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African-English businessman (d. 2019) 1930 – LaVell Edwards, American football player and coach (d. 2016) 1930 – Sam Johnson, American colonel and politician (d. 2020) 1932 – Saul Friedländer, Israeli historian and author 1932 – Barry Jones, Australian lawyer and politician 1932 – Dottie West, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 1991) 1935 – Dan Evins, American businessman, founded Cracker Barrel Old Country Store (d. 2012) 1935 – Daniel Quinn, American author and environmentalist (d. 2018) 1936 – C. Gordon Fullerton, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut (d. 2013) 1936 – Billy Higgins, American drummer and educator (d. 2001) 1936 – James M. McPherson, American historian and author 1937 – Bobby Charlton, English footballer and manager 1937 – R. H. W. Dillard, American poet, author, and critic 1937 – Ron Leibman, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1938 – Michael Stear, English air marshal (d. 2020) 1939 – Maria Bueno, Brazilian tennis player (d. 2018) 1939 – Austin Currie, Northern Irish lawyer and SDLP politician 1940 – Lucy Morgan, American newspaper reporter 1941 – Lester Bowie, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1999) 1942 – Richard Wilson, Baron Wilson of Dinton, Welsh academic and politician 1942 – Amitabh Bachchan, Indian film actor, producer, television host, and former politician 1943 – Keith Boyce, Barbadian cricketer (d. 1996) 1943 – Michael Harloe, English sociologist and academic 1943 – John Nettles, English actor and writer 1943 – Ilmar Reepalu, Swedish lawyer and politician 1943 – Gene Watson, American singer-songwriter and producer 1944 – Rodney Marsh, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster 1945 – Andrew Logan, English sculptor and painter 1946 – Elinor Goodman, English journalist 1946 – Daryl Hall, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1946 – Sawao Katō, Japanese gymnast 1947 – Thomas Boswell, American journalist and author 1947 – Lucas Papademos, Greek economist and politician, 183rd Prime Minister of Greece 1947 – Alan Pascoe, English hurdler 1948 – David Rendall, English tenor and actor 1948 – Peter Turkson, Ghanaian cardinal 1949 – Henry Luke Orombi, Ugandan archbishop 1949 – Lawrence Tanter, American basketball player and sportscaster 1950 – William R. Forstchen, American historian and author 1950 – Amos Gitai, Israeli director, producer, and author 1950 – Patty Murray, American educator and politician 1951 – Bruce Bartlett, American economist, historian, and author 1951 – Jean-Jacques Goldman, French singer-songwriter and guitarist 1951 – Jon Miller, American sportscaster 1951 – Louise Rennison, English author and comedian (d. 2016) 1951 – Charles Shyer, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1952 – Paulette Carlson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1953 – David Morse, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1954 – David Michaels, American epidemiologist and politician 1954 – Vojislav Šešelj, Serbian lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia 1955 – Norm Nixon, American basketball player and sportscaster 1956 – Nicanor Duarte, Paraguayan lawyer and politician, President of Paraguay 1956 – Derek Ringer, Scottish race car driver 1957 – Francky Dury, Belgian footballer and manager 1957 – Dawn French, Welsh-English actress, comedian and screenwriter 1959 – Wayne Gardner, Australian motorcycle racer 1959 – Allan Little, Scottish journalist and author 1960 – Randy Breuer, American basketball player 1960 – Nicola Bryant, English actress 1960 – Curt Ford, American baseball player and manager 1960 – Gábor Pölöskei, Hungarian footballer and manager 1961 – Neil Buchanan, English guitarist 1961 – Steve Young, American football player and sportscaster 1962 – Joan Cusack, American actress 1962 – Andy McCoy, Finnish musician 1963 – Marcus Graham, Australian actor 1963 – Brian Rice, Scottish footballer and manager 1963 – Ronny Rosenthal, Israeli footballer 1964 – Michael J. Nelson, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1965 – Sean Patrick Flanery, American actor and producer 1965 – Alexander Hacke, German singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1965 – Orlando Hernández, Cuban baseball player 1965 – Volodymyr Horilyi, Ukrainian footballer and coach 1966 – Luke Perry, American actor and producer (d. 2019) 1966 – Todd Snider, American singer-songwriter 1966 – Stephen Williams, Welsh lawyer and politician 1967 – Jay Grdina, American businessman and pornographic actor 1967 – Artie Lange, American actor and comedian 1967 – David Starr, American race car driver 1968 – Jane Krakowski, American actress and singer 1968 – Claude Lapointe, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1968 – Brett Salisbury, American football player and author 1969 – Merieme Chadid, Moroccan astronomer and explorer 1969 – Stephen Moyer, English actor 1969 – Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands 1970 – Chidi Ahanotu, American football player 1970 – Vanessa Harding, American wrestler 1970 – MC Lyte, American rapper, DJ, and actress 1970 – Andy Marriott, English-Welsh footballer and manager 1970 – Shin Tae-yong, South Korean footballer and coach 1971 – Petra Haden, American violinist and singer 1971 – Justin Lin, American film director 1971 – Oleksandr Pomazun, Ukrainian footballer and manager 1972 – Marcus Bai, Papua New Guinean rugby league player 1973 – Brendan B. Brown, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Greg Chalmers, Australian golfer 1973 – Steven Pressley, Scottish footballer and manager 1973 – Niki Xanthou, Greek long jumper 1973 – Dmitri Young, American baseball player and radio host 1974 – Jason Arnott, Canadian ice hockey player 1974 – Rachel Barton Pine, American violinist and educator 1976 – Dominic Aitchison, Scottish bass player and songwriter 1976 – Emily Deschanel, American actress and producer 1977 – Matt Bomer, American actor and producer 1977 – Igor Figueiredo, Brazilian snooker player 1977 – Jérémie Janot, French footballer and manager 1977 – Desmond Mason, American basketball player and sportscaster 1977 – Rhett McLaughlin, American YouTuber 1977 – Ty Wigginton, American baseball player 1978 – Carl Bussey, American soccer player 1978 – Takuya Kawaguchi, Japanese footballer 1979 – Jamar Beasley, American football player 1979 – Andy Douglas, American wrestler 1979 – Kim Yong-dae, South Korean footballer 1980 – Nyron Nosworthy, English-born Jamaican footballer 1982 – Cameron Knowles, New Zealand footballer 1982 – Jeff Larish, American baseball player 1982 – Terrell Suggs, American football player 1982 – Mauricio Victorino, Uruguayan footballer 1984 – Sergio Hellings, Dutch footballer 1984 – Martha MacIsaac, Canadian-American actress, producer, and screenwriter 1984 – Zeb Taia, Australian-New Zealand rugby league player 1984 – Jane Zhang, Chinese singer-songwriter 1985 – Nesta Carter, Jamaican sprinter 1985 – Yang Cheng, Chinese footballer 1985 – Álvaro Fernández, Uruguayan footballer 1985 – Michelle Trachtenberg, American actress 1986 – Ikioi Shōta, Japanese sumo wrestler 1987 – Tony Beltran, American soccer player 1987 – Mike Conley, Jr., American basketball player 1987 – Nathan Coulter-Nile, Australian cricketer 1988 – | Salisbury, American football player and author 1969 – Merieme Chadid, Moroccan astronomer and explorer 1969 – Stephen Moyer, English actor 1969 – Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands 1970 – Chidi Ahanotu, American football player 1970 – Vanessa Harding, American wrestler 1970 – MC Lyte, American rapper, DJ, and actress 1970 – Andy Marriott, English-Welsh footballer and manager 1970 – Shin Tae-yong, South Korean footballer and coach 1971 – Petra Haden, American violinist and singer 1971 – Justin Lin, American film director 1971 – Oleksandr Pomazun, Ukrainian footballer and manager 1972 – Marcus Bai, Papua New Guinean rugby league player 1973 – Brendan B. Brown, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Greg Chalmers, Australian golfer 1973 – Steven Pressley, Scottish footballer and manager 1973 – Niki Xanthou, Greek long jumper 1973 – Dmitri Young, American baseball player and radio host 1974 – Jason Arnott, Canadian ice hockey player 1974 – Rachel Barton Pine, American violinist and educator 1976 – Dominic Aitchison, Scottish bass player and songwriter 1976 – Emily Deschanel, American actress and producer 1977 – Matt Bomer, American actor and producer 1977 – Igor Figueiredo, Brazilian snooker player 1977 – Jérémie Janot, French footballer and manager 1977 – Desmond Mason, American basketball player and sportscaster 1977 – Rhett McLaughlin, American YouTuber 1977 – Ty Wigginton, American baseball player 1978 – Carl Bussey, American soccer player 1978 – Takuya Kawaguchi, Japanese footballer 1979 – Jamar Beasley, American football player 1979 – Andy Douglas, American wrestler 1979 – Kim Yong-dae, South Korean footballer 1980 – Nyron Nosworthy, English-born Jamaican footballer 1982 – Cameron Knowles, New Zealand footballer 1982 – Jeff Larish, American baseball player 1982 – Terrell Suggs, American football player 1982 – Mauricio Victorino, Uruguayan footballer 1984 – Sergio Hellings, Dutch footballer 1984 – Martha MacIsaac, Canadian-American actress, producer, and screenwriter 1984 – Zeb Taia, Australian-New Zealand rugby league player 1984 – Jane Zhang, Chinese singer-songwriter 1985 – Nesta Carter, Jamaican sprinter 1985 – Yang Cheng, Chinese footballer 1985 – Álvaro Fernández, Uruguayan footballer 1985 – Michelle Trachtenberg, American actress 1986 – Ikioi Shōta, Japanese sumo wrestler 1987 – Tony Beltran, American soccer player 1987 – Mike Conley, Jr., American basketball player 1987 – Nathan Coulter-Nile, Australian cricketer 1988 – Omar Gonzalez, American soccer player 1988 – Ricochet, American wrestler 1989 – Michelle Wie, American golfer 1990 – Joo, South Korean singer and actress 1990 – Sebastian Rode, German footballer 1991 – Kika van Es, Dutch footballer 1991 – Toby Fox, American video game developer and composer 1992 – Riffi Mandanda, Congolese footballer 1992 – Ligi Sao, New Zealand rugby league player 1992 – Christian Davis, English cricketer 1992 – Cardi B, American rapper 1993 – Hardik Pandya, Indian cricketer 1994 – Clésio Baúque, Mozambican footballer 1994 – T. J. Watt, American football player 1995 – Nicolás Jarry, Chilean tennis player 2001 – Daniel Maldini, Italian footballer Deaths Pre-1600 965 – Bruno the Great, Archbishop of Cologne (b. 925) 1086 – Sima Guang, Chinese historian and statesman (b. 1019) 1159 – William of Blois, Count of Boulogne and Earl of Surrey (b. c. 1137) 1188 – Robert I, Count of Dreux (b. 1123) 1303 – Pope Boniface VIII (b. 1235) 1347 – Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1282) 1424 – Jan Žižka, Czech general and Hussite leader 1531 – Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss pastor and theologian (b. 1484) 1542 – Thomas Wyatt, English poet and diplomat (born 1503) 1579 – Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, Ottoman politician, 43rd Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1506) 1601–1900 1667 – Mattias de' Medici, Italian noble (b. 1613) 1684 – James Tuchet, 3rd Earl of Castlehaven (b. c. 1617) 1698 – William Molyneux, Irish philosopher and writer (b. 1656) 1705 – Guillaume Amontons, French physicist and instrument maker (b. 1663) 1708 – Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, German mathematician, physicist, physician, and philosopher (b. 1651) 1721 – Edward Colston, English merchant and politician (b. 1636) 1725 – Hans Herr, Swiss-American bishop (b. 1639) 1779 – Casimir Pulaski, Polish-American general (b. 1745) 1809 – Meriwether Lewis, American captain, explorer, and politician, 2nd Governor of Louisiana Territory (b. 1774) 1821 – John Ross Key, American lieutenant, lawyer, and judge (b. 1754) 1837 – Samuel Wesley, English organist and composer (b. 1766) 1852 – Gotthold Eisenstein, German mathematician and academic (b. 1823) 1889 – James Prescott Joule, English physicist and brewer (b. 1818) 1896 – Edward Benson, English archbishop (b. 1829) 1896 – Anton Bruckner, Austrian organist, composer, and educator (b. 1824) 1897 – Léon Boëllmann, French organist and composer (b. 1862) 1901–present 1904 – Mary Tenney Gray, American editorial writer, club-woman, philanthropist, and suffragette (b. 1833) 1908 – Rita Cetina Gutiérrez, Mexican poet, educator, and activist (b. 1846) 1932 – William Alden Smith, American lawyer and politician (b. 1859) 1935 – Steele Rudd, Australian author (b. 1868) 1940 – Vito Volterra, Italian mathematician and physicist (b. 1860) 1941 – Heinrich Gutkin, Estonian businessman and politician (b. 1879) 1941 – Mihkel Pung, Estonian politician, 11th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1876) 1958 – Maurice de Vlaminck, French painter (b. 1876) 1960 – Richard Cromwell, American actor (b. 1910) 1961 – Chico Marx, American comedian (b. 1887) 1963 – Jean Cocteau, French author, poet, and playwright (b. 1889) 1965 – Dorothea Lange, American photographer and journalist (b. 1895) 1965 – Walther Stampfli, Swiss lawyer and politician, 50th President of the Swiss Confederation (b. 1884) 1967 – Stanley Morison, typographer, known for work on Times New Roman font (b. 1889) 1968 – Selim Sarper, Turkish educator and politician, 13th Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1899) 1971 – Tamanoumi Masahiro, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 51st Yokozuna (b. 1944) 1971 – Chesty Puller, American general (b. 1898) 1976 – Alfredo Bracchi, Italian author, screenwriter, and songwriter (b. 1897) 1977 – MacKinlay Kantor, American journalist, author, and screenwriter (b. 1904) 1983 – R. Fraser Armstrong, Canadian administrator and engineer (b. 1889) 1984 – Benno Schotz, Scottish sculptor and engineer (b. 1891) 1986 – Norm Cash, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1934) 1988 – Bonita Granville, American actress (b. 1923) 1989 – M. King Hubbert, American geologist and academic (b. 1904) 1991 – Redd Foxx, American actor and comedian (b. 1922) 1993 – Andy Stewart, Scottish singer and entertainer (b. 1933) 1996 – Keith Boyce, Barbadian cricketer (b. 1943) 1996 – Eleanor Cameron, Canadian-American author and critic (b. 1912) 1996 – Renato Russo, Brazilian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1960) 1996 – Joe Morris, English-Canadian lieutenant and trade union leader (b. 1913) 1998 – Richard Denning, American actor (b. 1914) 1999 – Leo Lionni, Dutch-American author and illustrator (b. 1910) 2000 – Luc-Marie Bayle, French historian, photographer, and painter (b. 1914) 2000 – Donald Dewar, Scottish lawyer and politician, 1st First Minister of Scotland (b. 1937) 2001 – Beni Montresor, Italian director, set designer, and illustrator (b. 1926) 2004 – Keith Miller, Australian cricketer and pilot (b. 1919) 2005 – Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee, Pakistani-Canadian linguist, journalist, and poet (b. 1917) 2005 – Attilâ İlhan, Turkish poet, author, and journalist (b. 1925) 2005 – Edward Szczepanik, Polish economist and politician, Prime Minister of Poland (b. 1915) 2006 – Cory Lidle, American baseball player (b. 1972) 2007 – David Lee "Tex" Hill, South Korean-American general and pilot (b. 1915) 2007 – Werner von Trapp, Austrian-American singer (b. 1915) 2008 – Marjorie Fletcher, English Director of the Women's Royal Naval Service (b. 1932) 2008 – Jörg Haider, Austrian lawyer and politician, Governor of Carinthia (b. 1950) 2008 – Ernst-Paul Hasselbach, Surinamese-Dutch television host and producer (b. 1966) 2008 – Neal Hefti, American trumpet player and composer (b. 1922) 2009 – Angelo DiGeorge, American physician and endocrinologist (b. 1922) 2009 – Halit Refiğ, Turkish director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1934) 2012 – Helmut Haller, German footballer |
under William the Silent. 1572 – Eighty Years' War: Three thousand Spanish soldiers wade through fifteen miles of water in one night to effect the relief of Goes. 1601–1900 1740 – France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony refuse to honour the Pragmatic Sanction, and the War of the Austrian Succession begins. 1774 – American Revolution: The Continental Association, a nonconsumption and nonimportation agreement against the British Isles and the British West Indies, is adopted by the First Continental Congress. 1781 – The Patent of Toleration, providing limited freedom of worship, is approved in Austria. 1803 – The United States Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase. 1818 – The Convention of 1818 is signed between the United States and the United Kingdom, which settles the Canada–United States border on the 49th parallel for most of its length. 1827 – Greek War of Independence: In the Battle of Navarino, a combined Turkish and Egyptian fleet is defeated by British, French and Russian naval forces in the last significant battle fought with wooden sailing ships. 1883 – Peru and Chile sign the Treaty of Ancón, by which the Tarapacá province is ceded to the latter, bringing an end to Peru's involvement in the War of the Pacific. 1901–present 1904 – Chile and Bolivia sign the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, delimiting the border between the two countries. 1935 – The Long March, a mammoth retreat undertaken by the armed forces of the Chinese Communist Party a year prior, ends. 1941 – World War II: Thousands of civilians in German-occupied Serbia are murdered in the Kragujevac massacre. 1944 – World War II: The Soviet Red Army and Yugoslav Partisans liberate Belgrade. 1944 – Liquefied natural gas leaks from storage tanks in Cleveland and then explodes, leveling 30 blocks and killing 130 people. 1944 – American general Douglas MacArthur fulfills his promise to return to the Philippines when he comes ashore during the Battle of Leyte. 1947 – Cold War: The House Un-American Activities Committee begins its investigation into Communist infiltration of the Hollywood film industry, resulting in a blacklist that prevents some from working in the industry for years. 1951 – The "Johnny Bright incident" occurs during a football game between the Drake Bulldogs and Oklahoma A&M Aggies. 1952 – The Governor of Kenya Evelyn Baring declares a state of emergency and begins arresting hundreds of suspected leaders of the Mau Mau Uprising. 1961 – The Soviet Navy performs the first armed test of a submarine-launched ballistic missile, launching an R-13 from a Golf-class submarine. 1962 – China launches simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line, igniting the Sino-Indian War. 1973 – Watergate scandal: "Saturday Night Massacre": United States President Richard Nixon fires U.S. Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus after they refuse to fire special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who is finally fired by Solicitor General Robert Bork. 1973 – The Sydney Opera House is opened by Elizabeth II after 14 years of construction. 1976 – The Luling–Destrehan Ferry MV George Prince is struck by the Norwegian freighter SS Frosta while crossing the Mississippi River in St. Charles Parish, Louisiana. Seventy-eight passengers and crew die, and only 18 people aboard the ferry survive. 1977 – A plane carrying the rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd crashes in woodland in Mississippi, United States. Six people, including three band members, are killed. 1981 – Two police officers and a Brink's armored car guard are killed during an armed robbery carried out by members of the Black Liberation Army and Weather Underground in Nanuet, New York. 1982 – During the UEFA Cup match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem, 66 people are crushed to death in the Luzhniki disaster. 1986 – Aeroflot Flight 6502 crashes while landing at Kuibyshev Airport (now Kuromoch International Airport) in Kuibyshev (now present-day Samara, Russia), killing 70 people. 1991 – A 6.8 Mw earthquake strikes the Uttarkashi region of India, killing more than 1,000 people. 1991 – A massive firestorm breaks out in the hills of Oakland and Berkeley, California killing 25 people and destroying more than 3,000 homes, apartments and condominiums. 2003 – The Sloan Great Wall, once the largest cosmic structure known to humanity, is discovered by students at Princeton University. 2011 – Libyan Crisis: Rebel forces capture Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi and his son Mutassim in his hometown of Sirte and kill him shortly thereafter, ending the first Libyan civil war. 2017 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) declare victory in the Raqqa campaign. Births Pre-1600 888 – Zhu Youzhen, emperor of Later Liang (d. 923) 1475 – Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai, Italian poet and playwright (d. 1525) 1496 – Claude, Duke of Guise (d. 1550) 1554 – Bálint Balassi, Hungarian writer and noble (d. 1594) 1601–1900 1612 – Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Burlington, Anglo-Irish nobleman, Lord High Treasurer of Ireland, Cavalier (d. 1698) 1616 – Thomas Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (d. 1680) 1620 – Aelbert Cuyp, Dutch painter (d. 1691) 1632 – Christopher Wren, English physicist, mathematician, and architect, designed St Paul's Cathedral (d. 1723) 1632 – Edward Hungerford, English politician (d. 1711) 1660 – Robert Bertie, 1st Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (d. 1723) 1677 – Stanisław Leszczyński, King of Poland (d. 1766) 1711 – Timothy Ruggles, American lawyer, jurist, and politician, (d. 1795) 1718 – Catherine Gordon, Duchess of Gordon, Scottish aristocrat (d. 1779) 1719 – Gottfried Achenwall, German historian, economist, and jurist (d. 1772) 1740 – Isabelle de Charrière, Dutch author and poet (d. 1805) 1759 – Chauncey Goodrich, American lawyer and politician, 8th Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (d. 1815) 1780 – Pauline Bonaparte, French sister of Napoleon (d. 1825) 1784 – Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1865) 1785 – George Ormerod, English historian and author (d. 1873) 1790 – Patrick Matthew. Scottish farmer and biologist (d. 1874) 1801 – Melchior Berri, Swiss architect and educator, designed the Natural History Museum of Basel (d. 1854) 1808 – Karl Andree, German geographer and journalist (d. 1875) 1819 – Báb, Iranian religious leader, founded Bábism (d. 1850) 1822 – Thomas Hughes, English lawyer and judge (d. 1896) 1832 – Constantin Lipsius, German architect and theorist (d. 1894) 1847 – Frits Thaulow, Norwegian painter (d. 1906) 1854 – Arthur Rimbaud, French soldier and poet (d. 1891) 1858 – John Burns, English union leader and politician, President of the Board of Trade (d. 1943) 1859 – John Dewey, American psychologist and philosopher (d. 1952) 1864 – James F. Hinkle, American banker and politician, 6th Governor of New Mexico (d. 1951) 1874 – Charles Ives, American composer (d. 1954) 1882 – Margaret Dumont, American actress (d. 1965) 1882 – Bela Lugosi, Hungarian-American actor (d. 1956) 1887 – Prince Yasuhiko Asaka of Japan (d. 1981) 1889 – Johann Gruber, Austrian priest and saint (d. 1944) 1890 – Aleksander Maaker, Estonian bagpipe player (d. 1968) 1891 – Samuel Flagg Bemis, American historian and author (d. 1973) 1891 – James Chadwick, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974) 1893 – Charley Chase, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1940) 1894 – Olive Thomas, American model and actress (d. 1920) 1895 – Rex Ingram, American actor (d. 1969) 1895 – Morrie Ryskind, American writer/director (d. 1985) 1897 – Yi Un, South Korean general (d. 1970) 1900 – Ismail al-Azhari, Sudanese politician, 3rd President of Sudan (d. 1969) 1900 – Wayne Morse, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician (d. 1974) 1901–present 1901 – Frank Churchill, American film composer (d. 1942) 1901 – Adelaide Hall, American-English singer, actress, and dancer (d. 1993) 1904 – Tommy Douglas, Scottish-Canadian minister and politician, 7th Premier of Saskatchewan (d. 1986) 1904 – Enolia McMillan, American educator and activist (d. 2006) 1904 – Anna Neagle, English actress, singer, and producer (d. 1986) 1907 – Arlene Francis, American actress and television personality (d. 2001) 1908 – Stuart Hamblen, American singer-songwriter, actor, and radio show host (d. 1989) 1909 – Carla Laemmle, American actress and photographer (d. 2014) 1909 – Yasushi Sugiyama, Japanese painter (d. 1993) 1910 – Chen Liting, Chinese director and playwright (d. 2013) 1912 – Ruhi Su, Turkish singer-songwriter (d. 1985) 1913 – Grandpa Jones, American singer-songwriter and banjo player (d. 1998) 1914 – Fayard Nicholas, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (d. 2006) 1917 – Stéphane Hessel, German-French activist and diplomat (d. 2013) 1917 – Jean-Pierre Melville, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1973) 1918 – Martin Drewes, German soldier and pilot (d. 2013) | American actor (d. 2003) 1942 – Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, German biologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate 1942 – Bart Zoet, Dutch cyclist (d. 1992) 1943 – Dunja Vejzović, Croatian soprano and actress 1944 – Nalin de Silva, Sri Lankan physicist and philosopher 1944 – David Mancuso, American party planner, created The Loft (d. 2016) 1945 – Ric Lee, English drummer 1946 – Diana Gittins, American-English sociologist, author, and academic 1946 – Lewis Grizzard, American comedian and author (d. 1994) 1946 – Elfriede Jelinek, Austrian author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate 1946 – Richard Loncraine, English director and screenwriter 1946 – Lucien Van Impe, Belgian cyclist 1946 – Chris Woodhead, English civil servant and academic (d. 2015) 1948 – Peter Combe, Australian entertainer 1948 – Sandra Dickinson, American-English actress and composer 1948 – Piet Hein Donner, Dutch jurist and politician, Dutch Minister of Justice 1948 – Melih Gökçek, Turkish journalist and politician, Mayor of Ankara 1949 – Valeriy Borzov, Ukrainian-Russian sprinter 1950 – Tom Petty, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2017) 1950 – William Russ, American actor and director 1951 – Al Greenwood, American keyboard player 1951 – Patrick Hall, English lawyer and politician 1951 – Ken Ham, Australian-American evangelist 1951 – Leif Pagrotsky, Swedish businessman and politician 1951 – Claudio Ranieri, Italian footballer and manager 1952 – Melanie Mayron, American actress and director 1952 – Derek Ridgers, English photographer and art director 1952 – Wilma Josefina Salgado, Ecuadorian politician and economist 1953 – Keith Hernandez, American baseball player and sportscaster 1953 – Richard McWilliam, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded the Upper Deck Company (d. 2013) 1953 – Bill Nunn, American actor (d. 2016) 1954 – Steve Orich, American composer and conductor 1955 – Thomas Newman, American composer and conductor 1955 – David Profumo, English author and academic 1955 – Aaron Pryor, American boxer (d. 2016) 1955 – Sheldon Whitehouse, American politician 1956 – Danny Boyle, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1956 – Martin Taylor, English guitarist 1957 – Jane Bonham-Carter, Baroness Bonham-Carter of Yarnbury, English politician 1957 – Chris Cowdrey, English cricketer and sportscaster 1957 – Hilda Solis, American academic and politician, 25th United States Secretary of Labor 1958 – Valerie Faris, American director and producer 1958 – Lynn Flewelling, American author and academic 1958 – Scott Hall, American wrestler 1958 – Mark King, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1958 – Dave Krieg, American football player 1958 – Viggo Mortensen, American-Danish actor and producer 1959 – Mark Little, Australian comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1960 – Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player and trainer (d. 2004) 1961 – Audun Kleive, Norwegian drummer and composer 1961 – Kate Mosse, English author and playwright 1961 – Ian Rush, Welsh footballer and manager 1961 – Les Stroud, Canadian director, producer, and harmonica player 1961 – Michie Tomizawa, Japanese voice actress and singer 1962 – David M. Evans, American director and screenwriter 1962 – Dave Wong, Hong Kong-Taiwanese singer-songwriter and actor 1963 – Julie Payette, Canadian engineer and astronaut 1963 – Nikos Tsiantakis, Greek footballer 1963 – Stan Valckx, Dutch footballer and manager 1964 – Kamala Harris, American politician and lawyer, 49th Vice President of the United States 1964 – Tomoko Yamaguchi, Japanese actress and singer 1965 – Norman Blake, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – Jonathan I. Schwartz, American businessman 1965 – Mikhail Shtalenkov, Russian ice hockey player 1965 – William Zabka, American actor and producer 1966 – Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, Jordanian militant Islamist (d. 2006) 1966 – Allan Donald, South African cricketer and coach 1966 – Patrick Volkerding, American computer scientist and engineer, founded Slackware 1967 – Elizabeth Carling, English actress and singer 1967 – Kerrod Walters, Australian rugby league player 1967 – Kevin Walters, Australian rugby league player and coach 1968 – Susan Tully, English actress, director, and producer 1969 – Laurie Daley, Australian rugby league player and coach 1969 – Juan González, Puerto Rican-American baseball player 1969 – Labros Papakostas, Greek high jumper 1970 – Sander Boschker, Dutch footballer 1970 – Neil Heywood, English-Chinese businessman (d. 2011) 1970 – Aapo Ilves, Estonian poet and illustrator 1970 – Michelle Malkin, American blogger and author 1971 – Snoop Dogg, American rapper, producer, and actor 1971 – Eddie Jones, American basketball player 1971 – Kamiel Maase, Dutch runner 1971 – Dannii Minogue, Australian singer-songwriter and actress 1972 – Pie Geelen, Dutch swimmer 1972 – Will Greenwood, English rugby player and sportscaster 1972 – Brian Schatz, American academic and politician, 11th Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii 1974 – Bashar Rahal, Emirati-American actor and producer 1974 – Brian Limond, Scottish comedian and writer 1974 – Ed Hale, American singer-songwriter, writer and socio-political activist 1976 – Nikolaos Bacharidis, Greek footballer 1976 – Dan Fogler, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1976 – Nicola Legrottaglie, Italian footballer and manager 1977 – Matt Jansen, English footballer and manager 1977 – Leila Josefowicz, Canadian-American violinist 1977 – Erko Saviauk, Estonian footballer 1977 – Sam Witwer, American actor and musician 1978 – Virender Sehwag, Indian cricketer 1978 – Paul Wilson, Scottish bass player and songwriter 1979 – Vasyl Baranov, Ukrainian footballer 1979 – Paul Ifill, English footballer 1979 – John Krasinski, American actor, director, and producer 1979 – Paul O'Connell, Irish rugby player 1979 – Paul Terek, American decathlete 1980 – Chad Robinson, Australian rugby league player (d. 2016) 1980 – José Veras, Dominican baseball player 1981 – Dimitris Papadopoulos, Greek footballer 1981 – Francisco Javier Rodríguez, Mexican footballer 1982 – Kristian Bak Nielsen, Danish footballer 1982 – Becky Brewerton, Welsh golfer 1983 – Flavio Cipolla, Italian tennis player 1983 – Luis Saritama, Ecuadorian footballer 1983 – Michel Vorm, Dutch footballer 1984 – Mitch Lucker, American singer-songwriter (d. 2012) 1984 – Florent Sinama Pongolle, French footballer 1984 – Andrew Trimble, Irish rugby player 1985 – Dominic McGuire, American basketball player 1985 – Alphonso Smith, American football player 1985 – James Sutton, English race car driver 1986 – Wanlop Saechio, Thai footballer 1986 – Elyse Taylor, Australian model 1987 – Raphael Hackl, German rugby player 1988 – Candice Swanepoel, South African supermodel and philanthropist 1989 – Jess Glynne, English singer-songwriter 1990 – Sam Mataora, Cook Islands rugby league player 1992 – Ksenia Semyonova, Russian gymnast 1992 – Ferhat Yazgan, Turkish footballer 1996 – Anthony Sinisuka Ginting, Indonesian badminton player 1998 – Jordan Ridley, Australian rules footballer 1999 – Chuu, South Korean singer and television personality Deaths Pre-1600 460 – Aelia Eudocia, Byzantine wife of Theodosius II (b. 401) 967 – Li Yixing, Chinese governor 1122 – Ralph d'Escures, archbishop of Canterbury 1139 – Henry X, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1108) 1187 – Pope Urban III 1327 – Teresa d'Entença, Countess of Urgell (b. 1300) 1401 – Klaus Störtebeker, German pirate 1423 – Henry Bowet, Archbishop of York 1439 – Ambrose the Camaldulian, Italian theologian 1438 – Jacopo della Quercia, Sienese sculptor (b. c. 1374) 1524 – Thomas Linacre, English physician and scholar (b. 1460) 1538 – 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Naim Frashëri, Albanian poet and translator (b. 1846) 1901–present 1908 – Vaiben Louis Solomon, Australian politician, 21st Premier of South Australia (b. 1853) 1910 – David B. Hill, American lawyer and politician, 29th Governor of New York (b. 1843) 1926 – Eugene V. Debs, American union leader and politician (b. 1855) 1928 – Jack Peddie, Scottish footballer (b. 1876) 1935 – Arthur Henderson, Scottish-English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1863) 1936 – Anne Sullivan, American educator (b. 1866) 1940 – Gunnar Asplund, Swedish architect and academic, co-designed Skogskyrkogården (b. 1885) 1941 – Ken Farnes, English cricketer and soldier (b. 1911) 1950 – Henry L. 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blind father, King Wermund believed him to be a simpleton and in order to preserve his son's position as king had him marry the daughter of Freawine (a neighbouring warlord/king) so that Freawine would assist Uffi when he became king. However, the plans did not come to pass, as Freawine was killed by a marauding Viking warlord (a Swede called Atisl). Wermund subsequently raised Freawine's sons Ket and Wig as his own. The two would eventually cause great dishonour to the Angles when they ambushed Atisl in a forest as he walked alone and slew him. The surrounding peoples began to mock the Angles, accusing them of cowardice and dishonour. Eventually the neighbouring Saxons decided that Wermund was too weak to resist their requests for him to surrender his kingdom, and they sent their emissaries to Wermund's court. There they proceeded to mock the blind man, prompting Wermund to challenge their king to a duel — but the king stated that he would not fight a blind man. It was then that Uffi regained his speech, and revealed that his silence had been caused by the great dishonour involved in Atisl's death. He promptly challenged the prince of the Saxons and one of his champions to a duel in order to regain the honour of the Angles. Uffi's combat took place at Rendsburg on an island in the Eider River at Fifeldore/Monster-Gate, and Uffi succeeded in killing both his opponents. A somewhat corrupt version of the same | marry the daughter of Freawine (a neighbouring warlord/king) so that Freawine would assist Uffi when he became king. However, the plans did not come to pass, as Freawine was killed by a marauding Viking warlord (a Swede called Atisl). Wermund subsequently raised Freawine's sons Ket and Wig as his own. The two would eventually cause great dishonour to the Angles when they ambushed Atisl in a forest as he walked alone and slew him. The surrounding peoples began to mock the Angles, accusing them of cowardice and dishonour. Eventually the neighbouring Saxons decided that Wermund was too weak to resist their requests for him to surrender his kingdom, and they sent their emissaries to Wermund's court. There they proceeded to mock the blind man, prompting Wermund to challenge their king to a duel — but the king stated that he would not fight a blind man. It was then that Uffi regained his speech, and revealed that his silence had been caused by the great dishonour involved in Atisl's death. He promptly challenged the prince of the Saxons and one of his champions to a duel in order to regain the honour of the Angles. Uffi's combat took place at Rendsburg on an island in the Eider River at Fifeldore/Monster-Gate, and Uffi succeeded in killing both his opponents. A somewhat corrupt version of the same story is preserved in the 13th-century Vitae duorum Offarum, where, however, the scene is transferred to England. References Literature See H. M. Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation |
resonance orbit in the same direction; however, the retrograde asteroid 514107 Kaʻepaokaʻawela appears to be in a stable (for a period of at least a million years) 1:−1 resonance with Jupiter. In addition, a few retrograde damocloids have been found that are temporarily captured in mean-motion resonance with Jupiter or Saturn. Such orbital interactions are weaker than the corresponding interactions between bodies orbiting in the same direction. A Laplace resonance is a three-body resonance with a 1:2:4 orbital period ratio (equivalent to a 4:2:1 ratio of orbits). The term arose because Pierre-Simon Laplace discovered that such a resonance governed the motions of Jupiter's moons Io, Europa, and Ganymede. It is now also often applied to other 3-body resonances with the same ratios, such as that between the extrasolar planets Gliese 876 c, b, and e. Three-body resonances involving other simple integer ratios have been termed "Laplace-like" or "Laplace-type". A Lindblad resonance drives spiral density waves both in galaxies (where stars are subject to forcing by the spiral arms themselves) and in Saturn's rings (where ring particles are subject to forcing by Saturn's moons). A secular resonance occurs when the precession of two orbits is synchronised (usually a precession of the perihelion or ascending node). A small body in secular resonance with a much larger one (e.g. a planet) will precess at the same rate as the large body. Over long times (a million years, or so) a secular resonance will change the eccentricity and inclination of the small body. Several prominent examples of secular resonance involve Saturn. A resonance between the precession of Saturn's rotational axis and that of Neptune's orbital axis (both of which have periods of about 1.87 million years) has been identified as the likely source of Saturn's large axial tilt (26.7°). Initially, Saturn probably had a tilt closer to that of Jupiter (3.1°). The gradual depletion of the Kuiper belt would have decreased the precession rate of Neptune's orbit; eventually, the frequencies matched, and Saturn's axial precession was captured into the spin-orbit resonance, leading to an increase in Saturn's obliquity. (The angular momentum of Neptune's orbit is 104 times that of Saturn's rotation rate, and thus dominates the interaction.) The perihelion secular resonance between asteroids and Saturn (ν6 = g − g6) helps shape the asteroid belt (the subscript "6" identifies Saturn as the sixth planet from the Sun). Asteroids which approach it have their eccentricity slowly increased until they become Mars-crossers, at which point they are usually ejected from the asteroid belt by a close pass to Mars. This resonance forms the inner and "side" boundaries of the asteroid belt around 2 AU, and at inclinations of about 20°. Numerical simulations have suggested that the eventual formation of a perihelion secular resonance between Mercury and Jupiter (g1 = g5) has the potential to greatly increase Mercury's eccentricity and possibly destabilize the inner Solar System several billion years from now. The Titan Ringlet within Saturn's C Ring represents another type of resonance in which the rate of apsidal precession of one orbit exactly matches the speed of revolution of another. The outer end of this eccentric ringlet always points towards Saturn's major moon Titan. A Kozai resonance occurs when the inclination and eccentricity of a perturbed orbit oscillate synchronously (increasing eccentricity while decreasing inclination and vice versa). This resonance applies only to bodies on highly inclined orbits; as a consequence, such orbits tend to be unstable, since the growing eccentricity would result in small pericenters, typically leading to a collision or (for large moons) destruction by tidal forces. In an example of another type of resonance involving orbital eccentricity, the eccentricities of Ganymede and Callisto vary with a common period of 181 years, although with opposite phases. Mean-motion resonances in the Solar System There are only a few known mean-motion resonances (MMR) in the Solar System involving planets, dwarf planets or larger satellites (a much greater number involve asteroids, planetary rings, moonlets and smaller Kuiper belt objects, including many possible dwarf planets). 2:3 Pluto–Neptune (also and other plutinos) 2:4 Tethys–Mimas (Saturn's moons). Not simplified, because the libration of the nodes must be taken into account. 1:2 Dione–Enceladus (Saturn's moons) 3:4 Hyperion–Titan (Saturn's moons) 1:2:4 Ganymede–Europa–Io (Jupiter's moons, ratio of orbits). Additionally, Haumea is believed to be in a 7:12 resonance with Neptune, and is believed to be in a 3:10 resonance with Neptune. The simple integer ratios between periods hide more complex relations: the point of conjunction can oscillate (librate) around an equilibrium point defined by the resonance. given non-zero eccentricities, the nodes or periapsides can drift (a resonance related, short period, not secular precession). As illustration of the latter, consider the well-known 2:1 resonance of Io-Europa. If the orbiting periods were in this relation, the mean motions (inverse of periods, often expressed in degrees per day) would satisfy the following Substituting the data (from Wikipedia) one will get −0.7395° day−1, a value substantially different from zero. Actually, the resonance perfect, but it involves also the precession of perijove (the point closest to Jupiter), . The correct equation (part of the Laplace equations) is: In other words, the mean motion of Io is indeed double of that of Europa taking into account the precession of the perijove. An observer sitting on the (drifting) perijove will see the moons coming into conjunction in the same place (elongation). The other pairs listed above satisfy the same type of equation with the exception of Mimas-Tethys resonance. In this case, the resonance satisfies the equation The point of conjunctions librates around the midpoint between the nodes of the two moons. Laplace resonance The Laplace resonance involving Io–Europa–Ganymede includes the following relation locking the orbital phase of the moons: where are mean longitudes of the moons (the second equals sign ignores libration). This relation makes a triple conjunction impossible. (A Laplace resonance in the Gliese 876 system, in contrast, is associated with one triple conjunction per orbit of the outermost planet, ignoring libration.) The graph illustrates the positions of the moons after 1, 2 and 3 Io periods. librates about 180° with an amplitude of 0.03°. Another "Laplace-like" resonance involves the moons Styx, Nix and Hydra of Pluto: This reflects orbital periods for Styx, Nix and Hydra, respectively, that are close to a ratio of 18:22:33 (or, in terms of the near resonances with Charon's period, 3+3/11:4:6; see below); the respective ratio of orbits is 11:9:6. Based on the ratios of synodic periods, there are 5 conjunctions of Styx and Hydra and 3 conjunctions of Nix and Hydra for every 2 conjunctions of Styx and Nix. As with the Galilean satellite resonance, triple conjunctions are forbidden. librates about 180° with an amplitude of at least 10°. Plutino resonances The dwarf planet Pluto is following an orbit trapped in a web of resonances with Neptune. The resonances include: A mean-motion resonance of 2:3 The resonance of the perihelion (libration around 90°), keeping the perihelion above the ecliptic The resonance of the longitude of the perihelion in relation to that of Neptune One consequence of these resonances is that a separation of at least 30 AU is maintained when Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit. The minimum separation between the two bodies overall is 17 AU, while the minimum separation between Pluto and Uranus is just 11 AU (see Pluto's orbit for detailed explanation and graphs). The next largest body in a similar 2:3 resonance with Neptune, called a plutino, is the probable dwarf planet Orcus. Orcus has an orbit similar in inclination and eccentricity to Pluto's. However, the two are constrained by their mutual resonance with Neptune to always be in opposite phases of their orbits; Orcus is thus sometimes described as the "anti-Pluto". Naiad:Thalassa 73:69 resonance Neptune's innermost moon, Naiad, is in a 73:69 fourth-order resonance with the next outward moon, Thalassa. As it orbits Neptune, the more inclined Naiad successively passes Thalassa twice from above and then twice from below, in a cycle that repeats every ~21.5 Earth days. The two moons are about 3540 km apart when they pass each other. Although their orbital radii differ by only 1850 km, Naiad swings ~2800 km above or below Thalassa's orbital plane at closest approach. As is common, this resonance stabilizes the orbits by maximizing separation at conjunction, but it is unusual for the role played by orbital inclination in facilitating this avoidance in a case where eccentricities are minimal. Mean-motion resonances among extrasolar planets While most extrasolar planetary systems discovered have not been found to have planets in mean-motion resonances, chains of up to five resonant planets and up to seven at least near resonant planets have been uncovered. Simulations have shown that during planetary system formation, the appearance of resonant chains of planetary embryos is favored by the presence of the primordial gas disc. Once that gas dissipates, 90–95% of those chains must then become unstable to match the low frequency of resonant chains observed. As mentioned above, Gliese 876 e, b and c are in a Laplace resonance, with a 4:2:1 ratio of periods (124.3, 61.1 and 30.0 days). In this case, librates with an amplitude of 40° ± 13° and the resonance follows the time-averaged relation: Kepler-223 has four planets in a resonance with an 8:6:4:3 orbit ratio, and a 3:4:6:8 ratio of periods (7.3845, 9.8456, 14.7887 and 19.7257 days). This represents the first confirmed 4-body orbital resonance. The librations within this system are such that close encounters between two planets occur only when the other planets are in distant parts of their orbits. Simulations indicate that this system of resonances must have formed via planetary migration. Kepler-80 d, e, b, c and g have periods in a ~ 1.000: 1.512: 2.296: 3.100: 4.767 ratio (3.0722, 4.6449, 7.0525, 9.5236 and 14.6456 days). However, in a frame of reference that rotates with the conjunctions, this reduces to a period ratio of 4:6:9:12:18 (an orbit ratio of 9:6:4:3:2). Conjunctions of d and e, e and b, b and c, and c and g occur at relative intervals of 2:3:6:6 (9.07, 13.61 and 27.21 days) in a pattern that repeats about every 190.5 days (seven full cycles in the rotating frame) in the inertial or nonrotating frame (equivalent to a 62:41:27:20:13 orbit ratio resonance in the nonrotating frame, because the conjunctions circulate in the direction opposite orbital motion). Librations of possible three-body resonances have amplitudes of only about 3 degrees, and modeling indicates the resonant system is stable to perturbations. Triple conjunctions do not occur. TOI-178 has 6 confirmed planets, of which the outer 5 planets form a similar resonant chain in a rotating frame of reference, which can be expressed as 2:4:6:9:12 in period ratios, or as 18:9:6:4:3 in orbit ratios. In addition, the innermost planet b with period of 1.91d orbits close to where it would also be part of the same Laplace resonance chain, as a 3:5 resonance with the planet c would be fulfilled at period of ~1.95d, implying that it might have evolved there but pulled out of resonance, possibly by tidal forces. TRAPPIST-1's seven approximately Earth-sized planets are in a chain of near resonances (the longest such chain known), having an orbit ratio of approximately 24, 15, 9, 6, 4, 3 and 2, or nearest-neighbor period ratios (proceeding outward) of about 8/5, 5/3, 3/2, 3/2, 4/3 and 3/2 (1.603, 1.672, 1.506, 1.509, 1.342 and 1.519). They are also configured such that each triple of adjacent planets is in a Laplace resonance (i.e., b, c and d in one such Laplace configuration; c, d and e in another, etc.). The resonant configuration is expected to be stable on a time scale of billions of years, assuming it arose during planetary migration. A musical interpretation of the resonance has been provided. Kepler-29 has a pair of planets in a 7:9 resonance (ratio of 1/1.28587). Kepler-36 has a pair of planets close to a 6:7 resonance. Kepler-37 d, c and b are within one percent of a resonance with an 8:15:24 orbit ratio and a 15:8:5 ratio of periods (39.792187, 21.301886 and 13.367308 days). Of Kepler-90's eight known planets, the period ratios b:c, c:i and i:d are close to 4:5, 3:5 and 1:4, respectively (4:4.977, 3:4.97 and 1:4.13) and d, e, f, g and h are close to a 2:3:4:7:11 period ratio (2: 3.078: 4.182: 7.051: 11.102; also 7: 11.021). f, g and h are also close to a 3:5:8 period ratio (3: 5.058: 7.964). Relevant to systems like this and that of Kepler-36, calculations suggest that the presence of an outer gas giant planet facilitates the formation of closely packed resonances among inner super-Earths. HD 41248 has a pair of super-Earths within 0.3% of a 5:7 resonance (ratio of 1/1.39718). K2-138 has 5 confirmed planets in an unbroken near-3:2 resonance chain (with periods of 2.353, 3.560, 5.405, 8.261 and 12.758 days). The system was discovered in the citizen science project Exoplanet Explorers, using K2 data. K2-138 could host co-orbital bodies (in a 1:1 mean-motion resonance). Resonant chain systems can stabilize co-orbital bodies and a dedicated analysis of the K2 light curve and radial-velocity from HARPS might reveal them. Follow-up observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope suggest a sixth planet continuing the 3:2 resonance chain, while leaving two gaps in the chain (its period is 41.97 days). These gaps could be filled by smaller non-transiting planets. Future observations with CHEOPS will measure transit-timing variations of the system to further analyse the mass of the planets and could potentially find other planetary bodies in the system. K2-32 has four planets in a near 1:2:5:7 resonance (with periods of 4.34, 8.99, 20.66 and 31.71 days). Planet e has a radius almost identical to that of the Earth. The other planets have a size between Neptune and Saturn. V1298 Tauri has four confirmed planets of which planets c, d and b are near a 1:2:3 resonance (with periods of 8.25, 12.40 and 24.14 days). Planet e only shows a single transit in the K2 light curve and has a period larger than 36 days. Planet | orbiting in the same direction. A Laplace resonance is a three-body resonance with a 1:2:4 orbital period ratio (equivalent to a 4:2:1 ratio of orbits). The term arose because Pierre-Simon Laplace discovered that such a resonance governed the motions of Jupiter's moons Io, Europa, and Ganymede. It is now also often applied to other 3-body resonances with the same ratios, such as that between the extrasolar planets Gliese 876 c, b, and e. Three-body resonances involving other simple integer ratios have been termed "Laplace-like" or "Laplace-type". A Lindblad resonance drives spiral density waves both in galaxies (where stars are subject to forcing by the spiral arms themselves) and in Saturn's rings (where ring particles are subject to forcing by Saturn's moons). A secular resonance occurs when the precession of two orbits is synchronised (usually a precession of the perihelion or ascending node). A small body in secular resonance with a much larger one (e.g. a planet) will precess at the same rate as the large body. Over long times (a million years, or so) a secular resonance will change the eccentricity and inclination of the small body. Several prominent examples of secular resonance involve Saturn. A resonance between the precession of Saturn's rotational axis and that of Neptune's orbital axis (both of which have periods of about 1.87 million years) has been identified as the likely source of Saturn's large axial tilt (26.7°). Initially, Saturn probably had a tilt closer to that of Jupiter (3.1°). The gradual depletion of the Kuiper belt would have decreased the precession rate of Neptune's orbit; eventually, the frequencies matched, and Saturn's axial precession was captured into the spin-orbit resonance, leading to an increase in Saturn's obliquity. (The angular momentum of Neptune's orbit is 104 times that of Saturn's rotation rate, and thus dominates the interaction.) The perihelion secular resonance between asteroids and Saturn (ν6 = g − g6) helps shape the asteroid belt (the subscript "6" identifies Saturn as the sixth planet from the Sun). Asteroids which approach it have their eccentricity slowly increased until they become Mars-crossers, at which point they are usually ejected from the asteroid belt by a close pass to Mars. This resonance forms the inner and "side" boundaries of the asteroid belt around 2 AU, and at inclinations of about 20°. Numerical simulations have suggested that the eventual formation of a perihelion secular resonance between Mercury and Jupiter (g1 = g5) has the potential to greatly increase Mercury's eccentricity and possibly destabilize the inner Solar System several billion years from now. The Titan Ringlet within Saturn's C Ring represents another type of resonance in which the rate of apsidal precession of one orbit exactly matches the speed of revolution of another. The outer end of this eccentric ringlet always points towards Saturn's major moon Titan. A Kozai resonance occurs when the inclination and eccentricity of a perturbed orbit oscillate synchronously (increasing eccentricity while decreasing inclination and vice versa). This resonance applies only to bodies on highly inclined orbits; as a consequence, such orbits tend to be unstable, since the growing eccentricity would result in small pericenters, typically leading to a collision or (for large moons) destruction by tidal forces. In an example of another type of resonance involving orbital eccentricity, the eccentricities of Ganymede and Callisto vary with a common period of 181 years, although with opposite phases. Mean-motion resonances in the Solar System There are only a few known mean-motion resonances (MMR) in the Solar System involving planets, dwarf planets or larger satellites (a much greater number involve asteroids, planetary rings, moonlets and smaller Kuiper belt objects, including many possible dwarf planets). 