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SMITH, Judge.
Susan F. DiFede (DiFede) appeals the judgment of the trial court entered in favor of defendants after submission of the case to a jury. We reverse and remand with directions.
DiFede sought in three different actions which were ultimately consolidated: (1) to set aside several transfers of real property made by decedent, her husband, before his death., (2) to invalidate any change of beneficiary made relative to decedent’s life insurance and to declare that DiFede was entitled, as the surviving spouse, to any other benefits payable from his employer, Mountain States Telephone and Telegraph Company., and (3) to be appointed by the court as personal representative of decedent’s intestate estate. Defendants asserted that an executed separation agreement entered into between the parties prior to decedent’s death constituted a defense to the actions. They also claim that a will executed by decedent after execution of the agreement was valid.
The court determined that the validity of the separation agreement should be litigated first. This matter was tried with a jury that reached a verdict in favor of DiFede. The trial court, however, granted defendants’ motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict, and the judgments thereafter entered for defendants form the basis of this appeal.
In justification of its N.O.V. judgments, the trial court concluded it had made the following errors: (1) it improperly allowed DiFede to testify despite the bar of the Dead Man’s Statute, s 13-90-102, C.R.S. (1987 Repl.Yol. 6A); (2) it erroneously submitted to the jury the issue of fraud since DiFede’s own testimony was that she did not rely on the alleged misrepresentations; and (3) it erroneously refused, on the basis of attorney-client privilege, to allow any questions concerning whether DiFede had consulted with her own attorney, thereby precluding defendants from presenting their defense of laches. The court concluded that any of the three errors alone would have been a sufficient ground to disregard the verdict of the jury and to justify its determination that the separation agreement was valid and enforceable. We disagree.
I.
First, the Dead Man’s Statute was not a bar to testimony concerning conversations DiFede had with the attorney who prepared the separation agreement because the record clearly reflects that those conversations occurred outside the presence of decedent. See s 13-90-102(l)(a)(II), C.R.S. (1987 Repl.Yol. 6A).
Second, since there was evidence to support the allegation that DiFede may have relied on the statements made to her by counsel, despite other testimony that she would have signed the agreement anyway, that issue was one of disputed fact and was properly submitted to the jury.
As to the court’s third point, however, it was correct in concluding that the attorney-client privilege should not have been a bar to DiFede’s testimony concerning consultations she had with other counsel, since the applicable statute precludes only the attorney testifying without the consent of his client. See s 13-90-107(l)(b), C.R.S. (1987 Repl.Vol. 6A). The appropriate remedy, however, based on this error, was for the trial court to grant a new trial, not for it to substitute its own findings for that of the jury.
II.
The trial court justified its entry of judgment contrary to the jury verdict by belatedly concluding that because at least some of the issues were equitable, the jury’s verdict was in any event only advisory. We hold, however, that the court erred in treating the verdict as advisory only, and thus, conclude that the evidentiary error mandates a new trial.
Generally, in equity cases which are triable to the court, the aid of a jury may be invoked to determine specific questions of fact. In that event, the jury is advisory only, and the court may ultimately substitute its own findings for those made by the jury. C.R.C.P. 39(c); Gertoe v. Gertoe, 28 Colo.App. 246, 472 P.2d 188 (1970).
Here, although the recovery of property and money would result from a successful resolution of DiFede’s claims, nevertheless, the actions were equitable in nature; hence, no right to a jury trial existed, absent agreement of the parties. Cf. C.R.C.P. 38(a) and C.R.C.P. 39(c); Sawyer v. Munz, 509 P.2d 1283 (Colo.App.1973) (not selected for official publication); see also Miller v. Carnation Co., 33 Colo.App. 62, 516 P.2d 661 (1973).
However, a non-jury action may be tried to a jury with the consent of both parties. Once the court and counsel embark upon a non-jury proceeding in such a manner that it is treated as a jury case, the only way that the status of the jury may be changed thereafter is by agreement of the parties. Young v. Colorado National Bank, 148 Colo. 104, 365 P.2d 701 (1961).
To determine if the requested consent is present, the circumstances of the case must be examined. Young v. Colorado National Bank, supra. In Young, as here, both parties proceeded on the theory that the case was triable to a jury. The matter was set as a jury trial and both parties acknowledged this, without objection, in their pre-trial statements. In both cases, during the pendency of the action the suggestion was made that the case was in equity and only permitted an advisory verdict. In Young, an objection to a jury trial was posed at the conclusion of plaintiff’s case, while here, immediately before trial defendants stated that they considered the jury to be advisory only. In each case, the trial court reserved ruling on the issue until the end of trial.
Consequently, we conclude that Young is dispositive here. Absent the evidentiary error referred to above, an order for reinstatement of the jury verdict would have been appropriate. Because of this eviden-tiary error the judgment must be reversed and the cause remanded for a new trial.
Because a new trial is necessary, we need not address DiFede’s remaining contentions.
Accordingly, the judgment of the court entered notwithstanding the verdict is reversed, and the cause is remanded for a new trial.
BABCOCK and PLANK, JJ„ concur. | [
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VOLLACK, Justice.
The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Company (Santa Fe) appeals the order of the Denver District Court affirming the decision of the Public Utilities Commission (Commission) to impose upon Santa Fe a fee of $572,000 as its share of the cost of rebuilding the 8th Avenue viaduct (viaduct). Santa Fe argues that the Commission failed to comply with the statutory requirements of section 40-4-106(3)(c), 17 C.R.S. (1984), and based its decision to impose costs not upon evidence in the record, but upon an “assumption” concerning the amount of benefit that Santa Fe and Burlington Northern Railway Company (Burlington), the affected railroads, and the City and County of Denver (Denver) re ceived from construction of the viaduct. We affirm the order of the district court.
I.
The viaduct was constructed in 1936 to serve east-west pedestrian and motor traffic between Vallejo and Mariposa streets. The two-lane viaduct provided a separate grade crossing above railroad tracks and facilities owned by Santa Fe, Burlington, and the Denver and Rio Grande Railway Co. (Rio Grande). The viaduct was condemned in November 1983, and traffic was rerouted primarily to the 6th Avenue viaduct. On December 31, 1983, Denver applied to the Commission for authority to demolish and rebuild the viaduct. Santa Fe, Burlington, and Rio Grande were granted permission to intervene in the application proceedings, and hearings were held in January 1984.
' On February 7, 1984, the Commission granted Denver’s application for permission to rebuild the viaduct, and assessed costs of $572,000 against Santa Fe based on the recommendation of John Baier, the Commission’s transportation engineer. After exhausting its administrative remedies, Santa Fe appealed the Commission’s decision to the Denver District Court. The district court affirmed the decision of the Commission on February 17,1987, and Santa Fe appealed to this court pursuant to section 40-6-115(5), 17 C.R.S. (1984).
II.
The January 1984 hearings were the first to be conducted pursuant to House Bill No. 1569, codified as subsections (3)(b) and (3)(c) of section 40-4-106. These subsections were approved June 10, 1983, and made effective July 1, 1983. Ch. 453, § 1, § 40-4-106, 1983 Colo.Sess.Laws 1558, 1558-60. Section 40-4-106 governs rules for public safety, crossings, and allocation of expenses. Subsection (3)(b) describes procedures for processing applications for grade separation construction projects. Subsection (3)(c) describes the method of allocating cost of such projects between one or more class I railroads and the public authority in interest. Subsection (3)(c)(I) requires the Commission to examine the railroads and public authorities affected by a proposed construction project, and to “give equal weight to the benefits, if any, which accrue from the grade separation project and the responsibility for the need, if any, for such project.” Subsection (3)(c)(II) describes the method of allocating cost between two or more class I railroads. It requires the Commission to consider the relative benefits, if any, that each railroad receives from the project. Neither subsection (3)(b) nor subsection (3)(c), however, prescribes a particular method of measuring these benefits and responsibilities.
