows statistically significant effect treated given test. |
Randomized controlled trial | sample size increases rct may able demonstrate significant effect treatment even effect small.blinding rct may blinded also called masked procedures prevent study participants caregivers outcome assessors knowing intervention received.unlike allocation concealment blinding sometimes inappropriate impossible perform rct example rct involves treatment active participation patient necessary e.g.physical therapy participants cannot blinded intervention.traditionally blinded rcts classified singleblind doubleblind tripleblind however two studies showed terms different meanings different people.consort statement specifies authors editors use terms singleblind doubleblind tripleblind instead reports blinded rct discuss done blinded assignment interventions example participants care providers assessing outcomes how.rcts without blinding referred unblinded open intervention medication openlabel. |
Randomized controlled trial | study concluded results unblinded rcts tended biased toward beneficial effects rcts outcomes subjective opposed objective example rct treatments multiple sclerosis unblinded neurologists blinded neurologists felt treatments beneficial.pragmatic rcts although participants providers often unblinded still desirable often possible blind assessor obtain objective source data evaluation outcomes.analysis data types statistical methods used rcts depend characteristics data includefor dichotomous binary outcome data logistic regression e.g.predict sustained virological response receipt peginterferon alfaa hepatitis c methods used.for continuous outcome data analysis covariance e.g.changes blood lipid levels receipt atorvastatin acute coronary syndrome tests effects predictor variables.for timetoevent outcome data may censored survival analysis e.g. |
Randomized controlled trial | kaplan–meier estimators cox proportional hazards models time coronary heart disease receipt hormone replacement therapy menopause appropriate.regardless statistical methods used important considerations analysis rct data includewhether rct stopped early due interim results.example rcts may stopped early intervention produces larger expected benefit harm investigators find evidence important difference experimental control interventions.the extent groups analyzed exactly existed upon randomization i.e.whether socalled intentiontotreat analysis used.pure intentiontotreat analysis possible complete outcome data available randomized subjects outcome data missing options include analyzing cases known outcomes using imputed data.nevertheless analyses include participants groups randomized less bias rct subject to.whether subgroup analysis performed. |
Randomized controlled trial | often discouraged multiple comparisons may produce false positive findings cannot confirmed studies.reporting results consort statement evidencebased minimum set recommendations reporting rcts.consort checklist contains items many subitems focusing individually randomised two group parallel trials common type rct.for rct study designs consort extensions published examples areconsort statement extension cluster randomised trialsconsort statement nonpharmacologic treatment interventions relative importance observational studies two studies published new england journal medicine found observational studies rcts overall produced similar results.authors findings questioned belief observational studies used defining evidencebased medical care rcts results evidence highest grade.however study published journal american medical association concluded discrepancies beyond chance occur differences estimated magnitude treatment effect common observational studies rcts.two lines reasoning question rcts contribution scientific knowledge beyond types studiesif study designs ranked potential new discoveries anecdotal evidence would top list followed observational studies followed rcts.rcts may unnecessary treatments dramatic rapid effects relative expected stable progressively worse natural course condition treated. |
Randomized controlled trial | one example combination chemotherapy including cisplatin metastatic testicular cancer increased cure rate nonrandomized study.interpretation statistical results like statistical methods rcts subject type false positive type ii false negative statistical errors.regarding type errors typical rct use .i.e.probability rct falsely find two equally effective treatments significantly different. |
Randomized controlled trial | regarding type ii errors despite publication paper noting sample sizes many negative rcts small make definitive conclusions negative results sizeable proportion rcts still inaccurate incompletely reported sample size calculations.peer review peer review results important part scientific method.reviewers examine study results potential problems design could lead unreliable results example creating systematic bias evaluate study context related studies evidence evaluate whether study reasonably considered proven conclusions.underscore need peer review danger overgeneralizing conclusions two bostonarea medical researchers performed randomized controlled trial randomly assigned either parachute empty backpack volunteers jumped either biplane helicopter.study able accurately report parachutes fail reduce injury compared empty backpacks. |
Randomized controlled trial | key context limited general applicability conclusion aircraft parked ground participants jumped two feet.advantages rcts considered reliable form scientific evidence hierarchy evidence influences healthcare policy practice rcts reduce spurious causality bias.results rcts may combined systematic reviews increasingly used conduct evidencebased practice.examples scientific organizations considering rcts systematic reviews rcts highestquality evidence available areas national health medical research council australia designated level evidence obtained systematic review relevant randomised controlled trials level ii evidence obtained least one properly designed randomised controlled trial.since least making clinical practice guideline recommendations united states preventive services task force considered studys design internal validity indicators quality.recognized evidence obtained least one properly randomized controlled trial good internal validity i.e. |
Randomized controlled trial | rating igood highest quality evidence available it.the grade working group concluded randomised trials without important limitations constitute high quality evidence.for issues involving therapyprevention aetiologyharm oxford centre evidencebased medicine defined level evidence systematic review rcts consistent level b evidence individual rct narrow confidence interval.notable rcts unexpected results contributed changes clinical practice includeafter food drug administration approval antiarrhythmic agents flecainide encainide came market respectively.nonrandomized studies concerning drugs characterized glowing sales increased combined total approximately prescriptions per month early .year however preliminary report rct concluded two drugs increased mortality.sales drugs decreased.prior based observational studies routine physicians prescribe hormone replacement therapy postmenopausal women prevent myocardial infarction.however published rcts womens health initiative claimed women taking hormone replacement therapy estrogen plus progestin higher rate myocardial infarctions women placebo estrogenonly hormone replacement therapy caused reduction incidence coronary heart disease. |
