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Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter	--- node1.html node1.html --- # Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter Guido van Rossum Dept. AA, CWI, P.O. Box 94079 1090 GB Amsterdam, The Netherlands E-mail: guido@cwi.nl 10 April 1995 Release 1.2 Copyright © 1991-1995 by Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All Rights Reserved Permiss...	1.2	4,322	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/ext.html
Footnotes	guido@cwi.nl	1.2	12	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/footnode.html
Contents	--- node2.html ext.html ext.html --- ## Contents - Extending Python with C or C++ code (node2.html#SECTION00200000000000000000) - Introduction (node3.html#SECTION00210000000000000000) A Simple Example (node4.html#SECTION00220000000000000000) Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions (node5.html#SECTION00230000000000000000) Bac...	1.2	2,049	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node1.html
Format Strings for PyArg_ParseTuple()	--- node11.html node2.html node9.html node1.html --- # Format Strings for PyArg_ParseTuple() The `PyArg_ParseTuple()` function is declared as follows: ```text int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject arg, char format, ...); ``` The arg argument must be a tuple object containing an argument list passed from Python to a C functio...	1.2	3,043	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node10.html
The Py_BuildValue() Function	--- node12.html node2.html node10.html node1.html --- # The Py_BuildValue() Function This function is the counterpart to `PyArg_ParseTuple()`. It is declared as follows: ```text PyObject Py_BuildValue(char format, ...); ``` It recognizes a set of format units similar to the ones recognized by `PyArg_ParseTuple()`, bu...	1.2	2,303	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node11.html
Reference Counts	--- node13.html node2.html node11.html node1.html --- # Reference Counts --- - Introduction (node13.html#SECTION002101000000000000000) Reference Counting in Python (node14.html#SECTION002102000000000000000) Ownership Rules (node15.html#SECTION002103000000000000000) Thin Ice (node16.html#SECTION002104000000000000000) NU...	1.2	391	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node12.html
Introduction	--- node14.html node12.html node12.html node1.html --- ## Introduction In languages like C or C++, the programmer is responsible for dynamic allocation and deallocation of memory on the heap. In C, this is done using the functions `malloc()` and `free()`. In C++, the operators `new` and `delete` are used with essential...	1.2	3,401	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node13.html
Reference Counting in Python	--- node15.html node12.html node13.html node1.html --- ## Reference Counting in Python There are two macros, `Py_INCREF(x)` and `Py_DECREF(x)`, which handle the incrementing and decrementing of the reference count. `Py_DECREF()` also frees the object when the count reaches zero. For flexibility, it doesn't call `free()...	1.2	2,349	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node14.html
Ownership Rules	--- node16.html node12.html node14.html node1.html --- ## Ownership Rules Whenever an object reference is passed into or out of a function, it is part of the function's interface specification whether ownership is transferred with the reference or not. Most functions that return a reference to an object pass on ownersh...	1.2	2,417	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node15.html
Thin Ice	--- node17.html node12.html node15.html node1.html --- ## Thin Ice There are a few situations where seemingly harmless use of a borrowed reference can lead to problems. These all have to do with implicit invocations of the interpreter, which can cause the owner of a reference to dispose of it. The first and most import...	1.2	3,056	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node16.html
NULL Pointers	--- node18.html node12.html node16.html node1.html --- ## NULL Pointers In general, functions that take object references as arguments don't expect you to pass them `NULL` pointers, and will dump core (or cause later core dumps) if you do so. Functions that return object references generally return `NULL` only to indic...	1.2	1,527	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node17.html
Writing Extensions in C++	--- node19.html node2.html node17.html node1.html --- # Writing Extensions in C++ It is possible to write extension modules in C++. Some restrictions apply: since the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and linked by the C compiler, global or static objects with constructors cannot be used. All functions ...	1.2	755	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node18.html
Embedding Python in another application	--- node20.html ext.html node18.html node1.html --- # Embedding Python in another application Embedding Python is similar to extending it, but not quite. The difference is that when you extend Python, the main program of the application is still the Python interpreter, while if you embed Python, the main program may ha...	1.2	1,367	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node19.html
Extending Python with C or C++ code	--- node3.html ext.html node1.html node1.html --- # Extending Python with C or C++ code --- - Introduction (node3.html#SECTION00210000000000000000) A Simple Example (node4.html#SECTION00220000000000000000) Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions (node5.html#SECTION00230000000000000000) Back to the Example (node6.html#SECTION...	1.2	1,169	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node2.html