John Baier, the Commission’s transportation engineer, developed a new methodology in an attempt to comply with section 40-4-106. He provided written and oral testimony about his “base case method” at the January 1984 Commission hearings. The base case method is a three step process. First, a theoretical model is created to simulate typical traffic patterns. Second, the base case is compared to the actual project. Deviations from the base case are then analyzed “on a component basis addressing the question of benefit and responsibility for need.” Third, costs for each component are allocated among the respective parties based on this comparison of the actual project to the base case.
In this base case, Baier assumed that one public authority desired to build a road that intersected one set of railroad tracks. He stated that the road could be built on ground level or “at-grade,” above grade by means of a viaduct or overpass, or below grade by means of a tunnel or underpass. He then compared the benefits the public authority and the railroad receive from construction of an above grade road to the benefits received from construction of an at-grade railroad crossing. He observed that construction of a grade separation construction project was mutually beneficial to the public authority and the railroad because it eliminated any chance of collisions between trains and road traffic, disruption of train or traffic patterns, release of hazardous materials, and delay of emergency road vehicles. The railroad received additional benefits from construction of an above grade road, said Baier, including eliminating the possibility of damage to switches, tracks and equipment; decreasing the possibility of train delay or derailment; avoiding cost of installing and maintaining at-grade safety devices; and maintaining the railroad’s “freedom of operation.” He stated: “It is extremely difficult to measure and quantify these benefits [to the railroad and the public authority]. However, the benefits are shared equally.”
Baier then weighed the responsibility that the railroad and the public authority had for the need for construction of a grade separation construction project. He surmised that a grade separation construction project “would not be required if either the railroad or the roadway did not occupy the same right of way.” Accordingly, he concluded that in the base case the railroad and the public authority bore equal responsibility for the need for con struction of the project. As a result, he concluded that, under subsection (3)(e)(I), the railroad and the public authority received equal benefit from and bore equal responsibility for removing and replacing the viaduct.
In measuring the benefit under subsection (3)(c)(II) that each railroad derived from construction of the viaduct, Baier divided the viaduct into two components: the eastern component, which crossed the airspace above land owned by Rio Grande; and the western component, which crossed the airspace above tracks owned by Santa Fe and Burlington. He calculated that the cost of constructing the western component of a basic grade separated viaduct was $2,288,013. Of that amount, Baier recommended that half should be paid by Denver, while the other half should be paid equally by Santa Fe and Burlington, because each railroad owned one track. He placed no weight on the number of trains each railroad operated or to the revenue generated from each track. Santa Fe’s share of the cost of building the viaduct was calculated to be 25% of the cost of building the western component of the viaduct, or $572,000.
III.
Review of the Commission’s decisions is limited to three concerns: whether the Commission has regularly pursued its authority; whether its decisions are just and reasonable; and whether its conclusions are in accordance with the evidence. § 40-6-115(3), 17 C.R.S. (1984); see also Colorado Office of Consumer Counsel v. Public Util. Comm’n, 752 P.2d 1049, 1057 (Colo.1988); RAM Broadcasting of Colorado, Inc. v. Public Util. Comm’n, 702 P.2d 746, 750 (Colo.1985). Orders of the Commission are presumed to be reasonable and valid, Caldwell v. Public Util. Comm’n, 200 Colo. 134, 137, 613 P.2d 328, 330 (1980), and the party challenging an order bears the burden of showing its impropriety, Public Util. Comm’n v. Weicker Transp. Co., 102 Colo. 211, 217, 78 P.2d 633, 636 (1938).
Factual determinations of the Commission are entitled to considerable deference. G & G Trucking Co. v. Public Util. Comm’n, 745 P.2d 211, 216 (Colo.1987). A reviewing court must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the Commission. Peoples Natural Gas Div. v. Public Util. Comm’n, 193 Colo. 421, 427, 567 P.2d 377, 381 (1977). It may not disturb those factual determinations that are supported by substantial evidence in the record. Acme Delivery Serv. v. Cargo Freight Sys., 704 P.2d 839 (Colo.1985). Nor may a reviewing court substitute its judgment for that of the Commission. Public Serv. Co. v. Public Util. Comm’n, 644 P.2d 933, 940 (Colo.1982).
In determining whether to disturb the factual determinations of the Commission, the reviewing court must search the record for evidence favorable to the Commission, North Eastern Motor Freight, Inc. v. Public Util. Comm’n, 178 Colo. 433, 437, 498 P.2d 923, 925 (1972), because findings may be express or implied from a reading of the record as a whole, see Aspen Airways, Inc. v. Public Util. Comm’n, 169 Colo. 56, 62, 453 P.2d 789, 792 (1969). Findings may not be set aside merely because the evidence before the Commission is conflicting or because more than one inference can be drawn from the evidence. Morey v. Public Util. Comm’n, 629 P.2d 1061, 1068 (Colo.1981). Finally, whether an order is supported by substantial evidence is a question of law. Public Util. Comm ’n v. Northwest Water Corp., 168 Colo. 154, 169-70, 451 P.2d 266, 273-74 (1969). See generally Colorado Mun. League v. Mountain States Tel. & Tel. Co., 759 P.2d 40, 44 (Colo.1988). With these principles in mind, we turn to Santa Fe’s claims.
IV.
The essential question before us is whether the conclusions of John Baier, the Commission’s transportation engineer, constitute substantial evidence upon which to base the Commission’s findings. Santa Fe characterizes Baier’s conclusions as mere assumptions, entitled to no evidentiary weight. The Commission characterizes Baier’s conclusions as expert opinions entitled to substantial deference.
A.
Santa Fe argues that there was insufficient evidence to support the Commission’s finding that Santa Fe and Burlington received any benefit whatsoever from construction of the viaduct because an at-grade crossing was neither in place nor proposed at the time of the application. Denver argues that an at-grade crossing was considered and rejected at the time of the application, and that the benefit Santa Fe received was being relieved of burdens related to construction of an at-grade crossing.
The record reveals that the option of constructing an at-grade crossing was considered and rejected at the time of the application to rebuild the viaduct. On January 19, 1984, John Stamm, Denver’s director of design and construction engineering, testified that reconstruction of the viaduct was the “best alternative in all those being considered.” He testified that he would not recommend an at-grade crossing because it “would create a great deal of conflict, possible conflict, between train movements and the vehicular, and pedestrian, and bicycle traffic.” In addition, John Baier testified that the alternative of constructing an at-grade crossing is always considered when a grade separation construction project is proposed.
The Commission faced a choice of two alternatives that would permit traffic to enter and leave downtown Denver. It chose the alternative of constructing a viaduct after considering traffic, safety, and geographic distribution as required by section 40-4-106(3)(b). A reviewing court cannot substitute its judgment when the Commission selects one of two equally reasonable courses of action. GTE Sprint Communications Corp. v. Public Util. Comm’n, 753 P.2d 212, 218 (Colo.1988); Contact-Colorado Springs, Inc. v. Mobile Radio Tel. Serv., 191 Colo. 180, 183, 551 P.2d 203, 205 (1976). By choosing the alternative of constructing a viaduct, the Commission relieved Santa Fe of the burden of installing safety devices as well as exposure to tort liability from automobile-train collisions. This is sufficient to demonstrate that Santa Fe received a benefit from rebuilding the viaduct.
B.
Santa Fe argues that, even if it did receive a benefit from construction of the viaduct, there was no evidence to support the Commission’s finding that the benefit derived by the affected railroads was equal to the benefit derived by Denver. Santa Fe raises two related arguments in support of this position. First, the Commission misapplied section 40-4-106(3)(c)(I) by assuming that benefits were shared equally, rather than separately weighing the benefits from and responsibility for the need for the viaduct. As such, claims Santa Fe, the Commission did not regularly pursue its authority. Second, the Commission failed to support its finding of equal benefits with evidence in the record. Santa Fe argues that, although the record supports a finding of equal responsibility for the need for the viaduct, there is insufficient evidence to support a finding that the affected railroads and Denver benefit equally from construction of the viaduct. Santa Fe argues that a mere assumption that benefits are equal is no substitute for a gathering of statistical or other empirical evidence to support such a conclusion. We reject each argument in turn.
1.