2:3 Pluto–Neptune (also and other plutinos) 2:4 Tethys–Mimas (Saturn's moons). Not simplified, because the libration of the nodes must be taken into account. 1:2 Dione–Enceladus (Saturn's moons) 3:4 Hyperion–Titan (Saturn's moons) 1:2:4 Ganymede–Europa–Io (Jupiter's moons, ratio of orbits). Additionally, Haumea is believed to be in a 7:12 resonance with Neptune, and is believed to be in a 3:10 resonance with Neptune. The simple integer ratios between periods hide more complex relations: the point of conjunction can oscillate (librate) around an equilibrium point defined by the resonance. given non-zero eccentricities, the nodes or periapsides can drift (a resonance related, short period, not secular precession). As illustration of the latter, consider the well-known 2:1 resonance of Io-Europa. If the orbiting periods were in this relation, the mean motions (inverse of periods, often expressed in degrees per day) would satisfy the following Substituting the data (from Wikipedia) one will get −0.7395° day−1, a value substantially different from zero. Actually, the resonance perfect, but it involves also the precession of perijove (the point closest to Jupiter), . The correct equation (part of the Laplace equations) is: In other words, the mean motion of Io is indeed double of that of Europa taking into account the precession of the perijove. An observer sitting on the (drifting) perijove will see the moons coming into conjunction in the same place (elongation). The other pairs listed above satisfy the same type of equation with the exception of Mimas-Tethys resonance. In this case, the resonance satisfies the equation The point of conjunctions librates around the midpoint between the nodes of the two moons. Laplace resonance The Laplace resonance involving Io–Europa–Ganymede includes the following relation locking the orbital phase of the moons: where are mean longitudes of the moons (the second equals sign ignores libration). This relation makes a triple conjunction impossible. (A Laplace resonance in the Gliese 876 system, in contrast, is associated with one triple conjunction per orbit of the outermost planet, ignoring libration.) The graph illustrates the positions of the moons after 1, 2 and 3 Io periods. librates about 180° with an amplitude of 0.03°. Another "Laplace-like" resonance involves the moons Styx, Nix and Hydra of Pluto: This reflects orbital periods for Styx, Nix and Hydra, respectively, that are close to a ratio of 18:22:33 (or, in terms of the near resonances with Charon's period, 3+3/11:4:6; see below); the respective ratio of orbits is 11:9:6. Based on the ratios of synodic periods, there are 5 conjunctions of Styx and Hydra and 3 conjunctions of Nix and Hydra for every 2 conjunctions of Styx and Nix. As with the Galilean satellite resonance, triple conjunctions are forbidden. librates about 180° with an amplitude of at least 10°. Plutino resonances The dwarf planet Pluto is following an orbit trapped in a web of resonances with Neptune. The resonances include: A mean-motion resonance of 2:3 The resonance of the perihelion (libration around 90°), keeping the perihelion above the ecliptic The resonance of the longitude of the perihelion in relation to that of Neptune One consequence of these resonances is that a separation of at least 30 AU is maintained when Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit. The minimum separation between the two bodies overall is 17 AU, while the minimum separation between Pluto and Uranus is just 11 AU (see Pluto's orbit for detailed explanation and graphs). The next largest body in a similar 2:3 resonance with Neptune, called a plutino, is the probable dwarf planet Orcus. Orcus has an orbit similar in inclination and eccentricity to Pluto's. However, the two are constrained by their mutual resonance with Neptune to always be in opposite phases of their orbits; Orcus is thus sometimes described as the "anti-Pluto". Naiad:Thalassa 73:69 resonance Neptune's innermost moon, Naiad, is in a 73:69 fourth-order resonance with the next outward moon, Thalassa. As it orbits Neptune, the more inclined Naiad successively passes Thalassa twice from above and then twice from below, in a cycle that repeats every ~21.5 Earth days. The two moons are about 3540 km apart when they pass each other. Although their orbital radii differ by only 1850 km, Naiad swings ~2800 km above or below Thalassa's orbital plane at closest approach. As is common, this resonance stabilizes the orbits by maximizing separation at conjunction, but it is unusual for the role played by orbital inclination in facilitating this avoidance in a case where eccentricities are minimal. Mean-motion resonances among extrasolar planets While most extrasolar planetary systems discovered have not been found to have planets in mean-motion resonances, chains of up to five resonant planets and up to seven at least near resonant planets have been uncovered. Simulations have shown that during planetary system formation, the appearance of resonant chains of planetary embryos is favored by the presence of the primordial gas disc. Once that gas dissipates, 90–95% of those chains must then become unstable to match the low frequency of resonant chains observed. As mentioned above, Gliese 876 e, b and c are in a Laplace resonance, with a 4:2:1 ratio of periods (124.3, 61.1 and 30.0 days). In this case, librates with an amplitude of 40° ± 13° and the resonance follows the time-averaged relation: Kepler-223 has four planets in a resonance with an 8:6:4:3 orbit ratio, and a 3:4:6:8 ratio of periods (7.3845, 9.8456, 14.7887 and 19.7257 days). This represents the first confirmed 4-body orbital resonance. The librations within this system are such that close encounters between two planets occur only when the other planets are in distant parts of their orbits. Simulations indicate that this system of resonances must have formed via planetary migration. Kepler-80 d, e, b, c and g have periods in a ~ 1.000: 1.512: 2.296: 3.100: 4.767 ratio (3.0722, 4.6449, 7.0525, 9.5236 and 14.6456 days). However, in a frame of reference that rotates with the conjunctions, this reduces to a period ratio of 4:6:9:12:18 (an orbit ratio of 9:6:4:3:2). Conjunctions of d and e, e and b, b and c, and c and g occur at relative intervals of 2:3:6:6 (9.07, 13.61 and 27.21 days) in a pattern that repeats about every 190.5 days (seven full cycles in the rotating frame) in the inertial or nonrotating frame (equivalent to a 62:41:27:20:13 orbit ratio resonance in the nonrotating frame, because the conjunctions circulate in the direction opposite orbital motion). Librations of possible three-body resonances have amplitudes of only about 3 degrees, and modeling indicates the resonant system is stable to perturbations. Triple conjunctions do not occur. TOI-178 has 6 confirmed planets, of which the outer 5 planets form a similar resonant chain in a rotating frame of reference, which can be expressed as 2:4:6:9:12 in period ratios, or as 18:9:6:4:3 in orbit ratios. In addition, the innermost planet b with period of 1.91d orbits close to where it would also be part of the same Laplace resonance chain, as a 3:5 resonance with the planet c would be fulfilled at period of ~1.95d, implying that it might have evolved there but pulled out of resonance, possibly by tidal forces. TRAPPIST-1's seven approximately Earth-sized planets are in a chain of near resonances (the |
(d. 1339) 1409 – Elizabeth of Luxembourg (d. 1442) 1471 – Frederick I of Denmark (d. 1533) 1474 – Bernhard III, Margrave of Baden-Baden (d. 1536) 1482 – Ernest, Margrave of Baden-Durlach (d. 1553) 1573 – William Laud, English archbishop and academic (d. 1645) 1576 – John Marston, English poet and playwright (d. 1634) 1586 – Isaac Massa, Dutch diplomat (d. 1643) 1589 – Archduchess Maria Maddalena of Austria (d. 1631) 1591 – Pierre Le Muet, French architect (d. 1669) 1597 – Captain John Underhill, English settler and soldier (d. 1672) 1601–1900 1635 – Roger de Piles, French painter (d. 1709) 1713 – Granville Elliott, English general (d. 1759) 1728 – Caesar Rodney, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 4th Governor of Delaware (d. 1784) 1744 – Sergey Vyazmitinov, Russian general and politician, War Governor of Saint Petersburg (d. 1819) 1746 – William Billings, American composer and educator (d. 1800) 1748 – Charles XIII of Sweden (d. 1818) 1769 – Solomon Sibley, American lawyer, jurist, and politician, 1st Mayor of Detroit (d. 1846) 1786 – Louis-Joseph Papineau, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1871) 1798 – Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume, French instrument maker and businessman (d. 1875) 1819 – Ann Eliza Smith, American author and patriot (d. 1905) 1821 – Richard H. Anderson, American general (d. 1879) 1832 – Charles Crozat Converse, American lawyer and composer (d. 1918) 1835 – Felix Draeseke, German composer and educator (d. 1913) 1836 – Henri Elzéar Taschereau, Canadian scholar and jurist, 4th Chief Justice of Canada (d. 1911) 1841 – Nicholas I of Montenegro (d. 1921) 1849 – James Whitcomb Riley, American poet and author (d. 1916) 1860 – Leonidas Paraskevopoulos, Greek general and politician (d. 1936) 1866 – Wlodimir Ledóchowski, Polish-Austrian religious leader, 26th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1942) 1870 – Uncle Dave Macon, American old-time country banjo player, singer-songwriter, and comedian (d. 1952) 1876 – Louis Tancred, South African cricketer (d. 1934) 1879 – Joe Hill, Swedish-born American labor activist and poet (d. 1915) 1881 – Mikhail Drozdovsky, Ukrainian-Russian general (d. 1918) 1884 – Harold Geiger, American lieutenant and pilot (d. 1927) 1885 – Niels Bohr, Danish physicist and philosopher, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1962) 1885 – Claud Ashton Jones, American admiral, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1948) 1887 – Jack Russell, English cricketer and coach (d. 1961) 1888 – Henry A. Wallace, American agronomist and politician, 33rd Vice President of the United States (d. 1965) 1888 – Edna Meade Colson, American educator and activist (d. 1985) 1889 – Robert Z. Leonard, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1968) 1892 – Dwain Esper, American director and producer (d. 1982) 1893 – Alice Dalgliesh, Trinidadian-American author and publisher (d. 1979) 1895 – Maurice Grevisse, Belgian linguist and author (d. 1980) 1896 – Paulino Alcántara, Spanish Filipino football player and manager (d. 1964) 1897 – Elijah Muhammad, American religious leader (d. 1975) 1897 – Thakin Mya, Burmese lawyer and politician (d. 1947) 1900 – Heinrich Himmler, German commander and politician (d. 1945) 1901–present 1904 – Armando Castellazzi, Italian footballer and coach (d. 1968) 1905 – Andy Devine, American actor (d. 1977) 1907 – Helen MacInnes, Scottish-American librarian and author (d. 1985) 1909 – Anni Blomqvist, Finnish author (d. 1990) 1909 – Shura Cherkassky, Ukrainian-American pianist and educator (d. 1995) 1909 – Erastus Corning 2nd, American soldier and politician, 72nd Mayor of Albany (d. 1983) 1910 – Henry Plumer McIlhenny, American art collector and philanthropist (d. 1986) 1911 – Vaughn Monroe, American singer, trumpet player, and bandleader (d. 1973) 1912 – Fernando Belaúnde Terry, Peruvian architect and politician, 85th President of Peru (d. 2002) 1912 – Peter Walker, English racing driver (d. 1984) 1913 – Simon Carmiggelt, Dutch journalist and author (d. 1987) 1913 – Raimond Valgre, Estonian pianist, guitarist, and composer (d. 1949) 1914 – Begum Akhtar, Indian actress (d. 1974) 1914 – Sarah Churchill, English actress (d. 1982) 1914 – Alfred Drake, American actor and singer (d. 1992) 1914 – Herman Keiser, American golfer (d. 2003) 1915 – Walter Keane, American plagiarist (d. 2000) 1917 – June Allyson, American actress (d. 2006) 1918 – Harry V. Jaffa, American historian, philosopher, and academic (d. 2015) 1919 – Henriette Avram, American computer scientist and academic (d. 2006) 1919 – Zelman Cowen, Australian academic and politician, 19th Governor-General of Australia (d. 2011) 1919 – Georges Duby, French historian and author (d. 1996) 1920 – Georg Leber, German soldier and politician, German Federal Minister of Defence (d. 2012) 1920 – Jack Rowley, English footballer and manager (d. 1998) 1921 – Raymond Goethals, Belgian footballer and coach (d. 2004) 1922 – Grady Hatton, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2013) 1922 – William Zinsser, American journalist and critic (d. 2015) 1923 – Irma Grese, German SS officer (d. 1945) 1923 – Břetislav Pojar, Czech animator and director (d. 2012) 1923 – Jean-Paul Riopelle, Canadian painter and sculptor (d. 2002) 1927 – Al Martino, American singer and actor (d. 2009) 1927 – R. D. Laing, Scottish psychiatrist and author (d. 1989) 1927 – Demetrio González, Spanish-Mexican film actor and singer (d. 2015) 1928 – José Messias, Brazilian composer, singer, writer, host and critic (d. 2015) 1928 – Ali Kafi, Pakistani politician (d. 2013) 1928 – Lorna Wing, English autism researcher (d. 2014) 1929 – Graeme Ferguson, Canadian director and producer, co-founded the IMAX Corporation (d. 2021) 1929 – Mariano Gagnon, American Catholic priest and author (d. 2017) 1929 – Robert Westall, English journalist and author (d. 1993) 1930 – Curtis Crider, American race car driver (d. 2012) 1931 – Cotton Fitzsimmons, American basketball player and coach (d. 2004) 1931 – Tommy Lewis, American football player and coach (d. 2014) 1931 – R. Sivagurunathan, Sri Lankan journalist, lawyer, and academic (d. 2003) 1931 – Desmond Tutu, South African archbishop and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021) 1932 – Joannes Gijsen, Dutch bishop (d. 2013) 1933 – Harold Dunaway, American race car driver and pilot (d. 2012) 1934 – Amiri Baraka, American poet, playwright, and academic (d. 2014) 1934 – Ulrike Meinhof, German far-left terrorist, co-founder of the Red Army Faction, journalist (d. 1976) 1934 – Julian Thompson, English general and historian 1935 – Thomas Keneally, Australian novelist, playwright, and essayist 1936 – Michael Hurll, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1937 – Christopher Booker, English journalist and author (d. 2019) 1937 – Chet Powers, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1994) 1937 – Maria Szyszkowska, Polish academic and politician 1938 – Yvonne Brewster, Jamaican actress and theatre director 1938 – Ann Jones, English tennis player and sportscaster 1939 – John Hopcroft, American computer scientist and author 1939 – Clive James, Australian television host, author, and critic (d. 2019) 1939 – Harry Kroto, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2016) 1939 – Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya, Congolese cardinal (d. 2021) 1939 – Bill Snyder, American football player and coach 1942 – Joy Behar, American talk show host, comedian and television personality 1943 – José Cardenal, Cuban baseball player and coach 1943 – Oliver North, American colonel, journalist, and author 1944 – Judee Sill, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1979) 1944 – Donald Tsang, Chinese civil servant and politician, 2nd Chief Executive of Hong Kong 1945 – Kevin Godley, English singer-songwriter and director 1945 – David Wallace, Scottish physicist and academic 1946 – John Brass, Australian rugby player and coach 1946 – Catharine MacKinnon, American lawyer, activist, and author 1947 – Chris Bambridge, Australian footballer and referee 1948 – Diane Ackerman, American poet and essayist 1948 – John F. B. Mitchell, English climatologist and author 1948 – Stephen Rucker, American composer 1949 – Dave Hope, American bass player and priest 1950 – Dick Jauron, American football player and coach 1950 – Jakaya Kikwete, Tanzanian colonel, economist, and politician, 4th President of Tanzania 1951 – Enki Bilal, French comic book creator, comics artist and film director 1951 – John Mellencamp, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1952 – Vladimir Putin, Russian colonel and politician, 4th President of Russia 1952 – Jacques Richard, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2002) 1952 – Graham Yallop, Australian cricketer 1953 – Linda Griffiths, Canadian actress and playwright (d. 2014) 1953 – Margus Lepa, Estonian journalist and actor 1953 – Tico Torres, American drummer 1955 – Ralph Johnson, American computer scientist and author 1955 – Bill Henson, Australian photographer 1955 – Yo-Yo Ma, French-American cellist and educator 1956 – Steve Bainbridge, English rugby player 1956 – Mike Shipley, Australian-English sound engineer and producer (d. 2013) 1956 – Brian Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1957 – Joey Marquez, Filipino basketball player, actor, and politician 1957 – Michael W. Smith, American singer-songwriter and actor 1957 – Jayne Torvill, English figure skater 1959 – Dylan Baker, American actor 1959 – Simon Cowell, English businessman and producer 1959 – Lourdes Flores, Peruvian lawyer and politician 1959 – Jean-Marc Fournier, Canadian lawyer and politician 1959 – Brazo de Oro, Mexican wrestler (d. 2017) 1960 – Kevin Boyle, American historian and author 1961 – Brian Mannix, Australian singer-songwriter 1961 – Tony Sparano, American football player and coach (d. 2018) 1962 – Dave Bronconnier, Canadian businessman and politician, 35th Mayor of Calgary 1962 – Micky Flanagan, English comedian 1962 – William Johnson, German-English cricketer 1964 – Sam Brown, English singer-songwriter, musician, and record producer 1964 – Dan Savage, American LGBT rights activist, journalist and television producer 1964 – Paul Stewart, English footballer 1965 – Genji Hashimoto, Japanese race car driver 1965 – Kumiko Watanabe, Japanese voice actress 1966 – Sherman Alexie, American novelist, short story writer, poet, and filmmaker 1966 – Marco Beltrami, Italian-American composer and conductor 1966 – Janet Shaw, Australian cyclist and author (d. 2012) 1967 – Michelle Alexander, American law professor, author and activist 1967 – Peter Baker, English golfer 1967 – Toni Braxton, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1968 – Thom Yorke, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1969 – Bobbie Brown, American model and actress 1969 – Malia Hosaka, American wrestler 1971 – Daniel Boucher, Canadian singer and actor 1972 – Marlou Aquino, Filipino basketball player 1972 – Ben Younger, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1973 – Dida, Brazilian footballer 1973 – Priest Holmes, American football player 1973 – Sami Hyypiä, Finnish footballer and manager 1973 – Grigol Mgaloblishvili, Georgian politician and diplomat, 7th Prime Minister of Georgia 1974 – Rune Glifberg, Danish skateboarder 1974 – Ruslan Nigmatullin, Russian footballer 1974 – Charlotte Perrelli, Swedish singer 1975 – Giorgos Karadimos, Greek singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Damian Kulash, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Tim Minchin, English-Australian comedian, actor, and singer 1976 – Marc Coma, Spanish motorcycle racer 1976 – Taylor Hicks, American singer-songwriter 1976 – Gilberto Silva, Brazilian footballer 1976 – Santiago Solari, Argentinian footballer and manager 1976 – Charles Woodson, American football player 1977 – Antoine Revoy, French comics writer and illustrator 1978 – Alison Balsom, English trumpet player and educator 1978 – Alesha Dixon, English singer-songwriter and dancer 1978 – Zaheer Khan, Indian cricketer 1979 – Simona Amânar, Romanian gymnast 1979 – Aaron Ashmore, Canadian actor 1979 – Shawn Ashmore, Canadian actor 1981 – Austin Eubanks, American motivational speaker (d. 2019) 1982 – Madjid Bougherra, Algerian footballer 1982 – Jermain Defoe, English footballer 1982 – Robby Ginepri, American tennis player 1982 – Li Yundi, Chinese pianist 1982 – Lockett Pundt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1983 | Margus Lepa, Estonian journalist and actor 1953 – Tico Torres, American drummer 1955 – Ralph Johnson, American computer scientist and author 1955 – Bill Henson, Australian photographer 1955 – Yo-Yo Ma, French-American cellist and educator 1956 – Steve Bainbridge, English rugby player 1956 – Mike Shipley, Australian-English sound engineer and producer (d. 2013) 1956 – Brian Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1957 – Joey Marquez, Filipino basketball player, actor, and politician 1957 – Michael W. Smith, American singer-songwriter and actor 1957 – Jayne Torvill, English figure skater 1959 – Dylan Baker, American actor 1959 – Simon Cowell, English businessman and producer 1959 – Lourdes Flores, Peruvian lawyer and politician 1959 – Jean-Marc Fournier, Canadian lawyer and politician 1959 – Brazo de Oro, Mexican wrestler (d. 2017) 1960 – Kevin Boyle, American historian and author 1961 – Brian Mannix, Australian singer-songwriter 1961 – Tony Sparano, American football player and coach (d. 2018) 1962 – Dave Bronconnier, Canadian businessman and politician, 35th Mayor of Calgary 1962 – Micky Flanagan, English comedian 1962 – William Johnson, German-English cricketer 1964 – Sam Brown, English singer-songwriter, musician, and record producer 1964 – Dan Savage, American LGBT rights activist, journalist and television producer 1964 – Paul Stewart, English footballer 1965 – Genji Hashimoto, Japanese race car driver 1965 – Kumiko Watanabe, Japanese voice actress 1966 – Sherman Alexie, American novelist, short story writer, poet, and filmmaker 1966 – Marco Beltrami, Italian-American composer and conductor 1966 – Janet Shaw, Australian cyclist and author (d. 2012) 1967 – Michelle Alexander, American law professor, author and activist 1967 – Peter Baker, English golfer 1967 – Toni Braxton, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1968 – Thom Yorke, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1969 – Bobbie Brown, American model and actress 1969 – Malia Hosaka, American wrestler 1971 – Daniel Boucher, Canadian singer and actor 1972 – Marlou Aquino, Filipino basketball player 1972 – Ben Younger, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1973 – Dida, Brazilian footballer 1973 – Priest Holmes, American football player 1973 – Sami Hyypiä, Finnish footballer and manager 1973 – Grigol Mgaloblishvili, Georgian politician and diplomat, 7th Prime Minister of Georgia 1974 – Rune Glifberg, Danish skateboarder 1974 – Ruslan Nigmatullin, Russian footballer 1974 – Charlotte Perrelli, Swedish singer 1975 – Giorgos Karadimos, Greek singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Damian Kulash, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Tim Minchin, English-Australian comedian, actor, and singer 1976 – Marc Coma, Spanish motorcycle racer 1976 – Taylor Hicks, American singer-songwriter 1976 – Gilberto Silva, Brazilian footballer 1976 – Santiago Solari, Argentinian footballer and manager 1976 – Charles Woodson, American football player 1977 – Antoine Revoy, French comics writer and illustrator 1978 – Alison Balsom, English trumpet player and educator 1978 – Alesha Dixon, English singer-songwriter and dancer 1978 – Zaheer Khan, Indian cricketer 1979 – Simona Amânar, Romanian gymnast 1979 – Aaron Ashmore, Canadian actor 1979 – Shawn Ashmore, Canadian actor 1981 – Austin Eubanks, American motivational speaker (d. 2019) 1982 – Madjid Bougherra, Algerian footballer 1982 – Jermain Defoe, English footballer 1982 – Robby Ginepri, American tennis player 1982 – Li Yundi, Chinese pianist 1982 – Lockett Pundt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1983 – Archie Bland, English journalist and author 1983 – Dwayne Bravo, Trinidadian cricketer 1983 – Flying Lotus, American rapper, DJ, and producer 1983 – Scottie Upshall, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 – Salman Butt, Pakistani cricketer 1984 – Toma Ikuta, Japanese actor and singer 1984 – Simon Poulsen, Danish footballer 1984 – Zachary Wyatt, American soldier and politician 1985 – Evan Longoria, American baseball player 1986 – Chase Daniel, American football player 1986 – Lee Nguyen, American soccer player 1986 – Gunnar Nielsen, Faroese footballer 1986 – Bree Olson, American actress, model, and former porn actress 1986 – Amy Satterthwaite, New Zealand cricketer 1987 – Jeremy Brockie, New Zealand footballer 1987 – Aiden English, American wrestler 1987 – Sam Querrey, American tennis player 1988 – Diego da Silva Costa, Brazilian footballer 1989 – Trent Merrin, Australian rugby league player 1990 – Sebastián Coates, Uruguayan footballer 1991 – Lay, Chinese singer-songwriter and actor 1992 – Mookie Betts, American baseball player 1995 – Lyndon Dykes, Australian professional footballer 1995 – Lloyd Jones, English professional footballer 1995 – Bram van Vlerken, Dutch professional football player 1995 – Mathias Dyngeland, Norwegian footballer 1996 – Lewis Capaldi, Scottish singer-songwriter 1998 – Trent Alexander-Arnold, English professional footballer 2001 – Princess Senate Seeiso, Princess of Lesotho Deaths Pre-1600 336 – Mark, pope of the Catholic Church 858 – Montoku, Japanese emperor (b. 826) 929 – Charles the Simple, French king (b. 879) 950 – Li, Chinese empress consort 951 – Shi Zong, emperor of the Liao Dynasty (b. 919) 951 – Xiao, Chinese Khitan empress dowager 951 – Zhen, Chinese Khitan empress consort 988 – Qian Chu, king of Wuyue (b. 929) 1242 – Juntoku, Japanese emperor (b. 1197) 1259 – Ezzelino III da Romano, Italian ruler 1363 – Eleanor de Bohun, English noblewoman (b. 1304) 1368 – Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Belgian-English politician (b. 1338) 1461 – Jean Poton de Xaintrailles, follower of Joan of Arc (b. c. 1390) 1468 – Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, Italian nobleman (b. 1417) 1553 – Cristóbal de Morales, Spanish composer (b. 1500) 1571 – Sufi Ali Pasha, Ottoman soldier and politician, Ottoman Governor of Egypt 1571 – Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg, Danish queen consort of Christian III of Denmark (b. 1511) 1577 – George Gascoigne, English soldier, courtier, and poet (b. 1535) 1601–1900 1612 – Giovanni Battista Guarini, Italian poet, playwright, and diplomat (b. 1538) 1620 – Stanisław Żółkiewski, Polish-Lithuanian commander (b. 1547) 1637 – Victor Amadeus I, duke of Savoy (b. 1587) 1651 – Jacques Sirmond, French scholar (b. 1559) 1653 – Fausto Poli, Italian cardinal (b. 1581) 1708 – Guru Gobind Singh, Indian 10th Sikh guru (b. 1666) 1772 – John Woolman, American preacher and abolitionist (b. 1720) 1787 – Henry Muhlenberg, German-American pastor and missionary (b. 1711) 1792 – George Mason, American lawyer and politician (b. 1725) 1793 – Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire, English politician, President of the Board of Trade (b. 1718) 1796 – Thomas Reid, Scottish mathematician and philosopher (b. 1710) 1849 – Edgar Allan Poe, American short story writer, poet, and critic (b. 1809) 1884 – Bernard Petitjean, French Roman Catholic missionary to Japan (b. 1829) 1894 – Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., American physician, author, and poet (b. 1809) 1901–present 1903 – Rudolf Lipschitz, German mathematician and academic (b. 1832) 1904 – Isabella Bird, English historian and explorer (b. 1831) 1906 – Honoré Beaugrand, Canadian journalist and politician, 18th Mayor of Montreal (b. 1848) 1911 – John Hughlings Jackson, English neurologist and physician (b. 1835) 1919 – Alfred Deakin, Australian lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1856) 1925 – Christy Mathewson, American baseball player and manager (b. 1880) 1926 – Emil Kraepelin, German psychologist and academic (b. 1856) 1933 – Alexander Peacock, Australian politician, 20th Premier of Victoria (b. 1861) 1939 – Harvey Williams Cushing, American neurosurgeon and academic (b. 1869) 1943 – Radclyffe Hall, English author and poet (b. 1880) 1944 – Helmut Lent, German colonel and pilot (b. 1918) 1950 – Willis Haviland Carrier, American engineer (b. 1876) 1951 – Anton Philips, Dutch businessman, co-founded Philips (b. 1874) 1956 – Clarence Birdseye, American businessman, founded Birds Eye (b. 1886) 1959 – Mario Lanza, American tenor and actor (b. 1921) 1966 – Grigoris Asikis, Greek singer-songwriter (b. 1890) 1967 – Norman Angell, English journalist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1872) 1969 – Léon Scieur, Belgian cyclist (b. 1888) 1970 – Alphonse-Marie Parent, Canadian priest and academic (b. 1906) 1983 – George O. Abell, American astronomer, professor, science popularizer, and skeptic (b. 1927) 1985 – Cemal Reşit Rey, Turkish pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1904) 1990 – Beatrice Hutton, Australian architect (b. 1893) 1990 – Chiara Badano, Italian beatified (b.1971) 1990 – Grim Natwick, American animator (b. 1890) 1991 – Harry W. Brown, American colonel and pilot (b. 1921) 1991 – Leo Durocher, American baseball player and manager (b. 1905) 1991 – Darren Millane, Australian footballer (b. 1965) 1992 – Allan Bloom, American philosopher and educator (b. 1930) 1992 – Babu Karam Singh Bal, Indian businessman and politician (b.1927) 1993 – Cyril Cusack, South African-born Irish actor (b. 1910) 1994 – Niels Kaj Jerne, Danish-English physician and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911) 1995 – Ivan Hutchinson, Australian film critic and author (b. 1928) 1995 – Olga Taussky-Todd, Austrian-Czech-American mathematician, attendant of the Vienna Circle (b. 1906) 1996 – Lou Lichtveld, Surinamese-Dutch author, playwright, and politician (b. 1903) 1998 – Cees de Vreugd, Dutch strongman and weightlifter (b. 1952) 2001 – Herblock, American cartoonist and author (b. 1909) 2001 – Christopher Adams, English-American wrestler and trainer (b. 1955) 2001 – Roger Gaudry, Canadian chemist and businessman (b. 1913) 2002 – Pierangelo Bertoli, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942) 2003 – Izzy Asper, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1932) 2003 – Arthur Berger, American composer and educator (b. 1912) 2004 – Tony Lanfranchi, English race car driver (b. 1935) 2005 – Charles Rocket, American actor and comedian (b. 1949) 2006 – Julen Goikoetxea, Spanish cyclist (b. 1985) 2006 – Anna Politkovskaya, American-Russian journalist and activist (b. 1958) 2007 – Norifumi Abe, Japanese motorcycle racer (b. 1975) 2007 – George E. Sangmeister, American lawyer and politician (b. 1931) 2009 – Irving Penn, American photographer (b. 1917) 2010 – T Lavitz, American keyboard player, composer, and producer (b. 1956) 2010 – Milka Planinc, Croatian lawyer and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b. 1924) 2011 – Ramiz Alia, Albanian politician, 1st President of Albania (b. |
and nickname for Occidental Petroleum Oxy, a brand of cleaning products from Reckitt Benckiser Other uses Oxy or oxo, a ketone functional group Oxy, nickname for Occidental College | enterprises Oxy, a line of skin care products from Mentholatum OXY, Ticker symbol and nickname for Occidental Petroleum Oxy, a brand of cleaning products from Reckitt Benckiser Other uses Oxy or oxo, a ketone functional group Oxy, nickname for Occidental College Oxy, short for oxy-fuel welding |
(formula car, or often single-seater car in British English) is a car with the wheels outside the car's main body, and usually having only one seat. Open-wheel cars contrast with street cars, sports cars, stock cars, and touring cars, which have their wheels below the body or inside fenders. Open-wheel cars are built both for road racing and oval track racing. Street-legal open-wheel cars, such as the Ariel Atom, are very scarce as they are often impractical for everyday use. History American racecar driver and constructor, Ray Harroun, was an early pioneer of the concept of a lightweight single-seater, open-wheel "monoposto" racecar. After working as a mechanic in the automotive industry, Harroun began competitive professional racing in 1906, winning the AAA National Championship in 1910. He was then hired by the Marmon Motor Car Company as chief engineer, charged with building a racecar intended to race at the first Indianapolis 500, which he went on to win. He developed a revolutionary concept which would become the originator and forefather of the single-seater (i.e. monoposto) racecar design. Harroun has also been credited by some as pioneering the rear-view mirror which appeared on his 1911 Indianapolis 500 winning car, though he himself claimed he got the idea from seeing a mirror used for a similar purpose on a horse-drawn vehicle in 1904. Design A typical open-wheeler has a minimal cockpit sufficient only to enclose the driver's body, with the head exposed to the air. In the Whelen Modified Tour and other short track modified series, the driver's head is contained in the car. In modern cars, the engine is often located directly behind the driver, and drives the rear wheels; except in asphalt modified cars, such as the Whelen Modified Tour, where the engine is in front of the driver. Depending on the rules of the class, many types of open-wheelers have wings at the front and rear of the vehicle, as well as a very low and virtually flat undertray that helps achieve additional aerodynamic downforce pushing the car onto the road. Some major races, such as the Singapore Grand Prix, Monaco Grand Prix (sanctioned by Formula One) and the Long Beach Grand Prix (sanctioned by IndyCar), are held on temporary street circuits. However, most open-wheel races are on dedicated road courses, such as Watkins Glen International in the US, Nürburgring in Germany, Spa-Francorchamps in Belgium and Silverstone in Great Britain. In the United States, some top-level open-wheel events are held on ovals, of both short track and superspeedway variety, with an emphasis being placed more on speed and endurance than the maneuverability inherently required by road and street course events. The Whelen Modified Tour is the only opened wheeled race car series endorsed by NASCAR. This series races on most of NASCAR's most famous | its fastest. BAR Honda team recorded an average top speed of in 2006 at Bonneville Salt Flats with unofficial top speed reaching using their modified BAR 007 Formula One car. Speeds on ovals can range in constant excess of , and at Indianapolis in excess of . In 2000, Gil de Ferran set the one-lap qualifying record of at California Speedway. Even on tight non-oval street circuits such as the Grand Prix of Toronto, open-wheel Indy Cars attain speeds of . Driving an open-wheel car is substantially different from driving a car with fenders. Virtually all Formula One and Indycar drivers spend some time in various open-wheel categories before joining either top series. Open-wheel vehicles, due to their light weight, aerodynamic capabilities, and powerful engines, are often considered the fastest racing vehicles available and among the most challenging to master. Wheel-to-wheel contact is dangerous, particularly when the forward edge of one tire contacts the rear of another tire: since the treads are moving in opposite directions (one upward, one downward) at the point of contact, both wheels rapidly decelerate, torquing the chassis of both cars and often causing one or both vehicles to be suddenly and powerfully flung upwards (the rear car tends to pitch forward, and the front car tends to pitch backward.) An example of this is the 2005 Chicagoland crash of Ryan Briscoe with Alex Barron. Advantages The lower weight of an open-wheel racecar allows for better performance. While the exposure of the wheels to the airstream causes a very high aerodynamic drag at high speeds, it allows improved cooling of the brakes, which is important on road courses with their frequent changes of pace. Gallery Safety In 2018, several single seater series such as Formula One, Formula 2 (with their new Dallara F2 2018 chassis), and Formula E (with their new Spark SRT05e chassis) introduced a protection system to the cockpit called the "halo", a wishbone-shaped frame aimed to deflect debris away from a driver's head. Despite initial criticism, including for the reason of obstructing the driver's vision, it showed some praise in the Formula 2 sprint race in Catalunya when Nirei Fukuzumi spun and had the back of his car land on fellow countryman Tadasuke Makino's halo. In the Formula 1 Belgian Grand Prix, McLaren driver Fernando Alonso was sent airborne after being hit from behind by the Renault of Nico Hülkenberg and struck the halo of Sauber driver Charles Leclerc, thereby saving the Monegasque driver from a visor strike. In 2019, the newly-formed FIA Formula 3 Championship introduced a halo to their new chassis which was unveiled at the 2018 Abu Dhabi |
the 1966 race only four of eighteen boats finished the course. Originally, the course started at Black Rock, Falmouth, to Plymouth and back with marks at the Manacles rock and Looe Island. From 1967, the course started in Plymouth. It was a straight run from Plymouth to the Black Rock, Falmouth, and then a return to Plymouth, an approximate distance of 100 miles. Notable winners include Tommy Sopwith in 1965 and Fiona Gore in 1968. 1984 Everest Double Glazing - Round Britain Powerboat Race Once again the course for this great race was going to imitate the 1969 version. Organised by ex Powerboat Racer Tim Powell and after two years in concept and design Tim managed to obtain sponsorship from Everest Double Glazing which ensured the success of the race. With famous racers such as Fabio Buzzi, Lady Arran, Colin Gervase-Brazier, Peter Armstrong, Ted Toleman and Renato DelaValle and many others the fleet set off on 14 July 1984, once again from Portsmouth on its 1,400 journey around the British Isles. The two main contenders were Buzzi cruiser-based White Iveco, raced by company owner Fabio Buzzi, and Renato della Valle’s Ego Lamborghini. White Iveco was a single-step monohull powered by four Iveco diesels, while Ego was a Don Shead designed 38 ft (11.6 m) hull powered by a pair of 7-litre, marinised V12 Lamborghini petrol engines. Weather conditions for the first leg were poor and of the 28 starters at Portsmouth, only 18 boats reached Falmouth. By the end of the second leg only 12 remained. By the halfway stage, White Iveco led on elapsed time with Ego Lamborghini behind. British hopes lay in the hands of Double Two Shirts, a 40 ft (12.1 m) Shead-designed, Planatec-built racer with Sabre Diesel power, lying two hours back. An indication of the performance of these powerboats can be gauged from the Dundee to Whitby leg. Over a distance of 157 miles White Iveco averaged 69 knots, though Buzzi dismissed this with a typical Italian shrug saying, "In Italy this is just a cruising boat." However, at Ramsgate, while White Iveco was being craned out of the water for an overhaul she slipped from her cradle, landed on a bollard and gashed her hull. A feverish 36 hours followed while repairs were made so that she could complete the final leg. At the finish she was in first place with Colin Gervase-Braziers "The Legend" second and Ego Lamborghini third. Significantly, Motorboats and Yachting commented that the number of retirements demonstrated that though undoubtedly fast, some Class I craft had proved themselves to be unsafe in anything other than calm waters. The Fiat Powertrain 2008 Round Britain Powerboat Race After a period of 24 years another ex-powerboat racer and businessman now retired, Mike Lloyd, made the decision in 2006 that this great race should be brought back to life. He and his small team, including Peter Myles, fought for two years to ensure it did take place. Supported by 47 competitors and the Fiat Powertrain the fleet eventually left once again from the premises of Gunwharf Quays in Portsmouth at 09.30am on 21 June 2008 on this ten-leg twelve-day race. Fabio Buzzi had decided to take part in his old but famous four engined Red FPT as had the famous racer Hannes Bohinc in Wettpunkt. There was a strong contingent of three boats from Goldfish of Norway and competitors from Sweden, Greece, Germany, Scotland and Ireland. As in the previous races the weather at the start was awful and once the fleet of 47 boats had negotiated the many excited support boats within the Solent and entered the serious seas off the Needles the fleet knew they were in for a tough leg. Before reaching | October. There are up to six races over the race weekend, lasting 30–45 minutes each. The free events attract thousands of spectators and often run alongside the AquaX jetski series. All teams race in P1 Panther race boats with 250HP outboard engines. Powerboat P1 Management Ltd is the rights-holder for P1 SuperStock and also owns the rights to Powerboat P1 World Championship and P1 Aqua X. In the USA, a wholly owned subsidiary, P1 USA, manages all aspects of racing throughout North America. Boats in the 250+ hp class are sport racers powered by a 250+ hp engine. This propels the boat to speeds up to in flat water, and its lower centre of gravity provides greater stability and improved handling. UIM Powerboat GPS World Championship The series was officially founded as Powerboat P1 World Championship in May 2003 in Nettuno, Italy. Twelve boats, the majority of which were Italian, raced in the first-ever Grand Prix of the Sea. Starting out with 15-year-old aluminium boats, Powerboat P1 boats evolved dramatically through the decade to the point where the mono-hull twin-engine boats were developing around 1800 hp. During the Powerboat P1 World Championship era, which spanned 2003 to 2009, there was 40% more horsepower on a P1 starting grid than Formula 1. Notable offshore powerboat races Cowes Torquay Cowes The Cowes-Torquay was launched by Sir Max Aitken, 2nd Baronet, as the first Offshore Powerboat race in Europe in 1961. It is the longest-running offshore powerboat race in the world. Initially sponsored by the Daily Express newspaper, its success encouraged several countries in Europe and the Middle East to follow suit. Hence it can rightly claim to have introduced offshore powerboat racing to the rest of the world outside the United States where the modern sport was launched with the first Miami-Nassau Race in 1956. In 1967, the Union Internationale Motonautique, the world governing authority for powerboat racing, introduced the World Offshore Championship as a memorial to Sam Griffith, the American founder of modern offshore racing. In order to qualify as a championship heat, the race format was therefore changed and instead of finishing at Tor-quay, the fleet returned to Cowes, a pattern that remains to this day. The race is organised by the British Powerboat Racing Club. Event Director Martin Levi, son of powerboat designer, Sonny Levi took over the running of the event in 2016. The Round Britain Powerboat Race The Round Britain Powerboat has been run on 3 previous occasions. Winner 1969: Timo Mäkinen – Avenger Too Winner 1984: Fabio Buzzi – White Iveco Winner 2008: Pateras Vassilis – Blue FPT 1969 Daily Telegraph - B.P. Round Britain Powerboat Race 1459 miles, divided into 10 racing stages and one slow cruise; flat calm seas under blazing skies, a thick pea-souper fog, and a rough coastal run; 42 assorted boats ranging in power from 100 hp to 1,000 hp. The most outstanding feature of this marathon race was undoubtedly the freak weather, it was called by most participants, for the first 700 miles to Oban the conditions were as near perfect as they could be, and the fog on the Inverness-Dundee run, and the rough seas of the Dundee-Whitby leg were greeted almost with glee. Avenger Too, crewed by Timo Mäkinen, Pascoe Watson and Brian Hendicott, the Round Britain race was a success story from start to finish. They won the first leg to Falmouth and the second leg to Milford Haven; on the run to Douglas they were third, but still retained their overall lead. Only once during the entire race were they pushed from that leading position, and they had such a handsome lead that they could afford to tuck in behind a slower radar-equipped boat on the foggy run to Dundee, and still emerge the leaders by two hours. Their final victory, in a total time of just over 39 hours, represented an average speed, sustained over 1,381 nautical miles of racing, of 37.1 knots. The Cornish '100' A Class 3, Offshore, open Cockpit race, held |