Randomized controlled trial | possible explanations discrepancy observational studies rcts involved differences methodology hormone regimens used populations studied.use hormone replacement therapy decreased publication rcts.disadvantages many papers discuss disadvantages rcts.among frequently cited drawbacks time costs rcts expensive one study found phase iii rcts funded national institute neurological disorders stroke prior total cost us million mean cost us million per rct.nevertheless return investment rcts may high study projected rcts produced net benefit society years times cost trials program based evaluating qualityadjusted life year equal prevailing mean per capita gross domestic product.the conduct rct takes several years published thus data restricted medical community long years may less relevance time publication.it costly maintain rcts years decades would ideal evaluating interventions.interventions prevent events occur infrequently e.g. |
Randomized controlled trial | sudden infant death syndrome uncommon adverse outcomes e.g.rare side effect drug would require rcts extremely large sample sizes may therefore best assessed observational studies.due costs running rcts usually inspect one variable variables rarely reflecting full picture complicated medical situation whereas case report example detail many aspects patients medical situation e.g.patient history physical examination diagnosis psychosocial aspects follow up.conflict interest dangers study done disclose possible conflicts interests underlying research studies used medical metaanalyses reviewed metaanalyses found conflicts interests studies underlying metaanalyses rarely disclosed.metaanalyses included general medicine journals specialty medicine journals cochrane database systematic reviews. |
Randomized controlled trial | metaanalyses reviewed aggregate randomized controlled trials rcts.rcts reported funding sources industry funded.rcts reported author conflict interest disclosures studies disclosing industry financial ties one authors.information however seldom reflected metaanalyses.two reported rct funding sources none reported rct authorindustry ties. |
Randomized controlled trial | authors concluded without acknowledgment coi due industry funding author industry financial ties rcts included metaanalyses readers understanding appraisal evidence metaanalysis may compromised.some rcts fully partly funded health care industry e.g.pharmaceutical industry opposed government nonprofit sources.systematic review published found four – articles comparing industrysponsored nonindustrysponsored rcts articles correlation industry sponsorship positive study outcome.study – rcts published leading medical surgical journals determined industryfunded rcts likely associated statistically significant proindustry findings.results mirrored trials surgery although industry funding affect rate trial discontinuation however associated lower odds publication completed trials. |
Randomized controlled trial | one possible reason proindustry results industryfunded published rcts publication bias.authors cited differing goals academic industry sponsored research contributing difference.commercial sponsors may focused performing trials drugs already shown promise early stage trials replicating previous positive results fulfill regulatory requirements drug approval.ethics disruptive innovation medical technology developed may difficult test ethically rct becomes obvious control subjects poorer outcomes—either due foregoing testing within initial phase rct itself.ethically may necessary abort rct prematurely getting ethics approval patient agreement withhold innovation control group future rcts may feasible.historical control trials hct exploit data previous rcts reduce sample size however approaches controversial scientific community must handled care. |
Randomized controlled trial | social science due recent emergence rcts social science use rcts social sciences contested issue.writers medical health background argued existing research range social science disciplines lacks rigour improved greater use randomized control trials.transport science researchers transport science argue public spending programmes school travel plans could justified unless efficacy demonstrated randomized controlled trials.grahamrowe colleagues reviewed evaluations transport interventions found literature categorising quality levels.concluded studies low quality advocated use randomized controlled trials wherever possible future transport research.dr. |
Randomized controlled trial | steve melia took issue conclusions arguing claims advantages rcts establishing causality avoiding bias exaggerated.proposed following eight criteria use rcts contexts interventions must change human behaviour effectivethe interventionhas applied members unique group people e.g.population whole country employees unique organisation etc.is applied context setting similar applies control groupcan isolated activities—and purpose study assess isolated effecthas short timescale implementation maturity effectsand causal mechanismsare either known researchers else possible alternatives testeddo involve significant feedback mechanisms intervention group external environmentshave stable predictable relationship exogenous factorswould act way control group intervention group reversed criminology review found randomized experiments criminology published – compared published –.authors classified studies found five categories policing prevention corrections court community.focusing offending behavior programs hollin argued rcts may difficult implement e.g. |
Randomized controlled trial | rct required passing sentences would randomly assign offenders programmes therefore experiments quasiexperimental design still necessary.education rcts used evaluating number educational interventions.reports rcts published.example study randomized elementary school teachers classrooms receive receive program behavioral screening classroom intervention parent training measured behavioral academic performance students.another study randomized classrooms firstgrade children receive classroomcentered intervention parentcentered intervention intervention followed academic outcomes age . |
Randomized controlled trial | criticism review cited randomised controlled trials noted poor distribution background traits difficulties blinding discussed assumptions biases inherent randomised controlled trials.include unique time period assessment bias background traits remain constant assumption average treatment effects limitation simple treatment individual level limitation preconditions fully met assumption quantitative variable limitation placebo conventional treatment limitation.see also drug developmenthypothesis testingimpact evaluationjadad scalestatistical inferenceroyal commission animal magnetism references external links bland m. directory randomisation software services.university york march .evans thornton h chalmers i. testing treatments better research better health care.london pinter martin . |
Randomized controlled trial | isbn .gelband h. impact randomized clinical trials health policy medical practice background paper.washington dc u.s. congress office technology assessment .report otabph.reflect reporting guidelines randomized controlled trials livestock food safety statementwathen jk cook jd.power bias adaptively randomized clinical trials.m. d. anderson cancer center university texas july . |
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