The General Assembly in enacting section 40-4-106(3)(c)(I) did not prescribe a particular method of measuring the benefits that affected railroads and public authorities derive from construction of a grade separation construction project. The General Assembly merely demanded that the Commission give separate and equal weight to the benefits and responsibilities that flow to affected railroads and public authorities from construction of a project such as the viaduct. The Commission has followed the mandate of subsection (3)(c)(I) in this case by adopting the analysis and conclusions of John Baier. From a consideration of traffic, safety, and geographic distribution, Baier concluded that the factors that benefited Denver also benefited Santa Fe and the other affected railroads in the same way. Although the affected railroads received additional benefits that did not accrue to Denver, such as eliminating damage to tracks, signals, and equipment, he concluded that these difficult to quantify benefits were “shared equally.” He also stated that he considered responsibility for the need for the viaduct in his base case, and concluded that the affected railroads and the public authority were equally responsible. The Commission adopted these conclusions in its findings on February 7, 1984. Because the Commission gave separate and equal weight to the benefits and responsibility that flow to Denver, Santa Fe, and Burlington from construction of the viaduct, we hold that the Commission properly construed subsection (3)(c)(I).
2.
The Commission did not gather statistical or other empirical evidence of the benefit that affected railroads and Denver received from construction of the viaduct. Neither subsection (3)(c)(I) nor the principles of administrative law, however, so limits the evidence the Commission may consider. Substantial evidence is all that is required to support a finding of the Commission. See Colorado Mun. League v. Mountain States Tel. & Tel. Co., 759 P.2d 40, 44 (Colo.1988); City of Montrose v. Public Util. Comm’n, 629 P.2d 619, 622 (Colo.1981). In this case, substantial evidence of the benefit to the respective parties was present in the form of John Baier’s expert testimony. Construing his testimony as expert opinion, we hold that the Commission did not abuse its discretion in concluding that Denver and the affected railroads benefited equally from construction of the viaduct.
C.
Santa Fe argues that there was no evidence to support the Commission’s finding that the benefit to Santa Fe was equal to the benefit derived by Burlington. It claims that mere ownership of railroad tracks is not a sufficient basis to support the Commission’s findings that construction of the viaduct would benefit Santa Fe and Burlington equally. Santa Fe points out that, on average, Burlington trains are almost three times longer than the average Santa Fe train, and run six times as often. If benefit to affected railroads under subsection (3)(c)(I) is based on elimination of hazards that arise from construction of an at-grade crossing, argues Santa Fe, then Burlington must be said to receive more benefit from construction of the viaduct than Santa Fe under subsection (3)(c)(II), because Burlington operated more trains and longer trains than Santa Fe, and would have been far more likely to encounter these hazards than Santa Fe. The Commis sion argues that determining benefit based on ownership rather than use of the tracks is an appropriate basis of determining benefit under subsection (3)(c)(II). It points out that the Burlington trains are operated by Santa Fe crews pursuant to contract between the two railroads, and that Santa Fe is free to increase the number and length of its trains so as to offset additional costs imposed by Denver.
John Baier testified at the January 20 hearing that he rejected the idea of basing measurement of benefit to Santa Fe and Burlington on volume of train traffic or revenue generated to the railroad. He said that Santa Fe and Burlington could change the terms of their contract to adjust the payments that each railroad was assessed by the Commission. He concluded that benefit to each railroad should be based on ownership of the tracks.
While a good case can be made that benefit to each railroad should be based on the number of trains or the revenue generated to each railroad, the Commission rejected this basis in favor of basing benefit on ownership of the tracks. Because each of these solutions was reasonable, we cannot substitute our judgment for that of the Commission. The Commission’s findings were based on substantial evidence in the record. We therefore conclude that the Commission did not abuse its discretion in finding that Burlington and Santa Fe received equal benefit under section 40-4-106(3)(c)(II).
The order of the district court is affirmed.
ERICKSON, J., dissents.
ROVIRA and KIRSHBAUM, JJ„ join in the dissent.
. The two tracks in question are north-south tracks located on Burlington property. Burlington owns the southbound main track and Santa Fe owns the northbound main track. The Burlington property is located on the westernmost edge of the viaduct. The easternmost property is owned by Rio Grande, which operates switching tracks and other tracks at their facility.
. The Commission consolidated Denver’s application with applications for grade separation construction projects involving railroads and the cities of Arvada, Colorado Springs, Jules-burg, and Westminster.
. Section 40-4-106(3)(b) provides:
Prior to January 1 of each year the commission shall take applications for grade separation construction projects and shall hold hearings, of which all parties in interest including the owners of affected property located within a one-mile radius shall have due notice, to determine which projects shall be constructed and to allocate the expenses of construction between the railroad corporations affected and between the corporation and the state, county, municipality, or public authority in interest. Only those grade separation construction projects which meet minimum criteria warranting grade separations, as adopted by the public utilities commission giving consideration to the standards utilized by the Colorado highway commission, shall be authorized for construction prior to March 1 of each year pursuant to this paragraph (b). In its selection the commission shall consider traffic, safety, and geographic distribution.
.Section 40-4-106(3)(c) provides:
(I) In the allocation of expenses for each grade separation construction project pursuant to paragraph (b) of this subsection (3) between the affected class I railroad corporations and the state, county, municipality, or public authority in interest, the commission shall give equal weight to the benefits, if any, which accrue from the grade separation project and the responsibility for the need, if any, for such project.
(II) In the allocation of the class I railroad corporations’ share of expenses for a grade separation construction project pursuant to paragraphs (a) and (b) of this subsection (3), the commission shall consider the benefits, if any, which shall accrue between the class I railroad corporations affected.
(III) The commission shall allocate such expenses among all affected class I railroad corporations up to a total of five million dollars during the twelve months beginning July 1, 1983, and up to five million dollars per year for each succeeding year. Total allocations to each class I railroad shall not exceed one million two hundred fifty thousand dollars in any one year, or six million two hundred fifty thousand dollars in any five-year period. Nothing in this subparagraph (III) shall preclude any class I railroad corporations [sic] from voluntarily contributing more than its allocated share for grade separation construction in one year; and in such event, all amounts contributed by such railroad exceeding its allotted share in any year shall be credited to and shall serve to reduce any allocation for grade separation construction expenses to that railroad in subsequent years. Nothing in this subparagraph (III) shall be construed to authorize less than twenty-five million dollars to be assessed against all affected class I railroad corporations in any five-year period.
Subsections (3)(b) and (3)(c) were originally designed to become inoperable on June 30, 1988. Effective April 21, 1986, however, these subsections were repealed and reenacted with amendments. Ch. 251, § 1, § 40-4-106, 1986 Colo.Sess.Laws 1157, 1157-58. As a result, these amended subsections remain in effect. See § 40-4-106, 17 C.R.S. (1987 Supp.).
. There are four class I railroad corporations operating in Colorado. They are the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Company, the Burlington Northern Railroad Company, the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad Company, and the Union Pacific Railroad Company.
. Baier defined "freedom of operation” to include the ability of the railroad to raise or lower speed limits for the trains and to move crossing and switching operations.
. Baier stated that the estimated cost of constructing the western component of the actual viaduct would be much greater than $2,288,013, but observed that those additional costs were not properly attributable to the affected railroads. Some of these additional costs were due to tearing down the old viaduct, building a new foundation, and repairing adjacent streets, curbs, and gutters. These costs were borne wholly by Denver.
. Burlington’s share of the cost of building the viaduct was also calculated at $572,000. That amount, however, was reduced because of Burlington’s concomitant obligation to share in the cost of building grade separation projects in Arvada and Westminster. Section 40-4-106(3)(c)(IIl) limits the amount a class I railroad may be required to pay for grade separation projects in any one year to $1,250,000. Because Burlington’s share of the cost of building the grade separation projects in Arvada, Westminster, and Denver was calculated to be $2,234,000, which was in excess of the maximum amount Burlington could be charged under the statute, Burlington’s cost of the Denver viaduct was adjusted to $310,000. Burlington agreed to pay the adjusted amount for construction of the viaduct, and is not a party to this appeal.