length and irregular meter: Nash's poetry was often a playful twist of an old saying or poem. For one example, in a twist on Joyce Kilmer's poem "Trees" (1913), which contains "I think that I shall never see / a poem lovely as a tree"; Nash adds, "Indeed, unless the billboards fall / I'll never see a tree at all." Other poems Nash, a baseball fan, wrote a poem titled "Line-Up for Yesterday," an alphabetical poem listing baseball immortals. Published in Sport magazine in January 1949, the poem pays tribute to highly respected baseball players and to his own fandom, in alphabetical order. Lines include: Nash wrote humorous poems for each movement of the Camille Saint-Saëns orchestral suite The Carnival of the Animals, which are sometimes recited when the work is performed. The original recording of this version was made by Columbia Records in the 1940s, with Noël Coward reciting the poems and Andre Kostelanetz conducting the orchestra. He wrote a humorous poem about the IRS and income tax titled Song for the Saddest Ides, a reference to March 15, the ides of March, when federal taxes were due at the time. It was later set to music and performed by the IRS Chorale until its composer/conductor's later retirement. Many of his poems, reflecting the times in which they were written, presented stereotypes of different nationalities. For example, in Genealogical Reflections he writes: In The Japanese, published in 1938, Nash presents an allegory for the expansionist policies of the Empire of Japan: He published some poems for children, including "The Adventures of Isabel", which begins: Postage stamp The US Postal Service released a postage stamp featuring Ogden Nash and text from six of his poems on the centennial of his birth on August 19, 2002. The six poems are "The Turtle", "The Cow", "Crossing The Border", "The Kitten", "The Camel", and "Limerick One". The stamp is the eighteenth in the Literary Arts section. The first issue ceremony took place in Baltimore on August 19 at the home that he and his wife Frances shared with his parents on 4300 Rugby Road, where he did most of his writing. Bibliography I'm a Stranger Here Myself by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1938 (reissued Buccaneer Books, 1994. ) The Face Is Familiar: The Selected Verse of Ogden Nash by Ogden Nash. Garden City Publishing Company, Inc., 1941. Good Intentions by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1942. Many Long Years Ago by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1945. ASIN B000OELG1O Versus by Ogden Nash. Little, Brown, & Co, 1949. Private Dining Room by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1952. ASIN B000H1Z8U4 You Can't Get There from Here by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1957. Everyone but Thee and Me by Ogden Nash. Boston : Little, Brown, 1962. Marriage Lines by Ogden Nash. Boston : Little, Brown, 1964. There's Always Another Windmill by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1968. Bed Riddance by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1969. ASIN B000EGGXD8 Collected Verse from 1929 On by Ogden Nash. Lowe & Brydone (Printers) Ltd., London, for J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. 1972 The Old Dog Barks Backwards by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1972. Custard and Company by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1980. Ogden Nash's Zoo by Ogden Nash and Étienne Delessert. Stewart, Tabori, and | 1971. Nash thought of Baltimore as home. After his return from a brief move to New York, he wrote on Richard Lovelace, "I could have loved New York had I not loved Balti-more." Writing career When Nash was not writing poems, he made guest appearances on comedy and radio shows and toured the United States and the United Kingdom and gave lectures at colleges and universities. Nash was regarded with respect by the literary establishment, and his poems were frequently anthologized even in serious collections like Selden Rodman's 1946 A New Anthology of Modern Poetry. Nash was the lyricist for the Broadway musical One Touch of Venus and collaborated with the librettist S. J. Perelman and the composer Kurt Weill. The show included the notable song "Speak Low." He also wrote the lyrics for the 1952 revue Two's Company. Nash and his love of the Baltimore Colts were featured in the December 13, 1968 issue of Life, with several poems about the American football team matched to full-page pictures. Entitled "My Colts, verses and reverses," the issue includes his poems and photographs by Arthur Rickerby: "Mr. Nash, the league leading writer of light verse (Averaging better than 6.3 lines per carry), lives in Baltimore and loves the Colts," it declares. The comments further describe Nash as "a fanatic of the Baltimore Colts, and a gentleman." Featured on the magazine cover is the defensive player Dennis Gaubatz, number 53, in midair pursuit with this description: "That is he, looming 10 feet tall or taller above the Steelers' signal caller ... Since Gaubatz acts like this on Sunday, I'll do my quarterbacking Monday." Memorable Colts Jimmy Orr, Billy Ray Smith, Bubba Smith, Willie Richardson, Dick Szymanski and Lou Michaels contribute to the poetry. Among his most popular writings were a series of animal verses, many of which featured his off-kilter rhyming devices. Examples include "If called by a panther / Don't anther"; "Who wants my jellyfish? / I'm not sellyfish!"; "The one-L lama, he's a priest. The two-L llama, he's a beast. And I will bet a silk pajama: there isn't any three-L lllama!" Nash later appended the footnote "*The author's attention has been called to a type of conflagration known as a three-alarmer. Pooh." The best of his work was published in 14 volumes between 1931 and 1972. Death and subsequent events Nash died at Baltimore's Johns Hopkins Hospital on May 19, 1971, of heart failure 10 days after suffering a stroke while receiving treatment for kidney failure. He is buried in East Side Cemetery in North Hampton, New Hampshire. At the time of his death in 1971, The New York Times said his "droll verse with its unconventional rhymes made him the country's best-known producer of humorous poetry." A biography, Ogden Nash: the Life and Work of America's Laureate of Light Verse, was written by Douglas M. Parker, published in 2005 and in paperback in 2007. The book was written with the cooperation of the Nash family, and quotes extensively from Nash's personal correspondence as well as his poetry. His daughter Isabel was married to noted photographer Fred Eberstadt, and his granddaughter, Fernanda Eberstadt, is an acclaimed author. Nash had one other daughter, author Linell Nash Smith. Poetic style Nash was best known for surprising, pun-like rhymes, sometimes with words deliberately misspelled for comic effect, as in his retort to Dorothy Parker's humorous dictum, Men seldom make passes / At girls who wear glasses: In this example, the word "nectacled" sounds like the phrase "neck tickled" when rhymed with the previous line. Sometimes the words rhyme by mispronunciation rather than misspelling, as in: Another typical example of rhyming by combining words occurs in "The Adventures of Isabel", when Isabel confronts a witch who threatens to turn her into a toad: Nash often wrote in an exaggerated verse form with pairs of lines that rhyme, but are of dissimilar length and irregular meter: Nash's poetry was often a playful twist of an old saying or poem. For one example, in a twist on Joyce Kilmer's poem "Trees" (1913), which contains "I think that I shall never see / a poem lovely as a tree"; Nash adds, "Indeed, unless the billboards fall / I'll never see a tree at all." Other poems Nash, a baseball fan, wrote a poem titled "Line-Up for Yesterday," an alphabetical poem listing baseball immortals. Published in Sport magazine in January 1949, the poem pays tribute to highly respected baseball players and to his own fandom, in alphabetical order. Lines include: Nash wrote humorous poems for each movement |
– Battle of Mogadishu occurs killing 18 U.S. Special Forces, two UN Peacekeepers and at least 600 Somalian militia men and civilians. 1993 – Tanks bombard the Russian parliament, while demonstrators against President Yeltsin rally outside. 1997 – The second largest cash robbery in U.S. history occurs in North Carolina 2001 – Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 crashes after being struck by an errant Ukrainian missile. Seventy-eight people are killed. 2003 – The Maxim restaurant suicide bombing in Israel kills twenty-one Israelis, both Jews and Arabs. 2004 – SpaceShipOne wins the Ansari X Prize for private spaceflight. 2006 – WikiLeaks is launched. 2010 – The Ajka plant accident in Hungary releases a million cubic metres of liquid alumina sludge, killing nine, injuring 122, and severely contaminating two major rivers. 2017 – Joint Nigerian-American Special Forces are ambushed by Islamic State militants outside the village of Tongo Tongo. 2021 – Bubba Wallace becomes the first African-American Driver in the modern era of NASCAR to win a major race Births Pre-1600 1160 – Alys, Countess of the Vexin, daughter of Louis VII of France (d. c. 1220) 1274 – Rudolf I, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1319) 1276 – Margaret of Brabant (d. 1311) 1289 – Louis X of France (d. 1316) 1331 – James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond, Irish politician, Lord Justice of Ireland (d. 1382) 1379 – Henry III of Castile (d. 1406) 1507 – Francis Bigod, English noble (d. 1537) 1515 – Lucas Cranach the Younger, German painter (d. 1586) 1522 – Gabriele Paleotti, Catholic cardinal (d. 1597) 1524 – Francisco Vallés, Spanish physician (d. 1592) 1532 – Francisco de Toledo, Catholic cardinal (d. 1596) 1542 – Robert Bellarmine, Italian cardinal and saint (d. 1621) 1550 – Charles IX of Sweden (d. 1611) 1562 – Christen Sørensen Longomontanus, Danish astronomer and author (d. 1647) 1570 – Péter Pázmány, Hungarian cardinal and philosopher (d. 1637) 1579 – Guido Bentivoglio, Italian cardinal (d. 1644) 1585 – Anna of Tyrol, Holy Roman Empress (d. 1618) 1601–1900 1625 – Jacqueline Pascal, French nun and composer (d. 1661) 1626 – Richard Cromwell, English academic and politician, Lord Protector of Great Britain (d. 1712) 1633 – Bernardino Ramazzini, Italian physician (d. 1714) 1657 – Francesco Solimena, Italian painter and illustrator (d. 1747) 1694 – Lord George Murray, Scottish Jacobite General (d. 1760) 1720 – Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Italian sculptor and illustrator (d. 1778) 1723 – Nikolaus Poda von Neuhaus, German entomologist and author (d. 1798) 1759 – Louis François Antoine Arbogast, French mathematician and academic (d. 1803) 1768 – Francisco José de Caldas, Colombian naturalist, executed by royalists in the war of independence (d. 1816) 1787 – François Guizot, French historian and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of France (d. 1874) 1793 – Charles Pearson, English lawyer and politician (d. 1862) 1807 – Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, Canadian lawyer and politician, 2nd Premier of Canada East (d. 1864) 1814 – Jean-François Millet, French painter and educator (d. 1875) 1822 – Rutherford B. Hayes, American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (d. 1893) 1835 – Jenny Twitchell Kempton, American opera singer and educator (d. 1921) 1836 – Juliette Adam, French author (d. 1936) 1837 – Auguste-Réal Angers, Canadian judge and politician, 6th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1919) 1841 – Prudente de Morais, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Brazil (d. 1912) 1841 – Maria Sophie of Bavaria (d. 1925) 1843 – Marie-Alphonsine Danil Ghattas, Palestinian nun and Catholic Saint (d. 1927) 1858 – Léon Serpollet, French businessman (d. 1903) 1861 – Walter Rauschenbusch, American pastor and theologian (d. 1918) 1861 – Frederic Remington, American painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 1909) 1862 – Edward Stratemeyer, American author and publisher (d. 1930) 1868 – Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear, Argentinian lawyer and politician, 20th President of Argentina (d. 1942) 1874 – John Ellis, English executioner (d. 1932) 1876 – Florence Eliza Allen, American mathematician and suffrage activist (d. 1960) 1877 – Razor Smith, English cricketer (d. 1946) 1879 – Robert Edwards, American artist, musician, and writer (d. 1948) 1880 – Damon Runyon, American newspaperman and short story writer. (d. 1946) 1881 – Walther von Brauchitsch, German field marshal (d. 1948) 1884 – Ramchandra Shukla, Indian historian and author (d. 1941) 1888 – Lucy Tayiah Eads, American tribal chief (d. 1961) 1888 – Oscar Mathisen, Norwegian speed skater (d. 1954) 1890 – Alan L. Hart, American physician and author (d. 1962) 1890 – Osman Cemal Kaygılı, Turkish writer and journalist (d. 1945) 1892 – Engelbert Dollfuss, Austrian soldier and politician, 14th Federal Chancellor of Austria (d. 1934) 1892 – Hermann Glauert, English aerodynamicist and author (d. 1934) 1892 – Robert Lawson, American author and illustrator (d. 1957) 1895 – Buster Keaton, American film actor, director, and producer (d. 1966) 1895 – Richard Sorge, German journalist and spy (d. 1944) 1896 – Dorothy Lawrence, English reporter, who secretly posed as a man to become a soldier during World War I (d. 1964) 1900 – August Mälk, Estonian author and playwright (d. 1987) 1901–present 1903 – Bona Arsenault, Canadian genealogist, historian, and politician (d. 1993) 1903 – John Vincent Atanasoff, American physicist and academic, invented the Atanasoff–Berry computer (d. 1995) 1903 – Pierre Garbay, French general (d. 1980) 1903 – Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Austrian-German lawyer and general (d. 1946) 1906 – Mary Celine Fasenmyer, American mathematician (d. 1996) 1907 – Alain Daniélou, French-Swiss historian and academic (d. 1994) 1910 – Frankie Crosetti, American baseball player and coach (d. 2002) 1910 – Cahit Sıtkı Tarancı, Turkish poet and author (d. 1956) 1911 – Mary Two-Axe Earley, Canadian indigenous women's rights activist (d. 1996) 1913 – Martial Célestin, Haitian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Haiti (d. 2011) 1914 – Jim Cairns, Australian economist and politician, 4th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2003) 1914 – Brendan Gill, American journalist and essayist (d. 1997) 1916 – Vitaly Ginzburg, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009) 1916 – Jan Murray, American comedian, actor, and game show host (d. 2006) 1916 – George Sidney, American director and producer (d. 2002) 1916 – Ken Wood, inventor of the Kenwood Chef food mixer (d. 1997) 1917 – Violeta Parra, Chilean singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1967) 1918 – Kenichi Fukui, Japanese chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) 1921 – Stella Pevsner, American children's author (d. 2020) 1922 – Malcolm Baldrige, Jr., American businessman and politician, 26th United States Secretary of Commerce (d. 1987) 1922 – Shin Kyuk-ho, South Korean-Japanese businessman, founded Lotte Group (d. 2020) 1922 – Don Lenhardt, American baseball player and coach (d. 2014) 1923 – Charlton Heston, American actor, director and gun rights activist (d. 2008) 1924 – Donald J. Sobol, American soldier and author (d. 2012) 1925 – Roger Wood, Belgian-American journalist (d. 2012) 1926 – Raymond Watson, American businessman (d. 2012) 1927 – Wolf Kahn, American painter and academic (d. 2020) 1928 – Alvin Toffler, German-American journalist and author (d. 2016) 1928 – Torben Ulrich, Danish-American tennis player 1929 – Scotty Beckett, American actor and singer (d. 1968) 1929 – John E. Mack, American psychiatrist and author (d. 2004) 1929 – Leroy Van Dyke, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1931 – Terence Conran, English designer and businessman (d. 2020) 1931 – Basil D'Oliveira, South African-English cricketer and footballer (d. 2011) 1931 – Richard Rorty, American philosopher and author (d. 2007) 1933 – German Moreno, Filipino television host and actor (d. 2016) 1933 – Ann Thwaite, English author 1934 – Sam Huff, American football player, coach, and sportscaster 1936 – Charlie Hurley, Irish footballer and manager 1936 – Giles Radice, Baron Radice, English politician 1937 – Jackie Collins, English-American author and actress (d. 2015) 1937 – David Crocker, American philosopher and academic 1937 – Gail Gilmore, Canadian-American actress and dancer (d. 2014) 1937 – Lloyd Green, American steel guitar player 1937 – Jim Sillars, Scottish lawyer and politician 1938 – Kurt Wüthrich, Swiss chemist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate 1938 – Norman D. Wilson, American actor (d. 2004) 1939 – Ivan Mauger, New Zealand speedway rider (d. 2018) 1940 – Vic Hadfield, Canadian ice hockey player 1940 – Silvio Marzolini, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 2020) 1940 – Steve Swallow, American bass player and composer 1940 – Alberto Vilar, American businessman and philanthropist 1941 – Roy Blount, Jr., American humorist and journalist 1941 – Karen Cushman, American author 1941 – Karl Oppitzhauser, Austrian race car driver 1941 – Anne Rice, American author (d. 2021) 1941 – Frank Stagg (Irish republican) Irish Hunger Striker (d. 1976) 1941 – Robert Wilson, American director and playwright 1942 – Bernice Johnson Reagon, American singer-songwriter 1942 – Karl W. Richter, American lieutenant and pilot (d. 1967) 1942 – Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, Icelandic politician, 24th Prime Minister of Iceland 1942 – Christopher Stone, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1995) 1943 – H. Rap Brown, American activist 1943 – Owen Davidson, Australian tennis player 1943 – Karl-Gustav Kaisla, Finnish ice hockey player and referee (d. 2012) 1943 – Dietmar Mürdter, German footballer 1943 – Jimy Williams, American baseball player and manager 1944 – Colin Bundy, South African-English historian and academic 1944 – Rocío Dúrcal, Spanish singer and actress (d. 2006) 1944 – Tony La Russa, American baseball player and manager 1944 – John McFall, Baron McFall of Alcluith, Scottish educator and politician 1945 – Clifton Davis, American singer-songwriter, actor, and minister 1946 – Larry Clapp, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013) 1946 – Chuck Hagel, American sergeant and politician, 24th United States Secretary of Defense 1946 – Michael Mullen, American admiral 1946 – Susan Sarandon, American actress and activist 1947 – Julien Clerc, French singer-songwriter and pianist 1947 – Jim Fielder, American bass player 1947 – Ann Widdecombe, English politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Health 1948 – Iain Hewitson, New Zealand-Australian chef, restaurateur, author, and television personality 1948 – Linda McMahon, American businesswoman and politician 1948 – Duke Robillard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1949 – Armand Assante, American actor and producer 1949 – Stephen Gyllenhaal, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1951 – Bakhytzhan Kanapyanov, Kazakh poet and author 1952 – Anita DeFrantz, American rower and sports administrator 1952 – Jody Stephens, American rock drummer 1952 – Zinha Vaz, Bissau-Guinean women's rights activist and politician 1953 – Gil Moore, Canadian singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer 1953 – Andreas Vollenweider, Swiss harp player 1955 – John Rutherford, Scottish rugby player 1955 – Jorge Valdano, Argentinian footballer, coach, and manager 1956 – Lesley Glaister, English author and playwright 1956 – Charlie Leibrandt, American baseball player 1956 – Sherri Turner, American golfer 1956 – Christoph Waltz, Austrian-German actor 1957 – Bill Fagerbakke, American actor 1957 – Yngve Moe, Norwegian bass player and songwriter (d. 2013) 1957 – Russell Simmons, American | writer. (d. 1946) 1881 – Walther von Brauchitsch, German field marshal (d. 1948) 1884 – Ramchandra Shukla, Indian historian and author (d. 1941) 1888 – Lucy Tayiah Eads, American tribal chief (d. 1961) 1888 – Oscar Mathisen, Norwegian speed skater (d. 1954) 1890 – Alan L. Hart, American physician and author (d. 1962) 1890 – Osman Cemal Kaygılı, Turkish writer and journalist (d. 1945) 1892 – Engelbert Dollfuss, Austrian soldier and politician, 14th Federal Chancellor of Austria (d. 1934) 1892 – Hermann Glauert, English aerodynamicist and author (d. 1934) 1892 – Robert Lawson, American author and illustrator (d. 1957) 1895 – Buster Keaton, American film actor, director, and producer (d. 1966) 1895 – Richard Sorge, German journalist and spy (d. 1944) 1896 – Dorothy Lawrence, English reporter, who secretly posed as a man to become a soldier during World War I (d. 1964) 1900 – August Mälk, Estonian author and playwright (d. 1987) 1901–present 1903 – Bona Arsenault, Canadian genealogist, historian, and politician (d. 1993) 1903 – John Vincent Atanasoff, American physicist and academic, invented the Atanasoff–Berry computer (d. 1995) 1903 – Pierre Garbay, French general (d. 1980) 1903 – Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Austrian-German lawyer and general (d. 1946) 1906 – Mary Celine Fasenmyer, American mathematician (d. 1996) 1907 – Alain Daniélou, French-Swiss historian and academic (d. 1994) 1910 – Frankie Crosetti, American baseball player and coach (d. 2002) 1910 – Cahit Sıtkı Tarancı, Turkish poet and author (d. 1956) 1911 – Mary Two-Axe Earley, Canadian indigenous women's rights activist (d. 1996) 1913 – Martial Célestin, Haitian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Haiti (d. 2011) 1914 – Jim Cairns, Australian economist and politician, 4th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2003) 1914 – Brendan Gill, American journalist and essayist (d. 1997) 1916 – Vitaly Ginzburg, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009) 1916 – Jan Murray, American comedian, actor, and game show host (d. 2006) 1916 – George Sidney, American director and producer (d. 2002) 1916 – Ken Wood, inventor of the Kenwood Chef food mixer (d. 1997) 1917 – Violeta Parra, Chilean singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1967) 1918 – Kenichi Fukui, Japanese chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) 1921 – Stella Pevsner, American children's author (d. 2020) 1922 – Malcolm Baldrige, Jr., American businessman and politician, 26th United States Secretary of Commerce (d. 1987) 1922 – Shin Kyuk-ho, South Korean-Japanese businessman, founded Lotte Group (d. 2020) 1922 – Don Lenhardt, American baseball player and coach (d. 2014) 1923 – Charlton Heston, American actor, director and gun rights activist (d. 2008) 1924 – Donald J. Sobol, American soldier and author (d. 2012) 1925 – Roger Wood, Belgian-American journalist (d. 2012) 1926 – Raymond Watson, American businessman (d. 2012) 1927 – Wolf Kahn, American painter and academic (d. 2020) 1928 – Alvin Toffler, German-American journalist and author (d. 2016) 1928 – Torben Ulrich, Danish-American tennis player 1929 – Scotty Beckett, American actor and singer (d. 1968) 1929 – John E. Mack, American psychiatrist and author (d. 2004) 1929 – Leroy Van Dyke, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1931 – Terence Conran, English designer and businessman (d. 2020) 1931 – Basil D'Oliveira, South African-English cricketer and footballer (d. 2011) 1931 – Richard Rorty, American philosopher and author (d. 2007) 1933 – German Moreno, Filipino television host and actor (d. 2016) 1933 – Ann Thwaite, English author 1934 – Sam Huff, American football player, coach, and sportscaster 1936 – Charlie Hurley, Irish footballer and manager 1936 – Giles Radice, Baron Radice, English politician 1937 – Jackie Collins, English-American author and actress (d. 2015) 1937 – David Crocker, American philosopher and academic 1937 – Gail Gilmore, Canadian-American actress and dancer (d. 2014) 1937 – Lloyd Green, American steel guitar player 1937 – Jim Sillars, Scottish lawyer and politician 1938 – Kurt Wüthrich, Swiss chemist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate 1938 – Norman D. Wilson, American actor (d. 2004) 1939 – Ivan Mauger, New Zealand speedway rider (d. 2018) 1940 – Vic Hadfield, Canadian ice hockey player 1940 – Silvio Marzolini, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 2020) 1940 – Steve Swallow, American bass player and composer 1940 – Alberto Vilar, American businessman and philanthropist 1941 – Roy Blount, Jr., American humorist and journalist 1941 – Karen Cushman, American author 1941 – Karl Oppitzhauser, Austrian race car driver 1941 – Anne Rice, American author (d. 2021) 1941 – Frank Stagg (Irish republican) Irish Hunger Striker (d. 1976) 1941 – Robert Wilson, American director and playwright 1942 – Bernice Johnson Reagon, American singer-songwriter 1942 – Karl W. Richter, American lieutenant and pilot (d. 1967) 1942 – Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, Icelandic politician, 24th Prime Minister of Iceland 1942 – Christopher Stone, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1995) 1943 – H. Rap Brown, American activist 1943 – Owen Davidson, Australian tennis player 1943 – Karl-Gustav Kaisla, Finnish ice hockey player and referee (d. 2012) 1943 – Dietmar Mürdter, German footballer 1943 – Jimy Williams, American baseball player and manager 1944 – Colin Bundy, South African-English historian and academic 1944 – Rocío Dúrcal, Spanish singer and actress (d. 2006) 1944 – Tony La Russa, American baseball player and manager 1944 – John McFall, Baron McFall of Alcluith, Scottish educator and politician 1945 – Clifton Davis, American singer-songwriter, actor, and minister 1946 – Larry Clapp, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013) 1946 – Chuck Hagel, American sergeant and politician, 24th United States Secretary of Defense 1946 – Michael Mullen, American admiral 1946 – Susan Sarandon, American actress and activist 1947 – Julien Clerc, French singer-songwriter and pianist 1947 – Jim Fielder, American bass player 1947 – Ann Widdecombe, English politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Health 1948 – Iain Hewitson, New Zealand-Australian chef, restaurateur, author, and television personality 1948 – Linda McMahon, American businesswoman and politician 1948 – Duke Robillard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1949 – Armand Assante, American actor and producer 1949 – Stephen Gyllenhaal, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1951 – Bakhytzhan Kanapyanov, Kazakh poet and author 1952 – Anita DeFrantz, American rower and sports administrator 1952 – Jody Stephens, American rock drummer 1952 – Zinha Vaz, Bissau-Guinean women's rights activist and politician 1953 – Gil Moore, Canadian singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer 1953 – Andreas Vollenweider, Swiss harp player 1955 – John Rutherford, Scottish rugby player 1955 – Jorge Valdano, Argentinian footballer, coach, and manager 1956 – Lesley Glaister, English author and playwright 1956 – Charlie Leibrandt, American baseball player 1956 – Sherri Turner, American golfer 1956 – Christoph Waltz, Austrian-German actor 1957 – Bill Fagerbakke, American actor 1957 – Yngve Moe, Norwegian bass player and songwriter (d. 2013) 1957 – Russell Simmons, American businessman, founded Def Jam Recordings and Phat Farm 1958 – Barbara Kooyman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Anneka Rice, Welsh radio and television host 1959 – Chris Lowe, English singer and keyboard player 1959 – Tony Meo, English snooker player 1959 – Hitonari Tsuji, Japanese author, composer, and director 1960 – Joe Boever, American baseball player 1960 – Henry Worsley, English colonel and explorer (d. 2016) 1961 – Philippe Russo, French singer-songwriter and guitarist 1961 – Kazuki Takahashi, Japanese author and illustrator, created Yu-Gi-Oh! 1961 – Jon Secada, Cuban-American singer-songwriter 1962 – Carlos Carsolio, Mexican mountaineer 1963 – A. C. Green, American basketball player 1963 – Koji Ishikawa, Japanese author and illustrator 1964 – Francis Magalona, Filipino rapper, producer, and actor (d. 2009) 1964 – Yvonne Murray, Scottish runner 1965 – Olaf Backasch, German footballer 1965 – Skip Heller, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1965 – Steve Olin, American baseball player (d. 1993) 1965 – Micky Ward, American boxer 1967 – Nick Green, Australian rower 1967 – Liev Schreiber, American actor and director 1968 – Richard Hancox, English footballer and manager 1968 – Tim Wise, American activist and author 1971 – Darren Middleton, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1972 – Kurt Thomas, American basketball player 1974 – Paco León, Spanish actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1975 – Cristiano Lucarelli, Italian footballer and manager 1976 – Mauro Camoranesi, Argentinian-Italian footballer and manager 1976 – Elisandro Naressi Roos, Brazilian footballer 1976 – Alicia Silverstone, American actress, producer, and author 1976 – Ueli Steck, Swiss mountaineer and rock climber (d. 2017) 1977 – Richard Reed Parry, Canadian guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1978 – Phillip Glasser, American actor and producer 1978 – Kei Horie, Japanese actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1978 – Kyle Lohse, American baseball player 1979 – Rachael Leigh Cook, American actress 1979 – Björn Phau, German tennis player 1979 – Adam Voges, Australian cricketer 1980 – Sarah Fisher, American race car driver 1980 – James Jones, American basketball player 1980 – Tomáš Rosický, Czech footballer 1981 – Shaura, Japanese singer 1981 – Justin Williams, Canadian ice hockey player 1982 – Tony Gwynn, Jr., American baseball player 1982 – |
vertex. Consequently, it is the only member of that group to possess mirror planes that do not pass through any of the faces. Using the standard nomenclature for Johnson solids, an octahedron would be called a square bipyramid. Truncation of two opposite vertices results in a square bifrustum. The octahedron is 4-connected, meaning that it takes the removal of four vertices to disconnect the remaining vertices. It is one of only four 4-connected simplicial well-covered polyhedra, meaning that all of the maximal independent sets of its vertices have the same size. The other three polyhedra with this property are the pentagonal dipyramid, the snub disphenoid, and an irregular polyhedron with 12 vertices and 20 triangular faces. The octahedron can also be generated as the case of a 3D superellipsoid with all values set to 1. Uniform colorings and symmetry There are 3 uniform colorings of the octahedron, named by the triangular face colors going around each vertex: 1212, 1112, 1111. The octahedron's symmetry group is Oh, of order 48, the three dimensional hyperoctahedral group. This group's subgroups include D3d (order 12), the symmetry group of a triangular antiprism; D4h (order 16), the symmetry group of a square bipyramid; and Td (order 24), the symmetry group of a rectified tetrahedron. These symmetries can be emphasized by different colorings of the faces. Nets The regular octahedron has eleven arrangements of nets. Dual The octahedron is the dual polyhedron to the cube. If the length of an edge of the octahedron , then the length of an edge of the dual cube . Faceting The uniform tetrahemihexahedron is a tetrahedral symmetry faceting of the regular octahedron, sharing edge and vertex arrangement. It has four of the triangular faces, and 3 central squares. Irregular octahedra The following polyhedra are combinatorially equivalent to the regular polyhedron. They all have six vertices, eight triangular faces, and twelve edges that correspond one-for-one with the features of a regular octahedron. Triangular antiprisms: Two faces are equilateral, lie on parallel planes, and have a common axis of symmetry. The other six triangles are isosceles. Tetragonal bipyramids, in which at least one of the equatorial quadrilaterals lies on a plane. The regular octahedron is a special case in which all three quadrilaterals are planar squares. Schönhardt polyhedron, a non-convex polyhedron that cannot be partitioned into tetrahedra without introducing new vertices. Bricard octahedron, a non-convex self-crossing flexible polyhedron Other convex octahedra More generally, an octahedron can be any polyhedron with eight faces. The regular octahedron has 6 vertices and 12 edges, the minimum for an octahedron; irregular octahedra may have as many as 12 vertices and 18 edges. There are 257 topologically distinct convex octahedra, excluding mirror images. More specifically there are 2, 11, 42, 74, 76, 38, 14 for octahedra with 6 to 12 vertices respectively. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.) Some better known irregular octahedra include the following: Hexagonal prism: Two faces are parallel regular hexagons; six squares link corresponding pairs of hexagon edges. Heptagonal pyramid: One face is a heptagon (usually regular), and the remaining seven faces are triangles (usually isosceles). It is not possible for all triangular faces to be equilateral. Truncated tetrahedron: The four faces from the tetrahedron are truncated to become regular hexagons, and there are four more equilateral triangle faces where each tetrahedron vertex was truncated. Tetragonal trapezohedron: The eight faces are congruent kites. Octagonal hosohedron: degenerate in Euclidean space, but can be realized spherically. Octahedra in the physical world Octahedra in nature Natural crystals of diamond, alum or fluorite are commonly octahedral, as the space-filling tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb. The plates of kamacite alloy in octahedrite meteorites are arranged paralleling the eight faces of an octahedron. Many metal ions coordinate six ligands in an octahedral or distorted octahedral configuration. Widmanstätten patterns in nickel-iron crystals Octahedra in art and culture Especially in roleplaying games, this solid is known as a "d8", one of the more common polyhedral dice. If each edge of an octahedron is replaced by a one-ohm resistor, the resistance between opposite vertices is ohm, and that between adjacent vertices ohm. Six musical notes can be arranged on the vertices of an octahedron in such a way that | but not areas or lengths. Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane. Cartesian coordinates An octahedron with edge length can be placed with its center at the origin and its vertices on the coordinate axes; the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are then ( ±1, 0, 0 ); ( 0, ±1, 0 ); ( 0, 0, ±1 ). In an x–y–z Cartesian coordinate system, the octahedron with center coordinates (a, b, c) and radius r is the set of all points (x, y, z) such that Area and volume The surface area A and the volume V of a regular octahedron of edge length a are: Thus the volume is four times that of a regular tetrahedron with the same edge length, while the surface area is twice (because we have 8 rather than 4 triangles). If an octahedron has been stretched so that it obeys the equation the formulas for the surface area and volume expand to become Additionally the inertia tensor of the stretched octahedron is These reduce to the equations for the regular octahedron when Geometric relations The interior of the compound of two dual tetrahedra is an octahedron, and this compound, called the stella octangula, is its first and only stellation. Correspondingly, a regular octahedron is the result of cutting off from a regular tetrahedron, four regular tetrahedra of half the linear size (i.e. rectifying the tetrahedron). The vertices of the octahedron lie at the midpoints of the edges of the tetrahedron, and in this sense it relates to the tetrahedron in the same way that the cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron relate to the other Platonic solids. One can also divide the edges of an octahedron in the ratio of the golden mean to define the vertices of an icosahedron. This is done by first placing vectors along the octahedron's edges such that each face is bounded by a cycle, then similarly partitioning each edge into the golden mean along the direction of its vector. There are five octahedra that define any given icosahedron in this fashion, and together they define a regular compound. Octahedra and tetrahedra can be alternated to form a vertex, edge, and face-uniform tessellation of space, called the octet truss by Buckminster Fuller. This is the only such tiling save the regular tessellation of cubes, and is one of the 28 convex uniform honeycombs. Another is a tessellation of octahedra and cuboctahedra. The octahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in having an even number of faces meeting at each vertex. Consequently, it is the only member of that group to possess mirror planes that do not pass through any of the faces. Using the standard nomenclature for Johnson solids, an octahedron would be called a square bipyramid. Truncation of two opposite vertices results in a square bifrustum. The octahedron is 4-connected, meaning that it takes the removal of four vertices to disconnect the remaining vertices. It is one of only four 4-connected simplicial well-covered polyhedra, meaning that all of the maximal independent sets of its vertices have the same size. The other three polyhedra with this property are the pentagonal dipyramid, the snub disphenoid, and an irregular polyhedron with 12 vertices and 20 triangular faces. The octahedron can also be generated as the case of a 3D superellipsoid with all values set to 1. Uniform colorings and symmetry There are 3 uniform colorings of the octahedron, named by the triangular face colors going around each vertex: 1212, 1112, 1111. The octahedron's symmetry group is Oh, of order 48, the three dimensional hyperoctahedral group. This group's subgroups include D3d (order 12), the symmetry group of a triangular antiprism; D4h (order 16), the symmetry group of a square bipyramid; and Td |
assistant. Rømer added his own observations to Cassini's and observed that times between eclipses (particularly those of Io) got shorter as Earth approached Jupiter, and longer as Earth moved farther away. Cassini made an announcement to the Academy of Sciences on 22 August 1676: This second inequality appears to be due to light taking some time to reach us from the satellite; light seems to take about ten to eleven minutes [to cross] a distance equal to the half-diameter of the terrestrial orbit. Oddly, Cassini seems to have abandoned this reasoning, which Rømer adopted and set about buttressing in an irrefutable manner, using a selected number of observations performed by Picard and himself between 1671 and 1677. Rømer presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences, and it was summarised soon after by an anonymous reporter in a short paper, , published 7 December 1676 in the Journal des sçavans. Unfortunately, the reporter, possibly in order to hide his lack of understanding, resorted to cryptic phrasing, obfuscating Rømer's reasoning in the process. Rømer himself never published his results. Rømer's reasoning was as follows. Referring to the illustration, assume the Earth is at point L, and Io emerges from Jupiter's shadow at point D. After several orbits of Io, at 42.5 hours per orbit, the Earth is at point K. If light is not propagated instantaneously, the additional time it takes to reach K, which he reckoned about 3½ minutes, would explain the observed delay. Rømer observed immersions at point C from positions F and G, to avoid confusion with eclipses (Io shadowed by Jupiter from C to D) and occultations (Io hidden behind Jupiter at various angles). In the table below, his observations in 1676, including the one on 7 August, believed to be at the opposition point H, and the one observed at Paris Observatory to be 10 minutes late, on 9 November. By trial and error, during eight years of observations Rømer worked out how to account for the retardation of light when reckoning the ephemeris of Io. He calculated the delay as a proportion of the angle corresponding to a given Earth's position with respect to Jupiter, Δt = 22·()[minutes]. When the angle α is 180° the delay becomes 22 minutes, which may be interpreted as the time necessary for the light to cross a distance equal to the diameter of the Earth's orbit, H to E. (Actually, Jupiter is not visible from the conjunction point E.) That interpretation makes it possible to calculate the strict result of Rømer's observations: The ratio of the speed of light to the speed with which Earth orbits the sun, which is the ratio of the duration of a year divided by pi as compared to the 22 minutes ≈ 7,600. In comparison, the modern value is circa ≈ 10,100. Rømer neither calculated this ratio, nor did he give a value for the speed of light. However, many others calculated a speed from his data, the first being Christiaan Huygens; after corresponding with Rømer and eliciting more data, Huygens deduced that light travelled Earth diameters per second, which is approximately 212,000 km/s. Rømer's view that the velocity of light was finite was not fully accepted until measurements of the so-called aberration of light were made by James Bradley in 1727. In 1809, again making use of observations of Io, but this time with the benefit of more than a century of increasingly precise observations, the astronomer Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre reported the time for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth as 8 minutes and 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometres per second. The modern value is 8 minutes and 19 seconds, and a speed of 299,792.458 km/s. A plaque at the Observatory of Paris, where the Danish astronomer happened to be working, commemorates what was, in effect, the first measurement of a universal quantity made on this planet. Inventions In addition to inventing the first street lights in Copenhagen, Rømer also invented the meridian circle, the altazimuth, and the passage instrument (also known as the transit instrument, a type of meridian circle whose horizontal axis is not fixed in the east-west direction). Ole Rømer Medal The is given annually by the Danish Natural Science Research Council for outstanding research. The Ole Rømer Museum The Ole Rømer Museum is located in the municipality of Høje-Taastrup, Denmark, at the excavated site of Rømer's observatory at Vridsløsemagle. The observatory opened in 1704, and operated until about 1716, when the remaining instruments were moved to Rundetårn in Copenhagen. There is a large collection of ancient and more recent astronomical instruments on display at the museum. The museum opened in 1979, and has since 2002 been a part of the museum Kroppedal at the same location. Honours In Denmark, Ole Rømer has been honoured in various ways through the ages. He has been portrayed on bank notes, the eponymous is named after him, as are streets in both Aarhus and Copenhagen (Ole Rømers Gade and respectively). Aarhus University's astronomical observatory is named The Ole Rømer Observatory () in his honour, and a Danish satellite project to measure the age, temperature, physical and chemical conditions of selected stars, was named . The satellite project stranded in 2002 and was never realised though. The Römer crater on the Moon is named after him. In popular culture In the 1960s, the comic-book superhero The Flash on a number of occasions would measure his velocity in "Roemers" , in honour of Ole Rømer's "discovery" of the speed of light. In Larry Niven's 1999 novel Rainbow Mars, Ole Rømer is mentioned as having observed Martian life in an alternate history timeline. Ole Rømer features in the 2012 game Empire: | terrestrial orbit. Oddly, Cassini seems to have abandoned this reasoning, which Rømer adopted and set about buttressing in an irrefutable manner, using a selected number of observations performed by Picard and himself between 1671 and 1677. Rømer presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences, and it was summarised soon after by an anonymous reporter in a short paper, , published 7 December 1676 in the Journal des sçavans. Unfortunately, the reporter, possibly in order to hide his lack of understanding, resorted to cryptic phrasing, obfuscating Rømer's reasoning in the process. Rømer himself never published his results. Rømer's reasoning was as follows. Referring to the illustration, assume the Earth is at point L, and Io emerges from Jupiter's shadow at point D. After several orbits of Io, at 42.5 hours per orbit, the Earth is at point K. If light is not propagated instantaneously, the additional time it takes to reach K, which he reckoned about 3½ minutes, would explain the observed delay. Rømer observed immersions at point C from positions F and G, to avoid confusion with eclipses (Io shadowed by Jupiter from C to D) and occultations (Io hidden behind Jupiter at various angles). In the table below, his observations in 1676, including the one on 7 August, believed to be at the opposition point H, and the one observed at Paris Observatory to be 10 minutes late, on 9 November. By trial and error, during eight years of observations Rømer worked out how to account for the retardation of light when reckoning the ephemeris of Io. He calculated the delay as a proportion of the angle corresponding to a given Earth's position with respect to Jupiter, Δt = 22·()[minutes]. When the angle α is 180° the delay becomes 22 minutes, which may be interpreted as the time necessary for the light to cross a distance equal to the diameter of the Earth's orbit, H to E. (Actually, Jupiter is not visible from the conjunction point E.) That interpretation makes it possible to calculate the strict result of Rømer's observations: The ratio of the speed of light to the speed with which Earth orbits the sun, which is the ratio of the duration of a year divided by pi as compared to the 22 minutes ≈ 7,600. In comparison, the modern value is circa ≈ 10,100. Rømer neither calculated this ratio, nor did he give a value for the speed of light. However, many others calculated a speed from his data, the first being Christiaan Huygens; after corresponding with Rømer and eliciting more data, Huygens deduced that light travelled Earth diameters per second, which is approximately 212,000 km/s. Rømer's view that the velocity of light was finite was not fully accepted until measurements of the so-called aberration of light were made by James Bradley in 1727. In 1809, again making use of observations of Io, but this time with the benefit of more than a century of increasingly precise observations, the astronomer Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre reported the time for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth as 8 minutes and 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometres per second. The modern value is 8 minutes and 19 seconds, and a speed of 299,792.458 km/s. A plaque at the Observatory of Paris, where the Danish astronomer happened to be working, commemorates what was, in effect, the first measurement of a universal quantity made on this planet. Inventions In addition to inventing the first street lights in Copenhagen, Rømer also invented the meridian circle, the altazimuth, and the passage instrument (also known as the transit instrument, a type of meridian circle whose horizontal axis is not fixed in the east-west direction). Ole Rømer Medal The is given annually by the Danish Natural Science Research Council for outstanding research. The Ole Rømer Museum The Ole Rømer Museum is located in the municipality of Høje-Taastrup, Denmark, at the excavated site of Rømer's observatory at Vridsløsemagle. The observatory opened in 1704, and operated until about 1716, when the remaining instruments were moved to Rundetårn in Copenhagen. There is a large collection of ancient and more recent astronomical instruments on display at the museum. The museum opened in 1979, and has since 2002 been a part of the museum Kroppedal at the same location. Honours In Denmark, Ole Rømer has been honoured in various ways through the ages. He has |