Embedding Python in C++	--- node21.html node19.html node19.html node1.html --- # Embedding Python in C++ It is also possible to embed Python in a C++ program; precisely how this is done will depend on the details of the C++ system used; in general you will need to write the main program in C++, and use the C++ compiler to compile and link you...	1.2	402	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node20.html
Dynamic Loading	--- node22.html ext.html node20.html node1.html --- # Dynamic Loading On most modern systems it is possible to configure Python to support dynamic loading of extension modules implemented in C. When shared libraries are used dynamic loading is configured automatically; otherwise you have to select it as a build option ...	1.2	1,832	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node21.html
Configuring and Building the Interpreter for Dynamic Loading	--- node23.html node21.html node21.html node1.html --- # Configuring and Building the Interpreter for Dynamic Loading There are three styles of dynamic loading: one using shared libraries, one using SGI IRIX 4 dynamic loading, and one using GNU dynamic loading. --- - Shared Libraries (node23.html#SECTION004110000000000...	1.2	474	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node22.html
Shared Libraries	--- node24.html node22.html node22.html node1.html --- ## Shared Libraries The following systems support dynamic loading using shared libraries: SunOS 4; Solaris 2; SGI IRIX 5 (but not SGI IRIX 4!); and probably all systems derived from SVR4, or at least those SVR4 derivatives that support shared libraries (are there a...	1.2	551	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node23.html
SGI IRIX 4 Dynamic Loading	--- node25.html node22.html node23.html node1.html --- ## SGI IRIX 4 Dynamic Loading Only SGI IRIX 4 supports dynamic loading of modules using SGI dynamic loading. (SGI IRIX 5 might also support it but it is inferior to using shared libraries so there is no reason to; a small test didn't work right away so I gave up tr...	1.2	993	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node24.html
GNU Dynamic Loading	--- node26.html node22.html node24.html node1.html --- ## GNU Dynamic Loading GNU dynamic loading supports (according to its ``README`' file) the following hardware and software combinations: VAX (Ultrix), Sun 3 (SunOS 3.4 and 4.0), Sparc (SunOS 4.0), Sequent Symmetry (Dynix), and Atari ST. There is no reason to use it...	1.2	1,331	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node25.html
Building a Dynamically Loadable Module	--- node27.html node21.html node25.html node1.html --- # Building a Dynamically Loadable Module Since there are three styles of dynamic loading, there are also three groups of instructions for building a dynamically loadable module. Instructions common for all three styles are given first. Assuming your module is calle...	1.2	1,335	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node26.html
Shared Libraries	--- node28.html node26.html node26.html node1.html --- ## Shared Libraries You must link the `.o' file to produce a shared library. This is done using a special invocation of the Unix loader/linker, ld(1). Unfortunately the invocation differs slightly per system. On SunOS 4, use ```text ld spammodule.o -o spammodule.so...	1.2	878	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node27.html
SGI IRIX 4 Dynamic Loading	--- node29.html node26.html node27.html node1.html --- ## SGI IRIX 4 Dynamic Loading IMPORTANT: You must compile your extension module with the additional C flag `-G0' (or `-G 0'). This instruct the assembler to generate position-independent code. You don't need to link the resulting ``spammodule.o`' file; just copy it...	1.2	1,268	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node28.html
GNU Dynamic Loading	--- node30.html node26.html node28.html node1.html --- ## GNU Dynamic Loading Just copy ``spammodule.o`' into a directory along the Python module search path. If your extension modules uses additional system libraries, you must create a file ``spammodule.libs`' in the same directory as the ``spammodule.o`'. This file s...	1.2	469	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node29.html
Introduction	--- node4.html node2.html node2.html node1.html --- # Introduction It is quite easy to add new built-in modules to Python, if you know how to program in C. Such extension modules can do two things that can't be done directly in Python: they can implement new built-in object types, and they can call C library functions ...	1.2	770	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node3.html
About this document ...	--- ext.html node29.html node1.html --- # About this document ... Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter This document was generated using the LaTeX2HTML (http://cbl.leeds.ac.uk/nikos/tex2html/doc/latex2html/latex2html.html) translator Version 95.1 (Fri Jan 20 1995) Copyright © 1993, 1994, Nikos Drakos (http://...	1.2	605	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node30.html
A Simple Example	--- node5.html node2.html node3.html node1.html --- # A Simple Example Let's create an extension module called `spam' (the favorite food of Monty Python fans...) and let's say we want to create a Python interface to the C library function `system()`.footnode.html#522 This function takes a null-terminated character stri...	1.2	3,349	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node4.html
Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions	--- node6.html node2.html node4.html node1.html --- # Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions An important convention throughout the Python interpreter is the following: when a function fails, it should set an exception condition and return an error value (usually a `NULL` pointer). Exceptions are stored in a static global v...	1.2	5,544	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node5.html
Back to the Example	--- node7.html node2.html node5.html node1.html --- # Back to the Example Going back to our example function, you should now be able to understand this statement: ```text if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command)) return NULL; ``` It returns `NULL` (the error indicator for functions returning object pointers) if an er...	1.2	1,739	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node6.html
The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function	--- node8.html node2.html node6.html node1.html --- # The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function I promised to show how `spam_system()` is called from Python programs. First, we need to list its name and address in a ``method table'': ```text static PyMethodDef SpamMethods[] = { ... {"system", spam_system, 1...	1.2	1,476	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node7.html
Compilation and Linkage	--- node9.html node2.html node7.html node1.html --- # Compilation and Linkage There are two more things to do before you can use your new extension: compiling and linking it with the Python system. If you use dynamic loading, the details depend on the style of dynamic loading your system uses; see the chapter on Dynami...	1.2	1,213	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node8.html
Calling Python Functions From C	--- node10.html node2.html node8.html node1.html --- # Calling Python Functions From C So far we have concentrated on making C functions callable from Python. The reverse is also useful: calling Python functions from C. This is especially the case for libraries that support so-called ``callback'' functions. If a C inte...	1.2	4,996	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-ext/node9.html
__builtin__ -- Python library reference	__builtin__ -- Python library reference Prev: imp (imp.html) Top: Top (top.html) # 3.9. Built-in Module `__builtin__` This module provides direct access to all `built-in' identifiers of Python; e.g. `__builtin__.open` is the full name for the built-in function `open`. See the section on Built-in Functions in the previ...	1.2	332	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-lib/__builtin__.html
__main__ -- Python library reference	__main__ -- Python library reference Prev: __builtin__ (__builtin__.html) Top: Top (top.html) # 3.10. Built-in Module `__main__` This module represents the (otherwise anonymous) scope in which the interpreter's main program executes --- commands read either from standard input or from a script file.	1.2	300	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-lib/__main__.html
aifc -- Python library reference	aifc -- Python library reference Prev: imageop (imageop.html) Top: Top (top.html) # 12.3. Standard Module `aifc` This module provides support for reading and writing AIFF and AIFF-C files. AIFF is Audio Interchange File Format, a format for storing digital audio samples in a file. AIFF-C is a newer version of the for...	1.2	1,623	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-lib/aifc.html
al -- Python library reference	al -- Python library reference Prev: SGI IRIX Specific Services (sgi_irix_specific_services.html) Top: Top (top.html) # 16.1. Built-in Module `al` This module provides access to the audio facilities of the SGI Indy and Indigo workstations. See section 3A of the IRIX man pages for details. You'll need to read those ma...	1.2	1,222	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-lib/al.html
AL (uppercase) -- Python library reference	AL (uppercase) -- Python library reference Prev: al (al.html) Top: Top (top.html) # 16.2. Standard Module `AL` This module defines symbolic constants needed to use the built-in module `al` (see above); they are equivalent to those defined in the C header file <audio.h> except that the name prefix `AL_' is omitted. Rea...	1.2	397	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-lib/al__uppercase_.html
alias objects -- Python library reference	alias objects -- Python library reference Prev: FSSpec objects (fsspec_objects.html) Top: Top (top.html) ## 14.6.2. alias objects Note that it is currently not possible to directly manipulate a resource as an alias object. Hence, after calling Update or after Resolve indicates that the alias has changed the Python prog...	1.2	409	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-lib/alias_objects.html
array -- Python library reference	array -- Python library reference Prev: whrandom (whrandom.html) Top: Top (top.html) # 5.4. Built-in Module `array` This module defines a new object type which can efficiently represent an array of basic values: characters, integers, floating point numbers. Arrays are sequence types and behave very much like lists, ex...	1.2	1,230	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-lib/array.html
Audio Device Objects -- Python library reference	Audio Device Objects -- Python library reference Prev: sunaudiodev (sunaudiodev.html) Top: Top (top.html) ## 17.1.1. Audio Device Objects The audio device objects are returned by `open` define the following methods (except `control` objects which only provide getinfo, setinfo and drain): There is a companion module, `S...	1.2	707	https://docs.python.org/{python_version}/python-lib/audio_device_objects.html