. According to Santa Fe’s assistant general manager of engineering, Burlington operates twenty-four daily trains, while Santa Fe operates four daily trains. Also, the average length of twenty of Burlington’s twenty-four trains is 110 cars, while the average length of Santa Fe’s trains is 40 cars. | [
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Chief Justice VOLLACK
delivered the Opinion of the Court.
In this original proceeding filed pursuant to C.A.R. 21, we issued a rule to show cause why Boulder County District Court should not grant the petitioners’ motion for a change of venue. We hold that the district court erroneously denied the petitioners’ motion for change of venue under C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2). We thus make the rule to show cause absolute.
I.
Plaintiffs Gilbert Jones (Jones) and Edward Flys Away (Flys Away) are two inmates at the Colorado Territorial Correctional Facility (CTCF) in Fremont County. Plaintiffs Bill Hugenberg (Hugenberg) and Marlon Sherman (Sherman) were two former law students at the University of Colorado School of Law in Boulder, Colorado. Hugen-berg and Sherman, by a telephone call originating in Boulder, arranged with a Department of Corrections (DOC) official in Cañón City to visit with Jones and Flys Away at the CTCF. However, when Hugenberg and Sherman arrived at CTCF at the appointed time, the DOC denied them access to Jones and Flys Away due to institutional regulations.
Pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (1988), the plaintiffs subsequently filed an action in Boulder County District Court against the DOC, seeking damages for claims of negligence and denial of civil rights under color of state law. The plaintiffs asserted venue in Boulder County pursuant to C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2), and the DOC moved for a change of venue to Fremont County. The district court denied the DOC’s motion, finding that the plaintiffs’ claims in this case arose from visitation arrangements which were made, in part, in Boulder County. The DOC filed a petition for original proceeding, requesting that this court issue an order requiring the district court to change the venue in this case to Fremont County. Pursuant to the DOC’s petition, we issued an order to show cause.
II.
C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2) controls venue for all actions against public officers for acts done or the failure to perform acts in public office. 7 Utes Corp. v. District Court, 702 P.2d 262, 267 (Colo.1985). Rule 98(b)(2) provides, in pertinent part: •
Actions upon the following claims shall be tried in the county where the claim, or some part thereof, arose:
(2) Against a public officer or person specially appointed to execute his duties, for an act done by him in virtue of his office, ... or for a failure to perform any act or duty which he is by law required to perform.
C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2). Pursuant to C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2), claims against a public officer for an official act done by him shall be tried in the county where the claim or some part thereof arose. Board of County Comm’rs v. District Court, 632 P.2d 1017, 1020 (Colo.1981).
In Board of County Commissioners, the Board of Water Commissioners of the City and County of Denver (Denver) brought an action in Denver County District Court against the Board of County Commissioners of Eagle County (Eagle County). Denver claimed that Eagle County’s land use regulations invalidly interfered with the development of Denver’s water rights originating in Eagle County and the construction of its diversion projects in that county. We held that Denver’s claims against Eagle County arose in Eagle County by virtue of the official action in Eagle County of the Board of County Commissioners when it adopted the land use regulations. Id. at 1020. We concluded that the only proper venue for the action was Eagle County, where the Board of County Commissioners made its decision, despite the decision’s effect on Denver County. Id.; see also 7 Utes Corp., 702 P.2d 262.
Moreover, C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2) applies to claims against public officers “for an act done by [the public officer] in virtue of his office ... or for a failure to perform any act or duty which he is by law required to perform.” C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2). This language indicates that it is the official act, or failure to act, by the public officer that gives rise to the cause of action and establishes venue. In Oklahoma Ordnance Works Authority v. District Court, 613 P.2d 746 (Okla.1980), the Oklahoma Supreme Court held that, regardless of where damages may result, venue was proper in the county where the acts of the public officers occurred. Id. at 750. The court stated that “it is the decisional act of the public officer ... that gives rise to the cause of action and establishes venue of an action against such officer.” Id.; see also Huerter v. Hassig, 175 Kan. 781, 267 P.2d 582 (1954); Coats v. Sampson County Memorial Hosp., Inc., 264 N.C. 332, 141 S.E.2d 490 (1965).
The issue before us is whether the district court erred in concluding that “some part” of the plaintiffs’ claim arose in Boulder County. The plaintiffs argued that “some part” of their claim arose in Boulder County because plaintiff Hugenberg allegedly made a telephone call from Boulder to a DOC official in Canon City to arrange the visitation with Jones and Flys Away. Based on this fact alone, the district court found that “some part” of the plaintiffs’ claim arose in Boulder County. . We do not agree that Hu-genberg’s telephone call from Boulder was sufficient for the district court to find that “some part” of the claim arose in Boulder.
Here, the basis of the plaintiffs’ § 1983 claim is that the public officers in Fremont County deprived the plaintiffs of their rights by refusing to allow Hugenberg and Sherman visitation with Jones and Flys Away at the CTCF in Fremont County. This refusal by the DOC is alleged to have occurred only in Fremont County. There is no allegation in this case that the DOC officials acted, or failed to act, in Boulder County. Any visitation arrangements that Hugenberg made by telephone from Boulder County are not the basis of the plaintiffs’ § 1983 claim against the DOC. It is the DOC’s refusal in Fremont County to allow visitation that gives rise to the plaintiffs’ claim and establishes venue in this case. We therefore hold that the claim in this case arose exclusively in Fremont County and that venue is proper only in Fremont County.
III.
Pursuant to C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2), the proper venue in this case is Fremont County. We make the rule absolute.
. C.A.R. 21(a) provides that relief in the nature of prohibition is a proper remedy where the district court has granted or denied a change of venue in actions for which the statute prescribes the forum.
. CTCF’s regulations provide that inmates are allowed visits by attorneys, paralegals, or investigators during the business hours of 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. on Monday through Friday. In this case, Hugenberg and Sherman, as student attorneys, attempted to visit with Jones and Flys Away on a Saturday. Saturdays are reserved for visits from family and friends.
. 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (1988) provides that "[a]ny person who, under color of any law, statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage of any State, shall subject, or cause to be subjected, any person ... to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution of the United States ... shall be liable to the party injured in any action at law.”
.Oklahoma’s statute fixing venue for actions against public officials is similar to C.R.C.P. 98(b)(2):
Actions for the following causes must be brought in the county where the cause, or some part thereof arose:
... An action against a public officer for an act done by him in virtue, or under color, of his office, or for neglect of his official duties.
Okla. Stat. tit. 12, § 133 (1971). | [
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] |
Opinion by
Judge BRIGGS.
Defendant, Antonio Segura, appeals the judgment of conviction entered on jury verdicts finding him guilty of sexual assault on a child, third degree sexual assault, two counts of felony menacing, and two counts of second degree criminal trespass. He contends that the trial court committed reversible error in admitting prior statements of the victims and that the evidence was insufficient to support the verdicts of guilt on the two felony menacing counts. We affirm.
I.
Defendant contends the trial court erred in allowing the prosecution to introduce prior statements of the two victims. We perceive no error.
Both victims testified at trial that defendant touched one victim’s breast and buttocks. In cross-examination, defense counsel elicited testimony from the victims that they had spoken to each other the day after the incident in question before filing statements with the police. In its rebuttal case, the prosecution presented the testimony of the investigating officer that both victims had reported consistent statements to him on the evening of the incident. Similar statements were included in the victims’ written statements to police.
' A.
Under CRE 801(d)(1)(B), a statement is not hearsay if the declarant testifies at trial and is subject to cross-examination, the statement is consistent with the declarant’s testimony, and it is offered to rebut an express or implied charge against the declarant of recent fabrication or improper influence or motive. See People v. Page, 907 P.2d 624 (Colo.App. 1995).
In Tome v. United States, — U.S. -, 115 S.Ct. 696, 130 L.Ed.2d 574 (1995), the United States Supreme Court held that Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(1)(B), which is essentially identical to CRE 801(d)(1)(B), permits the introduction of a declarant’s out-of-court statements as nonhearsay evidence only if those statements were made before the alleged fabrication or improper influence or motive.