a "lascivious Moor" (1.1.127). In 3.3 he denounces Desdemona's supposed sin as being "black as mine own face". Desdemona's physical whiteness is otherwise presented in opposition to Othello's dark skin: 5.2 "that whiter skin of hers than snow". Iago tells Brabantio that "an old black ram / is tupping your white ewe" (1.1.88). When Iago uses the word Barbary or Barbarian to refer to Othello, he seemingly refers to the Barbary coast inhabited by Berbers. Roderigo calls Othello "the thicklips", which seems to refer to Sub-Saharan African physiognomy, but Honigmann counters that, as these comments are all intended as insults by the characters, they need not be taken literally. However, Jyotsna Singh wrote that the opposition of Brabantio to Desdemona marrying Othelloa respected and honoured generalcannot make sense except in racial terms, citing the scene where Brabantio accuses Othello of using witchcraft to make his daughter fall in love with him, saying it is "unnatural" for Desdemona to desire Othello's "sooty bosom". Singh argued that, since people with dark complexions are common in the Mediterranean area, a Venetian senator like Brabantio being opposed to Desdemona marrying Othello for merely being swarthy makes no sense, and that the character of Othello was intended to be black. Michael Neill, editor of an Oxford edition, notes that the earliest critical references to Othello's colour (Thomas Rymer's 1693 critique of the play, and the 1709 engraving in Nicholas Rowe's edition of Shakespeare) assume him to be Sub-Saharan, while the earliest known North African interpretation was not until Edmund Kean's production of 1814. Honigmann discusses the view that Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, Moorish ambassador of the Arab sultan of Barbary (Morocco) to Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, was one inspiration for Othello. He stayed with his retinue in London for several months and occasioned much discussion. While Shakespeare's play was written only a few years afterwards, Honigmann questions the view that ben Messaoud himself was a significant influence on it. Othello was frequently performed as an Arab Moor during the 19th century. He was first played by a black man on the London stage in 1833 by the most important of the nineteenth-century Othellos, the African American Ira Aldridge who had been forced to leave his home country to make his career. Regardless of what Shakespeare intended by calling Othello a "Moor" – whether he meant that Othello was a Muslim or a black man or both – in the 19th century and much of the 20th century, many critics tended to see the tragedy in racial terms, seeing interracial marriages as "aberrations" that could end badly. Given this view of Othello, the play became especially controversial in apartheid-era South Africa where interracial marriages were banned and performances of Othello were discouraged. The first major screen production casting a black actor as Othello did not come until 1995, with Laurence Fishburne opposite Kenneth Branagh's Iago. In the past, Othello would often have been portrayed by a white actor in blackface or in a black mask: more recent actors who chose to 'black up' include Ralph Richardson (1937); Orson Welles (1952); John Gielgud (1961); Laurence Olivier (1964); and Anthony Hopkins (1981). Ground-breaking black American actor Paul Robeson played the role in three different productions between 1930 and 1959. The casting of the role comes with a political subtext. Patrick Stewart played the role alongside an otherwise all-black cast in the Shakespeare Theatre Company's 1997 staging of the play and Thomas Thieme, also white, played Othello in a 2007 Munich Kammerspiele staging at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford. Michael Gambon also took the role in 1980 and 1991; their performances were critically acclaimed.<ref name="Othello2006">{{cite news|author=Michael Billington |url=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2006/apr/28/theatre.rsc |title=Othello (Theatre review) The Guardian Friday 28 April 2006 |newspaper=Guardian |date=28 April 2006 |access-date=18 August 2013}}</ref> Carlo Rota, of Mediterranean (British Italian) heritage, played the character on Canadian television in 2008. The race of the title role is often seen as Shakespeare's way of isolating the character, culturally as well as visually, from the Venetian nobles and officers, and the isolation may seem more genuine when a black actor takes the role. But questions of race may not boil down to a simple decision of casting a single role. In 1979, Keith Fowler’s production of Othello mixed the races throughout the company. Produced by the American Revels Company at the Empire Theater (renamed the November Theater in 2011) in Richmond, Virginia, this production starred African American actor Clayton Corbin in the title role, with Henry K. Bal, a Hawaiian actor of mixed ethnicity, playing Iago. Othello’s army was composed of both black and white mercenaries. Iago’s wife, Emilia was played by the popular black actress Marie Goodman Hunter. The 2016 production at the New York Theatre Workshop, directed by Sam Gold, also effectively used a mixed-race cast, starring English actors David Oyelowo as Othello and Daniel Craig as Iago. Desdemona was played by American actress Rachel Brosnahan, Cassio was played by Finn Wittrock, and Emilia was played by Marsha Stephanie Blake.Viagas, Robert. "Tickets for 'Othello', with David Oyelowo and Daniel Craig, Sell Out in a Flash" Playbill, October 5, 2016 A vital component of the Protestant Reformation was the establishment among the general public of the importance of "pious, controlled behaviour". As such, "undesirable" qualities such as cruelty, treachery, jealousy and libidinousness were seen as qualities possessed by "the other". The assumed characteristics of Moors or "the other", were both instigated and popularised by Renaissance dramas of the time; for example, the treacherous behaviour of the Moors in George Peele's The Battle of Alcazar (1588). Religious and philosophical The title "Moor" implies a religious "other" of North African or Middle Eastern descent. Though the actual racial definition of the term is murky, the implications are religious as well as racial. Many critics have noted references to demonic possession throughout the play, especially in relation to Othello's seizure, a phenomenon often associated with possession in the popular consciousness of the day. Thomas M. Vozar, in a 2012 article in Philosophy and Literature, suggests that the epileptic fit relates to the mind–body problem and the existence of the soul. The hero There have been many differing views on the character of Othello over the years. A.C. Bradley calls Othello the "most romantic of all of Shakespeare's heroes" (by "hero" Bradley means protagonist) and "the greatest poet of them all". On the other hand, F.R. Leavis describes Othello as "egotistical". There are those who also take a less critical approach to the character of Othello such as William Hazlitt, who said: "the nature of the Moor is noble ... but his blood is of the most inflammable kind". Conversely, many scholars have seen Iago as the anti-hero of the piece. W. H. Auden, for example, observed that "any consideration of [the play] must be primarily occupied, not with its official hero, but with its villain". Performance history Pre-20th centuryOthello possesses an unusually detailed performance record. The first certainly known performance occurred on 1 November 1604, at Whitehall Palace in London, being mentioned in a Revels account on "Hallamas Day, being the first of Nouembar", 1604, when "the Kings Maiesties plaiers" performed "A Play in the Banketinge house at Whit Hall Called The Moor of Venis". The play is there attributed to "Shaxberd". Subsequent performances took place on Monday, 30 April 1610 at the Globe Theatre, and at Oxford in September 1610. On 22 November 1629, and on 6 May 1635, it played at the Blackfriars Theatre. Othello was also one of the twenty plays performed by the King's Men during the winter of 1612, in celebration of the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V, Elector Palatine. At the start of the Restoration era, on 11 October 1660, Samuel Pepys saw the play at the Cockpit Theatre. Nicholas Burt played the lead, with Charles Hart as Cassio; Walter Clun won fame for his Iago. Soon after, on 8 December 1660, Thomas Killigrew's new King's Company acted the play at their Vere Street theatre, with Margaret Hughes as Desdemona – probably the first time a professional actress appeared on a public stage in England. It may be one index of the play's power that Othello was one of the very few Shakespeare plays that was never adapted and changed during the Restoration and the eighteenth century. As Shakespeare regained popularity among nineteenth-century French Romantics, poet, playwright, and novelist Alfred de Vigny created a French translation of Othello, titled Le More de Venise, which premiered at the Comédie-Française on 24 October 1829. Famous nineteenth-century Othellos included Ira Aldridge, Edmund Kean, Edwin Forrest, and Tommaso Salvini, and outstanding Iagos were Edwin Booth and Henry Irving. 20th century The most notable American production may be Margaret Webster's 1943 staging starring Paul Robeson as Othello and José Ferrer as Iago. This production was the first ever in America to feature a black actor playing Othello with an otherwise all-white cast (there had been all-black productions of the play before). It ran for 296 performances, almost twice as long as any other Shakespeare play ever produced on Broadway. Although it was never filmed, it was | known North African interpretation was not until Edmund Kean's production of 1814. Honigmann discusses the view that Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, Moorish ambassador of the Arab sultan of Barbary (Morocco) to Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, was one inspiration for Othello. He stayed with his retinue in London for several months and occasioned much discussion. While Shakespeare's play was written only a few years afterwards, Honigmann questions the view that ben Messaoud himself was a significant influence on it. Othello was frequently performed as an Arab Moor during the 19th century. He was first played by a black man on the London stage in 1833 by the most important of the nineteenth-century Othellos, the African American Ira Aldridge who had been forced to leave his home country to make his career. Regardless of what Shakespeare intended by calling Othello a "Moor" – whether he meant that Othello was a Muslim or a black man or both – in the 19th century and much of the 20th century, many critics tended to see the tragedy in racial terms, seeing interracial marriages as "aberrations" that could end badly. Given this view of Othello, the play became especially controversial in apartheid-era South Africa where interracial marriages were banned and performances of Othello were discouraged. The first major screen production casting a black actor as Othello did not come until 1995, with Laurence Fishburne opposite Kenneth Branagh's Iago. In the past, Othello would often have been portrayed by a white actor in blackface or in a black mask: more recent actors who chose to 'black up' include Ralph Richardson (1937); Orson Welles (1952); John Gielgud (1961); Laurence Olivier (1964); and Anthony Hopkins (1981). Ground-breaking black American actor Paul Robeson played the role in three different productions between 1930 and 1959. The casting of the role comes with a political subtext. Patrick Stewart played the role alongside an otherwise all-black cast in the Shakespeare Theatre Company's 1997 staging of the play and Thomas Thieme, also white, played Othello in a 2007 Munich Kammerspiele staging at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford. Michael Gambon also took the role in 1980 and 1991; their performances were critically acclaimed.<ref name="Othello2006">{{cite news|author=Michael Billington |url=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2006/apr/28/theatre.rsc |title=Othello (Theatre review) The Guardian Friday 28 April 2006 |newspaper=Guardian |date=28 April 2006 |access-date=18 August 2013}}</ref> Carlo Rota, of Mediterranean (British Italian) heritage, played the character on Canadian television in 2008. The race of the title role is often seen as Shakespeare's way of isolating the character, culturally as well as visually, from the Venetian nobles and officers, and the isolation may seem more genuine when a black actor takes the role. But questions of race may not boil down to a simple decision of casting a single role. In 1979, Keith Fowler’s production of Othello mixed the races throughout the company. Produced by the American Revels Company at the Empire Theater (renamed the November Theater in 2011) in Richmond, Virginia, this production starred African American actor Clayton Corbin in the title role, with Henry K. Bal, a Hawaiian actor of mixed ethnicity, playing Iago. Othello’s army was composed of both black and white mercenaries. Iago’s wife, Emilia was played by the popular black actress Marie Goodman Hunter. The 2016 production at the New York Theatre Workshop, directed by Sam Gold, also effectively used a mixed-race cast, starring English actors David Oyelowo as Othello and Daniel Craig as Iago. Desdemona was played by American actress Rachel Brosnahan, Cassio was played by Finn Wittrock, and Emilia was played by Marsha Stephanie Blake.Viagas, Robert. "Tickets for 'Othello', with David Oyelowo and Daniel Craig, Sell Out in a Flash" Playbill, October 5, 2016 A vital component of the Protestant Reformation was the establishment among the general public of the importance of "pious, controlled behaviour". As such, "undesirable" qualities such as cruelty, treachery, jealousy and libidinousness were seen as qualities possessed by "the other". The assumed characteristics of Moors or "the other", were both instigated and popularised by Renaissance dramas of the time; for example, the treacherous behaviour of the Moors in George Peele's The Battle of Alcazar (1588). Religious and philosophical The title "Moor" implies a religious "other" of North African or Middle Eastern descent. Though the actual racial definition of the term is murky, the implications are religious as well as racial. Many critics have noted references to demonic possession throughout the play, especially in relation to Othello's seizure, a phenomenon often associated with possession in the popular consciousness of the day. Thomas M. Vozar, in a 2012 article in Philosophy and Literature, suggests that the epileptic fit relates to the mind–body problem and the existence of the soul. The hero There have been many differing views on the character of Othello over the years. A.C. Bradley calls Othello the "most romantic of all of Shakespeare's heroes" (by "hero" Bradley means protagonist) and "the greatest poet of them all". On the other hand, F.R. Leavis describes Othello as "egotistical". There are those who also take a less critical approach to the character of Othello such as William Hazlitt, who said: "the nature of the Moor is noble ... but his blood is of the most inflammable kind". Conversely, many scholars have seen Iago as the anti-hero of the piece. W. H. Auden, for example, observed that "any consideration of [the play] must be primarily occupied, not with its official hero, but with its villain". Performance history Pre-20th centuryOthello possesses an unusually detailed performance record. The first certainly known performance occurred on 1 November 1604, at Whitehall Palace in London, being mentioned in a Revels account on "Hallamas Day, being the first of Nouembar", 1604, when "the Kings Maiesties plaiers" performed "A Play in the Banketinge house at Whit Hall Called The Moor of Venis". The play is there attributed to "Shaxberd". Subsequent performances took place on Monday, 30 April 1610 at the Globe Theatre, and at Oxford in September 1610. On 22 November 1629, and on 6 May 1635, it played at the Blackfriars Theatre. Othello was also one of the twenty plays performed by the King's Men during the winter of 1612, in celebration of the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V, Elector Palatine. At the start of the Restoration era, on 11 October 1660, Samuel Pepys saw the play at the Cockpit Theatre. Nicholas Burt played the lead, with Charles Hart as Cassio; Walter Clun won fame for his Iago. Soon after, on 8 December 1660, Thomas Killigrew's new King's Company acted the play at their Vere Street theatre, with Margaret Hughes as Desdemona – probably the first time a professional actress appeared on a public stage in England. It may be one index of the play's power that Othello was one of the very few Shakespeare plays that was never adapted and changed during the Restoration and the eighteenth century. As Shakespeare regained popularity among nineteenth-century French Romantics, poet, playwright, and novelist Alfred de Vigny created a French translation of Othello, titled Le More de Venise, which premiered at the Comédie-Française on 24 October 1829. Famous nineteenth-century Othellos included Ira Aldridge, Edmund Kean, Edwin Forrest, and Tommaso Salvini, and outstanding Iagos were Edwin Booth and Henry Irving. 20th century The most notable American production may be Margaret Webster's 1943 staging starring Paul Robeson as Othello and José Ferrer as Iago. This production was the first ever in America to feature a black actor playing Othello with an otherwise all-white cast (there had been all-black productions of the play before). It ran for 296 performances, almost twice as long as any other Shakespeare play ever produced on Broadway. Although it was never filmed, it was the first lengthy performance of a Shakespeare play released on records, first on a multi-record 78 RPM set and then on a 3-LP one. Robeson had first played the role in London in 1930 in a cast that included Peggy Ashcroft as Desdemona and Ralph Richardson as Roderigo, and would return to it in 1959 at Stratford-upon-Avon with co-stars Mary Ure, Sam Wanamaker and Vanessa Redgrave. The critics had mixed reactions to the "flashy" 1959 production which included mid-western accents and rock-and roll drumbeats but gave Robeson primarily good reviews. W. A. Darlington of The Daily Telegraph ranked Robeson's Othello as the best he had ever seen while the Daily Express, which had for years before published consistently scathing articles about Robeson for his leftist views, praised his "strong and stately" performance (though in turn suggested it was a "triumph of presence not acting"). Actors have alternated the roles of Iago and Othello in productions to stir audience interest since the nineteenth century. Two of the most notable examples of this role swap were William Charles Macready and Samuel Phelps at Drury Lane (1837) and Richard Burton and John Neville at The Old Vic (1955). When Edwin Booth's tour of England in 1880 was not well attended, Henry Irving invited Booth to alternate the roles of Othello and Iago with him in London. The stunt renewed interest in Booth's tour. James O'Neill also alternated the roles of Othello and Iago with Booth. The American actor William Marshall performed the title role in at least six productions. His Othello was called by Harold Hobson of the London Sunday Times "the best Othello of our time," continuing: ...nobler than Tearle, more martial than Gielgud, more poetic than Valk. From his first entry, slender and magnificently tall, framed in a high Byzantine arch, clad in white samite, mystic, wonderful, a figure of Arabian romance and grace, to his last plunging of the knife into his stomach, Mr Marshall rode without faltering the play's enormous rhetoric, and at the end the house rose to him. Marshall also played Othello in a jazz musical version, Catch My Soul, with Jerry Lee Lewis as Iago, in Los Angeles in 1968. His Othello was captured on record in 1964 with Jay Robinson as Iago and on video in 1981 with Ron Moody as Iago. The 1982 Broadway staging starred James Earl Jones as Othello and Christopher Plummer as Iago, who became the only actor to receive a Tony Award nomination for a performance in the play. When Laurence Olivier gave his acclaimed performance of Othello at the Royal National Theatre in 1964, he had developed a case of stage fright that was so profound that when he was alone onstage, Frank Finlay (who was playing Iago) would have to stand |
mainly the axial skeleton. The synthetic glucocorticoid prescription drug prednisone is a main candidate after prolonged intake. Some professional guidelines recommend prophylaxis in patients who take the equivalent of more than 30 mg hydrocortisone (7.5 mg of prednisolone), especially when this is in excess of three months. It is recommended to use calcium or Vitamin D as prevention. Alternate day use may not prevent this complication. Barbiturates, phenytoin and some other enzyme-inducing antiepileptics – these probably accelerate the metabolism of vitamin D. L-Thyroxine over-replacement may contribute to osteoporosis, in a similar fashion as thyrotoxicosis does. This can be relevant in subclinical hypothyroidism. Several drugs induce hypogonadism, for example aromatase inhibitors used in breast cancer, methotrexate and other antimetabolite drugs, depot progesterone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists. Anticoagulants – long-term use of heparin is associated with a decrease in bone density, and warfarin (and related coumarins) have been linked with an increased risk in osteoporotic fracture in long-term use. Proton pump inhibitors – these drugs inhibit the production of stomach acid; this is thought to interfere with calcium absorption. Chronic phosphate binding may also occur with aluminium-containing antacids. Thiazolidinediones (used for diabetes) – rosiglitazone and possibly pioglitazone, inhibitors of PPARγ, have been linked with an increased risk of osteoporosis and fracture. Chronic lithium therapy has been associated with osteoporosis. Evolutionary Age-related bone loss is common among humans due to exhibiting less dense bones than other primate species. Because of the more porous bones of humans, frequency of severe osteoporosis and osteoporosis related fractures is higher. The human vulnerability to osteoporosis is an obvious cost but it can be justified by the advantage of bipedalism inferring that this vulnerability is the byproduct of such. It has been suggested that porous bones help to absorb the increased stress that we have on two surfaces compared to our primate counterparts who have four surfaces to disperse the force. In addition, the porosity allows for more flexibility and a lighter skeleton that is easier to support. One other consideration may be that diets today have much lower amounts of calcium than the diets of other primates or the tetrapedal ancestors to humans which may lead to higher likelihood to show signs of osteoporosis. Pathogenesis The underlying mechanism in all cases of osteoporosis is an imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation. In normal bone, matrix remodeling of bone is constant; up to 10% of all bone mass may be undergoing remodeling at any point in time. The process takes place in bone multicellular units (BMUs) as first described by Frost & Thomas in 1963. Osteoclasts are assisted by transcription factor PU.1 to degrade the bone matrix, while osteoblasts rebuild the bone matrix. Low bone mass density can then occur when osteoclasts are degrading the bone matrix faster than the osteoblasts are rebuilding the bone. The three main mechanisms by which osteoporosis develops are an inadequate peak bone mass (the skeleton develops insufficient mass and strength during growth), excessive bone resorption, and inadequate formation of new bone during remodeling, likely due to mesenchymal stem cells biasing away from the osteoblast and toward the marrow adipocyte lineage. An interplay of these three mechanisms underlies the development of fragile bone tissue. Hormonal factors strongly determine the rate of bone resorption; lack of estrogen (e.g. as a result of menopause) increases bone resorption, as well as decreasing the deposition of new bone that normally takes place in weight-bearing bones. The amount of estrogen needed to suppress this process is lower than that normally needed to stimulate the uterus and breast gland. The α-form of the estrogen receptor appears to be the most important in regulating bone turnover. In addition to estrogen, calcium metabolism plays a significant role in bone turnover, and deficiency of calcium and vitamin D leads to impaired bone deposition; in addition, the parathyroid glands react to low calcium levels by secreting parathyroid hormone (parathormone, PTH), which increases bone resorption to ensure sufficient calcium in the blood. The role of calcitonin, a hormone generated by the thyroid that increases bone deposition, is less clear and probably not as significant as that of PTH. The activation of osteoclasts is regulated by various molecular signals, of which RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand) is one of the best-studied. This molecule is produced by osteoblasts and other cells (e.g. lymphocytes), and stimulates RANK (receptor activator of nuclear factor κB). Osteoprotegerin (OPG) binds RANKL before it has an opportunity to bind to RANK, and hence suppresses its ability to increase bone resorption. RANKL, RANK, and OPG are closely related to tumor necrosis factor and its receptors. The role of the Wnt signaling pathway is recognized, but less well understood. Local production of eicosanoids and interleukins is thought to participate in the regulation of bone turnover, and excess or reduced production of these mediators may underlie the development of osteoporosis. Trabecular bone (or cancellous bone) is the sponge-like bone in the ends of long bones and vertebrae. Cortical bone is the hard outer shell of bones and the middle of long bones. Because osteoblasts and osteoclasts inhabit the surface of bones, trabecular bone is more active and is more subject to bone turnover and remodeling. Not only is bone density decreased, but the microarchitecture of bone is also disrupted. The weaker spicules of trabecular bone break ("microcracks"), and are replaced by weaker bone. Common osteoporotic fracture sites, the wrist, the hip, and the spine, have a relatively high trabecular bone to cortical bone ratio. These areas rely on the trabecular bone for strength, so the intense remodeling causes these areas to degenerate most when the remodeling is imbalanced. Around the ages of 30–35, cancellous or trabecular bone loss begins. Women may lose as much as 50%, while men lose about 30%. Diagnosis The diagnosis of osteoporosis can be made using conventional radiography and by measuring the bone mineral density (BMD). The most popular method of measuring BMD is dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. In addition to the detection of abnormal BMD, the diagnosis of osteoporosis requires investigations into potentially modifiable underlying causes; this may be done with blood tests. Depending on the likelihood of an underlying problem, investigations for cancer with metastasis to the bone, multiple myeloma, Cushing's disease and other above-mentioned causes may be performed. Conventional radiography Conventional radiography is useful, both by itself and in conjunction with CT or MRI, for detecting complications of osteopenia (reduced bone mass; pre-osteoporosis), such as fractures; for differential diagnosis of osteopenia; or for follow-up examinations in specific clinical settings, such as soft tissue calcifications, secondary hyperparathyroidism, or osteomalacia in renal osteodystrophy. However, radiography is relatively insensitive to detection of early disease and requires a substantial amount of bone loss (about 30%) to be apparent on X-ray images. The main radiographic features of generalized osteoporosis are cortical thinning and increased radiolucency. Frequent complications of osteoporosis are vertebral fractures for which spinal radiography can help considerably in diagnosis and follow-up. Vertebral height measurements can objectively be made using plain-film X-rays by using several methods such as height loss together with area reduction, particularly when looking at vertical deformity in T4-L4, or by determining a spinal fracture index that takes into account the number of vertebrae involved. Involvement of multiple vertebral bodies leads to kyphosis of the thoracic spine, leading to what is known as dowager's hump. Dual-energy X-ray Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA scan) is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is diagnosed when the bone mineral density is less than or equal to 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young (30–40-year-old:58), healthy adult women reference population. This is translated as a T-score. But because bone density decreases with age, more people become osteoporotic with increasing age.:58 The World Health Organization has established the following diagnostic guidelines: The International Society for Clinical Densitometry takes the position that a diagnosis of osteoporosis in men under 50 years of age should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone. It also states, for premenopausal women, Z-scores (comparison with age group rather than peak bone mass) rather than T-scores should be used, and the diagnosis of osteoporosis in such women also should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone. Biomarkers Chemical biomarkers are a useful tool in detecting bone degradation. The enzyme cathepsin K breaks down type-I collagen, an important constituent in bones. Prepared antibodies can recognize the resulting fragment, called a neoepitope, as a way to diagnose osteoporosis. Increased urinary excretion of C-telopeptides, a type-I collagen breakdown product, also serves as a biomarker for osteoporosis. Other measuring tools Quantitative computed tomography (QCT) differs from DXA in that it gives separate estimates of BMD for trabecular and cortical bone and reports precise volumetric mineral density in mg/cm3 rather than BMD's relative Z-score. Among QCT's advantages: it can be performed at axial and peripheral sites, can be calculated from existing CT scans without a separate radiation dose, is sensitive to change over time, can analyze a region of any size or shape, excludes irrelevant tissue such as fat, muscle, and air, and does not require knowledge of the patient's subpopulation in order to create a clinical score (e.g. the Z-score of all females of a certain age). Among QCT's disadvantages: it requires a high radiation dose compared to DXA, CT scanners are large and expensive, and because its practice has been less standardized than BMD, its results are more operator-dependent. Peripheral QCT has been introduced to improve upon the limitations of DXA and QCT. Quantitative ultrasound has many advantages in assessing osteoporosis. The modality is small, no ionizing radiation is involved, measurements can be made quickly and easily, and the cost of the device is low compared with DXA and QCT devices. The calcaneus is the most common skeletal site for quantitative ultrasound assessment because it has a high percentage of trabecular bone that is replaced more often than cortical bone, providing early evidence of metabolic change. Also, the calcaneus is fairly flat and parallel, reducing repositioning errors. The method can be applied to children, neonates, and preterm infants, just as well as to adults. Some ultrasound devices can be used on the tibia. Screening The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommend that all women 65 years of age or older be screened by bone densitometry. Additionally they recommend screening younger women with risk factors. There is insufficient evidence to make recommendations about the intervals for repeated screening and the appropriate age to stop screening. In men the harm versus benefit of screening for osteoporosis is unknown. Prescrire states that the need to test for osteoporosis in those who have not had a previous bone fracture is unclear. The International Society for Clinical Densitometry suggest BMD testing for men 70 or older, or those who are indicated for risk equal to that of a 70‑year‑old. A number of tools exist to help determine who is reasonable to test. Prevention Lifestyle prevention of osteoporosis is in many aspects the inverse of the potentially modifiable risk factors. As tobacco smoking and high alcohol intake have been linked with osteoporosis, smoking cessation and moderation of alcohol intake are commonly recommended as ways to help prevent it. In people with coeliac disease adherence to a gluten-free diet decreases the risk of developing osteoporosis and increases bone density. The diet must ensure optimal calcium intake (of at least one gram daily) and measuring vitamin D levels is recommended, and to take specific supplements if necessary. Nutrition Studies of the benefits of supplementation with calcium and vitamin D are conflicting, possibly because most studies did not have people with low dietary intakes. A 2018 review by the USPSTF found low-quality evidence that the routine use of calcium and vitamin D supplements (or both supplements together) did not reduce the risk of having an osteoporotic fracture in male and female adults living in the community who had no known history of vitamin D deficiency, osteoporosis, or a fracture. The USPSTF does not recommend low dose supplementation (less than 1 g of calcium and 400 IU of vitamin D) in postmenopausal women as there does not appear to be a difference in fracture risk. A 2015 review found little data that supplementation of calcium decreases the risk of fractures. While some meta-analyses have found a benefit of vitamin D supplements combined with calcium for fractures, they did not find a benefit of vitamin D supplements (800 IU/day or less) alone. While supplementation does not appear to affect the risk of death, an increased risk of myocardial infarctions kidney stones, and stomach problems is associated with calcium supplementation, Vitamin K deficiency is also a risk factor for osteoporotic fractures. The gene gamma-glutamyl carboxylase (GGCX) is dependent on vitamin K. Functional polymorphisms in the gene could attribute to variation in bone metabolism and BMD. Vitamin K2 is also used as a means of treatment for osteoporosis and the polymorphisms of GGCX could explain the individual variation in the response to treatment of vitamin K. Dietary sources of calcium include dairy products, leafy greens, legumes, and beans. There has been conflicting evidence about whether or not dairy is an adequate source of calcium to prevent fractures. The National Academy of Sciences recommends 1,000 mg of calcium for those aged 19–50, and 1,200 mg for those aged 50 and above. A review of the evidence shows no adverse effect of higher protein intake on bone health. Physical exercise There is limited evidence indicating that exercise is helpful in promoting bone health. There is some evidence that physical exercise may be beneficial for bone density in postmenopausal women and lead to a slightly reduced risk of a bone fracture (absolute difference 4%). A position statement concluded that increased bone activity and weight-bearing exercises at a young age prevent bone fragility in adults. Bicycling and swimming are not considered weight-bearing exercise. Neither contribute to slowing bone loss with age, and professional bicycle racing has a negative effect on bone density. Low-quality evidence suggests that exercise may improve pain and quality of life of people with vertebral fractures and there is moderate-quality evidence that exercise will likely improve physical performance in individuals with vertebral fractures. Physical therapy People with osteoporosis are at higher risk of falls due to poor postural control, muscle weakness, and overall deconditioning. Postural control is important to maintaining functional movements such as walking and standing. Physical therapy may be an effective way to address postural weakness that may result from vertebral fractures, which are common in people with osteoporosis. Physical therapy treatment plans for people with vertebral fractures include balance training, postural correction, trunk and lower extremity muscle strengthening exercises, and moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity. The goal of these interventions are to regain normal spine curvatures, increase spine stability, and improve functional performance. Physical therapy interventions were also designed to slow the rate of bone loss through home exercise programs. Whole body vibration therapy has also been suggested as a physical therapy intervention. Moderate to low-quality evidence indicates that whole body vibration therapy may reduce the risk of falls. There are conflicting reviews as to whether vibration therapy improves bone mineral density. Physical therapy can aid in overall prevention in the development of osteoporosis through therapeutic exercise. Prescribed amounts of mechanical loading or increased forces on the bones promote bone formation and vascularization in various ways, therefore offering a preventative measure that is not | CT or MRI, for detecting complications of osteopenia (reduced bone mass; pre-osteoporosis), such as fractures; for differential diagnosis of osteopenia; or for follow-up examinations in specific clinical settings, such as soft tissue calcifications, secondary hyperparathyroidism, or osteomalacia in renal osteodystrophy. However, radiography is relatively insensitive to detection of early disease and requires a substantial amount of bone loss (about 30%) to be apparent on X-ray images. The main radiographic features of generalized osteoporosis are cortical thinning and increased radiolucency. Frequent complications of osteoporosis are vertebral fractures for which spinal radiography can help considerably in diagnosis and follow-up. Vertebral height measurements can objectively be made using plain-film X-rays by using several methods such as height loss together with area reduction, particularly when looking at vertical deformity in T4-L4, or by determining a spinal fracture index that takes into account the number of vertebrae involved. Involvement of multiple vertebral bodies leads to kyphosis of the thoracic spine, leading to what is known as dowager's hump. Dual-energy X-ray Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA scan) is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is diagnosed when the bone mineral density is less than or equal to 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young (30–40-year-old:58), healthy adult women reference population. This is translated as a T-score. But because bone density decreases with age, more people become osteoporotic with increasing age.:58 The World Health Organization has established the following diagnostic guidelines: The International Society for Clinical Densitometry takes the position that a diagnosis of osteoporosis in men under 50 years of age should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone. It also states, for premenopausal women, Z-scores (comparison with age group rather than peak bone mass) rather than T-scores should be used, and the diagnosis of osteoporosis in such women also should not be made on the basis of densitometric criteria alone. Biomarkers Chemical biomarkers are a useful tool in detecting bone degradation. The enzyme cathepsin K breaks down type-I collagen, an important constituent in bones. Prepared antibodies can recognize the resulting fragment, called a neoepitope, as a way to diagnose osteoporosis. Increased urinary excretion of C-telopeptides, a type-I collagen breakdown product, also serves as a biomarker for osteoporosis. Other measuring tools Quantitative computed tomography (QCT) differs from DXA in that it gives separate estimates of BMD for trabecular and cortical bone and reports precise volumetric mineral density in mg/cm3 rather than BMD's relative Z-score. Among QCT's advantages: it can be performed at axial and peripheral sites, can be calculated from existing CT scans without a separate radiation dose, is sensitive to change over time, can analyze a region of any size or shape, excludes irrelevant tissue such as fat, muscle, and air, and does not require knowledge of the patient's subpopulation in order to create a clinical score (e.g. the Z-score of all females of a certain age). Among QCT's disadvantages: it requires a high radiation dose compared to DXA, CT scanners are large and expensive, and because its practice has been less standardized than BMD, its results are more operator-dependent. Peripheral QCT has been introduced to improve upon the limitations of DXA and QCT. Quantitative ultrasound has many advantages in assessing osteoporosis. The modality is small, no ionizing radiation is involved, measurements can be made quickly and easily, and the cost of the device is low compared with DXA and QCT devices. The calcaneus is the most common skeletal site for quantitative ultrasound assessment because it has a high percentage of trabecular bone that is replaced more often than cortical bone, providing early evidence of metabolic change. Also, the calcaneus is fairly flat and parallel, reducing repositioning errors. The method can be applied to children, neonates, and preterm infants, just as well as to adults. Some ultrasound devices can be used on the tibia. Screening The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommend that all women 65 years of age or older be screened by bone densitometry. Additionally they recommend screening younger women with risk factors. There is insufficient evidence to make recommendations about the intervals for repeated screening and the appropriate age to stop screening. In men the harm versus benefit of screening for osteoporosis is unknown. Prescrire states that the need to test for osteoporosis in those who have not had a previous bone fracture is unclear. The International Society for Clinical Densitometry suggest BMD testing for men 70 or older, or those who are indicated for risk equal to that of a 70‑year‑old. A number of tools exist to help determine who is reasonable to test. Prevention Lifestyle prevention of osteoporosis is in many aspects the inverse of the potentially modifiable risk factors. As tobacco smoking and high alcohol intake have been linked with osteoporosis, smoking cessation and moderation of alcohol intake are commonly recommended as ways to help prevent it. In people with coeliac disease adherence to a gluten-free diet decreases the risk of developing osteoporosis and increases bone density. The diet must ensure optimal calcium intake (of at least one gram daily) and measuring vitamin D levels is recommended, and to take specific supplements if necessary. Nutrition Studies of the benefits of supplementation with calcium and vitamin D are conflicting, possibly because most studies did not have people with low dietary intakes. A 2018 review by the USPSTF found low-quality evidence that the routine use of calcium and vitamin D supplements (or both supplements together) did not reduce the risk of having an osteoporotic fracture in male and female adults living in the community who had no known history of vitamin D deficiency, osteoporosis, or a fracture. The USPSTF does not recommend low dose supplementation (less than 1 g of calcium and 400 IU of vitamin D) in postmenopausal women as there does not appear to be a difference in fracture risk. A 2015 review found little data that supplementation of calcium decreases the risk of fractures. While some meta-analyses have found a benefit of vitamin D supplements combined with calcium for fractures, they did not find a benefit of vitamin D supplements (800 IU/day or less) alone. While supplementation does not appear to affect the risk of death, an increased risk of myocardial infarctions kidney stones, and stomach problems is associated with calcium supplementation, Vitamin K deficiency is also a risk factor for osteoporotic fractures. The gene gamma-glutamyl carboxylase (GGCX) is dependent on vitamin K. Functional polymorphisms in the gene could attribute to variation in bone metabolism and BMD. Vitamin K2 is also used as a means of treatment for osteoporosis and the polymorphisms of GGCX could explain the individual variation in the response to treatment of vitamin K. Dietary sources of calcium include dairy products, leafy greens, legumes, and beans. There has been conflicting evidence about whether or not dairy is an adequate source of calcium to prevent fractures. The National Academy of Sciences recommends 1,000 mg of calcium for those aged 19–50, and 1,200 mg for those aged 50 and above. A review of the evidence shows no adverse effect of higher protein intake on bone health. Physical exercise There is limited evidence indicating that exercise is helpful in promoting bone health. There is some evidence that physical exercise may be beneficial for bone density in postmenopausal women and lead to a slightly reduced risk of a bone fracture (absolute difference 4%). A position statement concluded that increased bone activity and weight-bearing exercises at a young age prevent bone fragility in adults. Bicycling and swimming are not considered weight-bearing exercise. Neither contribute to slowing bone loss with age, and professional bicycle racing has a negative effect on bone density. Low-quality evidence suggests that exercise may improve pain and quality of life of people with vertebral fractures and there is moderate-quality evidence that exercise will likely improve physical performance in individuals with vertebral fractures. Physical therapy People with osteoporosis are at higher risk of falls due to poor postural control, muscle weakness, and overall deconditioning. Postural control is important to maintaining functional movements such as walking and standing. Physical therapy may be an effective way to address postural weakness that may result from vertebral fractures, which are common in people with osteoporosis. Physical therapy treatment plans for people with vertebral fractures include balance training, postural correction, trunk and lower extremity muscle strengthening exercises, and moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity. The goal of these interventions are to regain normal spine curvatures, increase spine stability, and improve functional performance. Physical therapy interventions were also designed to slow the rate of bone loss through home exercise programs. Whole body vibration therapy has also been suggested as a physical therapy intervention. Moderate to low-quality evidence indicates that whole body vibration therapy may reduce the risk of falls. There are conflicting reviews as to whether vibration therapy improves bone mineral density. Physical therapy can aid in overall prevention in the development of osteoporosis through therapeutic exercise. Prescribed amounts of mechanical loading or increased forces on the bones promote bone formation and vascularization in various ways, therefore offering a preventative measure that is not reliant on drugs. Specific exercise interacts with the body’s hormones and signaling pathways which encourages the maintenance of a healthy skeleton. Management Lifestyle Weight-bearing endurance exercise and/or exercises to strengthen muscles improve bone strength in those with osteoporosis. Aerobics, weight bearing, and resistance exercises all maintain or increase BMD in postmenopausal women. Fall prevention can help prevent osteoporosis complications. There is some evidence for hip protectors specifically among those who are in care homes. Medications Bisphosphonates are useful in decreasing the risk of future fractures in those who have already sustained a fracture due to osteoporosis. This benefit is present when taken for three to four years. They do not appear to change the overall risk of death. Tentative evidence does not support the use of bisphosphonates as a standard treatment for secondary osteoporosis in children. Different bisphosphonates have not been directly compared, therefore it is unknown if one is better than another. Fracture risk reduction is between 25 and 70% depending on the bone involved. There are concerns of atypical femoral fractures and osteonecrosis of the jaw with long-term use, but these risks are low. With evidence of little benefit when used for more than three to five years and in light of the potential adverse events, it may be appropriate to stop treatment after this time. One medical organization recommends that after five years of medications by mouth or three years of intravenous medication among those at low risk, bisphosphonate treatment can be stopped. In those at higher risk they recommend up to ten years of medication by mouth or six years of intravenous treatment. For those with osteoporosis but who have not had a fracture, evidence does not support a reduction in fracture risk |
High Commissioner Thematic Engagement, Special Procedures and Right to Development Division The Thematic Engagement, Special Procedures and Right to Development Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to: promote and protect the right to development, in particular by: supporting intergovernmental groups of experts on the preparation of the strategy for the right to development assisting in the analysis of the voluntary reports by States to the High Commissioner on the progress and steps taken for the realization of the right to development and on obstacles encountered carrying out research projects on the right to development and preparing substantive outputs for submission to the General Assembly, the Commission on Human Rights and treaty bodies assisting in the substantive preparation of advisory service projects and educational material on the right to development providing substantive analysis and support to the High Commissioner in his or her mandate to enhance system-wide support for the right to development carry out substantive research projects on the whole range of human rights issues of interest to United Nations human rights bodies in accordance with the priorities established by the Vienna Declaration and Program of Action and resolutions of policy-making bodies support the work of the mandate-holders of the Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council provide substantive services to human rights organs engaged in standard-setting activities prepare documents, reports or draft reports, summaries and synthesis and position papers in response to particular requests, as well as substantive contributions to information materials and publications provide policy analysis, advice and guidance on substantive procedures manage the information services of the human rights programme, including the documentation centre and library, enquiry services and the human rights databases prepare studies on relevant articles of the Charter of the United Nations for the Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs Human Rights Council and Treaty Mechanisms Division The Human Rights Council and Treaty Mechanisms Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to: plan, prepare and service sessions/meetings of the Human Rights Council, the Advisory Committee and related working groups and of the committees established by human rights treaty bodies and their working groups ensure that substantive support is provided in a timely manner to the human rights treaty body concerned, drawing on the appropriate resources of the human rights programme prepare state party reports for review by the treaty body concerned and following up on decisions and recommendations prepare or coordinate the preparation and submission of all substantive and other documents and the support from other management units to the activities of treaty bodies serviced, and following up on decisions taken at meetings of those bodies plan, prepare and service sessions of board of trustees of the United Nations Voluntary Fund for Victims of Torture, and implementing relevant decisions process communications submitted to treaty bodies under optional procedures and communications under the procedures established by the Economic and Social Council in its resolution 1503 (XLVIII) of 27 May 1970 and ensuring follow-up Field Operations and Technical Cooperation Division The Field Operations and Technical Cooperation Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to: develop, implement, monitor and evaluate advisory services and technical assistance projects at the request of Governments Managing the Voluntary Fund for Technical Cooperation in the Field of Human Rights Implementing the Plan of Action of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education, including the development of information and educational materials; provide substantive and administrative support to human rights fact-finding and investigatory mechanisms, such as special rapporteurs, representatives and experts and working groups mandated by the Commission on Human Rights and/or the Economic and Social Council to deal with specific country situations or phenomena of human rights violations worldwide, as well as the General Assembly's Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Palestinian People and Other Arabs of the Occupied Territories plan, support and evaluate human rights field presences and missions, including the formulation and development of best practice, procedural methodology and models for all human rights activities in the field manage voluntary funds for human rights field presences manage the United Nations Voluntary Fund on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, United Nations Voluntary Fund for Indigenous Populations and United Nations Voluntary Fund for the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People | financial and personnel matters relating to the human rights program assist the High Commissioner and appropriate staff in the discharge of their financial, personnel and general administrative responsibilities and administering the associate expert and internship programs New York Office The New York Office is headed by an Assistant Secretary-General who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the New York Office are to: represent the High Commissioner at Headquarters, at meetings of policy-making bodies, with permanent missions of Member States, at interdepartmental and inter-agency meetings, with non-governmental organizations and professional groups, at academic conferences and with the media provide policy advice and recommendations on substantive matters to the High Commissioner supply information and advice on human rights to the Executive Office of the Secretary-General provide substantive support on human rights issues to the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council and other policy-making bodies established in New York City provide materials and information to the permanent missions, United Nations departments, agencies and programs, non-governmental organizations, the media and others regarding the human rights program provide support to the High Commissioner and other officials, and to Special Rapporteurs and Special Representatives when on mission in New York City undertake other specific assignments as decided by the High Commissioner Thematic Engagement, Special Procedures and Right to Development Division The Thematic Engagement, Special Procedures and Right to Development Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to: promote and protect the right to development, in particular by: supporting intergovernmental groups of experts on the preparation of the strategy for the right to development assisting in the analysis of the voluntary reports by States to the High Commissioner on the progress and steps taken for the realization of the right to development and on obstacles encountered carrying out research projects on the right to development and preparing substantive outputs for submission to the General Assembly, the Commission on Human Rights and treaty bodies assisting in the substantive preparation of advisory service projects and educational material on the right to development providing substantive analysis and support to the High Commissioner in his or her mandate to enhance system-wide support for the right to development carry out substantive research projects on the whole range of human rights issues of interest to United Nations human rights bodies in accordance with the priorities established by the Vienna Declaration and Program of Action and resolutions of policy-making bodies support the work of the mandate-holders of the Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council provide substantive services to human rights organs engaged in standard-setting activities prepare documents, reports or draft reports, summaries and synthesis and position papers in response to particular requests, as well as substantive contributions to information materials and publications provide policy analysis, advice and guidance on substantive procedures manage the information services of the human rights programme, including the documentation centre and library, enquiry services and the human rights databases prepare studies on relevant articles of the Charter of the United Nations for the Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs Human Rights Council and Treaty Mechanisms Division The Human Rights Council and Treaty Mechanisms Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to: plan, prepare and service sessions/meetings of the Human Rights Council, the Advisory Committee and related working groups and of the committees established by human rights treaty bodies and their working groups ensure that substantive support is provided in a timely manner to the human rights treaty body concerned, drawing on the appropriate resources of the human rights programme prepare state party reports for review by the treaty body concerned and following up on decisions and recommendations prepare or coordinate the preparation and submission of all substantive and other documents and the support from other management units to the activities of treaty bodies serviced, and following up on decisions taken at meetings of those bodies plan, prepare and service sessions of board of trustees of the United Nations Voluntary Fund for Victims of Torture, and implementing relevant decisions process communications submitted to treaty bodies under optional procedures and communications under the procedures established by the Economic and Social Council in its resolution 1503 (XLVIII) of 27 May 1970 and ensuring follow-up Field Operations and Technical Cooperation Division The Field Operations and Technical Cooperation Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to: develop, implement, monitor and evaluate advisory services and technical assistance projects at the request of Governments Managing the Voluntary Fund for Technical Cooperation in the Field of Human Rights Implementing the Plan of Action of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education, including the development of information and educational materials; provide substantive and administrative support to human rights fact-finding and investigatory mechanisms, such as special rapporteurs, representatives and experts and working groups |