The Court in Tome reasoned that a consistent statement predating the motive for fabrication is a “square rebuttal” of the charge that the testimony was contrived as a consequence of that motive. Tome v. United States, supra, — U.S. at-, 115 S.Ct. at 701, 130 L.Ed.2d at 583. By contrast, prior consistent statements carry little rebuttal force when most other types of impeachment are involved. Furthermore, if the rule were to permit the introduction of prior statements, even though not made before the alleged fabrication, the emphasis of the trial could shift to the out-of-court statements rather than those made in court under oath. Finally, its interpretation was consistent with the common law that had developed before the rule’s adoption. See Tome v. United States, supra.
Case law interpreting an essentially identical federal rule is instructive, see State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co. v. Parrish, 899 P.2d 285 (Colo.App.1994), and we find the Supreme Court’s analysis in Tome persuasive. We therefore hold that CRE 801(d)(1)(B) encompasses only those statements made by the victims prior to the opportunity to fabricate similar stories allegedly arose. But see Tome v. United States, supra (Breyer, J., dissenting); J. Quinn, Hearsay in Criminal Cases Under The Colorado Rules of Evidence: An Overview, 50 U.Colo.L.Rev. 277 (1978-79).
To the extent that the decision in People v. Koon, 724 P.2d 1367 (Colo.App.1986) is inconsistent with our conclusion, we decline to follow it.
B.
Defendant argues that no prior inconsistent statements had been admitted and that the statements were improperly admitted to counter his evidence of the victims’ poor reputations for truthfulness, not to rebut any charge of recent fabrication. He therefore asserts the statements were not admissible under CRE 801(d)(1)(B).
Defendant’s argument is initially premised on the incorrect assumption that prior consistent statements may be admitted only to rebut an express or implied charge of recent fabrication or improper influence or motive that is based on prior inconsistent statements. The rule contains no such limitation. See People v. Page, supra; People v. Ambrose, 907 P.2d 613 (Colo.App. 1994); see generally J. Quinn, supra, 50 U.Colo.L.Rev. at 299 (“Colorado rule 801(d)(1)(B) does not restrict the admissibility of prior consistent statements to those situations where impeachment is accomplished by prior inconsistent statements.”).
Defendant’s argument farther ignores that his attorney in cross-examination of the two victims had established that they talked with each other the day following the incident in question prior to submitting their written statements to police. Eliciting this testimony amounted to an implied charge that the victims had met together and fabricated the incident. See People v. Page, supra (defense counsel’s emphasis during cross-examination of the investigating officer on the officer’s destruction of notes amounted to an implied charge of recent fabrication of defendant’s confession, and prior consistent statements were therefore properly admitted pursuant to CRE 801(d)(1)(B)); see generally J. Quinn, supra. Indeed, defense counsel in closing argument stressed the opportunity for the two victims to fabricate the story together before submitting their written statements.
The victims testified at trial and were subject to cross-examination. Their prior consistent statements rebutted a charge of fabrication and were made before the alleged fabrication. We therefore conclude that the statements were properly admitted under CRE 801(d)(1)(B).
II.
Defendant contends that the trial court erred in refusing to grant his motion for judgment of acquittal on the charges of felony menacing because the evidence was insufficient to support the conclusion that he was aware his actions were practically certain to place the victims in fear of imminent serious bodily injury. We disagree.
A person commits felony menacing if, by the use of a deadly weapon, he or she knowingly places or attempts to place another person in fear of imminent serious bodily injury. Section 18-3-206, C.R.S. (1986 Repl. Vol. 8B). Felony menacing is a general intent crime which requires only that the defendant be aware that his or her conduct is practically certain to cause the result. People v. Crump, 769 P.2d 496 (Colo.1989); People v. Zieg, 841 P.2d 342 (Colo.App.1992).
A defendant’s awareness of the result to be caused by alleged conduct may be inferred from the conduct and the surrounding circumstances. See People v. District Court, 652 P.2d 582 (Colo.1982); see also People v. Gagnon, 703 P.2d 661 (Colo.App. 1985). And, the term “use of a deadly weapon” in this statute includes the act of holding a weapon in the presence of another in a manner that is practically certain to cause the other person to fear for his or her safety. See People v. Hines, 780 P.2d 556 (Colo. 1989).
When ruling on a motion for judgment of acquittal, the trial court must determine whether the prosecution’s evidence, both direct and circumstantial, when viewed as a whole and in the light most favorable to the prosecution, is substantial and sufficient to support a conclusion by a reasonable person that the defendant is guilty of the crime charged beyond a reasonable doubt. People v. Bennett, 183 Colo. 125, 515 P.2d 466 (1973). Its ruling on a motion for judgment of acquittal will not be reversed absent an abuse of discretion. People v. Palumbo, 192 Colo. 7, 555 P.2d 521 (1976).
Here, the victim of one of the felony menacing charges testified that, after defendant had touched her breast and buttocks without her permission, he told her and the other victim not to call the police or he would kill them. The victim also testified that defendant told the other victim not to let her leave the home or he would kill the other victim. She also stated that defendant had picked up a knife from the kitchen and that she was scared.
The second victim testified that defendant grabbed a large knife from the kitchen and said that if she let the other girl leave he would stab them. She also testified that defendant warned her not to call the police and that if she did, it was “just going to be worse when he got out.”
Viewing the evidence under the legal standards applicable to the crime of felony menacing and in the light most favorable to the prosecution, we conclude that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in denying defendant’s motion for judgment of acquittal on the felony menacing charges.
Judgment affirmed.
RULAND, J., concurs.
JONES, J., specially concurs. | [
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KIRSHBAUM, Justice.
In Cottonwood Farms v. Board of County Commissioners, 725 P.2d 57 (Colo.App.1986), the Court of Appeals affirmed a district court judgment dismissing several claims contained in a complaint filed by Cottonwood Farms and Colorado Rock Company (hereinafter sometimes referred to as “applicants”) for review of a decision of the Jefferson County Board of County Commissioners (the Board) denying an application to rezone land located in Jefferson County, Colorado. The Court of Appeals held, inter alia, that the application of the Preservation of Commercial Mineral Deposits Act (the Preservation Act), §§ 34-1-301 to -305, 14 C.R.S. (1984), to the property as zoned did not effect an unconstitutional taking of the real property. The court also stated that under the self-inflicted hardship doctrine a valid constitutional taking claim arises only when property is acquired under one zoning regulation and a subsequent change in zoning deprives the claimant of any reasonable use of the property. We granted certiorari to review these determinations. Although we disagree with the assertion that the self-inflicted hardship doctrine serves to bar constitutional taking claims, we affirm the judgment of the Court of Appeals.
I
By several separate purchases on December 23, 1981, and February 16, 1982, Cottonwood Farms acquired contiguous parcels of land in Jefferson County totalling approximately 323 acres. The land was at the time classified Agricultural-One under applicable county zoning regulations. On February 22, 1982, Cottonwood Farms and Colorado Rock Company filed an application with the Jefferson County Planning Department to rezone to a Planned-Development Mining classification. On April 1, 1982, Cottonwood Farms executed a lease with Colorado Rock Company, a corporation engaged in aggregate mining, whereby the 323-acre tract would be used as a rock quarry.
The Planning Department recommended conditional approval of the application. However, following extensive hearings, the Board denied the rezoning application. The Board concluded that the proposed quarry operation would not be compatible with existing uses in the surrounding area and, in particular, would not conform to Jefferson County Comprehensive Plan provisions respecting visual, air quality, noise pollution, water quality, blasting safety and economic impact standards.
The applicants filed a complaint in the district court against the Board, two of its members (referred to hereinafter as “the Commissioners”) and the State of Colorado. The complaint sought judicial review of the Board’s action pursuant to C.R.C.P. 106 and declaratory relief pursuant to C.R.C.P. 57. The complaint also contained six claims for damages against the Board, the Commissioners and the State of Colorado. The applicants’ second claim asserted that aggregate mining was the only reasonable use of the property, that the Preservation Act imposed unreasonable restrictions on their use of the property, and that the combination of that statute and the Board’s decision effected an unconstitutional taking of their property without just compensation. Their fourth claim asserted that the zoning regulations impermissibly excluded mining as a use by right, in violation of the applicants’ due process rights.