by John Locke asserting that a man has a right to kill someone who takes away his liberty. McVeigh entered Oklahoma City at 8:50 am. At 8:57 am, the Regency Towers Apartments' lobby security camera that had recorded Nichols's pickup truck three days earlier recorded the Ryder truck heading towards the Murrah Federal Building. At the same moment, McVeigh lit the five-minute fuse. Three minutes later, still a block away, he lit the two-minute fuse. He parked the Ryder truck in a drop-off zone situated under the building's day-care center, exited and locked the truck. As he headed to his getaway vehicle, he dropped the keys to the truck a few blocks away. At 9:02 a.m. (14:02 UTC), the Ryder truck, containing over of ammonium nitrate fertilizer, nitromethane, and diesel fuel mixture, detonated in front of the north side of the nine-story Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. 168 people were killed and hundreds more injured. One third of the building was destroyed by the explosion, which created a , crater on NW 5th Street next to the building. The blast destroyed or damaged 324 buildings within a 4-block radius, and shattered glass in 258 nearby buildings. The broken glass alone accounted for 5 percent of the death total and 69 percent of the injuries outside the Murrah Federal Building. The blast destroyed or burned 86 cars around the site. The destruction of the buildings left several hundred people homeless and shut down a number of offices in downtown Oklahoma City. The explosion was estimated to have caused at least $652 million worth of damage. The effects of the blast were equivalent to over of TNT, and could be heard and felt up to away. Seismometers at the Omniplex Science Museum in Oklahoma City, away, and in Norman, Oklahoma, away, recorded the blast as measuring approximately 3.0 on the Richter magnitude scale. The collapse of the northern half of the building took roughly 7 seconds. As the truck exploded, it first destroyed the column next to it, designated as G20, and shattered the entire glass facade of the building. The shockwave of the explosion forced the lower floors upwards, before the fourth and fifth floors collapsed onto the third floor, which housed a transfer beam that ran the length of the building and was being supported by four pillars below and was supporting the pillars that hold the upper floors. The added weight meant that the third floor gave way along with the transfer beam, which in turn caused the collapse of the building. Arrests Initially, the FBI had three hypotheses about responsibility for the bombing: international terrorists, possibly the same group that had carried out the World Trade Center bombing; a drug cartel, carrying out an act of vengeance against DEA agents in the building's DEA office; and anti-government radicals attempting to start a rebellion against the federal government. McVeigh was arrested within 90 minutes of the explosion, as he was traveling north on Interstate 35 near Perry in Noble County, Oklahoma. Oklahoma State Trooper Charlie Hanger stopped McVeigh for driving his yellow 1977 Mercury Marquis without a license plate, and arrested him for having a concealed weapon. For his home address, McVeigh falsely claimed he resided at Terry Nichols's brother James's house in Michigan. After booking McVeigh into jail, Trooper Hanger searched his patrol car and found a business card which had been concealed by McVeigh after being handcuffed. Written on the back of the card, which was from a Wisconsin military surplus store, were the words "TNT at $5 a stick. Need more." The card was later used as evidence during McVeigh's trial. While investigating the VIN on an axle of the truck used in the explosion and the remnants of the license plate, federal agents were able to link the truck to a specific Ryder rental agency in Junction City, Kansas. Using a sketch created with the assistance of Eldon Elliot, owner of the agency, the agents were able to implicate McVeigh in the bombing. McVeigh was also identified by Lea McGown of the Dreamland Motel, who remembered him parking a large yellow Ryder truck in the lot; McVeigh had signed in under his real name at the motel, using an address that matched the one on his forged license and the charge sheet at the Perry Police Station. Before signing his real name at the motel, McVeigh had used false names for his transactions. However, McGown noted, "People are so used to signing their own name that when they go to sign a phony name, they almost always go to write, and then look up for a moment as if to remember the new name they want to use. That's what [McVeigh] did, and when he looked up I started talking to him, and it threw him." After an April 21, 1995 court hearing on the gun charges, but before McVeigh's release, federal agents took him into custody as they continued their investigation into the bombing. Rather than talk to investigators about the bombing, McVeigh demanded an attorney. Having been tipped off by the arrival of police and helicopters that a bombing suspect was inside, a restless crowd began to gather outside the jail. While McVeigh's requests for a bulletproof vest or transport by helicopter were denied, authorities did use a helicopter to transport him from Perry to Oklahoma City. Federal agents obtained a warrant to search the house of McVeigh's father, Bill, after which they broke down the door and wired the house and telephone with listening devices. FBI investigators used the resulting information gained, along with the fake address McVeigh had been using, to begin their search for the Nichols brothers, Terry and James. On April 21, 1995, Terry Nichols learned that he was being hunted, and turned himself in. Investigators discovered incriminating evidence at his home: ammonium nitrate and blasting caps, the electric drill used to drill out the locks at the quarry, books on bomb-making, a copy of Hunter (a 1989 novel by William Luther Pierce, the founder and chairman of the National Alliance, a white nationalist group) and a hand-drawn map of downtown Oklahoma City, on which the Murrah Building and the spot where McVeigh's getaway car was hidden were marked. After a nine-hour interrogation, Terry Nichols was formally held in federal custody until his trial. On April 25, 1995, James Nichols was also arrested, but he was released after 32 days due to lack of evidence. McVeigh's sister Jennifer was accused of illegally mailing ammunition to McVeigh, but she was granted immunity in exchange for testifying against him. A Jordanian-American man traveling from his home in Oklahoma City to visit family in Jordan on April 19, 1995, was detained and questioned by the FBI at the airport. Several Arab-American groups criticized the FBI for racial profiling, and the subsequent media coverage for publicizing the man's name. Attorney General Reno denied claims that the federal government relied on racial profiling, while FBI director Louis J. Freeh told a press conference that the man was never a suspect, and was instead treated as a "witness" to the Oklahoma City bombing, who assisted the government's investigation. Casualties An estimated 646 people were inside the building when the bomb exploded. By the end of the day, 14 adults and six children were confirmed dead, and over 100 injured. The toll eventually reached 168 confirmed dead, not including an unmatched left leg that could have belonged to an unidentified 169th victim or could have belonged to any one of eight victims who had been buried without a left leg. Most of the deaths resulted from the collapse of the building, rather than the bomb blast itself. Those killed included 163 who were in the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, one person in the Athenian Building, one woman in a parking lot across the street, a man and woman in the Oklahoma Water Resources building and a rescue worker struck on the head by debris. The victims ranged in age from three months to 73 years and included three pregnant women. Of the dead, 108 worked for the Federal government: Drug Enforcement Administration (5); Secret Service (6); Department of Housing and Urban Development (35); Department of Agriculture (7); Customs Office (2); Department of Transportation/Federal Highway (11); General Services Administration (2); and the Social Security Administration (40). Eight of the federal government victims were federal law enforcement agents. Of those law enforcement agents, four were members of the U.S. Secret Service; two were members of the U.S. Customs Service; one was a member of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration and one was a member of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Six of the victims were U.S. military personnel; two were members of the U.S. Army; two were members of the U.S. Air Force, and two were members of the U.S. Marine Corps. The rest of the victims were civilians, including 19 children, of whom 15 were in the America's Kids Day Care Center. The bodies of the 168 victims were identified at a temporary morgue set up at the scene. A team of 24 identified the victims using full-body X-rays, dental examinations, fingerprinting, blood tests, and DNA testing. More than 680 people were injured. The majority of the injuries were abrasions, severe burns, and bone fractures. McVeigh later acknowledged the casualties, saying, "I didn't define the rules of engagement in this conflict. The rules, if not written down, are defined by the aggressor. It was brutal, no holds barred. Women and kids were killed at Waco and Ruby Ridge. You put back in [the government's] faces exactly what they're giving out." He later stated "I wanted the government to hurt like the people of Waco and Ruby Ridge had." Response and relief Rescue efforts At 9:03 am, the first of over 1,800 9-1-1 calls related to the bombing was received by Emergency Medical Services Authority (EMSA). By that time, EMSA ambulances, police, and firefighters had heard the blast and were already headed to the scene. Nearby civilians, who had also witnessed or heard the blast, arrived to assist the victims and emergency workers. Within 23 minutes of the bombing, the State Emergency Operations Center (SEOC) was set up, consisting of representatives from the state departments of public safety, human services, military, health, and education. Assisting the SEOC were agencies including the National Weather Service, the Air Force, the Civil Air Patrol, and the American Red Cross. Immediate assistance also came from 465 members of the Oklahoma National Guard, who arrived within the hour to provide security, and from members of the Department of Civil Emergency Management. Terrance Yeakey and Jim Ramsey, from the Oklahoma City Police Department, were among the first officers to arrive at the site. Several cast and crew members filming for the 1996 movie Twister paused filming to come help with recovery efforts. The EMS command post was set up almost immediately following the attack and oversaw triage, treatment, transportation, and decontamination. A simple plan/objective was established: treatment and transportation of the injured was to be done as quickly as possible, supplies and personnel to handle a large number of patients was needed immediately, the dead needed to be moved to a temporary morgue until they could be transferred to the coroner's office, and measures for a long-term medical operation needed to be established. The triage center was set up near the Murrah Building and all the wounded were directed there. Two hundred and ten patients were transported from the primary triage center to nearby hospitals within the first couple of hours following the bombing. Within the first hour, 50 people were rescued from the Murrah Federal Building. Victims were sent to every hospital in the area. The day of the bombing, 153 people were treated at St. Anthony Hospital, eight blocks from the blast, over 70 people were treated at Presbyterian Hospital, 41 people were treated at University Hospital, and 18 people were treated at Children's Hospital. Temporary silences were observed at the blast site so that sensitive listening devices capable of detecting human heartbeats could be used to locate survivors. In some cases, limbs had to be amputated without anesthetics (avoided because of the potential to induce shock) in order to free those trapped under rubble. The scene had to be periodically evacuated as the police received tips claiming that other bombs had been planted in the building. At 10:28 am, rescuers found what they believed to be a second bomb. Some rescue workers refused to leave until police ordered the mandatory evacuation of a four-block area around the site. The device was determined to be a three-foot (.9-m) long TOW missile used in the training of federal agents and bomb-sniffing dogs; although actually inert, it had been marked "live" in order to mislead arms traffickers in a planned law enforcement sting. On examination the missile was determined to be inert, and relief efforts resumed 45 minutes later. The last survivor, a 15-year-old girl found under the base of the collapsed building, was rescued at around 7 pm. In the days following the blast, over 12,000 people participated in relief and rescue operations. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) activated 11 of its Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces, bringing in 665 rescue workers. One nurse was killed in the rescue attempt after she was hit on the head by debris, and 26 other rescuers were hospitalized because of various injuries. Twenty-four K-9 units and out-of-state dogs were brought in to search for survivors and bodies in the building debris. In an effort to recover additional bodies, of rubble were removed from the site each day from April 24 to 29. Rescue and recovery efforts were concluded at 12:05 a.m. on May 5, by which time the bodies of all but three of the victims had been recovered. For safety reasons, the building was initially slated to be demolished shortly afterward. McVeigh's attorney, Stephen Jones, filed a motion to delay the demolition until the defense team could examine the site in preparation for the trial. At 7:02 a.m. on May 23, more than a month after the bombing, the Murrah Federal building was demolished. The EMS Command Center remained active and was staffed 24 hours a day until the demolition. The final three bodies to be recovered were those of two credit union employees and a customer. For several days after the building's demolition, trucks hauled away of debris a day from the site. Some of the debris was used as evidence in the conspirators' trials, incorporated into memorials, donated to local schools, or sold to raise funds for relief efforts. Humanitarian aid The national humanitarian response was immediate, and in some cases even overwhelming. Large numbers of items such as wheelbarrows, bottled water, helmet lights, knee pads, rain gear, and even football helmets were donated. The sheer quantity of such donations caused logistical and inventory control problems until drop-off centers were set up to accept and sort the goods. The Oklahoma Restaurant Association, which was holding a trade show in the city, assisted rescue workers by providing 15,000 to 20,000 meals over ten days. The Salvation Army served over 100,000 meals and provided over 100,000 ponchos, gloves, hard hats, and knee pads to rescue workers. Local residents and those from further afield responded to the requests for blood donations. Of the over 9,000 units of blood donated, 131 were used; the rest were stored in blood banks. Federal and state government aid At 9:45 am, Governor Frank Keating declared a state of emergency and ordered all non-essential workers in the Oklahoma City area to be released from their duties for their safety. President Bill Clinton learned about the bombing at around 9:30 a.m. while he was meeting with Turkish Prime Minister Tansu Çiller at the White House. Before addressing the nation, President Clinton considered grounding all planes in the Oklahoma City area to prevent the bombers from escaping by air, but decided against it. At 4:00 pm, President Clinton declared a federal emergency in Oklahoma City and spoke to the nation: He ordered that flags for all federal buildings be flown at half-staff for 30 days in remembrance of the victims. Four days later, on April 23, 1995, Clinton spoke from Oklahoma City. No major federal financial assistance was made available to the survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing, but the Murrah Fund set up in the wake of the bombing attracted over $300,000 in federal grants. Over $40 million was donated to the city to aid disaster relief and to compensate the victims. Funds were initially distributed to families who needed it to get back on their feet, and the rest was held in trust for longer-term medical and psychological needs. By 2005, $18 million of the donations remained, some of which was earmarked to provide a college education for each of the 219 children who lost one or both parents in the bombing. A committee chaired by Daniel Kurtenbach of Goodwill Industries provided financial assistance to the survivors. International reaction International reactions to the bombing varied. President Clinton received many messages of sympathy, including those from Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Yasser Arafat of the Palestine Liberation Organization, and P. V. Narasimha Rao of India. Iran condemned the bombing as an attack on innocent people, but also blamed the U.S. government's policies for inciting it. Other condolences came from Russia, Canada, Australia, the United Nations, and the European Union, among other nations and organizations. Several countries offered to assist in both the rescue efforts and the investigation. France offered to send a special rescue unit, and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin offered to send agents with anti-terrorist expertise to help in the investigation. President Clinton declined Israel's offer, believing that accepting it would increase anti-Muslim sentiments and endanger Muslim-Americans. Children affected In the wake of the bombing, the national media focused on the fact that 19 of the victims had been babies and children, many in the day-care center. At the time of the bombing, there were 100 day-care centers in the United States in 7,900 federal buildings. McVeigh later stated that he was unaware of the day-care center when choosing the building as a target, and if he had known "... it might have given me pause to switch targets. That's a large amount of collateral damage." The FBI stated that McVeigh scouted the interior of the building in December 1994 and likely knew of the day-care center before the bombing. In April 2010, Joseph Hartzler, the prosecutor at McVeigh's trial, questioned how McVeigh could have decided to pass over a prior target building because of a florist shop but at the Murrah building, not "... notice that there's a child day-care center there, that there was a credit union there and a Social Security office?" Schools across the country were dismissed early and ordered closed. A photograph of firefighter Chris Fields emerging from the rubble with infant Baylee Almon, who later died in a nearby hospital, was reprinted worldwide and became a symbol of the attack. The photo, taken by bank employee Charles H. Porter | VIN on an axle of the truck used in the explosion and the remnants of the license plate, federal agents were able to link the truck to a specific Ryder rental agency in Junction City, Kansas. Using a sketch created with the assistance of Eldon Elliot, owner of the agency, the agents were able to implicate McVeigh in the bombing. McVeigh was also identified by Lea McGown of the Dreamland Motel, who remembered him parking a large yellow Ryder truck in the lot; McVeigh had signed in under his real name at the motel, using an address that matched the one on his forged license and the charge sheet at the Perry Police Station. Before signing his real name at the motel, McVeigh had used false names for his transactions. However, McGown noted, "People are so used to signing their own name that when they go to sign a phony name, they almost always go to write, and then look up for a moment as if to remember the new name they want to use. That's what [McVeigh] did, and when he looked up I started talking to him, and it threw him." After an April 21, 1995 court hearing on the gun charges, but before McVeigh's release, federal agents took him into custody as they continued their investigation into the bombing. Rather than talk to investigators about the bombing, McVeigh demanded an attorney. Having been tipped off by the arrival of police and helicopters that a bombing suspect was inside, a restless crowd began to gather outside the jail. While McVeigh's requests for a bulletproof vest or transport by helicopter were denied, authorities did use a helicopter to transport him from Perry to Oklahoma City. Federal agents obtained a warrant to search the house of McVeigh's father, Bill, after which they broke down the door and wired the house and telephone with listening devices. FBI investigators used the resulting information gained, along with the fake address McVeigh had been using, to begin their search for the Nichols brothers, Terry and James. On April 21, 1995, Terry Nichols learned that he was being hunted, and turned himself in. Investigators discovered incriminating evidence at his home: ammonium nitrate and blasting caps, the electric drill used to drill out the locks at the quarry, books on bomb-making, a copy of Hunter (a 1989 novel by William Luther Pierce, the founder and chairman of the National Alliance, a white nationalist group) and a hand-drawn map of downtown Oklahoma City, on which the Murrah Building and the spot where McVeigh's getaway car was hidden were marked. After a nine-hour interrogation, Terry Nichols was formally held in federal custody until his trial. On April 25, 1995, James Nichols was also arrested, but he was released after 32 days due to lack of evidence. McVeigh's sister Jennifer was accused of illegally mailing ammunition to McVeigh, but she was granted immunity in exchange for testifying against him. A Jordanian-American man traveling from his home in Oklahoma City to visit family in Jordan on April 19, 1995, was detained and questioned by the FBI at the airport. Several Arab-American groups criticized the FBI for racial profiling, and the subsequent media coverage for publicizing the man's name. Attorney General Reno denied claims that the federal government relied on racial profiling, while FBI director Louis J. Freeh told a press conference that the man was never a suspect, and was instead treated as a "witness" to the Oklahoma City bombing, who assisted the government's investigation. Casualties An estimated 646 people were inside the building when the bomb exploded. By the end of the day, 14 adults and six children were confirmed dead, and over 100 injured. The toll eventually reached 168 confirmed dead, not including an unmatched left leg that could have belonged to an unidentified 169th victim or could have belonged to any one of eight victims who had been buried without a left leg. Most of the deaths resulted from the collapse of the building, rather than the bomb blast itself. Those killed included 163 who were in the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, one person in the Athenian Building, one woman in a parking lot across the street, a man and woman in the Oklahoma Water Resources building and a rescue worker struck on the head by debris. The victims ranged in age from three months to 73 years and included three pregnant women. Of the dead, 108 worked for the Federal government: Drug Enforcement Administration (5); Secret Service (6); Department of Housing and Urban Development (35); Department of Agriculture (7); Customs Office (2); Department of Transportation/Federal Highway (11); General Services Administration (2); and the Social Security Administration (40). Eight of the federal government victims were federal law enforcement agents. Of those law enforcement agents, four were members of the U.S. Secret Service; two were members of the U.S. Customs Service; one was a member of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration and one was a member of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Six of the victims were U.S. military personnel; two were members of the U.S. Army; two were members of the U.S. Air Force, and two were members of the U.S. Marine Corps. The rest of the victims were civilians, including 19 children, of whom 15 were in the America's Kids Day Care Center. The bodies of the 168 victims were identified at a temporary morgue set up at the scene. A team of 24 identified the victims using full-body X-rays, dental examinations, fingerprinting, blood tests, and DNA testing. More than 680 people were injured. The majority of the injuries were abrasions, severe burns, and bone fractures. McVeigh later acknowledged the casualties, saying, "I didn't define the rules of engagement in this conflict. The rules, if not written down, are defined by the aggressor. It was brutal, no holds barred. Women and kids were killed at Waco and Ruby Ridge. You put back in [the government's] faces exactly what they're giving out." He later stated "I wanted the government to hurt like the people of Waco and Ruby Ridge had." Response and relief Rescue efforts At 9:03 am, the first of over 1,800 9-1-1 calls related to the bombing was received by Emergency Medical Services Authority (EMSA). By that time, EMSA ambulances, police, and firefighters had heard the blast and were already headed to the scene. Nearby civilians, who had also witnessed or heard the blast, arrived to assist the victims and emergency workers. Within 23 minutes of the bombing, the State Emergency Operations Center (SEOC) was set up, consisting of representatives from the state departments of public safety, human services, military, health, and education. Assisting the SEOC were agencies including the National Weather Service, the Air Force, the Civil Air Patrol, and the American Red Cross. Immediate assistance also came from 465 members of the Oklahoma National Guard, who arrived within the hour to provide security, and from members of the Department of Civil Emergency Management. Terrance Yeakey and Jim Ramsey, from the Oklahoma City Police Department, were among the first officers to arrive at the site. Several cast and crew members filming for the 1996 movie Twister paused filming to come help with recovery efforts. The EMS command post was set up almost immediately following the attack and oversaw triage, treatment, transportation, and decontamination. A simple plan/objective was established: treatment and transportation of the injured was to be done as quickly as possible, supplies and personnel to handle a large number of patients was needed immediately, the dead needed to be moved to a temporary morgue until they could be transferred to the coroner's office, and measures for a long-term medical operation needed to be established. The triage center was set up near the Murrah Building and all the wounded were directed there. Two hundred and ten patients were transported from the primary triage center to nearby hospitals within the first couple of hours following the bombing. Within the first hour, 50 people were rescued from the Murrah Federal Building. Victims were sent to every hospital in the area. The day of the bombing, 153 people were treated at St. Anthony Hospital, eight blocks from the blast, over 70 people were treated at Presbyterian Hospital, 41 people were treated at University Hospital, and 18 people were treated at Children's Hospital. Temporary silences were observed at the blast site so that sensitive listening devices capable of detecting human heartbeats could be used to locate survivors. In some cases, limbs had to be amputated without anesthetics (avoided because of the potential to induce shock) in order to free those trapped under rubble. The scene had to be periodically evacuated as the police received tips claiming that other bombs had been planted in the building. At 10:28 am, rescuers found what they believed to be a second bomb. Some rescue workers refused to leave until police ordered the mandatory evacuation of a four-block area around the site. The device was determined to be a three-foot (.9-m) long TOW missile used in the training of federal agents and bomb-sniffing dogs; although actually inert, it had been marked "live" in order to mislead arms traffickers in a planned law enforcement sting. On examination the missile was determined to be inert, and relief efforts resumed 45 minutes later. The last survivor, a 15-year-old girl found under the base of the collapsed building, was rescued at around 7 pm. In the days following the blast, over 12,000 people participated in relief and rescue operations. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) activated 11 of its Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces, bringing in 665 rescue workers. One nurse was killed in the rescue attempt after she was hit on the head by debris, and 26 other rescuers were hospitalized because of various injuries. Twenty-four K-9 units and out-of-state dogs were brought in to search for survivors and bodies in the building debris. In an effort to recover additional bodies, of rubble were removed from the site each day from April 24 to 29. Rescue and recovery efforts were concluded at 12:05 a.m. on May 5, by which time the bodies of all but three of the victims had been recovered. For safety reasons, the building was initially slated to be demolished shortly afterward. McVeigh's attorney, Stephen Jones, filed a motion to delay the demolition until the defense team could examine the site in preparation for the trial. At 7:02 a.m. on May 23, more than a month after the bombing, the Murrah Federal building was demolished. The EMS Command Center remained active and was staffed 24 hours a day until the demolition. The final three bodies to be recovered were those of two credit union employees and a customer. For several days after the building's demolition, trucks hauled away of debris a day from the site. Some of the debris was used as evidence in the conspirators' trials, incorporated into memorials, donated to local schools, or sold to raise funds for relief efforts. Humanitarian aid The national humanitarian response was immediate, and in some cases even overwhelming. Large numbers of items such as wheelbarrows, bottled water, helmet lights, knee pads, rain gear, and even football helmets were donated. The sheer quantity of such donations caused logistical and inventory control problems until drop-off centers were set up to accept and sort the goods. The Oklahoma Restaurant Association, which was holding a trade show in the city, assisted rescue workers by providing 15,000 to 20,000 meals over ten days. The Salvation Army served over 100,000 meals and provided over 100,000 ponchos, gloves, hard hats, and knee pads to rescue workers. Local residents and those from further afield responded to the requests for blood donations. Of the over 9,000 units of blood donated, 131 were used; the rest were stored in blood banks. Federal and state government aid At 9:45 am, Governor Frank Keating declared a state of emergency and ordered all non-essential workers in the Oklahoma City area to be released from their duties for their safety. President Bill Clinton learned about the bombing at around 9:30 a.m. while he was meeting with Turkish Prime Minister Tansu Çiller at the White House. Before addressing the nation, President Clinton considered grounding all planes in the Oklahoma City area to prevent the bombers from escaping by air, but decided against it. At 4:00 pm, President Clinton declared a federal emergency in Oklahoma City and spoke to the nation: He ordered that flags for all federal buildings be flown at half-staff for 30 days in remembrance of the victims. Four days later, on April 23, 1995, Clinton spoke from Oklahoma City. No major federal financial assistance was made available to the survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing, but the Murrah Fund set up in the wake of the bombing attracted over $300,000 in federal grants. Over $40 million was donated to the city to aid disaster relief and to compensate the victims. Funds were initially distributed to families who needed it to get back on their feet, and the rest was held in trust for longer-term medical and psychological needs. By 2005, $18 million of the donations remained, some of which was earmarked to provide a college education for each of the 219 children who lost one or both parents in the bombing. A committee chaired by Daniel Kurtenbach of Goodwill Industries provided financial assistance to the survivors. International reaction International reactions to the bombing varied. President Clinton received many messages of sympathy, including those from Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Yasser Arafat of the Palestine Liberation Organization, and P. V. Narasimha Rao of India. Iran condemned the bombing as an attack on innocent people, but also blamed the U.S. government's policies for inciting it. Other condolences came from Russia, Canada, Australia, the United Nations, and the European Union, among other nations and organizations. Several countries offered to assist in both the rescue efforts and the investigation. France offered to send a special rescue unit, and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin offered to send agents with anti-terrorist expertise to help in the investigation. President Clinton declined Israel's offer, believing that accepting it would increase anti-Muslim sentiments and endanger Muslim-Americans. Children affected In the wake of the bombing, the national media focused on the fact that 19 of the victims had been babies and children, many in the day-care center. At the time of the bombing, there were 100 day-care centers in the United States in 7,900 federal buildings. McVeigh later stated that he was unaware of the day-care center when choosing the building as a target, and if he had known "... it might have given me pause to switch targets. That's a large amount of collateral damage." The FBI stated that McVeigh scouted the interior of the building in December 1994 and likely knew of the day-care center before the bombing. In April 2010, Joseph Hartzler, the prosecutor at McVeigh's trial, questioned how McVeigh could have decided to pass over a prior target building because of a florist shop but at the Murrah building, not "... notice that there's a child day-care center there, that there was a credit union there and a Social Security office?" Schools across the country were dismissed early and ordered closed. A photograph of firefighter Chris Fields emerging from the rubble with infant Baylee Almon, who later died in a nearby hospital, was reprinted worldwide and became a symbol of the attack. The photo, taken by bank employee Charles H. Porter IV, won the 1996 Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography and appeared on newspapers and magazines for months following the attack. Aren Almon Kok, mother of Baylee Almon, said of the photo: "It was very hard to go to stores because they are in the check out aisle. It was always there. It was devastating. Everybody had seen my daughter dead. And that's all she became to them. She was a symbol. She was the girl in the fireman's arms. But she was a real person that got left behind." The images and media reports of children dying terrorized many children who, as demonstrated by later research, showed symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Children became a primary focus of concern in the mental health response to the bombing and many bomb-related services were delivered to the community, young and old alike. These services were delivered to public schools of Oklahoma and reached approximately 40,000 students. One of the first organized mental health activities in Oklahoma City was a clinical study of middle and high school students conducted 7 weeks after the bombing. The study focused on middle and high school students who had no connection or |
goal was to annex the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East into its territory and enslave its peoples, as part of what he called a "Greater Israel". He stated that Jews and Muslims could never get along and that war was "inevitable" between them, and further accused the US of stirring up anti-Islamic sentiment. He claimed that the US State Department and US Department of Defense were controlled by Jews, for the sole purpose of serving the Israeli state's goals. He often delivered warnings against alleged Jewish conspiracies: "These Jews are masters of usury and leaders in treachery. They will leave you nothing, either in this world or the next." Shia Muslims have been listed along with heretics, America, and Israel as the four principal enemies of Islam at ideology classes of bin Laden's al-Qaeda organization. Bin Laden was opposed to music on religious grounds, and his attitude towards technology was mixed. He was interested in earth-moving machinery and genetic engineering of plants on the one hand, but rejected chilled water on the other. Bin Laden also believed climate change to be a serious threat and penned a letter urging Americans to work with President Barack Obama to make a rational decision to "save humanity from the harmful gases that threaten its destiny". Militant and political career Mujahideen in Afghanistan After leaving college in 1979, bin Laden went to Pakistan, joined Abdullah Azzam and used money and machinery from his own construction company to help the Mujahideen resistance in the Soviet–Afghan War. He later told a journalist: "I felt outraged that an injustice had been committed against the people of Afghanistan." From 1979 to 1992, the United States (as part of CIA activities in Afghanistan, specifically Operation Cyclone), Saudi Arabia, and China provided between $6–12 billion worth of financial aid and weapons to tens of thousands of mujahideen through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI). British journalist Jason Burke wrote that "He did not receive any direct funding or training from the US during the 1980s. Nor did his followers. The Afghan mujahideen, via Pakistan's ISI intelligence agency, received large amounts of both. Some bled to the Arabs fighting the Soviets but nothing significant." Bin Laden met and built relations with Hamid Gul, who was a three-star general in the Pakistani army and head of the ISI agency. Although the United States provided the money and weapons, the training of militant groups was entirely done by the Pakistani Armed Forces and the ISI. According to some CIA officers, beginning in early 1980, bin Laden acted as a liaison between the Saudi General Intelligence Presidency (GIP) and Afghan warlords, but no evidence of contact between the CIA and Bin Laden exists in the CIA archives. Steve Coll states that although bin Laden may not have been a formal, salaried GIP agent, "it seems clear that bin Laden did have a substantial relationship with Saudi intelligence." Bin Laden's first trainer was U.S. Special Forces commando Ali Mohamed. By 1984, bin Laden and Azzam established Maktab al-Khidamat, which funneled money, arms, and fighters from around the Arab world into Afghanistan. Through al-Khadamat, bin Laden's inherited family fortune paid for air tickets and accommodation, paid for paperwork with Pakistani authorities and provided other such services for the jihadi fighters. Bin Laden established camps inside Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan and trained volunteers from across the Muslim world to fight against the Soviet-backed regime, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Between 1986 and 1987, bin Laden set up a base in eastern Afghanistan for several dozen of his own Arab soldiers. From this base, bin Laden participated in some combat activity against the Soviets, such as the Battle of Jaji in 1987. Despite its little strategic significance, the battle was lionized in the mainstream Arab press. It was during this time that he became idolised by many Arabs. 1988 Gilgit massacre In May 1988, responding to rumours of a massacre of Sunnis by Shias, large numbers of Shias from in and around Gilgit, Pakistan were killed in a massacre. Shia civilians were also subjected to rape. The massacre is alleged by B. Raman, a founder of India's Research and Analysis Wing, to have been in response to a revolt by the Shias of Gilgit during the rule of military dictator Zia-ul Haq. He alleged that the Pakistan Army induced Osama bin Laden to lead an armed group of Sunni tribals, from Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier Province, into Gilgit and its surrounding areas to suppress the revolt. Formation and structuring of al-Qaeda By 1988, bin Laden had split from Maktab al-Khidamat. While Azzam acted as support for Afghan fighters, bin Laden wanted a more military role. One of the main points leading to the split and the creation of al-Qaeda was Azzam's insistence that Arab fighters be integrated among the Afghan fighting groups instead of forming a separate fighting force. Notes of a meeting of bin Laden and others on August 20, 1988, indicate that al-Qaeda was a formal group by that time: "Basically an organized Islamic faction, its goal is to lift the word of God, to make his religion victorious." A list of requirements for membership itemized the following: listening ability, good manners, obedience, and making a pledge (bayat) to follow one's superiors. According to Wright, the group's real name was not used in public pronouncements because its existence was still a closely held secret. His research suggests that al-Qaeda was formed at an August 11, 1988, meeting between several senior leaders of Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Abdullah Azzam, and bin Laden, where it was agreed to join bin Laden's money with the expertise of the Islamic Jihad organization and take up the jihadist cause elsewhere after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan. Following the Soviet Union's withdrawal from Afghanistan in February 1989, Osama bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia as a hero of jihad. Along with his Arab legion, he was thought to have brought down the mighty superpower of the Soviet Union. After his return to Saudi Arabia, bin Laden engaged in opposition movements to the Saudi monarchy while working for his family business. He offered to send al-Qaeda to overthrow the Soviet-aligned Yemeni Socialist Party government in South Yemen but was rebuffed by Prince Turki bin Faisal. He then tried to disrupt the Yemeni unification process by assassinating YSP leaders but was halted by Saudi Interior Minister Prince Nayef bin Abdulaziz after President Ali Abdullah Saleh complained to King Fahd. He was also angered by the internecine tribal fighting among the Afghans. However, he continued working with the Saudi GID and the Pakistani ISI. He funded the 1990 Afghan coup d'état attempt and also lobbied the Parliament of Pakistan to carry out an unsuccessful motion of no confidence against Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait under Saddam Hussein on August 2, 1990, put the Saudi kingdom and the royal family at risk. With Iraqi forces on the Saudi border, Saddam's appeal to pan-Arabism was potentially inciting internal dissent. One week after King Fahd agreed to U.S. Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney's offer of American military assistance, Bin Laden met with King Fahd and Saudi Defense Minister Sultan, telling them not to depend on non-Muslim assistance from the United States and others and offering to help defend Saudi Arabia with his Arab legion. When Sultan asked how bin Laden would defend the fighters if Saddam used Iraqi chemical and biological weapons against them he replied "We will fight him with faith." Bin Laden's offer was rebuffed, and the Saudi monarchy invited the deployment of U.S. forces in Saudi territory. Bin Laden publicly denounced Saudi dependence on the U.S. forces, arguing that the Quran prohibited non-Muslims from setting foot in the Arabian Peninsula and that two holiest shrines of Islam, Mecca and Medina, the cities in which the prophet Muhammad received and recited Allah's message, should only be defended by Muslims. Bin Laden tried to convince the Saudi ulama to issue a fatwa condemning the American military deployment but senior clerics refused out of fear of repression. Bin Laden's criticism of the Saudi monarchy led them to try to silence him. The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division landed in the north-eastern Saudi city of Dhahran and was deployed in the desert barely 400 miles from Medina. Meanwhile, on November 8, 1990, the FBI raided the New Jersey home of El Sayyid Nosair, an associate of al-Qaeda operative Ali Mohamed. They discovered copious evidence of terrorist plots, including plans to blow up New York City skyscrapers. This marked the earliest discovery of al-Qaeda terrorist plans outside of Muslim countries. Nosair was eventually convicted in connection to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, and later admitted guilt for the murder of Rabbi Meir Kahane in New York City on November 5, 1990. Move to Sudan In 1991, bin Laden was expelled from Saudi Arabia by its government after repeatedly criticizing the Saudi alliance with the United States. He and his followers moved first to Afghanistan and then relocated to Sudan by 1992, in a deal brokered by Ali Mohamed. Bin Laden's personal security detail consisted of bodyguards personally selected by him. Their arsenal included SA-7, Stinger missiles, AK-47s, RPGs, and PK machine guns. Meanwhile, in March–April 1992, bin Laden tried to play a pacifying role in the escalating civil war in Afghanistan, by urging warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar to join the other mujahideen leaders negotiating a coalition government instead of trying to conquer Kabul for himself. US intelligence monitored bin Laden in Sudan using operatives to run by daily and to photograph activities at his compound, and using an intelligence safe house and signals intelligence to surveil him and to record his moves. Sudan and return to Afghanistan In Sudan, bin Laden established a new base for Mujahideen operations in Khartoum. He bought a house on Al-Mashtal Street in the affluent Al-Riyadh quarter and a retreat at Soba on the Blue Nile. During his time in Sudan, he heavily invested in the infrastructure, in agriculture and businesses. He was the Sudan agent for the British firm Hunting Surveys, and built roads using the same bulldozers he had employed to construct mountain tracks in Afghanistan. Many of his labourers were the same fighters who had been his comrades in the war against the Soviet Union. He was generous to the poor and popular with the people. He continued to criticize King Fahd of Saudi Arabia. In response, in 1994 Fahd stripped bin Laden of his Saudi citizenship and persuaded his family to cut off his $7 million a year stipend. By that time, bin Laden was being linked with Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ), which made up the core of al-Qaeda. In 1995 the EIJ attempted to assassinate the Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The attempt failed, and Sudan expelled the EIJ. The US State Department accused Sudan of being a sponsor of international terrorism and bin Laden of operating terrorist training camps in the Sudanese desert. However, according to Sudan officials, this stance became obsolete as the Islamist political leader Hassan al-Turabi lost influence in their country. The Sudanese wanted to engage with the US but American officials refused to meet with them even after they had expelled bin Laden. It was not until 2000 that the State Department authorized US intelligence officials to visit Sudan. The 9/11 Commission Report states: In late 1995, when Bin Laden was still in Sudan, the State Department and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) learned that Sudanese officials were discussing with the Saudi government the possibility of expelling Bin Laden. CIA paramilitary officer Billy Waugh tracked down Bin Ladin in Sudan and prepared an operation to apprehend him, but was denied authorization. US Ambassador Timothy Carney encouraged the Sudanese to pursue this course. The Saudis, however, did not want Bin Laden, giving as their reason their revocation of his citizenship. Sudan's minister of defense, Fatih Erwa, has claimed that Sudan offered to hand Bin Laden over to the United States. The Commission has found no credible evidence that this was so. Ambassador Carney had instructions only to push the Sudanese to expel Bin Laden. Ambassador Carney had no legal basis to ask for more from the Sudanese since, at the time, there was no indictment outstanding against bin Laden in any country. The 9/11 Commission Report further states: In February 1996, Sudanese officials began approaching officials from the United States and other governments, asking what actions of theirs might ease foreign pressure. In secret meetings with Saudi officials, Sudan offered to expel Bin Laden to Saudi Arabia and asked the Saudis to pardon him. US officials became aware of these secret discussions, certainly by March. Saudi officials apparently wanted Bin Laden expelled from Sudan. They had already revoked his citizenship, however, and would not tolerate his presence in their country. Also Bin Laden may have no longer felt safe in Sudan, where he had already escaped at least one assassination attempt that he believed to have been the work of the Egyptian or Saudi regimes, and paid for by the CIA. Due to the increasing pressure on Sudan from Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and the United States, bin Laden was permitted to leave for a country of his choice. He chose to return to Jalalabad, Afghanistan aboard a chartered flight on May 18, 1996; there he forged a close relationship with Mullah Mohammed Omar. According to the 9/11 Commission, the expulsion from Sudan significantly weakened bin Laden and his organization. Some African intelligence sources have argued that the expulsion left bin Laden without an option other than becoming a full-time radical, and that most of the 300 Afghan Arabs who left with him subsequently became terrorists. Various sources report that bin Laden lost between $20 million and $300 million in Sudan; the government seized his construction equipment, and bin Laden was forced to liquidate his businesses, land, and even his horses. 