The Board and the State of Colorado, pursuant to C.R.C.P. 12(b), filed motions to dismiss the six damage claims. The dis trict court granted the motions, concluding, inter alia, that the Agricultural-One zoning classification was not proscribed by the Preservation Act and did not deprive the applicants of substantially all the use of their property. The district court also determined that, pursuant to this court’s decision in Nopro Co. v. Town of Cherry Hills Village, 180 Colo. 217, 504 P.2d 344 (1972), the claims for damages must fall because the hardship suffered by the applicants was self-inflicted.
In affirming the district court’s dismissal of the applicants’ second claim, the Court of Appeals concluded that application of the Preservation Act to the existing zoning classification did not effect an unconstitutional taking of the property. The Court of Appeals also indicated that a valid taking claim arises only when property is acquired under one zoning regulation and a subsequent change in zoning deprives the claimant of any reasonable use of the property. In affirming the district court’s dismissal of the applicants’ exclusionary zoning claim, the Court of Appeals concluded that the challenged zoning regulations in fact permitted aggregate mining under reasonable criteria which the applicants failed to meet. The court also observed, again, that the applicants’ problem was one of self-inflicted hardship which could not be relieved by the Board or the court.
II
The applicants argue that application of the Preservation Act, §§ 34-1-301 to -305, 14 C.R.S. (1984), to their property in the context of the zoning classification affecting the property results in a denial of all reasonable use of the property. We disagree.
Section 34-1-305, 14 C.R.S. (1984), provides in pertinent part as follows:
Preservation of commercial mineral deposits for extraction. (1) After July 1, 1973, no board of county commissioners, governing body of any city and county, city, or town, or other governmental authority which has control over zoning shall, by zoning, rezoning, granting a variance, or other official action or inaction, permit the use of any area known to contain a commercial mineral deposit in a manner which would interfere with the present or future extraction of such deposit by an extractor.
(2) After adoption of a master plan for extraction for an area under its jurisdiction, no board of county commissioners, governing body of any city and county, city, or town, or other governmental authority which has control over zoning shall, by zoning, rezoning, granting a variance, or other official action or inaction, permit the use of any area containing a commercial mineral deposit in a manner which would interfere with the present or future extraction of such deposit by an extractor.
(5) Nothing in this section shall be construed to prohibit a use of zoned land permissible under the zoning governing such land on July 1, 1973.
Pursuant to the Preservation Act, the Colorado Geological Survey conducted a study identifying the property acquired by the petitioners as a site containing a commercial mineral deposit. See § 34-1-303, 14 C.R.S. (1984). In addition, the Jefferson County Planning Commission adopted a master plan in 1977 for extraction of the mineral deposits within the county. See § 34-1-304, 14 C.R.S. (1984). However, it is uncontroverted that since 1955 the property in question has been continuously subject to the same zoning classification — Agricultural-One. Such classification allows, inter alia, the construction of residences on five-acre tracts, as well as the use of the property for agricultural purposes.
The clear intent of section 34-1-305(5) is to permit uses authorized by preexisting zoning regulations to continue subsequent to July 1, 1973. While a county authority deciding to amend its regulation of uses after July 1, 1973, must comply with these statutory provisions, no such action has been taken by the Board. Under these circumstances, the combination of the provisions of the Preservation Act and the Agricultural-One zoning classification applicable to the applicants’ property does not prohibit all reasonable use thereof.
It is well-established that extant zoning ordinances do not constitute unconstitutional confiscations of property merely because they restrict the ability of landowners to realize greater profit from the use of their property. E.g., Sellon v. City of Manitou Springs, 745 P.2d 229 (Colo.1987); Landmark Land Co. v. City & County of Denver, 728 P.2d 1281 (Colo.1986), appeal dismissed sub nom. Harsh Inv. Corp. v. City & County of Denver, — U.S. -, 107 S.Ct. 3222, 97 L.Ed.2d 729 (1987); Baum v. City & County of Denver, 147 Colo. 104, 363 P.2d 688 (1961). In these circumstances, the zoning authority has not “taken” the property, but has merely created an obstacle to the possibility of obtaining windfall profits. See County of Ada v. Henry, 105 Idaho 263, 668 P.2d 994 (1983). Moreover, the fact that the plaintiff may have paid more than the land was worth under existing zoning in the hope of securing a zoning change is generally not a factor to be considered in the plaintiff’s favor in analyzing a taking claim. E.g., Westbrook v. Board of Adjustment, 245 Ga. 15, 262 S.E.2d 785 (1980); Mintz v. Village of Pepper Pike, 57 Ohio App.2d 185, 386 N.E.2d 849 (1978) (noting that the plaintiffs’ claim of financial loss was more accurately described as denial of a windfall). See generally 1 A. Rathkopf & D. Rathkopf, The Law of Zoning and Planning § 6.07 (1988).
Here, the applicants having agreed upon a purchase price for the property, it is reasonable to assume that at the time of the transaction the applicants assumed the property was capable of being put to some economic use. It is also true, as we have previously indicated, that the combination of the extant zoning classification and the Preservation Act does not prohibit the economic activity of aggregate mining. The applicants do not allege any changed circumstances or any new zoning action taken by the Board that allegedly reduced the value of their property. See, e.g., Roosevelt v. City of Englewood, 176 Colo. 576, 492 P.2d 65 (1971); Majestic Heights Co. v. Board of County Comm’rs, 173 Colo. 178, 476 P.2d 745 (1970). In such circumstance, the combination of the zoning regulations and the Act has not effected a taking of the property by denying all reasonable use thereof. The Board’s refusal to in effect enhance the value of the property cannot be equated to conduct that reduced the value thereof.
Ill
We have concluded that the Court of Appeals correctly determined that the applicants have not been deprived of all reasonable use of their property. The Court of Appeals opinion also states, however, that the applicants’ inverse condemnation claim is barred by the self-inflicted hardship doctrine. Because the judgment may be based in part on that broad proposition, we address the applicants’ contention that the self-inflicted hardship doctrine is inapplicable to their taking claim.
Persons owning property at the time it is rezoned may challenge the validity of the new regulation on the ground that it prohibits all reasonable use of the property and therefore constitutes an unconstitutional taking thereof. Bear Valley Drive-In Theater Corp. v. Board of County Comm’rs, 173 Colo. 57, 476 P.2d 48 (1970); City & County of Denver v. Denver Buick, Inc., 141 Colo. 121, 347 P.2d 919 (1959). However, the question remains whether, and under what circumstances, a property owner may challenge a zoning regulation on the ground that as applied it effects an unconstitutional taking when the owner purchased the property after the adoption of the challenged regulation.
Courts have reached varied results when addressing this issue. The majority of courts have held that the fact of prior purchase with knowledge of applicable zoning regulations does not preclude a property owner from challenging the validity of the regulations on constitutional grounds, but does constitute a factor to be considered in evaluating the claims of invalidity. See, e.g., American Nat’l Bank & Trust Co. v. Village of Oak Lawn, 81 Ill.App.3d 952, 36 Ill.Dec. 825, 401 N.E.2d 963 (1979); Ardolino v. Board of Adjustment, 24 N.J. 94, 130 A.2d 847 (1957). See generally 1 R. Anderson, American Law of Zoning § 3.35 (3d ed. 1986). Some courts have concluded that such circumstance prohibits any such challenge. See, e.g., Leach v. North Richland Hills, 627 S.W.2d 854 (Tex.Ct.App.1982) (applicant lacks standing); Acker v. Baldwin, 18 Cal.2d 341, 115 P.2d 455 (1941) (applicant es-topped); Convent of Sisters of St. Joseph v. Winston-Salem, 243 N.C. 316, 90 S.E.2d 879 (1956) (applicant estopped). The principle, whether recognized as an important factor or as a complete bar in zoning litigation, is frequently referred to as the “self-inflicted hardship doctrine.”
Reasons offered in support of the doctrine include the notion that any harm suffered is caused by the purchaser’s conduct rather than by the government’s initial adoption of the regulation, Salsbery v. District of Columbia Bd. of Zoning, 357 A.2d 402 (D.C.App.1976) (hardship stemmed from petitioner’s contracting to purchase the property, without conditioning the contract on the securing of a variance); the conclusion that the lapse of time coupled with knowledge constitutes laches or estop-pel, Appeal of McClure, 415 Pa. 285, 203 A.2d 534 (1964) (bank purchased land despite knowledge that it was not zoned for bank use and was estopped to show unnecessary hardship); the suggestion that the right to challenge the regulations was a personal right of the prior owner and was not transferred, Majestic Heights Co. v. Board of County Commissioners, 173 Colo. 178, 476 P.2d 745 (1970) (action for damages is personal to the property owner suffering the taking unless specifically assigned to a subsequent purchaser of property); and that because the purchase price reflected the true value of the property as zoned, any change would create a windfall profit to the owner. See County of Ada v. Henry, 105 Idaho 263, 668 P.2d 994 (1983) (landowner’s expectation of realizing greater profit was unreasonable because land was acquired subject to challenged ordinance). See 3 A. Rathkopf & D. Rathkopf, The Law of Zoning and Planning § 38.06 (1988); Reynolds, Self-Induced Hardship in Zoning Variances: Does a Purchaser Have No One But Himself to Blame?, Urb.Law 1, 13-17 (1988).
Questions concerning the extent and effect of the self-inflicted hardship doctrine usually arise when the subsequent owner requests an administrative body to grant a variance from the regulation or to rezone the property. In such cases, the owner must demonstrate that the requested change is necessary to alleviate direct and personal hardship suffered as a result of the current regulatory pattern. See, e.g., § 30-28-118(2)(c), 12A C.R.S. (1986). In this context, application of the self-inflicted hardship doctrine reflects the basic economic assumption that the purchase price of a piece of property reflects its reasonable market value. The doctrine also reflects the principle that a purchaser of property subject to zoning regulations which simply restrict the potential economically viable uses of the property must be deemed to know that such regulations reduce the value, and hence the cost, of such property. See generally 1 R. Anderson, American Law of Zoning § 3.35 (3d ed. 1986). The owner’s desire to obtain a variance or a rezoning can be viewed as primarily if not completely reflecting a purely speculative interest; the owner took a calculated risk at the time of purchase in the hope of increasing the value of the investment. See Nopro Co. v. Town of Cherry Hills Village, 180 Colo. 217, 227, 504 P.2d 344, 349 (1972). Courts have not encouraged the use of zoning procedures to obtain windfall profits.
However, other important principles must be acknowledged when the validity of extant zoning regulations is questioned on constitutional grounds. Among the attributes of property ownership is the right in general to use it as the owner desires, subject only to valid governmental regulation. Jones v. Board of Adjustment, 119 Colo. 420, 427, 204 P.2d 560, 564 (1949). Because an invalid zoning regulation cannot be imposed upon that incident of ownership, an owner should not be barred in all circumstances from establishing such invalidity simply because the property was purchased with knowledge of the existence of the regulation.
It is true that some courts have indicated that the self-inflicted hardship doctrine bars even a procedural due process challenge to zoning regulations. Walker v. Biloxi, 229 Miss. 890, 92 So.2d 227 (1957); Taylor v. Schlemmer, 353 Mo. 687, 183 S.W.2d 913 (1944). However, when an owner asserts that a zoning regulation is constitutionally invalid either facially or as applied under substantive due process or takings tests, it appears that the owner’s particular economic interest is no longer the focus of the proceeding. Rather, the efficacy of the governmental act itself seems to become the primary issue of the inquiry. Thus, in substantive due process challenges to zoning regulations, the question is whether the regulation is rationally related to a legitimate governmental interest. See, e.g., Schad v. Borough of Mount Ephraim, 452 U.S. 61, 101 S.Ct. 2176, 68 L.Ed.2d 671 (1981); Sellon v. City of Manitou Springs, 745 P.2d 229 (Colo.1987). Similarly, when the argument is advanced, as in this case, that the zoning regulations effect a taking of property by depriving the owner of all reasonable beneficial use thereof, the emphasis is on the absence of any economic use of the property rather than on whether the owner has suffered hardship because potentially more profitable uses are prohibited. E.g., Andrus v. Allard, 444 U.S. 51, 100 S.Ct. 318, 62 L.Ed.2d 210 (1979); Penn Central Transp. Co. v. New York City, 438 U.S. 104, 98 S.Ct. 2646, 57 L.Ed.2d 631 (1978). See generally 1 A. Rathkopf & D. Rathkopf, The Law of Zoning and Planning § 6.07[5] (1988). Whatever particular rationale is used to explain the self-inflicted hardship doctrine, it is not well suited to cases in which the owner directly challenges the validity of the ordinance on constitutional grounds.
The suggestion that in takings cases the focus shifts from the economic interest of the owner to the efficacy of the zoning regulation is reflected in the recent decision of the United States Supreme Court in Nollan v. California Coastal Commission, — U.S. -, 107 S.Ct. 3141, 97 L.Ed.2d 677 (1987). In Nollan, the plaintiffs purchased beachfront property after the California Coastal Commission initiated a policy requiring owners of such property to grant an easement to the public for access to the ocean shore as a condition of obtaining any rebuilding permit. In reversing a California Court of Appeal decision upholding an administrative denial of the owner’s request for a permit, the Supreme Court concluded that the easement requirement did not substantially advance any legitimate state interest. The Court also observed that “[s]o long as the Commission could not have deprived the prior owners of the easement without compensating them, the prior owners must be understood to have transferred their full property rights in conveying the lot.” Id., 107 S.Ct. at 3146 n. 2.
Nollan did not specifically address the self-inflicted hardship doctrine. Although the plaintiffs in Nollan purchased the property with knowledge of the Coastal Commission’s policy, the purchase agreement was executory at the time the suit was filed and the previous owners had not yet been divested of title to the property. Furthermore, the plaintiffs in Nollan did not file an inverse condemnation claim for damages. Nevertheless, the Nollan decision does indicate that an owner who purchases property with knowledge of applicable restrictive zoning regulations is not barred by reason of that fact from asserting a constitutional challenge to the validity of the ordinance.
Prior decisions of this court have not established that the self-inflicted hardship doctrine serves as a bar to all constitutional challenges of the validity of zoning ordinances. In Levy v. Board of Adjustment, 149 Colo. 493, 369 P.2d 991 (1962), this court initially explored the self-inflicted hardship doctrine in the context of an owner’s challenge to an administrative denial of a request for a variance. While declining to decide whether the doctrine constitutes an absolute bar to any efforts to obtain a variance from applicable zoning regulations, we noted that it was a factor tending to support a decision denying the request. No constitutional issues were raised in Levy.
We next alluded to the doctrine in the course of affirming an administrative denial of a rezoning application in Nirk v. City of Colorado Springs, 174 Colo. 273, 278, 483 P.2d 371, 378 (1971). We again noted that the purchase of property with knowledge of an extant zoning restriction constitutes self-inflicted hardship which is at the very least a highly significant fact weighing heavily against the owner’s efforts to change the zoning classification. In Nopro Co. v. Town of Cherry Hills Village, 180 Colo, at 227, 504 P.2d at 349, we reversed a determination by the trial court that an owner who had purchased the property with knowledge of extant zoning provisions had demonstrated sufficient hardship to establish his request for rezoning. In so doing, we observed that any hardship was self-inflicted because the owner had purchased the property with knowledge of zoning regulations which prevented maximum profitability of property. Having concluded that some economic use of the property was permitted by the challenged ordinance, we observed that the owner had no constitutional right to obtain maximum profits from the investment. See also Ford Leasing Dev. Co. v. Board of County Comm’rs, 186 Colo. 418, 427, 528 P.2d 237, 241 (1974); Madis v. Higginson, 164 Colo. 320, 434 P.2d 705 (1967). Finally, in Collopy v. Wildlife Commission, 625 P.2d 994 (Colo.1981), we suggested that a purchaser of property closed to goose hunting pursu ant to state regulation was not entitled to compensation for his inability to rent goose pits to hunters because any reduction in potential income would constitute self-inflicted hardship. Id. at 1000 n. 14. Although these cases recognize the vitality of the self-inflicted hardship doctrine, none of them declared that the doctrine prohibited an owner from challenging the validity of zoning regulations on a takings basis.