1996 Declaration of war and 1998 fatwa In August 1996, bin Laden declared war against the United States. Despite the assurance of President George H. W. Bush to King Fahd in 1990, that all US forces based in Saudi Arabia would be withdrawn once the Iraqi threat had been dealt with, by 1996 the Americans were still there. Bush cited the necessity of dealing with the remnants of Saddam's regime (which Bush had chosen not to destroy). Bin Laden's view was that "the 'evils' of the Middle East arose from America's attempt to take over the region and from its support for Israel. Saudi Arabia had been turned into an American colony". In 1998 he issued a fatwā against the United States, which was first published in Al-Quds Al-Arabi, a London-based newspaper. It was entitled "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places". Saudi Arabia is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Mecca and Medina, the two holiest places in Islam. The reference to occupation in the fatwā referred to US forces based in Saudi Arabia for the purpose of controlling air space in Iraq, known as Operation Southern Watch. In Afghanistan, bin Laden and al-Qaeda raised money from donors from the days of the Soviet jihad, and from the Pakistani ISI to establish more training camps for Mujahideen fighters. Bin Laden effectively took over Ariana Afghan Airlines, which ferried Islamic militants, arms, cash, and opium through the United Arab Emirates and Pakistan, as well as provided false identifications to members of bin Laden's terrorist network. The arms smuggler Viktor Bout helped to run the airline, maintaining planes and loading cargo. Michael Scheuer, head of the CIA's bin Laden unit, concluded that Ariana was being used as a terrorist taxi service. Early attacks and aid for attacks It is believed that the first bombing attack involving bin Laden was the December 29, 1992, bombing of the Gold Mihor Hotel in Aden in which two people were killed. After this bombing, al-Qaeda was reported to have developed its justification for the killing of innocent people. According to a fatwa issued by Mamdouh Mahmud Salim, the killing of someone standing near the enemy is justified because any innocent bystander will find a proper reward in death, going to Jannah (paradise) if they were good Muslims and to Jahannam (hell) if they were bad or non-believers. The fatwa was issued to al-Qaeda members but not the general public. In the 1990s, bin Laden's al-Qaeda assisted jihadis financially and sometimes militarily in Algeria, Egypt, and Afghanistan. In 1992 or 1993, bin Laden sent an emissary, Qari el-Said, with $40,000 to Algeria to aid the Islamists and urge war rather than negotiation with the government. Their advice was heeded. The war that followed caused the deaths of 150,000–200,000 Algerians and ended with the Islamist surrender to the government. In January 1996, the CIA launched a new unit of its Counterterrorism Center (CTC) called Bin Laden Issue Station, code-named "Alec Station", to track and to carry out operations against Bin Laden's activities. Bin Laden Issue Station was headed by Michael Scheuer, a veteran of the Islamic Extremism Branch of the CTC. Late 1990s attacks It has been claimed that bin Laden funded the Luxor massacre of November 17, 1997, which killed 62 civilians, and outraged the Egyptian public. In mid-1997, the Northern Alliance threatened to overrun Jalalabad, causing bin Laden to abandon his Najim Jihad compound and move his operations to Tarnak Farms in the south. Another successful attack was carried out in the city of Mazar-i-Sharif in Afghanistan. Bin Laden helped cement his alliance with the Taliban by sending several hundred Afghan Arab fighters along to help the Taliban kill between five and six thousand Hazaras overrunning the city. In February 1998, Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri co-signed a fatwa in the name of the World Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders, which declared the killing of North Americans and their allies an "individual duty for every Muslim" to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque (in Jerusalem) and the holy mosque (in Mecca) from their grip. At the public announcement, fatwa bin Laden announced that North Americans are "very easy targets". He told the attending journalists, "You will see the results of this in a very short time." Bin Laden and al-Zawahiri organized an al-Qaeda congress on June 24, 1998. The 1998 US embassy bombings were a series of attacks that occurred on August 7, 1998, in which hundreds of people were killed in simultaneous truck bomb explosions at the United States embassies in the major East African cities of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya. The attacks were linked to local members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, and brought Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri to the attention of the United States public for the first time. Al-Qaeda later claimed responsibility for the bombings. In retaliation for the embassy bombings, President Bill Clinton ordered a series of cruise missile strikes on bin Laden-related targets in Sudan and Afghanistan on August 20, 1998. In December 1998, the Director of Central Intelligence Counterterrorist Center reported to President Clinton that al-Qaeda was preparing for attacks in the United States of America, including the training of personnel to hijack aircraft. On June 7, 1999, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation placed bin Laden on its Ten Most Wanted list. At the end of 2000, Richard Clarke revealed that Islamic militants headed by bin Laden had planned a triple attack on January 3, 2000, which would have included bombings in Jordan of the Radisson SAS Hotel in Amman, tourists at Mount Nebo, and a site on the Jordan River, as well as the sinking of the destroyer in Yemen, and an attack on a target within the United States. The plan was foiled by the arrest of the Jordanian terrorist cell, the sinking of the explosive-filled skiff intended to target the destroyer, and the arrest of Ahmed Ressam. Yugoslav Wars A former US State Department official in October 2001 described Bosnia and Herzegovina as a safe haven for terrorists, and asserted that militant elements of the former Sarajevo government were protecting extremists, some with ties to Osama bin Laden. In 1997, Rzeczpospolita, one of the largest Polish daily newspapers, had reported that intelligence services of the Nordic-Polish SFOR Brigade suspected that a center for training terrorists from Islamic countries was located in the Bocina Donja village near Maglaj in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1992, hundreds of volunteers joined an all-mujahedeen unit called El Moujahed in an abandoned hillside factory, a compound with a hospital and prayer hall. According to Middle East intelligence reports, bin Laden financed small convoys of recruits from the Arab world through his businesses in Sudan. Among them was Karim Said Atmani, who was identified by authorities as the document forger for a group of Algerians accused of plotting the bombings in the United States. He is a former roommate of Ahmed Ressam, the man arrested at the Canada–United States border in mid-December 1999 with a car full of nitroglycerin and bomb-making materials. He was convicted of colluding with Osama bin Laden by a French court. A Bosnian government search of passport and residency records, conducted at the urging of the United States, revealed other former Mujahideen who were linked to the same Algerian group or to other groups of suspected terrorists, and had lived in the area north of Sarajevo, the capital, in the past few years. Khalil al-Deek was arrested in Jordan in late December 1999 on suspicion of involvement in a plot to blow up tourist sites. A second man with Bosnian citizenship, Hamid Aich, lived in Canada at the same time as Atmani and worked for a charity associated with Osama bin Laden. In its June 26, 1997 report on the bombing of the Al Khobar building in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, The New York Times noted that those arrested confessed to serving with Bosnian Muslim forces. Further, the captured men also admitted to ties with Osama bin Laden. In 1999, the press reported that bin Laden and his Tunisian assistant Mehrez Aodouni were granted citizenship and Bosnian passports in 1993 by the government in Sarajevo. The Bosnian government denied this information following the September 11 attacks, but it was later found that Aodouni was arrested in Turkey and that at that time he possessed the Bosnian passport. Following this revelation, a new explanation was given that bin Laden did not personally collect his Bosnian passport and that officials at the Bosnian embassy in Vienna, which issued the passport, could not have known who bin Laden was at the time. The Bosnian daily Oslobođenje published in 2001 that three men, believed to be linked to bin Laden, were arrested in Sarajevo in July 2001. The three, one of whom was identified as Imad El Misri, were Egyptian nationals. The paper said that two of the suspects were holding Bosnian passports. The head of Albania's State Intelligence Service (SHISH), Fatos Klosi, said that Osama was running a terror network in Albania to take part in the Kosovo War under the guise of a humanitarian organisation and it was reported to have been started in 1994. Claude Kader, who was a member, testified its existence during his trial. By 1998, four members of Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ) were arrested in Albania and extradited to Egypt. The mujahideen fighters were organised by Islamic leaders in Western Europe allied to him and Zawihiri. During his trial at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, former Serbian President Slobodan Milošević quoted from a purported FBI report that bin Laden's al-Qaeda had a presence in the Balkans and aided the Kosovo Liberation Army. He claimed bin Laden had used Albania as a launchpad for violence in the region and Europe. He claimed that they had informed Richard Holbrooke that KLA was being aided by al-Qaeda but the US decided to cooperate with the KLA and thus indirectly with Osama despite the 1998 United States embassy bombings earlier. Milošević had argued that the United States aided the terrorists, which culminated in its backing of the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. September 11 attacks After his initial denial, in the wake of the attacks, bin Laden announced, "what the United States is tasting today is nothing compared to what we have tasted for decades. Our umma has known this humiliation and contempt for over eighty years. Its sons are killed, its blood is spilled, its holy sites are attacked, and it is not governed according to Allah's command. Despite this, no one cares". In response to the attacks, the United States launched the War on Terror to depose the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and capture al-Qaeda operatives, and several countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation to preclude future attacks. The CIA's Special Activities Division was given the lead in tracking down and killing or capturing bin Laden. The Federal Bureau of Investigation has stated that classified evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the September 11 attacks is clear and irrefutable. The UK Government reached a similar conclusion regarding al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden's culpability for the September 11 attacks, although the government report noted that the evidence presented is not necessarily sufficient to prosecute the case. Bin Laden initially denied involvement in the attacks. On September 16, 2001, bin Laden read a statement later broadcast by Qatar's Al Jazeera satellite channel denying responsibility for the attack. In a videotape recovered by U.S. forces in November 2001 in Jalalabad, bin Laden was seen discussing the attack with Khaled al-Harbi in a way that indicates foreknowledge. The tape was broadcast on various news networks on December 13, 2001. The merits of this translation have been disputed. Arabist Dr. Abdel El M. Husseini stated: "This translation is very problematic. At the most important places where it is held to prove the guilt of bin Laden, it is not identical with the Arabic." In the 2004 video, bin Laden abandoned his denials without retracting past statements. In it he said he had personally directed the nineteen hijackers. In the 18-minute tape, played on Al-Jazeera, four days before the American presidential election, bin Laden accused U.S. President George W. Bush of negligence in the hijacking of the planes on September 11. According to the tapes, bin Laden claimed he was inspired to destroy the World Trade Center after watching the destruction of towers in Lebanon by Israel during the 1982 Lebanon War. Through two other tapes aired by Al Jazeera in 2006, Osama bin Laden announced, "I am the one in charge of the nineteen brothers. ... I was responsible for entrusting the nineteen brothers ... with the raids" (May 23, 2006). In the tapes he was seen with Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as two of the 9/11 hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi, and Wail al-Shehri, as they made preparations for the attacks (videotape broadcast September 7, 2006). Identified motivations of the September 11 attacks include the support of Israel by the United States, presence of the US military in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the US enforcement of sanctions against Iraq. Criminal charges On March 16, 1998, Libya issued the first official Interpol arrest warrant against bin Laden and three other people. They were charged for killing Silvan Becker, agent of Germany's domestic intelligence service, the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, in the Terrorism Department, and his wife Vera in Libya on March 10, 1994. Bin Laden was still wanted by the Libyan government at the time of his death. Osama bin Laden was first indicted by a grand jury of the United States on June 8, 1998, on a charges of conspiracy to attack defense utilities of the United States and prosecutors further charged that bin Laden was the head of the terrorist organization called al-Qaeda, and that he was a major financial backer of Islamic fighters worldwide. On November 4, 1998, Osama bin Laden was indicted by a Federal Grand Jury in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, on charges of Murder of US Nationals Outside the United States, Conspiracy to Murder US Nationals Outside the United States, and Attacks on a Federal Facility Resulting in Death for his alleged role in the 1998 United States embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania. The evidence against bin Laden included courtroom testimony by former al-Qaeda members and satellite phone records, from a phone purchased for him by al-Qaeda procurement agent Ziyad Khaleel in the United States. However the Taliban ruled not to extradite Bin Laden on the grounds that there was insufficient evidence published in the indictments and that non-Muslim courts lacked standing to try Muslims. Bin Laden became the 456th person listed on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list, when he was added on June 7, 1999, following his indictment along with others for capital crimes in the 1998 embassy attacks. Attempts at assassination and requests for the extradition of bin Laden from the Taliban of Afghanistan were met with failure before the bombing of Afghanistan in October 2001. In 1999, US President Bill Clinton convinced the United Nations to impose sanctions against Afghanistan in an attempt to force the Taliban to extradite him. On October 10, 2001, bin Laden appeared as well on the initial list of the top 22 FBI Most Wanted Terrorists, which was released to the public by the President of the United States George W. Bush, in direct response to the September 11 attacks, but which was again based on the indictment for the 1998 embassy attack. Bin Laden was among a group of thirteen fugitive terrorists wanted on that latter list for questioning about the 1998 embassy bombings. Bin Laden remains the only fugitive ever to be listed on both FBI fugitive lists. Despite the multiple indictments listed above and multiple requests, the Taliban refused to extradite Osama bin Laden. However, they did offer to try him before an Islamic court if evidence of Osama bin Laden's involvement in | US State Department and US Department of Defense were controlled by Jews, for the sole purpose of serving the Israeli state's goals. He often delivered warnings against alleged Jewish conspiracies: "These Jews are masters of usury and leaders in treachery. They will leave you nothing, either in this world or the next." Shia Muslims have been listed along with heretics, America, and Israel as the four principal enemies of Islam at ideology classes of bin Laden's al-Qaeda organization. Bin Laden was opposed to music on religious grounds, and his attitude towards technology was mixed. He was interested in earth-moving machinery and genetic engineering of plants on the one hand, but rejected chilled water on the other. Bin Laden also believed climate change to be a serious threat and penned a letter urging Americans to work with President Barack Obama to make a rational decision to "save humanity from the harmful gases that threaten its destiny". Militant and political career Mujahideen in Afghanistan After leaving college in 1979, bin Laden went to Pakistan, joined Abdullah Azzam and used money and machinery from his own construction company to help the Mujahideen resistance in the Soviet–Afghan War. He later told a journalist: "I felt outraged that an injustice had been committed against the people of Afghanistan." From 1979 to 1992, the United States (as part of CIA activities in Afghanistan, specifically Operation Cyclone), Saudi Arabia, and China provided between $6–12 billion worth of financial aid and weapons to tens of thousands of mujahideen through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI). British journalist Jason Burke wrote that "He did not receive any direct funding or training from the US during the 1980s. Nor did his followers. The Afghan mujahideen, via Pakistan's ISI intelligence agency, received large amounts of both. Some bled to the Arabs fighting the Soviets but nothing significant." Bin Laden met and built relations with Hamid Gul, who was a three-star general in the Pakistani army and head of the ISI agency. Although the United States provided the money and weapons, the training of militant groups was entirely done by the Pakistani Armed Forces and the ISI. According to some CIA officers, beginning in early 1980, bin Laden acted as a liaison between the Saudi General Intelligence Presidency (GIP) and Afghan warlords, but no evidence of contact between the CIA and Bin Laden exists in the CIA archives. Steve Coll states that although bin Laden may not have been a formal, salaried GIP agent, "it seems clear that bin Laden did have a substantial relationship with Saudi intelligence." Bin Laden's first trainer was U.S. Special Forces commando Ali Mohamed. By 1984, bin Laden and Azzam established Maktab al-Khidamat, which funneled money, arms, and fighters from around the Arab world into Afghanistan. Through al-Khadamat, bin Laden's inherited family fortune paid for air tickets and accommodation, paid for paperwork with Pakistani authorities and provided other such services for the jihadi fighters. Bin Laden established camps inside Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan and trained volunteers from across the Muslim world to fight against the Soviet-backed regime, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Between 1986 and 1987, bin Laden set up a base in eastern Afghanistan for several dozen of his own Arab soldiers. From this base, bin Laden participated in some combat activity against the Soviets, such as the Battle of Jaji in 1987. Despite its little strategic significance, the battle was lionized in the mainstream Arab press. It was during this time that he became idolised by many Arabs. 1988 Gilgit massacre In May 1988, responding to rumours of a massacre of Sunnis by Shias, large numbers of Shias from in and around Gilgit, Pakistan were killed in a massacre. Shia civilians were also subjected to rape. The massacre is alleged by B. Raman, a founder of India's Research and Analysis Wing, to have been in response to a revolt by the Shias of Gilgit during the rule of military dictator Zia-ul Haq. He alleged that the Pakistan Army induced Osama bin Laden to lead an armed group of Sunni tribals, from Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier Province, into Gilgit and its surrounding areas to suppress the revolt. Formation and structuring of al-Qaeda By 1988, bin Laden had split from Maktab al-Khidamat. While Azzam acted as support for Afghan fighters, bin Laden wanted a more military role. One of the main points leading to the split and the creation of al-Qaeda was Azzam's insistence that Arab fighters be integrated among the Afghan fighting groups instead of forming a separate fighting force. Notes of a meeting of bin Laden and others on August 20, 1988, indicate that al-Qaeda was a formal group by that time: "Basically an organized Islamic faction, its goal is to lift the word of God, to make his religion victorious." A list of requirements for membership itemized the following: listening ability, good manners, obedience, and making a pledge (bayat) to follow one's superiors. According to Wright, the group's real name was not used in public pronouncements because its existence was still a closely held secret. His research suggests that al-Qaeda was formed at an August 11, 1988, meeting between several senior leaders of Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Abdullah Azzam, and bin Laden, where it was agreed to join bin Laden's money with the expertise of the Islamic Jihad organization and take up the jihadist cause elsewhere after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan. Following the Soviet Union's withdrawal from Afghanistan in February 1989, Osama bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia as a hero of jihad. Along with his Arab legion, he was thought to have brought down the mighty superpower of the Soviet Union. After his return to Saudi Arabia, bin Laden engaged in opposition movements to the Saudi monarchy while working for his family business. He offered to send al-Qaeda to overthrow the Soviet-aligned Yemeni Socialist Party government in South Yemen but was rebuffed by Prince Turki bin Faisal. He then tried to disrupt the Yemeni unification process by assassinating YSP leaders but was halted by Saudi Interior Minister Prince Nayef bin Abdulaziz after President Ali Abdullah Saleh complained to King Fahd. He was also angered by the internecine tribal fighting among the Afghans. However, he continued working with the Saudi GID and the Pakistani ISI. He funded the 1990 Afghan coup d'état attempt and also lobbied the Parliament of Pakistan to carry out an unsuccessful motion of no confidence against Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait under Saddam Hussein on August 2, 1990, put the Saudi kingdom and the royal family at risk. With Iraqi forces on the Saudi border, Saddam's appeal to pan-Arabism was potentially inciting internal dissent. One week after King Fahd agreed to U.S. Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney's offer of American military assistance, Bin Laden met with King Fahd and Saudi Defense Minister Sultan, telling them not to depend on non-Muslim assistance from the United States and others and offering to help defend Saudi Arabia with his Arab legion. When Sultan asked how bin Laden would defend the fighters if Saddam used Iraqi chemical and biological weapons against them he replied "We will fight him with faith." Bin Laden's offer was rebuffed, and the Saudi monarchy invited the deployment of U.S. forces in Saudi territory. Bin Laden publicly denounced Saudi dependence on the U.S. forces, arguing that the Quran prohibited non-Muslims from setting foot in the Arabian Peninsula and that two holiest shrines of Islam, Mecca and Medina, the cities in which the prophet Muhammad received and recited Allah's message, should only be defended by Muslims. Bin Laden tried to convince the Saudi ulama to issue a fatwa condemning the American military deployment but senior clerics refused out of fear of repression. Bin Laden's criticism of the Saudi monarchy led them to try to silence him. The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division landed in the north-eastern Saudi city of Dhahran and was deployed in the desert barely 400 miles from Medina. Meanwhile, on November 8, 1990, the FBI raided the New Jersey home of El Sayyid Nosair, an associate of al-Qaeda operative Ali Mohamed. They discovered copious evidence of terrorist plots, including plans to blow up New York City skyscrapers. This marked the earliest discovery of al-Qaeda terrorist plans outside of Muslim countries. Nosair was eventually convicted in connection to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, and later admitted guilt for the murder of Rabbi Meir Kahane in New York City on November 5, 1990. Move to Sudan In 1991, bin Laden was expelled from Saudi Arabia by its government after repeatedly criticizing the Saudi alliance with the United States. He and his followers moved first to Afghanistan and then relocated to Sudan by 1992, in a deal brokered by Ali Mohamed. Bin Laden's personal security detail consisted of bodyguards personally selected by him. Their arsenal included SA-7, Stinger missiles, AK-47s, RPGs, and PK machine guns. Meanwhile, in March–April 1992, bin Laden tried to play a pacifying role in the escalating civil war in Afghanistan, by urging warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar to join the other mujahideen leaders negotiating a coalition government instead of trying to conquer Kabul for himself. US intelligence monitored bin Laden in Sudan using operatives to run by daily and to photograph activities at his compound, and using an intelligence safe house and signals intelligence to surveil him and to record his moves. Sudan and return to Afghanistan In Sudan, bin Laden established a new base for Mujahideen operations in Khartoum. He bought a house on Al-Mashtal Street in the affluent Al-Riyadh quarter and a retreat at Soba on the Blue Nile. During his time in Sudan, he heavily invested in the infrastructure, in agriculture and businesses. He was the Sudan agent for the British firm Hunting Surveys, and built roads using the same bulldozers he had employed to construct mountain tracks in Afghanistan. Many of his labourers were the same fighters who had been his comrades in the war against the Soviet Union. He was generous to the poor and popular with the people. He continued to criticize King Fahd of Saudi Arabia. In response, in 1994 Fahd stripped bin Laden of his Saudi citizenship and persuaded his family to cut off his $7 million a year stipend. By that time, bin Laden was being linked with Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ), which made up the core of al-Qaeda. In 1995 the EIJ attempted to assassinate the Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The attempt failed, and Sudan expelled the EIJ. The US State Department accused Sudan of being a sponsor of international terrorism and bin Laden of operating terrorist training camps in the Sudanese desert. However, according to Sudan officials, this stance became obsolete as the Islamist political leader Hassan al-Turabi lost influence in their country. The Sudanese wanted to engage with the US but American officials refused to meet with them even after they had expelled bin Laden. It was not until 2000 that the State Department authorized US intelligence officials to visit Sudan. The 9/11 Commission Report states: In late 1995, when Bin Laden was still in Sudan, the State Department and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) learned that Sudanese officials were discussing with the Saudi government the possibility of expelling Bin Laden. CIA paramilitary officer Billy Waugh tracked down Bin Ladin in Sudan and prepared an operation to apprehend him, but was denied authorization. US Ambassador Timothy Carney encouraged the Sudanese to pursue this course. The Saudis, however, did not want Bin Laden, giving as their reason their revocation of his citizenship. Sudan's minister of defense, Fatih Erwa, has claimed that Sudan offered to hand Bin Laden over to the United States. The Commission has found no credible evidence that this was so. Ambassador Carney had instructions only to push the Sudanese to expel Bin Laden. Ambassador Carney had no legal basis to ask for more from the Sudanese since, at the time, there was no indictment outstanding against bin Laden in any country. The 9/11 Commission Report further states: In February 1996, Sudanese officials began approaching officials from the United States and other governments, asking what actions of theirs might ease foreign pressure. In secret meetings with Saudi officials, Sudan offered to expel Bin Laden to Saudi Arabia and asked the Saudis to pardon him. US officials became aware of these secret discussions, certainly by March. Saudi officials apparently wanted Bin Laden expelled from Sudan. They had already revoked his citizenship, however, and would not tolerate his presence in their country. Also Bin Laden may have no longer felt safe in Sudan, where he had already escaped at least one assassination attempt that he believed to have been the work of the Egyptian or Saudi regimes, and paid for by the CIA. Due to the increasing pressure on Sudan from Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and the United States, bin Laden was permitted to leave for a country of his choice. He chose to return to Jalalabad, Afghanistan aboard a chartered flight on May 18, 1996; there he forged a close relationship with Mullah Mohammed Omar. According to the 9/11 Commission, the expulsion from Sudan significantly weakened bin Laden and his organization. Some African intelligence sources have argued that the expulsion left bin Laden without an option other than becoming a full-time radical, and that most of the 300 Afghan Arabs who left with him subsequently became terrorists. Various sources report that bin Laden lost between $20 million and $300 million in Sudan; the government seized his construction equipment, and bin Laden was forced to liquidate his businesses, land, and even his horses. 1996 Declaration of war and 1998 fatwa In August 1996, bin Laden declared war against the United States. Despite the assurance of President George H. W. Bush to King Fahd in 1990, that all US forces based in Saudi Arabia would be withdrawn once the Iraqi threat had been dealt with, by 1996 the Americans were still there. Bush cited the necessity of dealing with the remnants of Saddam's regime (which Bush had chosen not to destroy). Bin Laden's view was that "the 'evils' of the Middle East arose from America's attempt to take over the region and from its support for Israel. Saudi Arabia had been turned into an American colony". In 1998 he issued a fatwā against the United States, which was first published in Al-Quds Al-Arabi, a London-based newspaper. It was entitled "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places". Saudi Arabia is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Mecca and Medina, the two holiest places in Islam. The reference to occupation in the fatwā referred to US forces based in Saudi Arabia for the purpose of controlling air space in Iraq, known as Operation Southern Watch. In Afghanistan, bin Laden and al-Qaeda raised money from donors from the days of the Soviet jihad, and from the Pakistani ISI to establish more training camps for Mujahideen fighters. Bin Laden effectively took over Ariana Afghan Airlines, which ferried Islamic militants, arms, cash, and opium through the United Arab Emirates and Pakistan, as well as provided false identifications to members of bin Laden's terrorist network. The arms smuggler Viktor Bout helped to run the airline, maintaining planes and loading cargo. Michael Scheuer, head of the CIA's bin Laden unit, concluded that Ariana was being used as a terrorist taxi service. Early attacks and aid for attacks It is believed that the first bombing attack involving bin Laden was the December 29, 1992, bombing of the Gold Mihor Hotel in Aden in which two people were killed. After this bombing, al-Qaeda was reported to have developed its justification for the killing of innocent people. According to a fatwa issued by Mamdouh Mahmud Salim, the killing of someone standing near the enemy is justified because any innocent bystander will find a proper reward in death, going to Jannah (paradise) if they were good Muslims and to Jahannam (hell) if they were bad or non-believers. The fatwa was issued to al-Qaeda members but not the general public. In the 1990s, bin Laden's al-Qaeda assisted jihadis financially and sometimes militarily in Algeria, Egypt, and Afghanistan. In 1992 or 1993, bin Laden sent an emissary, Qari el-Said, with $40,000 to Algeria to aid the Islamists and urge war rather than negotiation with the government. Their advice was heeded. The war that followed caused the deaths of 150,000–200,000 Algerians and ended with the Islamist surrender to the government. In January 1996, the CIA launched a new unit of its Counterterrorism Center (CTC) called Bin Laden Issue Station, code-named "Alec Station", to track and to carry out operations against Bin Laden's activities. Bin Laden Issue Station was headed by Michael Scheuer, a veteran of the Islamic Extremism Branch of the CTC. Late 1990s attacks It has been claimed that bin Laden funded the Luxor massacre of November 17, 1997, which killed 62 civilians, and outraged the Egyptian public. In mid-1997, the Northern Alliance threatened to overrun Jalalabad, causing bin Laden to abandon his Najim Jihad compound and move his operations to Tarnak Farms in the south. Another successful attack was carried out in the city of Mazar-i-Sharif in Afghanistan. Bin Laden helped cement his alliance with the Taliban by sending several hundred Afghan Arab fighters along to help the Taliban kill between five and six thousand Hazaras overrunning the city. In February 1998, Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri co-signed a fatwa in the name of the World Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders, which declared the killing of North Americans and their allies an "individual duty for every Muslim" to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque (in Jerusalem) and the holy mosque (in Mecca) from their grip. At the public announcement, fatwa bin Laden announced that North Americans are "very easy targets". He told the attending journalists, "You will see the results of this in a very short time." Bin Laden and al-Zawahiri organized an al-Qaeda congress on June 24, 1998. The 1998 US embassy bombings were a series of attacks that occurred on August 7, 1998, in which hundreds of people were killed in simultaneous truck bomb explosions at the United States embassies in the major East African cities of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya. The attacks were linked to local members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, and brought Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri to the attention of the United States public for the first time. Al-Qaeda later claimed responsibility for the bombings. In retaliation for the embassy bombings, President Bill Clinton ordered a series of cruise missile strikes on bin Laden-related targets in Sudan and Afghanistan on August 20, 1998. In December 1998, the Director of Central Intelligence Counterterrorist Center reported to President Clinton that al-Qaeda was preparing for attacks in the United States of America, including the training of personnel to hijack aircraft. On June 7, 1999, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation placed bin Laden on its Ten Most Wanted list. At the end of |
change in behavior during development. We can conclude that the thrush itself, i.e. its behavioral machinery, has changed only if the behavior change occurred while the environment was held constant...When we turn from description to causal analysis, and ask in what way the observed change in behavior machinery has been brought about, the natural first step is to try and distinguish between environmental influences and those within the animal...In ontogeny the conclusion that a certain change is internally controlled (is 'innate') is reached by elimination. Tinbergen was concerned that the elimination of environmental factors is difficult to establish, and the use of the word innate is often misleading. Developmental stages Ontogenetic allometry Most organisms undergo allometric changes in shape as they grow and mature, while others engage in metamorphosis. Even reptiles (non-avian sauropsids, e.g., crocodilians, turtles, snakes, and lizards), in which the offspring are often viewed as miniature adults, show a variety of ontogenetic changes in morphology and physiology. In mammals, . In birds, . Applications to other fields Anthropology Comparing ourselves to others is something humans do all the time. "In doing so we are acknowledging not so much our sameness to others or our difference, but rather the commonality that resides in our difference. In other words, because each one of us is at once remarkably similar to, and remarkably different from, all other humans, it makes little sense to think of comparison in terms of a list of absolute similarities and a list of absolute differences. Rather, in respect of all other humans, we find similarities in the ways we are different from one another and differences in the ways we are the same. That we are able to do this is a function of the genuinely historical process that is human ontogeny". See also Developmental biology Ernst Haeckel Genetics Recapitulation theory, the idea that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny Embryology Organogenesis Ontogeny (psychoanalysis) Phylogenetics Phylogeny (psychoanalysis) Noogenesis Apoptosis Evo-devo (evolutionary developmental biology) Cellular differentiation Cell biology Nikolaas Tinbergen Metamorphosis Morphology | I am, and from the suffix -geny from the Greek -γένεια -geneia, which expresses the concept of mode of production. History In 1866, Ernst Haeckel and others imagined development as producing new structures after the earlier additions to the developing organism have been established. He proposed that individual development followed developmental stages of previous generations and then these new generations would add something new to this process. A seminal 1963 paper by Nikolaas Tinbergen named ontogeny as one of the four primary questions of biology, along with Julian Huxley's three others: causation, survival value and evolution. Tinbergen emphasized that the change of behavioral machinery during development was distinct from the change in behavior during development. We can conclude that the thrush itself, i.e. its behavioral machinery, has changed only if the behavior change occurred while the environment was held constant...When we turn from description to causal analysis, and ask in what way the observed change in behavior machinery has been brought about, the natural first step is to try and distinguish between environmental influences and those within the animal...In ontogeny the conclusion that a certain change is internally controlled (is 'innate') is reached by elimination. Tinbergen was concerned that the elimination of environmental factors is difficult to establish, and the use of the word innate is often misleading. Developmental stages Ontogenetic allometry Most organisms undergo allometric changes in shape as they grow and mature, while others engage in metamorphosis. Even reptiles (non-avian sauropsids, e.g., crocodilians, turtles, snakes, and lizards), in which the offspring are often viewed as miniature adults, show a variety of ontogenetic changes in morphology and physiology. In mammals, . In birds, |
Northern Hemisphere's winter months, the Sun is below the horizon even at midday. Stars (and thus parts of Ophiuchus, especially Rasalhague) are then visible at twilight for a few hours around local noon, low in the south. In the Northern Hemisphere's spring and summer months, when Ophiuchus is normally visible in the night sky, the constellation is actually not visible, because the midnight sun obscures the stars at those times and places in the Arctic. In countries close to the equator, Ophiuchus appears overhead in June around midnight and in the October evening sky. Features Stars The brightest stars in Ophiuchus include α Ophiuchi, called Rasalhague ("head of the serpent charmer"), at magnitude 2.07, and η Ophiuchi, known as Sabik ("the preceding one"), at magnitude 2.43. Other bright stars in the constellation include β Ophiuchi, Cebalrai ("dog of the shepherd") and λ Ophiuchi, or Marfik ("the elbow"). RS Ophiuchi is part of a class called recurrent novae, whose brightness increase at irregular intervals by hundreds of times in a period of just a few days. It is thought to be at the brink of becoming a type-1a supernova. Barnard's Star, one of the nearest stars to the Solar System (the only stars closer are the Alpha Centauri binary star system and Proxima Centauri), lies in Ophiuchus. It is located to the left of β and just north of the V-shaped group of stars in an area that was once occupied by the now-obsolete constellation of Taurus Poniatovii (Poniatowski's Bull). In 2005, astronomers using data from the Green Bank Telescope discovered a superbubble so large that it extends beyond the plane of the galaxy. It is called the Ophiuchus Superbubble. In April 2007, astronomers announced that the Swedish-built Odin satellite had made the first detection of clouds of molecular oxygen in space, following observations in the constellation Ophiuchus. The supernova of 1604 was first observed on 9 October 1604, near θ Ophiuchi. Johannes Kepler saw it first on 16 October and studied it so extensively that the supernova was subsequently called Kepler's Supernova. He published his findings in a book titled De stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot). Galileo used its brief appearance to counter the Aristotelian dogma that the heavens are changeless. In 2009 it was announced that GJ 1214, a star in Ophiuchus, undergoes repeated, cyclical dimming with a period of about 1.5 days consistent with the transit of a small orbiting planet. The planet's low density (about 40% that of Earth) suggests that the planet may have a substantial component of low-density gas—possibly hydrogen or steam. The proximity of this star to Earth (42 light years) makes it a tempting target for further observations. In April 2010, the naked-eye star ζ Ophiuchi was occulted by the asteroid 824 Anastasia. Deep-sky objects Ophiuchus contains several star clusters, such as IC 4665, NGC 6633, M9, M10, M12, M14, M19, M62, and M107, as well as the nebula IC 4603-4604. M10 is a fairly close globular cluster, only 20,000 light-years from Earth. It has a magnitude of 6.6 and is a Shapley class VII cluster. This means that it has "intermediate" concentration; it is only somewhat concentrated towards its center. The unusual galaxy merger remnant and starburst galaxy NGC 6240 is also in Ophiuchus. At a distance of 400 million light-years, this "butterfly-shaped" galaxy has two supermassive black holes 3,000 light-years apart. Confirmation of the fact that both nuclei contain black holes was obtained by spectra from the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Astronomers estimate that the black holes will merge in another billion years. NGC 6240 also has an unusually high rate of star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This is likely due to the heat generated by the orbiting black holes and the aftermath of the collision. In 2006, a new nearby star cluster was discovered associated with the 4th magnitude star Mu Ophiuchi. The Mamajek 2 cluster appears to be a poor cluster remnant analogous to the Ursa Major Moving Group, but | is best visible in summer. It is opposite of Orion. Ophiuchus is depicted as a man grasping a serpent; the interposition of his body divides the snake constellation Serpens into two parts, Serpens Caput and Serpens Cauda. Ophiuchus straddles the equator with the majority of its area lying in the southern hemisphere. Rasalhague, its brightest star, lies near the northern edge of Ophiuchus at about declination. The constellation extends southward to −30° declination. Segments of the ecliptic within Ophiuchus are south of −20° declination. In contrast to Orion, from November to January (summer in the Southern Hemisphere, winter in the Northern Hemisphere), Ophiuchus is in the daytime sky and thus not visible at most latitudes. However, for much of the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere's winter months, the Sun is below the horizon even at midday. Stars (and thus parts of Ophiuchus, especially Rasalhague) are then visible at twilight for a few hours around local noon, low in the south. In the Northern Hemisphere's spring and summer months, when Ophiuchus is normally visible in the night sky, the constellation is actually not visible, because the midnight sun obscures the stars at those times and places in the Arctic. In countries close to the equator, Ophiuchus appears overhead in June around midnight and in the October evening sky. Features Stars The brightest stars in Ophiuchus include α Ophiuchi, called Rasalhague ("head of the serpent charmer"), at magnitude 2.07, and η Ophiuchi, known as Sabik ("the preceding one"), at magnitude 2.43. Other bright stars in the constellation include β Ophiuchi, Cebalrai ("dog of the shepherd") and λ Ophiuchi, or Marfik ("the elbow"). RS Ophiuchi is part of a class called recurrent novae, whose brightness increase at irregular intervals by hundreds of times in a period of just a few days. It is thought to be at the brink of becoming a type-1a supernova. Barnard's Star, one of the nearest stars to the Solar System (the only stars closer are the Alpha Centauri binary star system and Proxima Centauri), lies in Ophiuchus. It is located to the left of β and just north of the V-shaped group of stars in an area that was once occupied by the now-obsolete constellation of Taurus Poniatovii (Poniatowski's Bull). In 2005, astronomers using data from the Green Bank Telescope discovered a superbubble so large that it extends beyond the plane of the galaxy. It is called the Ophiuchus Superbubble. In April 2007, astronomers announced that the Swedish-built Odin satellite had made the first detection of clouds of molecular oxygen in space, following observations in the constellation Ophiuchus. The supernova of 1604 was first observed on 9 October 1604, near θ Ophiuchi. Johannes Kepler saw it first on 16 October and studied it so extensively that the supernova was subsequently called Kepler's Supernova. He published his findings in a book titled De stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot). Galileo used its brief appearance to counter the Aristotelian dogma that the heavens are changeless. In 2009 it was announced that GJ 1214, a star in Ophiuchus, undergoes repeated, cyclical dimming with a period of about 1.5 days consistent with the transit of a small orbiting planet. The planet's low density (about 40% that of Earth) suggests that the planet may have a substantial component of low-density gas—possibly hydrogen or steam. The proximity of this star to Earth (42 light years) makes it a tempting target for further observations. In April 2010, the naked-eye star ζ Ophiuchi was occulted by the asteroid 824 Anastasia. Deep-sky objects Ophiuchus contains several star clusters, such as IC 4665, NGC 6633, M9, M10, M12, M14, M19, M62, and M107, as well as the nebula IC 4603-4604. M10 is a fairly close globular cluster, only 20,000 light-years from Earth. It has a magnitude of 6.6 and is a Shapley class VII cluster. This means that it has "intermediate" concentration; it is only somewhat concentrated towards its center. The unusual galaxy merger remnant and starburst galaxy NGC 6240 is also in Ophiuchus. At a distance of 400 million light-years, this "butterfly-shaped" galaxy has two supermassive black holes 3,000 light-years apart. Confirmation of the fact that both nuclei contain black holes was obtained by spectra from the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Astronomers estimate that the black holes will merge in another billion years. NGC 6240 also has an unusually high rate of star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This is likely due to the heat generated by the orbiting black holes and the aftermath of the collision. In 2006, a new nearby star cluster was discovered associated with the |
estate forfeited to John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset. Glyndŵr had been offered a pardon on March 10th 1401, but rejected the plea. On May 30th, Hotspur having won a battle near 'Cadair Idris' left his command for the English army and begun dealings with Glyndŵr. During this time in spring 1401, Glyndŵr appears in South Wales, and by Autumn the counties Gwynedd, Ceredigion (which temporarily submitted to England for a pardon) and Powys adhered to the rising against the English rule. Glyndŵr's attempts at stoking rebellion with help from the Scottish and Irish were quashed with the English showing no mercy and hanging some messengers.In 1402, the English Parliament issued the Penal Laws against Wales, designed to establish English dominance in Wales, but actually pushing many Welshmen into the rebellion. In the same year, Glyndŵr captured his archenemy, Baron Grey de Ruthyn. He held him for almost a year until he received a substantial ransom from Henry. In June 1402, Glyndŵr defeated an English force led by Sir Edmund Mortimer near Pilleth (Battle of Bryn Glas), where Mortimer was captured. Glyndŵr offered to release Mortimer for a large ransom but, in sharp contrast to his attitude to de Grey, Henry IV refused to pay. Mortimer's nephew could be said to have had a greater claim to the English throne than Henry himself, so his speedy release was not an option. In response, Mortimer negotiated an alliance with Glyndŵr and married one of Glyndŵr's daughters. It is also in 1402 that mention of the French and Bretons helping Owain was first heard. The French were certainly hoping to use Wales as they had used Scotland: as a base from which to fight the English. Glyndŵr facing years on the run finally lost his estate in the spring of 1403, when Prince Henry as usual marched into Wales unopposed and burnt down his houses at Sycharth and Glyndyfrdwy, as well as the commote of Edeirnion and parts of Powys. Glyndŵr continued to besiege towns and burn down castles, for 10 days in July that year he toured south and south west Wales until all of the south joined arms in rebelling against English rule, these actions induced an internal rebellion to the King of England with the Percy's joining the rising. It is around this stage Hywel Sele a cousin of his rebels at tries to assassinate Glyndŵr at the Nannau estate. In 1403 the revolt became truly national in Wales. Royal officials reported that Welsh students at Oxford University and Cambridge University were leaving their studies to join Glyndŵr's. And also that Welsh labourers and craftsmen were abandoning their employers in England and returning to Wales. Owain could also draw on Welsh troops seasoned by the English campaigns in France and Scotland. Hundreds of Welsh archers and experienced men-at-arms left English service to join the rebellion. In 1404, Glyndŵr's forces took Aberystwyth Castle and Harlech Castle, then continued to ravage the south by burning Cardiff Castle. Then a court was held at Harlech and Gruffydd Young was appointed as the Welsh Chancellor. There had been communication to Louis I, Duke of Orléans in Paris to try but failed in opening the Welsh ports to French trade. Senedd: Crowning as prince of Wales A senedd (parliament) was held in Machynlleth in 1404 which included emissaries from Scotland, France and Spain (Castile) where he was crowned Prince of Wales. Machynlleth may have been chosen due to its central location in Wales as well as the recently acquired possession of nearby Castell-y-Bere, Aberystwyth Castle to the south and Harlech Castle to the north.The Senedd-Dy as it is commonly known (Parliament house) in Machynlleth is associated with the 1404 senedd but was built more recently. Nevertheless, local tradition states that the stones used came from the original 1404 building. Tripartite indenture and the year of the French In February 1405, Glyndŵr negotiated the "Tripartite Indenture" with Edmund Mortimer and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland. The Indenture agreed to divide England and Wales among the three of them. Wales would extend as far as the rivers Severn and Mersey, including most of Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. The Mortimer Lords of March would take all of southern and western England and the Percys would take the north of England. Although negotiations with the lords of Ireland were unsuccessful, Glyndŵr had reason to hope that the French and Bretons might be more welcoming. He dispatched Gruffydd Yonge and his brother-in-law (Margaret's brother), John Hanmer, to negotiate with the French. The result was a formal treaty that promised French aid to Glyndŵr and the Welsh. The immediate effect seems to have been that joint Welsh and Franco-Breton forces attacked and laid siege to Kidwelly Castle. The Welsh could also count on semi-official fraternal aid from their fellow Celts in the then independent Brittany and Scotland. Scots and French privateers were operating around Wales throughout Owain's war. Scottish ships had raided English settlements on the Llŷn Peninsula in 1400 and 1401. In 1403, a Breton squadron defeated the English in the Channel and devastated Jersey, Guernsey and Plymouth, while the French made a landing on the Isle of Wight. By 1404, they were raiding the coast of England, with Welsh troops on board, setting fire to Dartmouth and devastating the coast of Devon. 1405 was the "Year of the French" in Wales. A formal treaty between Wales and France was negotiated. On the continent the French pressed the English as the French army invaded English Plantagenet Aquitaine. Simultaneously, the French landed in force at Milford Haven in west Wales, and eventually took Pembroke Castle The combined forces of French and Welsh marched through Herefordshire and on into Worcestershire to Woodbury Hill. They met the English army just ten miles from Worcester. The armies took up battle positions daily and viewed each other from a mile without any major action for eight days. Then, for reasons that have never become clear, the Welsh retreated, and so did the French shortly afterwards. The Pennal Letter: vision of an independent Wales By 1405, most French forces had withdrawn after politics in Paris shifted toward the peace with the Hundred Years' War continuing between England and France. On the 31st of March in 1406, Glyndŵr wrote a letter to be sent to Charles VI King of France during a synod at the Welsh Church at Pennal, hence its name. Glyndŵr's letter requested maintained military support from the French to fend off the English in Wales. Glyndŵr suggested that in return, he would recognise Benedict XIII of Avignon as the Pope. The letter sets out the ambitions of Glyndŵr of an independent Wales with its own parliament, led by himself as Prince of Wales. These ambitions also included the return of the traditional law of Hywel Dda, rather than the enforced English law, establishment of an independent Welsh church as well as two universities, one in south Wales, and one in north Wales. Following this letter, senior churchmen and important members of society flocked to Glyndŵr's banner and English resistance was reduced to a few isolated castles, walled towns and fortified manor houses. This letter is currently held in the Archives Nationales in Paris. Facsimile copies involving specialist ageing techniques and moulds of the famous Glyndwr seal were created by The National Library of Wales which were presented by the then heritage Minister Alun Ffred Jones, to six Welsh institutions in 2009. The royal great seal from 1404 was given to Charles IV of France and contains images and Glyndŵr's title – – 'Owain, by the grace of God, Prince of Wales'. The rebellion falters During early 1405, the Welsh forces, who had until then won several easy victories, suffered a series of defeats. English forces landed in Anglesey from Ireland and would over time push the Welsh back, until the resistance in Anglesey formally ended toward the end of 1406. Following the intervention of French forces, battling ensued for years, in 1406 Prince Henry restored fines and redemption's for Welsh soldiers to choose their own fate, prisoners were taken after battle, and castles restored to their original owners, this same year a son of Glyndŵr dies in battle. By 1408 Glyndŵr had taken refuge in the North of Wales, having lost his ally from Northumberland, then on 21 December 1411 the King of England issued pardons to all Welsh except their leader and a Thomas of Trumpington, until 9 of April 1413 from which Glyndŵr was no longer excepted, however this same year his family were taken hostage by the King, and Glyndŵr died in relative obscurity years later in maybe 1415, or 1416. At the same time, the English changed their strategy. Rather than focusing on punitive expeditions as favoured by his father, the young Prince Henry adopted a strategy of economic blockade. Using the castles that remained in English control, he gradually began to retake Wales while cutting off trade and the supply of weapons. By 1407 this strategy was beginning to bear fruit, even though by this time Owain's rebel soldiers had achieved victories over the King's men as far as Birmingham, where the English were in retreat. In the autumn, Owain's Aberystwyth Castle surrendered while he was away fighting. In 1409, it was the turn of Harlech Castle. Edmund Mortimer died in the final battle, and Owain's wife Margaret along with two of his daughters (including Catrin) and three of Mortimer's granddaughters were imprisoned in the Tower of London. They were all to die in the Tower in 1413, and were buried at St Swithin, London Stone. Glyndŵr remained free, but he had lost his ancestral home and was a hunted prince. He continued the rebellion, particularly wanting to avenge his wife. In 1410, after a suicide raid into rebel-controlled Shropshire, which took many English lives, some of the leading rebels are thought to have been captured. In 1412, Owain led one of the final successful raiding parties with his most faithful soldiers and cut through the King's men; and in an ambush in Brecon he captured, and later ransomed, a leading Welsh supporter of King Henry's, Dafydd Gam (). This was the last time that Owain was seen alive by his enemies, although it was claimed he took refuge with the Scudamore family. As late as 1414, there were rumours that the Herefordshire-based Lollard leader Sir John Oldcastle was communicating with Owain, and reinforcements were sent to the major castles in the north and south. But by then things were changing. Henry IV died in 1413 and his son King Henry V began to adopt a more conciliatory attitude to the Welsh. Royal pardons were offered to the major leaders of the revolt and other opponents of his father's regime. Disappearance and death commentary Nothing certain is known of Glyndŵr after 1412. Despite enormous rewards being offered, he was neither captured nor betrayed. He ignored royal pardons. Tradition has it that he died and was buried possibly in the church of Saints Mael and Sulien at Corwen close to his home, or possibly on his estate in Sycharth or on the estates of his daughters' husband: Kentchurch in south Herefordshire or Monnington in west Herefordshire. In his book The Mystery of Jack of Kent and the Fate of Owain Glyndŵr, Alex Gibbon argues that the folk hero Jack of Kent, also known as Siôn Cent – the family chaplain of the Scudamore family – was in fact Owain Glyndŵr himself. Gibbon points out a number of similarities between Siôn Cent and Glyndŵr (including physical appearance, age, education, and character) and claims that Owain spent his last years living with his daughter Alys, passing himself off as an aging Franciscan friar and family tutor. There are many folk tales of Glyndŵr donning disguises to gain advantage over opponents during the rebellion. Adam of Usk, a one-time supporter of Glyndŵr, made the following entry in his Chronicle under the year 1415: "After four years in hiding, from the king and the realm, Owain Glyndŵr died, and was buried by his followers in the darkness of night. His grave was discovered by his enemies, however, so he had to be re-buried, though it is impossible to discover where he was laid." In 1875, the Rev. Francis Kilvert wrote in his diary that he saw the grave of "Owen Glendower" in the churchyard at Monnington "[h]ard by the church porch and on the western side of it ... It is a flat stone of whitish grey shaped like a rude obelisk figure, sunk deep into the ground in the middle of an oblong patch of earth from which the turf has been pared away, and, alas, smashed into several fragments." In 2006, Adrien Jones, the president of the Owain Glyndŵr Society, said, "Four years ago we visited a direct descendant of Glyndŵr, a John Skidmore, at Kentchurch Court, near Abergavenny. He took us to Mornington Straddle, in Herefordshire, where one of Glyndŵr's daughters, Alice, lived. Mr Skidmore told us that he (Glyndŵr) spent his last days there and eventually died there.... It was a family secret for 600 years and even Mr Skidmore's mother, who died shortly before we visited, refused to reveal the secret. There's even a mound where he is believed to be buried at Mornington Straddle." Renowned historian Gruffydd Aled Williams suggests in a 2017 monograph that the burial site is in the Kimbolton Chapel near Leominster, the present parish church of St James the Great which used to be the chapelry of Leominster Priory, based upon a number of manuscripts held in the National Archives. Although Kimbolton is an unexceptional and relatively unknown place outside of Herefordshire, it is closely connected to the Skydmore family. Given the existence of other links with Herefordshire, its place within the mystery of Owain Glyndŵr's last days cannot be discounted. his final resting place remains uncertain. Legacy Statues and memorial During the First World War, the prime minister, David Lloyd George, unveiled a statue to Glyndŵr in Cardiff City Hall. A monument was erected in Machynlleth in 2000, on the 600th anniversary of the beginning of the Glyndwr Rising. The plinth of the monument has an by the poet Dafydd Wyn Jones, which he has translated as: A statue of Owain Glyndŵr on horseback was installed | Gruffydd Yonge and his brother-in-law (Margaret's brother), John Hanmer, to negotiate with the French. The result was a formal treaty that promised French aid to Glyndŵr and the Welsh. The immediate effect seems to have been that joint Welsh and Franco-Breton forces attacked and laid siege to Kidwelly Castle. The Welsh could also count on semi-official fraternal aid from their fellow Celts in the then independent Brittany and Scotland. Scots and French privateers were operating around Wales throughout Owain's war. Scottish ships had raided English settlements on the Llŷn Peninsula in 1400 and 1401. In 1403, a Breton squadron defeated the English in the Channel and devastated Jersey, Guernsey and Plymouth, while the French made a landing on the Isle of Wight. By 1404, they were raiding the coast of England, with Welsh troops on board, setting fire to Dartmouth and devastating the coast of Devon. 1405 was the "Year of the French" in Wales. A formal treaty between Wales and France was negotiated. On the continent the French pressed the English as the French army invaded English Plantagenet Aquitaine. Simultaneously, the French landed in force at Milford Haven in west Wales, and eventually took Pembroke Castle The combined forces of French and Welsh marched through Herefordshire and on into Worcestershire to Woodbury Hill. They met the English army just ten miles from Worcester. The armies took up battle positions daily and viewed each other from a mile without any major action for eight days. Then, for reasons that have never become clear, the Welsh retreated, and so did the French shortly afterwards. The Pennal Letter: vision of an independent Wales By 1405, most French forces had withdrawn after politics in Paris shifted toward the peace with the Hundred Years' War continuing between England and France. On the 31st of March in 1406, Glyndŵr wrote a letter to be sent to Charles VI King of France during a synod at the Welsh Church at Pennal, hence its name. Glyndŵr's letter requested maintained military support from the French to fend off the English in Wales. Glyndŵr suggested that in return, he would recognise Benedict XIII of Avignon as the Pope. The letter sets out the ambitions of Glyndŵr of an independent Wales with its own parliament, led by himself as Prince of Wales. These ambitions also included the return of the traditional law of Hywel Dda, rather than the enforced English law, establishment of an independent Welsh church as well as two universities, one in south Wales, and one in north Wales. Following this letter, senior churchmen and important members of society flocked to Glyndŵr's banner and English resistance was reduced to a few isolated castles, walled towns and fortified manor houses. This letter is currently held in the Archives Nationales in Paris. Facsimile copies involving specialist ageing techniques and moulds of the famous Glyndwr seal were created by The National Library of Wales which were presented by the then heritage Minister Alun Ffred Jones, to six Welsh institutions in 2009. The royal great seal from 1404 was given to Charles IV of France and contains images and Glyndŵr's title – – 'Owain, by the grace of God, Prince of Wales'. The rebellion falters During early 1405, the Welsh forces, who had until then won several easy victories, suffered a series of defeats. English forces landed in Anglesey from Ireland and would over time push the Welsh back, until the resistance in Anglesey formally ended toward the end of 1406. Following the intervention of French forces, battling ensued for years, in 1406 Prince Henry restored fines and redemption's for Welsh soldiers to choose their own fate, prisoners were taken after battle, and castles restored to their original owners, this same year a son of Glyndŵr dies in battle. By 1408 Glyndŵr had taken refuge in the North of Wales, having lost his ally from Northumberland, then on 21 December 1411 the King of England issued pardons to all Welsh except their leader and a Thomas of Trumpington, until 9 of April 1413 from which Glyndŵr was no longer excepted, however this same year his family were taken hostage by the King, and Glyndŵr died in relative obscurity years later in maybe 1415, or 1416. At the same time, the English changed their strategy. Rather than focusing on punitive expeditions as favoured by his father, the young Prince Henry adopted a strategy of economic blockade. Using the castles that remained in English control, he gradually began to retake Wales while cutting off trade and the supply of weapons. By 1407 this strategy was beginning to bear fruit, even though by this time Owain's rebel soldiers had achieved victories over the King's men as far as Birmingham, where the English were in retreat. In the autumn, Owain's Aberystwyth Castle surrendered while he was away fighting. In 1409, it was the turn of Harlech Castle. Edmund Mortimer died in the final battle, and Owain's wife Margaret along with two of his daughters (including Catrin) and three of Mortimer's granddaughters were imprisoned in the Tower of London. They were all to die in the Tower in 1413, and were buried at St Swithin, London Stone. Glyndŵr remained free, but he had lost his ancestral home and was a hunted prince. He continued the rebellion, particularly wanting to avenge his wife. In 1410, after a suicide raid into rebel-controlled Shropshire, which took many English lives, some of the leading rebels are thought to have been captured. In 1412, Owain led one of the final successful raiding parties with his most faithful soldiers and cut through the King's men; and in an ambush in Brecon he captured, and later ransomed, a leading Welsh supporter of King Henry's, Dafydd Gam (). This was the last time that Owain was seen alive by his enemies, although it was claimed he took refuge with the Scudamore family. As late as 1414, there were rumours that the Herefordshire-based Lollard leader Sir John Oldcastle was communicating with Owain, and reinforcements were sent to the major castles in the north and south. But by then things were changing. Henry IV died in 1413 and his son King Henry V began to adopt a more conciliatory attitude to the Welsh. Royal pardons were offered to the major leaders of the revolt and other opponents of his father's regime. Disappearance and death commentary Nothing certain is known of Glyndŵr after 1412. Despite enormous rewards being offered, he was neither captured nor betrayed. He ignored royal pardons. Tradition has it that he died and was buried possibly in the church of Saints Mael and Sulien at Corwen close to his home, or possibly on his estate in Sycharth or on the estates of his daughters' husband: Kentchurch in south Herefordshire or Monnington in west Herefordshire. In his book The Mystery of Jack of Kent and the Fate of Owain Glyndŵr, Alex Gibbon argues that the folk hero Jack of Kent, also known as Siôn Cent – the family chaplain of the Scudamore family – was in fact Owain Glyndŵr himself. Gibbon points out a number of similarities between Siôn Cent and Glyndŵr (including physical appearance, age, education, and character) and claims that Owain spent his last years living with his daughter Alys, passing himself off as an aging Franciscan friar and family tutor. There are many folk tales of Glyndŵr donning disguises to gain advantage over opponents during the rebellion. Adam of Usk, a one-time supporter of Glyndŵr, made the following entry in his Chronicle under the year 1415: "After four years in hiding, from the king and the realm, Owain Glyndŵr died, and was buried by his followers in the darkness of night. His grave was discovered by his enemies, however, so he had to be re-buried, though it is impossible to discover where he was laid." In 1875, the Rev. Francis Kilvert wrote in his diary that he saw the grave of "Owen Glendower" in the churchyard at Monnington "[h]ard by the church porch and on the western side of it ... It is a flat stone of whitish grey shaped like a rude obelisk figure, sunk deep into the ground in the middle of an oblong patch of earth from which the turf has been pared away, and, alas, smashed into several fragments." In 2006, Adrien Jones, the president of the Owain Glyndŵr Society, said, "Four years ago we visited a direct descendant of Glyndŵr, a John Skidmore, at Kentchurch Court, near Abergavenny. He took us to Mornington Straddle, in Herefordshire, where one of Glyndŵr's daughters, Alice, lived. Mr Skidmore told us that he (Glyndŵr) spent his last days there and eventually died there.... It was a family secret for 600 years and even Mr Skidmore's mother, who died shortly before we visited, refused to reveal the secret. There's even a mound where he is believed to be buried at Mornington Straddle." Renowned historian Gruffydd Aled Williams suggests in a 2017 monograph that the burial site is in the Kimbolton Chapel near Leominster, the present parish church of St James the Great which used to be the chapelry of Leominster Priory, based upon a number of manuscripts held in the National Archives. Although Kimbolton is an unexceptional and relatively unknown place outside of Herefordshire, it is closely connected to the Skydmore family. Given the existence of other links with Herefordshire, its place within the mystery of Owain Glyndŵr's last days cannot be discounted. his final resting place remains uncertain. Legacy Statues and memorial During the First World War, the prime minister, David Lloyd George, unveiled a statue to Glyndŵr in Cardiff City Hall. A monument was erected in Machynlleth in 2000, on the 600th anniversary of the beginning of the Glyndwr Rising. The plinth of the monument has an by the poet Dafydd Wyn Jones, which he has translated as: A statue of Owain Glyndŵr on horseback was installed in 2007 in The Square in Corwen, Denbighshire, to commemorate his life and his lasting influence on Wales. Music and TV In 2007, popular Welsh musicians the Manic Street Preachers wrote a song entitled "1404" based on Owain Glyndŵr. The song can be found on the CD single for 'Autumnsong'. BBC TV Series Horrible Histories, series 5, episode 7, features a song about Glyndŵr (2013), it is a parody of the Tom Jones song Delilah. A song named 'Owain Glyndyr's War Song' was composed by Elizabeth Grant (songwriter) who wrote the tune, and the words were written by Felicia Hemans, and was completed sometime before 1870. Glyndŵr was the hero of James Hill's UK TV movie Owain, Prince of Wales, broadcast in 1983 on Channel 4 and S4C. Politics In the late 19th century, the Cymru Fydd () movement recreated Glyndŵr as the father of Welsh nationalism. The creation of the National Assembly for Wales brought him back into the spotlight and in 2000 celebrations were held all over Wales to commemorate the 600th anniversary of Glyndŵr's revolt, including an historic reenactment at the Millennium National Eisteddfod of Wales, Llanelli 2000. Crime Previously, George Owen, in his book - A Dialogue of the present Government of Wales, written in 1594 Owen commented on the topic |
a theatrical troupe active in the Dutch East Indies Buildings The Orion (skyscraper) in New York City Orion Assembly, a General Motors assembly plant in Orion Township, Michigan Orion Building, a residential building in Birmingham, England Orion, the movie theater of Finland's National Audiovisual Archive Orion Theatre, largest avant-garde theatrical/artist stage in Stockholm, Sweden Orion Mall, Bangalore, India; a shopping mall Companies Arts and media Orion Pictures, an American film production company, now a subsidiary of MGM Orion Publishing Group, a UK-based book publisher Orion Records (1960s–'80s), a classical record label Electrical power and electronics Orion Electric, a Japanese electronics company Orion Electronics, a Hungarian company Orion Energy Systems, an American power technology company Orion New Zealand Limited, a New Zealand electricity distribution company Food and beverage Orion Breweries, the fifth-largest beer brewery in Japan Orion Confectionery, a South Korean confectionery company Transportation and vehicles Transport carriers Orion Airways, a UK airline that operated from 1979 to 1989 Orion Air, a Seychelles airline Orion Expedition Cruises, an Australian cruise line Orionair, a Spanish charter airline Orionair, name used by Luxembourg airline Lionair when operating flights to the United States Vehicle manufacturers Orion Bus Industries, a Canadian bus manufacturer Orion Space, a Nepalese company producing the Nepal PQ-1 picosatellite Orionette, also known as Orion AG für Motorfahrzeuge, a German motorcycle manufacturer Other companies Orion Telescopes & Binoculars, an American company Orion Corporation, a Finnish pharmaceutical company People Orion (name) Orion, industry name of record producer Darren Tate (born 1972) Orion, stage name of Tomasz Wróblewski (born 1980), Polish musician Jimmy "Orion" Ellis (1945–1998), American rockabilly singer Places United States Orion, Alabama, an unincorporated community Orion, Illinois, a village Orion Township, Fulton County, Illinois Orion High School, in Orion, Illinois Orion, Wisconsin, a town Orion (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community Orion Township, Michigan Orion Township, Minnesota Elsewhere Orion, Alberta, Canada, a hamlet Orion, Bataan, the Philippines, a municipality Orion, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France, a commune Orion, Queensland, Australia, a village in the Central Highlands Region Orion Passage, a narrow sailing route on the northwestern tip of Antarctica Science and technology Astronomy Orion (constellation), named after the mythical hunter Orion Arm, a galactic spiral arm with apparent location near the constellation Orion Nebula, in the constellation Biology Orion (beetle), | Wróblewski (born 1980), Polish musician Jimmy "Orion" Ellis (1945–1998), American rockabilly singer Places United States Orion, Alabama, an unincorporated community Orion, Illinois, a village Orion Township, Fulton County, Illinois Orion High School, in Orion, Illinois Orion, Wisconsin, a town Orion (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community Orion Township, Michigan Orion Township, Minnesota Elsewhere Orion, Alberta, Canada, a hamlet Orion, Bataan, the Philippines, a municipality Orion, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France, a commune Orion, Queensland, Australia, a village in the Central Highlands Region Orion Passage, a narrow sailing route on the northwestern tip of Antarctica Science and technology Astronomy Orion (constellation), named after the mythical hunter Orion Arm, a galactic spiral arm with apparent location near the constellation Orion Nebula, in the constellation Biology Orion (beetle), a genus of beetles Orion (grape), a white wine grape variety Historis odius, the Orion, a butterfly in the genus Historis Computing ORION (research and education network), the provincial research network of Ontario, Canada Orion (system-on-a-chip), used in network-attached storage Ferranti Orion, a mid-range mainframe computer introduced in 1959 HLH Orion, a series of minicomputers produced in the 1980s Orion Application Server, a Java EE application server Orion quantum computing system, developed by D-Wave Systems Orion, a browser-based IDE and open tool integration platform from Eclipse Orion, IT admin software by SolarWinds Other technologies Orion (laser), a large laser installation in the UK Orion (space telescope), two research instruments on crewed 1970s Soviet spacecraft Sports Football (soccer) A.D. Orión, a Panamanian football club Orión F.C., a Costa Rican football club Orion F.C., a Scottish football club Other sports Goyang Orion Orions, a South Korean basketball team Orions, former name of the Chiba Lotte Marines, a Japanese baseball team Transportation Air Lockheed P-3 Orion, a maritime patrol aircraft, with several variants Lockheed Model 9 Orion, a passenger aircraft introduced in 1931 Aurora Flight Sciences Orion, a long-endurance uncrewed aircraft Bristol Orion, a cancelled two-shaft turboprop aero engine developed by Bristol Siddeley Kronshtadt Orion, Russian UCAV drone Land Ford Orion, a car Orion, a South Devon Railway Comet-class steam locomotive Orion, a GWR 3300-class steam locomotive Mitsubishi Orion engine, a series of internal combustion engines produced by Mitsubishi Motors Sea Military vessels , several U.S. Navy vessels , several Royal Navy vessels , a series of super-dreadnoughts of the Royal Navy , an Oberon-class of the Royal Australian Navy , a Swedish ELINT vessel , a Téméraire-class of the French Navy , World War II merchant raider BAE Orion (H-101), Ecuadorian Navy ship, |
Three star systems are known to have planets. Mu2 Octantis is a binary star system, the brighter component of which has a planet. HD 142022 is a binary system, a component of which is a sunlike star with a massive planet with an orbital period of 1928 ± 46 days. HD 212301 is a yellow-white main sequence star with a hot jupiter that completes an orbit every 2.2 days. Deep sky objects NGC 2573 (also known as Polarissima Australis) is a faint barred spiral galaxy that happens to be the closest NGC object to the South Celestial Pole. NGC 7095 and NGC 7098 are two barred spiral galaxies that are 115 million and 95 million light-years distant from Earth respectively. The sparse open cluster Collinder 411 is also located in the constellation. Namesakes was a stores ship used by the United States Navy during World War II. See also Octans (Chinese astronomy) Notes References Citations References External links The Deep Photographic Guide to | Hope, and was originally named l’Octans de Reflexion (“the reflecting octant”) in 1752, after he had observed and catalogued almost 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope. He devised fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe. All but one honoured instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment. It was part of his catalogue of the southern sky, the Coelum Australe Stelliferum, which was published posthumously in 1763. In Europe, it became more widely known as Octans Hadleianus, in honor of English mathematician John Hadley, who invented the octant in 1730. There is no real mythology related to Octans, partially due to its faintness and relative recentness, but mostly because of its extreme southerly latitude. Notable features Stars Octans is a very faint constellation; its brightest member is Nu Octantis, a spectral class K1 III giant star with an apparent magnitude 3.73. It is 63.3 ± 0.8 light-years distant from Earth. Beta Octantis is the second brightest star in the constellation. Sigma Octantis, the southern pole star, is a magnitude 5.4 star just over 1 degree away from the true South Celestial Pole. Its relative faintness means that it is not practical for navigation. Conveniently for navigators, there are other, much easier methods for locating the southern celestial pole. For example, the constellation Crux, the Southern Cross, currently points toward the South Celestial Pole, if one draws a line from Gamma Crucis to Alpha Crucis. Another method includes an asterism made up of Sigma, Chi, Tau, and Upsilon Octantis, which form a distinctive |
the Ryukyu Domain, the last domain of the Han system. Okinawa Prefecture was occupied by the United States of America during the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II, and governed by the Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands from 1945 to 1950 and Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands from 1950 until the prefecture was returned to Japan in 1972. Okinawa Prefecture comprises just 0.6 percent of Japan's total land mass but about 26,000 (75%) of United States Forces Japan personnel are assigned to the prefecture; the continued U.S. military presence in Okinawa is controversial. History The oldest evidence of human existence on the Ryukyu islands is from the Stone Age and was discovered in Naha and Yaeyama. Some human bone fragments from the Paleolithic era were unearthed from a site in Naha, but the artifact was lost in transportation before it was examined to be Paleolithic or not. Japanese Jōmon influences are dominant on the Okinawa Islands, although clay vessels on the Sakishima Islands have a commonality with those in Taiwan. The first mention of the word Ryukyu was written in the Book of Sui. Okinawa was the Japanese word identifying the islands, first seen in the biography of Jianzhen, written in 779. Agricultural societies begun in the 8th century slowly developed until the 12th century. Since the islands are located at the eastern perimeter of the East China Sea relatively close to Japan, China and South-East Asia, the Ryukyu Kingdom became a prosperous trading nation. Also during this period, many Gusukus, similar to castles, were constructed. The Ryukyu Kingdom entered into the Imperial Chinese tributary system under the Ming dynasty beginning in the 15th century, which established economic relations between the two nations. In 1609, the Shimazu clan, which controlled the region that is now Kagoshima Prefecture, invaded the Ryukyu Kingdom. The Ryukyu Kingdom was obliged to agree to form a suzerain-vassal relationship with the Satsuma and the Tokugawa shogunate, while maintaining its previous role within the Chinese tributary system; Ryukyuan sovereignty was maintained since complete annexation would have created a conflict with China. The Satsuma clan earned considerable profits from trade with China during a period in which foreign trade was heavily restricted by the shogunate. Although Satsuma maintained strong influence over the islands, the Ryukyu Kingdom maintained a considerable degree of domestic political freedom for over two hundred years. Four years after the 1868 Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government, through military incursions, officially annexed the kingdom and renamed it Ryukyu han. At the time, the Qing Empire asserted a nominal suzerainty over the islands of the Ryukyu Kingdom, since the Ryūkyū Kingdom was also a member state of the Chinese tributary system. Ryukyu han became Okinawa Prefecture of Japan in 1879, even though all other hans had become prefectures of Japan in 1872. In 1912, Okinawans first obtained the right to vote for representatives to the which had been established in 1890. 1945–1965 Near the end of World War II, in 1945, the US Army and Marine Corps invaded Okinawa with 185,000 troops. A third of Okinawa's civilian population died; a quarter of the civilian population died during the 1945 Battle of Okinawa alone. The dead, of all nationalities, are commemorated at the Cornerstone of Peace. After the end of World War II, the United States set up the United States Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands administration, which ruled Okinawa for 27 years. During this "trusteeship rule", the United States established numerous military bases on the Ryukyu islands. The Ryukyu independence movement was an Okinawan movement that clamored against U.S. rule. Continued U.S. military buildup During the Korean War, B-29 Superfortresses flew bombing missions over Korea from Kadena Air Base on Okinawa. The military buildup on the island during the Cold War increased a division between local inhabitants and the American military. Under the 1952 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, United States Forces Japan (USFJ) have maintained a large military presence. During the mid-1950s, the U.S. seized land from Okinawans to build new bases or expand currently-existing ones. According to the Melvin Price Report, by 1955, the military had displaced 250,000 residents. Secret U.S. deployment of nuclear weapons Since 1960, the U.S. and Japan have maintained an agreement that allows the U.S. to secretly bring nuclear weapons into Japanese ports. The Japanese people tended to oppose the introduction of nuclear arms into Japanese territory and the Japanese government's assertion of Japan's non-nuclear policy and a statement of the Three Non-Nuclear Principles reflected this popular opposition. Most of the weapons were alleged to be stored in ammunition bunkers at Kadena Air Base. Between 1954 and 1972, 19 different types of nuclear weapons were deployed in Okinawa, but with fewer than around 1,000 warheads at any one time. In Fall 1960, U.S. commandos in Green Light Teams secret training missions carried actual small nuclear weapons on the east coast of Okinawa Island. 1965–1972 (Vietnam War) Between 1965 and 1972, Okinawa was a key staging point for United States in its military operations directed towards North Vietnam. Along with Guam, it presented a geographically strategic launch pad for covert bombing missions over Cambodia and Laos. Anti-Vietnam War sentiment became linked politically to the movement for reversion of Okinawa to Japan. In 1965, the US military bases, earlier viewed as paternal post war protection, were increasingly seen as aggressive. The Vietnam War highlighted the differences between United States and Okinawa, but showed a commonality between the islands and mainland Japan. As controversy grew regarding the alleged placement of nuclear weapons on Okinawa, fears intensified over the escalation of the Vietnam War. Okinawa was then perceived, by some inside Japan, as a potential target for China, should the communist government feel threatened by United States. American military secrecy blocked any local reporting on what was actually occurring at bases such as Kadena Air Base. As information leaked out, and images of air strikes were published, the local population began to fear the potential for retaliation. Political leaders such as Oda Makoto, a major figure in the Beheiren movement (Foundation of Citizens for Peace in Vietnam), believed, that the return of Okinawa to Japan would lead to the removal of U.S. forces ending Japan's involvement in Vietnam. In a speech delivered in 1967 Oda was critical of Prime Minister Sato's unilateral support of America's War in Vietnam claiming "Realistically we are all guilty of complicity in the Vietnam War". The Beheiren became a more visible anti-war movement on Okinawa as the American involvement in Vietnam intensified. The movement employed tactics ranging from demonstrations, to handing leaflets to soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines directly, warning of the implications for a third World War. The US military bases on Okinawa became a focal point for anti-Vietnam War sentiment. By 1969, over 50,000 American military personnel were stationed on Okinawa. United States Department of Defense began referring to Okinawa as the "Keystone of the Pacific". This slogan was imprinted on local U.S. military license plates. In 1969, chemical weapons leaked from the US storage depot at Chibana in central Okinawa, under Operation Red Hat. Evacuations of residents took place over a wide area for two months. Even two years later, government investigators found that Okinawans and the environment near the leak were still suffering because of the depot. In 1972, the U.S. government handed over the islands to Japanese administration. 1973–2006 In a 1981 interview with the Mainichi Shimbun, Edwin O. Reischauer, former U.S. ambassador to Japan, said that U.S. naval ships armed with nuclear weapons stopped at Japanese ports on a routine duty, and this was approved by the Japanese government. The 1995 rape of a 12-year-old girl by U.S. servicemen triggered large protests in Okinawa. Reports by the local media of accidents and crimes committed by U.S. servicemen have reduced the local population's support for the U.S. military bases. A strong emotional response has emerged from certain incidents. As a result, the media has drawn renewed interest in the Ryukyu independence movement. Documents declassified in 1997 proved that both tactical and strategic weapons have been maintained in Okinawa. In 1999 and 2002, the Japan Times and the Okinawa Times reported speculation that not all weapons were removed from Okinawa. On October 25, 2005, after a decade of negotiations, the governments of the US and Japan officially agreed to move Marine Corps Air Station Futenma from its location in the densely populated city of Ginowan to the more northerly and remote Camp Schwab in Nago by building a heliport with a shorter runway, partly on Camp Schwab land and partly running into the sea. The move is partly an attempt to relieve tensions between the people of Okinawa and the Marine Corps. Okinawa prefecture constitutes 0.6 percent of Japan's land surface, yet , 75 percent of all USFJ bases were located on Okinawa, and U.S. military bases occupied 18 percent of the main island. 2007–present According to a 2007 Okinawa Times poll, 85 percent of Okinawans opposed the presence of the U.S. military, because of noise pollution from military drills, the risk of aircraft accidents, environmental degradation, and crowding from the number of personnel there, although 73.4 percent of Japanese citizens appreciated the mutual security treaty with the U.S. and the presence of the USFJ. In another poll conducted by the Asahi Shimbun in May 2010, 43 percent of the Okinawan population wanted the complete closure of the U.S. bases, 42 percent wanted reduction and 11 percent wanted the maintenance of the status quo. Okinawan feelings about the U.S. military are complex, and some of the resentment towards the U.S. bases is directed towards the government in Tokyo, perceived as being insensitive to Okinawan needs and using Okinawa to house bases not desired elsewhere in Japan. In early 2008, U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice apologized after a series of crimes involving American troops in Japan, including the rape of a young girl of 14 by a Marine on Okinawa. The U.S. military also imposed a temporary 24-hour curfew on military personnel and their families to ease the anger of local residents. Some cited statistics that the crime rate of military personnel is consistently less than that of the general Okinawan population. However, some criticized the statistics as unreliable, since violence against women is under-reported. Between 1972 and 2009, U.S. servicemen committed 5,634 criminal offenses, including 25 murders, 385 burglaries, 25 arsons, 127 rapes, 306 assaults and 2,827 thefts. Yet, per Marine Corps Installations Pacific data, U.S. service members are convicted of far fewer crimes than local Okinawans. In 2009, a new Japanese government came to power and froze the US forces relocation plan, but in April 2010 indicated their interest in resolving the issue by proposing a modified plan. A study done in 2010 found that the prolonged exposure to aircraft noise around the Kadena Air Base and other military bases cause health issues such as a disrupted sleep pattern, high blood pressure, weakening of the immune system in children, and a loss of hearing. In 2011, it was reported that the U.S. military—contrary to repeated denials by the Pentagon—had kept tens of thousands of barrels of Agent Orange on the island. The Japanese and American governments have angered some U.S. veterans, who believe they were poisoned by Agent Orange while serving on the island, by characterizing their statements regarding Agent Orange as "dubious", and ignoring their requests for compensation. Reports that more than a third of the barrels developed leaks have led Okinawans to ask for environmental investigations, but both Tokyo and Washington refused such action. Jon Mitchell has reported concern that the U.S. used American Marines as chemical-agent guinea pigs. On September 30, 2018, Denny Tamaki was elected as the next governor of Okinawa prefecture, after a campaign focused on sharply reducing the U.S. military presence on the island. Marine Corps Air Station Futenma relocation, 2006–present , one ongoing issue is the relocation of Marine Corps Air Station Futenma. First promised to be moved off the island and then later within the island, the future of any relocation is uncertain with the election of base-opponent Onaga as Okinawa governor. Onaga won against the incumbent Nakaima who had earlier approved landfill work to move the base to Camp Schwab in Henoko. However, Onaga has promised to veto the landfill work needed for the new base to be built and insisted Futenma should be moved outside of Okinawa. , some 8,000 U.S. Marines were removed from the island and relocated to Guam. In November 2008, U.S. Pacific Command Commander Admiral Timothy Keating stated the move to Guam would probably not be completed before 2015. In 2009, Japan's former foreign minister Katsuya Okada stated that he wanted to review the deployment of U.S. troops in Japan to ease the burden on the people of Okinawa (Associated Press, October 7, 2009) 5,000 of 9,000 Marines will be deployed at Guam and the rest will be deployed at Hawaii and Australia. Japan will pay $3.1 billion cash for the moving and for developing joint training ranges on Guam and on Tinian and Pagan in the U.S.-controlled Northern Mariana Islands. , the US still maintains Air Force, Marine, Navy, and Army military installations on the islands. These bases include Kadena Air Base, Camp Foster, Marine Corps Air Station Futenma, Camp Hansen, Camp Schwab, Torii | Vietnam War highlighted the differences between United States and Okinawa, but showed a commonality between the islands and mainland Japan. As controversy grew regarding the alleged placement of nuclear weapons on Okinawa, fears intensified over the escalation of the Vietnam War. Okinawa was then perceived, by some inside Japan, as a potential target for China, should the communist government feel threatened by United States. American military secrecy blocked any local reporting on what was actually occurring at bases such as Kadena Air Base. As information leaked out, and images of air strikes were published, the local population began to fear the potential for retaliation. Political leaders such as Oda Makoto, a major figure in the Beheiren movement (Foundation of Citizens for Peace in Vietnam), believed, that the return of Okinawa to Japan would lead to the removal of U.S. forces ending Japan's involvement in Vietnam. In a speech delivered in 1967 Oda was critical of Prime Minister Sato's unilateral support of America's War in Vietnam claiming "Realistically we are all guilty of complicity in the Vietnam War". The Beheiren became a more visible anti-war movement on Okinawa as the American involvement in Vietnam intensified. The movement employed tactics ranging from demonstrations, to handing leaflets to soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines directly, warning of the implications for a third World War. The US military bases on Okinawa became a focal point for anti-Vietnam War sentiment. By 1969, over 50,000 American military personnel were stationed on Okinawa. United States Department of Defense began referring to Okinawa as the "Keystone of the Pacific". This slogan was imprinted on local U.S. military license plates. In 1969, chemical weapons leaked from the US storage depot at Chibana in central Okinawa, under Operation Red Hat. Evacuations of residents took place over a wide area for two months. Even two years later, government investigators found that Okinawans and the environment near the leak were still suffering because of the depot. In 1972, the U.S. government handed over the islands to Japanese administration. 1973–2006 In a 1981 interview with the Mainichi Shimbun, Edwin O. Reischauer, former U.S. ambassador to Japan, said that U.S. naval ships armed with nuclear weapons stopped at Japanese ports on a routine duty, and this was approved by the Japanese government. The 1995 rape of a 12-year-old girl by U.S. servicemen triggered large protests in Okinawa. Reports by the local media of accidents and crimes committed by U.S. servicemen have reduced the local population's support for the U.S. military bases. A strong emotional response has emerged from certain incidents. As a result, the media has drawn renewed interest in the Ryukyu independence movement. Documents declassified in 1997 proved that both tactical and strategic weapons have been maintained in Okinawa. In 1999 and 2002, the Japan Times and the Okinawa Times reported speculation that not all weapons were removed from Okinawa. On October 25, 2005, after a decade of negotiations, the governments of the US and Japan officially agreed to move Marine Corps Air Station Futenma from its location in the densely populated city of Ginowan to the more northerly and remote Camp Schwab in Nago by building a heliport with a shorter runway, partly on Camp Schwab land and partly running into the sea. The move is partly an attempt to relieve tensions between the people of Okinawa and the Marine Corps. Okinawa prefecture constitutes 0.6 percent of Japan's land surface, yet , 75 percent of all USFJ bases were located on Okinawa, and U.S. military bases occupied 18 percent of the main island. 2007–present According to a 2007 Okinawa Times poll, 85 percent of Okinawans opposed the presence of the U.S. military, because of noise pollution from military drills, the risk of aircraft accidents, environmental degradation, and crowding from the number of personnel there, although 73.4 percent of Japanese citizens appreciated the mutual security treaty with the U.S. and the presence of the USFJ. In another poll conducted by the Asahi Shimbun in May 2010, 43 percent of the Okinawan population wanted the complete closure of the U.S. bases, 42 percent wanted reduction and 11 percent wanted the maintenance of the status quo. Okinawan feelings about the U.S. military are complex, and some of the resentment towards the U.S. bases is directed towards the government in Tokyo, perceived as being insensitive to Okinawan needs and using Okinawa to house bases not desired elsewhere in Japan. In early 2008, U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice apologized after a series of crimes involving American troops in Japan, including the rape of a young girl of 14 by a Marine on Okinawa. The U.S. military also imposed a temporary 24-hour curfew on military personnel and their families to ease the anger of local residents. Some cited statistics that the crime rate of military personnel is consistently less than that of the general Okinawan population. However, some criticized the statistics as unreliable, since violence against women is under-reported. Between 1972 and 2009, U.S. servicemen committed 5,634 criminal offenses, including 25 murders, 385 burglaries, 25 arsons, 127 rapes, 306 assaults and 2,827 thefts. Yet, per Marine Corps Installations Pacific data, U.S. service members are convicted of far fewer crimes than local Okinawans. In 2009, a new Japanese government came to power and froze the US forces relocation plan, but in April 2010 indicated their interest in resolving the issue by proposing a modified plan. A study done in 2010 found that the prolonged exposure to aircraft noise around the Kadena Air Base and other military bases cause health issues such as a disrupted sleep pattern, high blood pressure, weakening of the immune system in children, and a loss of hearing. In 2011, it was reported that the U.S. military—contrary to repeated denials by the Pentagon—had kept tens of thousands of barrels of Agent Orange on the island. The Japanese and American governments have angered some U.S. veterans, who believe they were poisoned by Agent Orange while serving on the island, by characterizing their statements regarding Agent Orange as "dubious", and ignoring their requests for compensation. Reports that more than a third of the barrels developed leaks have led Okinawans to ask for environmental investigations, but both Tokyo and Washington refused such action. Jon Mitchell has reported concern that the U.S. used American Marines as chemical-agent guinea pigs. On September 30, 2018, Denny Tamaki was elected as the next governor of Okinawa prefecture, after a campaign focused on sharply reducing the U.S. military presence on the island. Marine Corps Air Station Futenma relocation, 2006–present , one ongoing issue is the relocation of Marine Corps Air Station Futenma. First promised to be moved off the island and then later within the island, the future of any relocation is uncertain with the election of base-opponent Onaga as Okinawa governor. Onaga won against the incumbent Nakaima who had earlier approved landfill work to move the base to Camp Schwab in Henoko. However, Onaga has promised to veto the landfill work needed for the new base to be built and insisted Futenma should be moved outside of Okinawa. , some 8,000 U.S. Marines were removed from the island and relocated to Guam. In November 2008, U.S. Pacific Command Commander Admiral Timothy Keating stated the move to Guam would probably not be completed before 2015. In 2009, Japan's former foreign minister Katsuya Okada stated that he wanted to review the deployment of U.S. troops in Japan to ease the burden on the people of Okinawa (Associated Press, October 7, 2009) 5,000 of 9,000 Marines will be deployed at Guam and the rest will be deployed at Hawaii and Australia. Japan will pay $3.1 billion cash for the moving and for developing joint training ranges on Guam and on Tinian and Pagan in the U.S.-controlled Northern Mariana Islands. , the US still maintains Air Force, Marine, Navy, and Army military installations on the islands. These bases include Kadena Air Base, Camp Foster, Marine Corps Air Station Futenma, Camp Hansen, Camp Schwab, Torii Station, Camp Kinser, and Camp Gonsalves. The area of 14 U.S. bases are , occupying 18 percent of the main island. Okinawa hosts about two-thirds of the 50,000 American forces in Japan although the islands account for less than one percent of total lands in Japan. Suburbs have grown towards and now surround two historic major bases, Futenma and Kadena. One third () of the land used by the U.S. military is the Marine Corps Northern Training Area (known also as Camp Gonsalves or JWTC) in the north of the island. On December 21, 2016, 10,000 acres of Okinawa Northern Training Area were returned to Japan. On June 25, 2018, Okinawa residents held a protest demonstration at sea against scheduled land reclamation work for the relocation of a U.S. military base within Japan's southernmost island prefecture. A protest gathered hundreds of people. Helipads construction in Takae (Yanbaru forest) Since the early 2000s, Okinawans have opposed the presence of American troops helipads in the Takae zone of the Yanbaru forest near Higashi and Kunigami. This opposition grew in July 2016 after the construction of six new helipads. Geography Major islands The islands comprising the prefecture are the southern two thirds of the archipelago of the . Okinawa's inhabited islands are typically divided into three geographical archipelagos. From northeast to southwest: Ie-jima () Kume-jima () Okinawa Island () Kerama Islands () Miyako Islands () Miyako-jima Yaeyama Islands () Iriomote-jima () Ishigaki Island () Yonaguni () Senkaku Islands () Daitō Islands () Minamidaitōjima () Kitadaitōjima () Okidaitōjima () Natural parks As of 31 March 2019, 36 percent of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Iriomote-Ishigaki, Kerama Shotō, and Yanbaru National Parks; Okinawa Kaigan and Okinawa Senseki Quasi-National Parks; and Irabu, Kumejima, Tarama, and Tonaki Prefectural Natural Parks. Fauna The dugong is an endangered marine mammal related to the manatee. Iriomote is home to one of the world's rarest and most endangered cat species, the Iriomote cat. The region is also home to at least one endemic pit viper, Trimeresurus elegans. Coral reefs found in this region of Japan provide an environment that is home to a rare blue coral among greater biodiversity. The sea turtles return yearly to the southern islands of Okinawa to lay their eggs. The summer months carry warnings to swimmers regarding venomous jellyfish and other dangerous sea creatures. Flora Okinawa is a major producer of sugar cane, pineapple, papaya, and other tropical fruit, and the Southeast Botanical Gardens represent tropical plant species. Geology The island is largely composed of coral, and rainwater filtering through that coral has given the island many caves, which played an |