In this case, the applicants argue that the self-inflicted hardship doctrine is inapplicable to a challenge to the validity of zoning regulations on the ground that as applied they constitute a taking of property. We agree, and therefore note our disagreement with those statements in the Court of Appeals opinion suggesting that a property owner seeking to challenge a zoning regulation on the ground that it effects an unconstitutional taking of property by denying all reasonable economic use thereof may not assert such claim if the owner purchased the property subsequent to the effective date of the challenged regulation. In our view, while that fact may be relevant to the determination of whether the regulation in fact prohibits all reasonable economic use of the property, it would not prohibit the owner from challenging the validity of the regulation on the ground that it effects a taking without just compensation. A contrary rule might encourage the adoption of overly restrictive zoning regulations. The self-inflicted hardship doctrine cannot serve to insulate a zoning regulation that offends constitutional standards prohibiting the governmental taking of private property without just compensation from legitimate challenge by a property owner.
IV
The judgment of the Court of Appeals is affirmed insofar as it is based on the conclusion that the applicants were not deprived of all reasonable economic use of their property. We disavow that portion of the opinion that suggests the self-inflicted hardship doctrine invariably prevents an owner who purchased property with knowledge of applicable zoning regulations from subsequently attacking the validity of those regulations on the ground that they effect an unconstitutional taking of the property.
JUDGMENT AFFIRMED.
. In addition to the C.R.C.P. 106 claim for judicial review, the complaint contained six claims for damages and declaratory relief, summarized as follows:
(1) Knowing, intentional and bad faith denial by the Board and the Commissioners of federal constitutional guarantees of equal protection of the laws;
(2) deprivation by the Board, the Commissioners and the State of all reasonable use of the property, in conjunction with the Preservation Act, resulting in a taking of the property without compensation in violation of article II, sections 3, 15 and 25 of the Colorado Constitution and the fifth and fourteenth amendments to the United States Constitution;
(3) deprivation by the Board and the Commissioners of federal and state due process guarantees by the application of inadequate standards;
(4) deprivation by the Board and the Commissioners of federal and state due process guarantees by entirely excluding mining as a use by right in the county;
cs) deprivation by the Board and the Commissioners of federal and state due process guarantees by arbitrary and capricious consideration of impermissible grounds of decision; and
(6) violation by the Board and the Commissioners of federal and state constitutional guarantees of due process of law and equal protection of the laws, in violation of 42 U.S. C. § 1983 (1980).
Although the district court ultimately dismissed all seven claims, the applicants appealed the dismissal of the six claims above. The only issues before this court in this certiorari proceeding relate to portions of the Court of Appeals opinion affirming the district court’s dismissal of the applicants’ second and fourth claims.
. The district court expressly stated that its ruling was made pursuant to C.R.C.P. 12(b). Moreover, because no evidence was presented to the Board or the district court respecting whether there were any reasonable uses of the property other than mining, it cannot be con- eluded that the court may have properly treated the 12(b) motion to dismiss as a summary judgment motion brought under C.R.C.P. 56.
. The Court of Appeals affirmed the district court ruling that the zoning regulations permitted aggregate mining and therefore did not constitute exclusionary zoning, contrary to the allegations of the applicants’ fourth claim. The propriety of that conclusion is not before us in this certiorari proceeding.
. Inverse condemnation is an action against a government defendant to recover the value of property which has been taken in fact by the government without initiation of eminent domain proceedings pursuant to §§ 38-1-101 to -121, 16A C.R.S. (1982 & 1988 Cum.Supp.). The action is based on the “takings" clause of article II, section 15, of the Colorado Constitution, and is tried as an eminent domain proceeding. Linnebur v. Public Service Co., 716 P.2d 1120 (Colo.1986).
.An award of money damages for temporary takings was permitted by the United States Supreme Court in First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. Los Angeles, — U.S. -, 107 S.Ct. 2378, 96 L.Ed.2d 250 (1987). First English Evangelical, however, did not involve a subsequent purchaser situation.
Courts have invariably denied damages claims by subsequent purchasers with knowledge based on alleged inverse condemnation, but there has been no agreement to the precise basis of this result. E.g., Curtis v. City of Ketchum, 111 Idaho 27, 720 P.2d 210 (1986) (inverse condemnation claim essentially a challenge to the denial of an application and remedy limited to judicial review); Van Duyne v. City of Crest Hill, 136 Ill.App.3d 920, 91 Ill.Dec. 672, 483 N.E.2d 1307 (1985) (factor which barred a successful claim); Claridge v. New Hampshire Wetlands Bd., 125 N.H. 745, 485 A.2d 287 (1984) (purchaser can justify few if any legitimate investment-backed expectations which rise to the level of a constitutionally protected property right); Chokecherry Hills Estates v. Deuel County, 294 N.W.2d 654 (S.D.1980) (purchaser in a weaker position to attack the constitutionality of the ordinance); Lemp v. Town Board, 90 Misc.2d 360, 394 N.Y.S.2d 517 (1977) (purchaser's remedy was invalidation of the ordinance absent some displacement of private ownership, occupation or management).
. Nollan is consistent with Landmark Universal, Inc. v. Pitkin County Bd. of Adjustment, 40 Colo.App. 444, 579 P.2d 1184, cert. denied (1978) (self-inflicted hardship doctrine inapplicable to an owner of residential property seeking a variance on the ground that a zoning ordinance adopted over 13 months prior to his purchase of the property unconstitutionally precluded all reasonable use of the property).
. In Fifth Church v. Pigg & Son, 109 Colo. 103, 122 P.2d 887 (1942), prior to our decision in Levy, this court affirmed a denial of an owner’s request for a declaratory judgment declaring its property improperly zoned in an action brought nine years after the purchase of the property. We noted that one who claims injury from the deprivation of a right must exercise reasonable diligence in protecting that right, and concluded that the plaintiffs long acquiescence upon which others had relied to their detriment barred the belated action. We did not refer to the self-inflicted hardship doctrine in the course of that decision. | [
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] |
"MULLARKEY, Justice.\nPrior to January 1, 1984, the Mountain States Telephone and Telegraph Company (...TRUNCATED) | [-0.052319835871458054,0.003970602992922068,-0.06873800605535507,0.01642754301428795,0.0591753982007(...TRUNCATED) |
"Opinion by\nJudge NEY.\nSubsequent to entering a guilty plea to a charge of felony theft, defendant(...TRUNCATED) | [-0.03136641904711723,-0.03133353963494301,-0.017728520557284355,0.020410725846886635,0.040339544415(...TRUNCATED) |
"Opinion by\nJudge CRISWELL.\nDefendant, Alex Jeffrey Malone, appeals from the fine imposed upon him(...TRUNCATED) | [-0.005546312779188156,0.016318174079060555,-0.02139717899262905,-0.00021645353990606964,0.054275792(...TRUNCATED) |
"Opinion by\nJudge HUME.\nIn this dependency or neglect proceeding, S.C. (maternal aunt) appeals fro(...TRUNCATED) | [-0.05095353722572327,-0.02551445923745632,-0.01429377868771553,-0.01810910925269127,0.0576893016695(...TRUNCATED) |
"Opinion by\nJudge HUME.\nThe issue in this workers’ compensation proceeding is whether a four cen(...TRUNCATED) | [-0.021952448412775993,0.003985642921179533,-0.01208224706351757,0.0009077982977032661,0.04746647551(...TRUNCATED) |
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