and of any mixture with oils of other kinds. It is then further refined into Refined olive pomace oil and once re-blended with virgin olive oils for taste, is then known as Olive pomace oil. International Olive Council In countries that adhere to the standards of the International Olive Council, as well as in Australia, and under the voluntary United States Department of Agriculture labeling standards in the United States: Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade of virgin olive oil derived by cold mechanical extraction without use of solvents or refining methods. It contains no more than 0.8% free acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste, having some fruitiness and no defined sensory defects. Extra virgin olive oil accounts for less than 10% of oil in many producing countries; the percentage is far higher in the Mediterranean countries (Greece: 80%, Italy: 65%, Spain 50%). According to International Olive Council, median of the fruity attribute must be higher than zero for a given olive oil in order to meet the criteria of extra virgin olive oil classification. Virgin olive oil is a lesser grade of virgin oil, with free acidity of up to 2.0%, and is judged to have a good taste, but may include some sensory defects. Refined olive oil is virgin oil that has been refined using charcoal and other chemical and physical filters, methods which do not alter the glyceridic structure. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%) and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. It is obtained by refining virgin oils to eliminate high acidity or organoleptic defects. Oils labeled as Pure olive oil or Olive oil are primarily refined olive oil, with a small addition of virgin for taste. Olive pomace oil is refined pomace olive oil, often blended with some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as olive oil. It has a more neutral flavor than pure or virgin olive oil, making it unfashionable among connoisseurs; however, it has the same fat composition as regular olive oil, giving it the same health benefits. It also has a high smoke point, and thus is widely used in restaurants as well as home cooking in some countries. United States As the United States is not a member, the IOC retail grades have no legal meaning there, but on October 25, 2010, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established Standards for Grades of Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil, which closely parallel the IOC standards: U.S. Extra Virgin Olive Oil for oil with excellent flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 0.8 g per 100 g (0.8%); U.S. Virgin Olive Oil for oil with reasonably good flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 2 g per 100 g (2%); U.S. Virgin Olive Oil Not Fit For Human Consumption Without Further Processing is a virgin (mechanically-extracted) olive oil of poor flavor and odor, equivalent to the IOC's lampante oil; U.S. Olive Oil is a mixture of virgin and refined oils; U.S. Refined Olive Oil is an oil made from refined oils with some restrictions on the processing. These grades are voluntary. Certification is available, for a fee, from the USDA. In 2014, California adopted a set of olive oil standards for olive oil made from California-grown olives. The California Department of Food and Agriculture Grade and Labeling Standards for Olive Oil, Refined-Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil are mandatory for producers of more than 5,000 gallons of California olive oil. This joins other official state, federal and international olive oil standards. Several olive producer associations, such as the North American Olive Oil Association and the California Olive Oil Council, also offer grading and certification within the United States. Oleologist Nicholas Coleman suggests that the California Olive Oil Council certification is the most stringent of the voluntary grading schemes in the United States. Country of origin can be established by one or two letter country codes printed on the bottle or label. Country codes include I=Italy, GR=Greece, E=Spain, TU=Tunisia, MA=Morocco, CL=Chile, AG=Argentina, AU=Australia. Label wording Different names for olive oil indicate the degree of processing the oil has undergone as well as the quality of the oil. Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade available, followed by virgin olive oil. The word "virgin" indicates that the olives have been pressed to extract the oil; no heat or chemicals have been used during the extraction process, and the oil is pure and unrefined. Virgin olive oils contain the highest levels of polyphenols, antioxidants that have been linked with better health. Olive Oil, which is sometimes denoted as being "Made from refined and virgin olive oils" is a blend of refined olive oil with a virgin grade of olive oil. Pure, Classic, Light and Extra-Light are terms introduced by manufacturers in countries that are non-traditional consumers of olive oil for these products to indicate both their composition of being only 100% olive oil, and also the varying strength of taste to consumers. Contrary to a common consumer belief, they do not have fewer calories than extra virgin oil as implied by the names. Cold pressed or Cold extraction means "that the oil was not heated over a certain temperature (usually ) during processing, thus retaining more nutrients and undergoing less degradation". The difference between Cold Extraction and Cold Pressed is regulated in Europe, where the use of a centrifuge, the modern method of extraction for large quantities, must be labelled as Cold Extracted, while only a physically pressed olive oil may be labelled as Cold Pressed. In many parts of the world, such as Australia, producers using centrifugal extraction still label their products as Cold Pressed. First cold pressed means "that the fruit of the olive was crushed exactly one time – i.e., the first press. The cold refers to the temperature range of the fruit at the time it is crushed". In Calabria (Italy) the olives are collected in October. In regions like Tuscany or Liguria, the olives collected in November and ground, often at night, are too cold to be processed efficiently without heating. The paste is regularly heated above the environmental temperatures, which may be as low as 10–15 °C, to extract the oil efficiently with only physical means. Olives pressed in warm regions like Southern Italy or Northern Africa may be pressed at significantly higher temperatures although not heated. While it is important that the pressing temperatures be as low as possible (generally below 25 °C) there is no international reliable definition of "cold pressed".Furthermore, there is no "second" press of virgin oil, so the term "first press" means only that the oil was produced in a press vs. other possible methods. Protected designation of origin (PDO) and protected geographical indication (PGI) refer to olive oils with "exceptional properties and quality derived from their place of origin as well as from the way of their production". The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from more than one country. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration permitted a claim on olive oil labels stating: "Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about two tablespoons (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease." Adulteration There have been allegations, particularly in Italy and Spain, that regulation can be sometimes lax and corrupt. Major shippers are claimed to routinely adulterate olive oil so that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" in Italy actually meets the specification. In some cases, colza oil (extracted from rapeseed) with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil. This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils. In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory. Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil. Extra virgin olive oil has strict requirements and is checked for "sensory defects" that include: rancid, fusty, musty, winey (vinegary) and muddy sediment. These defects can occur for different reasons. The most common are: Raw material (olives) infected or battered Inadequate harvest, with contact between the olives and soil In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil", arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian. In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding chlorophyll to sunflower and soybean oil, and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad; 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported. On March 15, 2011, the prosecutor's office in Florence, Italy, working in conjunction with the forestry department, indicted two managers and an officer of Carapelli, one of the brands of the Spanish company Grupo SOS (which recently changed its name to Deoleo). The charges involved falsified documents and food fraud. Carapelli lawyer Neri Pinucci said the company was not worried about the charges and that "the case is based on an irregularity in the documents." In February 2012, Spanish authorities investigated an international olive oil scam in which palm, avocado, sunflower and other cheaper oils were passed off as Italian olive oil. Police said the oils were blended in an industrial biodiesel plant and adulterated in a way to hide markers that would have revealed their true nature. The oils were not toxic and posed no health risk, according to a statement by the Guardia Civil. Nineteen people were arrested following the year-long joint probe by the police and Spanish tax | greater harvests occur in alternate years (the year in-between is when the tree yields less). However the quality is still dependent on the weather. Sometimes the produced oil will be filtered to eliminate remaining solid particles that may reduce the shelf life of the product. Labels may indicate the fact that the oil has not been filtered, suggesting a different taste. Fresh unfiltered olive oil usually has a slightly cloudy appearance, and is therefore sometimes called cloudy olive oil. This form of olive oil used to be popular only among small scale producers but is now becoming "trendy", in line with consumer's demand for products that are perceived to be less processed. But generally, if not tasted or consumed soon after production, filtered olive oil should be preferred: "Some producers maintain that extra-virgin olive oils do not need filtration but also that filtration is detrimental to oil quality. This point of view should be considered as erroneous and probably the result of improper implementation of this operation. In fact, fine particles that are suspended in a virgin olive oil, even after the most effective centrifugal finishing, contain water and enzymes that may impair oil stability and ruin its sensory profile. [...] Filtration makes an extra-virgin olive oil more stable and also more attractive. If the suspended particles are not removed they slowly agglomerate and flocculate, forming a deposit on the bottom of the storage containers. Such a deposit continues to be at risk of enzymatic spoilage and, in the worst case, of development of anaerobic micro-organisms with further spoilage and hygienic risk. [...] It is [...] recommended that filtration be carried out as soon as possible after centrifugal separation and finishing." Ancient Levant In the ancient Levant, three methods were used to produce different grades of olive oil. The finest oil was produced from fully developed and ripe olives harvested solely from the apex of the tree, and lightly pressed, "for what flows from light pressure is very sweet and very thin." The remaining olives are pressed with a heavier weight, and vary in ripeness. Inferior oil is produced from unripe olives that are stored for extended periods of time until they grow soft or begin to shrivel to become more fit for grinding. Others are left for extended periods in pits in the ground to induce sweating and decay before they are ground. According to the Geoponica, salt and a little nitre are added when oil is stored. Oil was sometimes extracted from unripe olives, known in medieval times as anfa kinon (Greek ὀμφάκιον, ὀμφάχινον; Latin omphacium; ), and used in cuisine and in medicine. Pomace handling The remaining semi-solid waste, called pomace, retains a small quantity (about 5–10%) of oil that cannot be extracted by further pressing, but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialized chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is not "virgin" but "pomace oil". Handling of olive waste is an environmental challenge because the wastewater, which amounts to millions of tons (billions of liters) annually in the European Union, is not biodegradable, is toxic to plants, and cannot be processed through conventional water treatment systems. Traditionally, olive pomace would be used as compost or developed as a possible biofuel, although these uses introduce concern due to chemicals present in the pomace. A process called "valorization" of olive pomace is under research and development, consisting of additional processing to obtain value-added byproducts, such as animal feed, food additives for human products, and phenolic and fatty acid extracts for potential human use. Global market Production In 2019-20, world production of virgin olive oil was . Spain produced 35% of world production. (For more, see Acesur) The next largest producers were Italy, Tunisia, Greece, Morocco and Turkey. Some 75% of Spain's production derives from the region of Andalucía, particularly within Jaén province which produces 70% of the olive oil in Spain. The world's largest olive oil mill (almazara, in Spanish), capable of processing 2,500 tonnes of olives per day, is in the town of Villacarrillo, Jaén. Major Italian producers are the regions of Calabria and, above all, Apulia. Many PDO and PGI extra-virgin olive oil are produced in these regions. In Apulia, among the villages of Carovigno, Ostuni and Fasano is the Plain of Olive Trees, which counts some specimens as old as 3000 years; it has been proposed to add this plain to the UNESCO Heritage List. Excellent extra-virgin olive oil is also produced in Tuscany, in cities like Lucca, Florence, Siena which are also included in the association of "Città dell'Olio". Italy imports about 65% of Spanish olive oil exports. Global consumption San Marino has by far the largest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, around 24 L; of olive oil per person per year; Greece, Spain and Italy, around 14 L; Tunisia, Portugal, Syria, Jordan and Lebanon, around 8 L. Northern Europe and North America consume far less, around 0.7 L, but the consumption of olive oil outside its home territory has been rising steadily. Regulation The International Olive Council (IOC) is an intergovernmental organisation of states that produce olives or products derived from olives, such as olive oil. The IOC officially governs 95% of international production and holds great influence over the rest. The EU regulates the use of different protected designation of origin labels for olive oils. The United States is not a member of the IOC and is not subject to its authority, but on October 25, 2010, the U.S. Department of Agriculture adopted new voluntary olive oil grading standards that closely parallel those of the IOC, with some adjustments for the characteristics of olives grown in the U.S. Additionally, U.S. Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a non-origin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label and in comparable size letters so as not to mislead the consumer. Yet most major U.S. brands continue to put "imported from Italy" on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very small print. "In fact, olive oil labeled 'Italian' often comes from Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, Spain, and Greece." This makes it unclear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin. Commercial grades All production begins by transforming the olive fruit into olive paste by crushing or pressing. This paste is then malaxed (slowly churned or mixed) to allow the microscopic oil droplets to agglomerate. The oil is then separated from the watery matter and fruit pulp with the use of a press (traditional method) or centrifugation (modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace, still contains a small quantity of oil. One parameter used to characterise an oil is its acidity. In this context, "acidity" is not chemical acidity in the sense of pH, but the percent (measured by weight) of free oleic acid. Measured by quantitative analysis, acidity is a measure of the hydrolysis of the oil's triglycerides: as the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the glycerides, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing hydrolytic rancidity. Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the peroxide value, which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized by free radicals, leading to oxidative rancidity. Phenolic acids present in olive oil also add acidic sensory properties to aroma and flavor. The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as: Virgin means the oil was produced by the use of mechanical means only, with no chemical treatment. The term virgin oil with reference to production method includes all grades of virgin olive oil, including Extra virgin, Virgin, Ordinary virgin and Lampante virgin olive oil products, depending on quality (see below). Lampante virgin oil is olive oil extracted by virgin (mechanical) methods but not suitable for human consumption without further refining; “lampante” is the attributive form of “lampa”, the Italian word for “lamp”, referring to the earlier use of such oil in oil lamps. Lampante virgin oil can be used for industrial purposes, or refined (see below) to make it edible. Refined olive oil is the olive oil obtained from any grade of virgin olive oil by refining methods which do not lead to alterations in the initial glyceridic structure. The refining process removes colour, odour and flavour from the olive oil, and leaves behind a very pure form of olive oil that is tasteless, colourless and odourless and extremely low in free fatty acids. Olive oils sold as the grades Extra virgin olive oil and Virgin olive oil therefore cannot contain any refined oil. Crude olive pomace oil is the oil obtained by treating olive pomace (the leftover paste after the pressing of olives for virgin olive oils) with solvents or other physical treatments, to the exclusion of oils obtained by re-esterification processes and of any mixture with oils of other kinds. It is then further refined into Refined olive pomace oil and once re-blended with virgin olive oils for taste, is then known as Olive pomace oil. International Olive Council In countries that adhere to the standards of the International Olive Council, as well as in Australia, and under the voluntary United States Department of Agriculture labeling standards in the United States: Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade of virgin olive oil derived by cold mechanical extraction without use of solvents or refining methods. It contains no more than 0.8% free acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste, having some fruitiness and no defined sensory defects. Extra virgin olive oil accounts for less than 10% of oil in many producing countries; the percentage is far higher in the Mediterranean countries (Greece: 80%, Italy: 65%, Spain 50%). According to International Olive Council, median of the fruity attribute must be higher than zero for a given olive oil in order to meet the criteria of extra virgin olive oil classification. Virgin olive oil is a lesser grade of virgin oil, with free acidity of up to 2.0%, and is judged to have a good taste, but may include some sensory defects. Refined olive oil is virgin oil that has been refined using charcoal and other chemical and physical filters, methods which do not alter the glyceridic structure. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%) and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. It is obtained by refining virgin oils to eliminate high acidity or organoleptic defects. Oils labeled as Pure olive oil or Olive oil are primarily refined olive oil, with a small addition of virgin for taste. Olive pomace oil is refined pomace olive oil, often blended with some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as olive oil. It has a more neutral flavor than pure or virgin olive oil, making it unfashionable among connoisseurs; however, it has the same fat composition as regular olive oil, giving it the same health benefits. It also has a high smoke point, and thus is widely used in restaurants as well as home cooking in some countries. United States As the United States is not a member, the IOC retail grades have no legal meaning there, but on October 25, 2010, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established Standards for Grades of Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil, which closely parallel the IOC standards: U.S. Extra Virgin Olive Oil for oil with excellent flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 0.8 g per 100 g (0.8%); U.S. Virgin Olive Oil for oil with reasonably good flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 2 g per 100 g (2%); U.S. Virgin Olive Oil Not Fit For Human Consumption Without Further Processing is a virgin (mechanically-extracted) olive oil of poor flavor and odor, equivalent to the IOC's lampante oil; U.S. Olive Oil is a mixture of virgin and refined oils; U.S. Refined Olive Oil is an oil made from refined oils with some restrictions on the processing. These grades are voluntary. Certification is available, for a fee, from the USDA. In 2014, California adopted a set of olive oil standards for olive oil made from California-grown olives. The California Department of Food and Agriculture Grade and Labeling Standards for Olive Oil, Refined-Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil are mandatory for producers of more than 5,000 gallons of California olive oil. This joins other official state, federal and international olive oil standards. Several olive producer associations, such as the North American Olive Oil Association and the California Olive Oil Council, also offer grading and certification within the United States. Oleologist Nicholas Coleman suggests that the California Olive Oil Council certification is the most stringent of the voluntary grading schemes in the United States. Country of origin can be established by one or two letter country codes printed on the bottle or label. Country codes include I=Italy, GR=Greece, E=Spain, TU=Tunisia, MA=Morocco, CL=Chile, AG=Argentina, AU=Australia. Label wording Different names for olive oil indicate the degree of processing the oil has undergone as well as the quality of the oil. Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade available, followed by virgin olive oil. The word "virgin" indicates that the olives have been pressed to extract the oil; no heat or chemicals have been used during the extraction process, and the oil is pure and unrefined. Virgin olive oils contain the highest levels of polyphenols, antioxidants that have been linked with better health. Olive Oil, which is sometimes denoted as being "Made from refined and virgin olive oils" is a blend of refined olive oil with a virgin grade of olive oil. Pure, Classic, Light and Extra-Light are terms introduced by manufacturers in countries that are non-traditional consumers of olive oil for these products to indicate both their composition of being only 100% olive oil, and also the varying strength of taste to consumers. Contrary to a common consumer belief, they do not have fewer calories than extra virgin oil as implied by the names. Cold pressed or Cold extraction means "that the oil was not heated over a certain temperature (usually ) during processing, thus retaining more nutrients and undergoing less degradation". The difference between Cold Extraction and Cold Pressed is regulated in Europe, where the use of a centrifuge, the modern method of extraction for large quantities, must be labelled as Cold Extracted, while only a physically pressed olive oil may be labelled as Cold Pressed. In many parts of the world, such as Australia, producers using centrifugal extraction still label their products as Cold Pressed. First cold pressed means "that the fruit of the olive was crushed exactly one time – i.e., the first press. The cold refers to the temperature range of the fruit at the time it is crushed". In Calabria (Italy) the olives are collected in October. In regions like Tuscany or Liguria, the olives collected in November and ground, often at night, are too cold to be processed efficiently without heating. The paste is regularly heated above the environmental temperatures, which may be as low as 10–15 °C, to extract the oil efficiently with only physical means. Olives pressed in warm regions like Southern Italy or Northern Africa may be pressed at significantly higher temperatures although not heated. While it is important that the pressing temperatures be as low as possible (generally below 25 °C) there is no international reliable definition of "cold pressed".Furthermore, there is no "second" press of virgin oil, so the term "first press" means only that the oil was produced in a press vs. other possible methods. Protected designation of origin (PDO) and protected geographical indication (PGI) refer to olive oils with "exceptional properties and quality derived from their place of origin as well as from the way of their production". The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from more than one country. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration permitted a claim on olive oil labels stating: "Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about two tablespoons (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease." Adulteration There have been allegations, particularly in Italy and Spain, that regulation can be sometimes lax and corrupt. Major shippers are claimed to routinely adulterate olive oil so that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" in Italy actually meets the specification. In some cases, colza oil (extracted from rapeseed) with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil. This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils. In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory. Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil. Extra virgin olive oil has strict requirements and is checked for "sensory defects" that include: rancid, fusty, musty, winey (vinegary) and muddy sediment. These defects can occur for different reasons. The most common are: Raw material (olives) infected or battered Inadequate harvest, with contact between the olives and soil In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil", arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian. In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding chlorophyll to sunflower and soybean oil, and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad; 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported. On March 15, 2011, the prosecutor's office in Florence, Italy, working in conjunction with the forestry department, indicted two managers and an officer of Carapelli, one of the brands of the Spanish company Grupo SOS (which recently changed its name to Deoleo). The charges involved falsified documents and food fraud. Carapelli lawyer Neri Pinucci said the company was not worried about the charges and that "the case is based on an irregularity in the documents." In February 2012, Spanish authorities investigated an international olive oil scam in which palm, avocado, sunflower and other cheaper oils were passed off as Italian olive oil. Police said the oils were blended in an industrial biodiesel plant and adulterated in a way to hide markers that would have revealed their true nature. The oils were not toxic and posed no health risk, according to a statement by the Guardia Civil. Nineteen people were arrested following the year-long joint probe by the police and Spanish tax authorities, part of what they call Operation Lucerna. Using tiny print to state the origin of blended oil is used as a legal loophole by manufacturers of adulterated and mixed olive oil. Journalist Tom Mueller has investigated crime and adulteration in the olive oil business, publishing the article "Slippery Business" in New Yorker magazine, followed |
since that time. Other leaves found on the same island are dated back to 60,000 BP, making them the oldest known olives from the Mediterranean. Outside the Mediterranean Olives are not native to the Americas. Spanish colonists brought the olive to the New World, where its cultivation prospered in present-day Peru, Chile, and Argentina. The first seedlings from Spain were planted in Lima by Antonio de Rivera in 1560. Olive tree cultivation quickly spread along the valleys of South America's dry Pacific coast where the climate was similar to the Mediterranean. Spanish missionaries established the tree in the 18th century in California. It was first cultivated at Mission San Diego de Alcalá in 1769 or later around 1795. Orchards were started at other missions, but in 1838, an inspection found only two olive orchards in California. Cultivation for oil gradually became a highly successful commercial venture from the 1860s onward. In Japan, the first successful planting of olive trees happened in 1908 on Shodo Island, which became the cradle of olive cultivation in Japan. An estimated 865 million olive trees were in the world as of 2005, and the vast majority of these were found in Mediterranean countries, with traditionally marginal areas accounting for no more than 25% of olive-planted area and 10% of oil production. Symbolic connotations Olive oil has long been considered sacred and holy. The olive branch has often been a symbol of abundance, glory, and peace. The leafy branches of the olive tree were ritually offered to deities and powerful figures as emblems of benediction and purification, and they were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. Today, olive oil is still used in many religious ceremonies. Over the years, the olive has also been used to symbolize wisdom, fertility, power, and purity. Judaism and Christianity Olives were one of the main elements in ancient Israelite cuisine. Olive oil was used for not only food and cooking, but also lighting, sacrificial offerings, ointment, and anointment for priestly or royal office. The olive tree is one of the first plants mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament), and one of the most significant. An olive branch (or leaf, depending on translation) was brought back to Noah by a dove to demonstrate that the flood was over (Book of Genesis 8:11). The olive is listed in Deuteronomy 8:8 as one of the seven species that are noteworthy products of the Land of Israel. According to the Halakha, the Jewish law mandatory for all Jews, the olive is one of the seven species that require the recitation of me'eyn shalosh after they are consumed. Olive oil is also the most recommended and best possible oil for the lighting of the Shabbat candles. The Mount of Olives, east of Jerusalem, is mentioned several times in the New Testament. The Allegory of the Olive Tree in St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans refers to the scattering and gathering of Israel. It compares the Israelites to a tame olive tree and the Gentiles to a wild olive branch. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible. Ancient Greece Olives are thought to have been domesticated in the third millennium BC at the latest, at which point they, along with grain and grapes, became part of Colin Renfrew's triad of Greek staple crops that fueled the emergence of more complex societies. Olives, and especially (perfumed) olive oil, became a major export product during the Minoan and Mycenaean periods. Dutch archaeologist Jorrit Kelder proposed that the Mycenaeans sent shipments of olive oil, probably alongside live olive branches, to the court of the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten as a diplomatic gift. In Egypt, these imported olive branches may have acquired ritual meanings, as they are depicted as offerings on the wall of the Aten temple and were used in wreaths for the burial of Tutankhamun. It is likely that, as well as being used for culinary purposes, olive oil was also used to various other ends, including as a perfume. The ancient Greeks smeared olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health. Olive oil was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples and was the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock, and in the Iliad, (XVII.53ff) there is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, by a spring; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in Greece invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial culture-hero Aristaeus the understanding of olive husbandry, along with cheese-making and bee-keeping. Olive was one of the woods used to fashion the most primitive Greek cult figures, called xoana, referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for centuries. It was purely a matter of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive grew first in Athens. In an archaic Athenian foundation myth, Athena won the patronage of Attica from Poseidon with the gift of the olive. According to the fourth-century BC father of botany, Theophrastus, olive trees ordinarily attained an age around 200 years, he mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the Acropolis; it was still to be seen there in the second century AD; and when Pausanias was shown it c. 170 AD, he reported "Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, but on the very day it was burnt it grew again to the height of two cubits." Indeed, olive suckers sprout readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Bronze Age. The olive was sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage. Theophrastus, in On the Causes of Plants, does not give as systematic and detailed an account of olive husbandry as he does of the vine, but he makes clear (in 1.16.10) that the cultivated olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rise to thorny, wild-type olives, spread far and wide by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a separate name, kotinos. In his Enquiry into Plants (2.1.2–4) he states that the olive can be propagated from a piece of the trunk, the root, a twig, or a stake. Ancient Rome According to Pliny the Elder, a vine, a fig tree, and an olive tree grew in the middle of the Roman Forum; the olive was planted to provide shade (the garden plot was recreated in the 20th century). The Roman poet Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance." Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods. Vitruvius describes of the use of charred olive wood in tying together walls and foundations in his De Architectura: The thickness of the wall should, in my opinion, be such that armed men meeting on top of it may pass one another without interference. In the thickness there should be set a very close succession of ties made of charred olive wood, binding the two faces of the wall together like pins, to give it lasting endurance. For that is a material which neither decay, nor the weather, nor time can harm, but even though buried in the earth or set in the water it keeps sound and useful forever. And so not only city walls but substructures in general and all walls that require a thickness like that of a city wall, will be long in falling to decay if tied in this manner. Islam The olive tree and olive oil are mentioned seven times in the Quran, and the olive is praised as a precious fruit. Olive tree and olive oil health benefits have been propounded in prophetic medicine. Muhammad is reported to have said: "Take oil of olive and massage with it – it is a blessed tree" (Sunan al-Darimi, 69:103). Olives are substitutes for dates (if not available) during Ramadan fasting, and olive tree leaves are used as incense in some Muslim Mediterranean countries. United States The Great Seal of the United States depicts an eagle clutching an olive branch in one of its talons, indicating the power of peace. Oldest known trees An olive tree in Mouriscas, Abrantes, Portugal, (Oliveira do Mouchão) is one of the oldest known olive trees still alive to this day, with an estimated age of 3,350 years, planted approximately at the beginning of the Atlantic Bronze Age. An olive tree on the island of Brijuni in Croatia has a radiocarbon dating age of about 1,600 years. It still gives fruit (about per year), which is made into olive oil. An olive tree in west Athens, named "Plato's Olive Tree", is thought to be a remnant of the grove where Plato's Academy was situated, making it an estimated 2,400 years old. The tree comprised a cavernous trunk from which a few branches were still sprouting in 1975, when a traffic accident caused a bus to uproot it. Following that, the trunk was preserved and displayed in the nearby Agricultural University of Athens. In 2013, it was reported that the remaining part of the trunk was uprooted and stolen, allegedly to serve as firewood. The age of an olive tree in Crete, the Finix Olive, is claimed to be over 2,000 years old; this estimate is based on archaeological evidence around the tree. The olive tree of Vouves in Crete has an | Taxonomy The six natural subspecies of Olea europaea are distributed over a wide range: Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Mediterranean Basin) Olea europaea var. sylvestris, considered the "wild" olive of the Mediterranean, is a variety characterized by a smaller tree bearing noticeably smaller fruit. O. e. subsp. cuspidata (from South Africa throughout East Africa, Arabia to Southwest China) O. e. subsp. cerasiformis (Madeira); also known as Olea maderensis O. e. subsp. guanchica (Canary Islands) O. e. subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger) O. e. subsp. maroccana (Morocco) The subspecies O. e. cerasiformis is tetraploid, and O. e. maroccana is hexaploid. Wild-growing forms of the olive are sometimes treated as the species Olea oleaster. The trees referred to as "white" and "black" olives in Southeast Asia are not actually olives but species of Canarium. Cultivars Hundreds of cultivars of the olive tree are known. An olive's cultivar has a significant impact on its color, size, shape, and growth characteristics, as well as the qualities of olive oil. Olive cultivars may be used primarily for oil, eating, or both. Olives cultivated for consumption are generally referred to as "table olives". Since many olive cultivars are self-sterile or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary one. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities useful to farmers, such as resistance to disease, quick growth, and larger or more consistent crops. History Mediterranean Basin Fossil evidence indicates the olive tree had its origins 20–40 million years ago in the Oligocene, in what is now corresponding to Italy and the eastern Mediterranean Basin. Wild oleasters were present and collected in the Eastern Mediterranean since ~19,000 BP. The genome of cultivated olives reflects their origin from oleaster populations in the Eastern Mediterranean. The olive plant was first cultivated some 7,000 years ago in Mediterranean regions. The edible olive seems to have coexisted with humans for about 5,000 to 6,000 years, going back to the early Bronze Age (3150 to 1200 BC). Its origin can be traced to the Levant based on written tablets, olive pits, and wood fragments found in ancient tombs. As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan civilization. The ancestry of the cultivated olive is unknown. Fossil olea pollen has been found in Macedonia and other places around the Mediterranean, indicating that this genus is an original element of the Mediterranean flora. Fossilized leaves of olea were found in the palaeosols of the volcanic Greek island of Santorini and dated to about 37,000 BP. Imprints of larvae of olive whitefly Aleurobus olivinus were found on the leaves. The same insect is commonly found today on olive leaves, showing that the plant-animal co-evolutionary relations have not changed since that time. Other leaves found on the same island are dated back to 60,000 BP, making them the oldest known olives from the Mediterranean. Outside the Mediterranean Olives are not native to the Americas. Spanish colonists brought the olive to the New World, where its cultivation prospered in present-day Peru, Chile, and Argentina. The first seedlings from Spain were planted in Lima by Antonio de Rivera in 1560. Olive tree cultivation quickly spread along the valleys of South America's dry Pacific coast where the climate was similar to the Mediterranean. Spanish missionaries established the tree in the 18th century in California. It was first cultivated at Mission San Diego de Alcalá in 1769 or later around 1795. Orchards were started at other missions, but in 1838, an inspection found only two olive orchards in California. Cultivation for oil gradually became a highly successful commercial venture from the 1860s onward. In Japan, the first successful planting of olive trees happened in 1908 on Shodo Island, which became the cradle of olive cultivation in Japan. An estimated 865 million olive trees were in the world as of 2005, and the vast majority of these were found in Mediterranean countries, with traditionally marginal areas accounting for no more than 25% of olive-planted area and 10% of oil production. Symbolic connotations Olive oil has long been considered sacred and holy. The olive branch has often been a symbol of abundance, glory, and peace. The leafy branches of the olive tree were ritually offered to deities and powerful figures as emblems of benediction and purification, and they were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. Today, olive oil is still used in many religious ceremonies. Over the years, the olive has also been used to symbolize wisdom, fertility, power, and purity. Judaism and Christianity Olives were one of the main elements in ancient Israelite cuisine. Olive oil was used for not only food and cooking, but also lighting, sacrificial offerings, ointment, and anointment for priestly or royal office. The olive tree is one of the first plants mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament), and one of the most significant. An olive branch (or leaf, depending on translation) was brought back to Noah by a dove to demonstrate that the flood was over (Book of Genesis 8:11). The olive is listed in Deuteronomy 8:8 as one of the seven species that are noteworthy products of the Land of Israel. According to the Halakha, the Jewish law mandatory for all Jews, the olive is one of the seven species that require the recitation of me'eyn shalosh after they are consumed. Olive oil is also the most recommended and best possible oil for the lighting of the Shabbat candles. The Mount of Olives, east of Jerusalem, is mentioned several times in the New Testament. The Allegory of the Olive Tree in St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans refers to the scattering and gathering of Israel. It compares the Israelites to a tame olive tree and the Gentiles to a wild olive branch. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible. Ancient Greece Olives are thought to have been domesticated in the third millennium BC at the latest, at which point they, along with grain and grapes, became part of Colin Renfrew's triad of Greek staple crops that fueled the emergence of more complex societies. Olives, and especially (perfumed) olive oil, became a major export product during the Minoan and Mycenaean periods. Dutch archaeologist Jorrit Kelder proposed that the Mycenaeans sent shipments of olive oil, probably alongside live olive branches, to the court of the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten as a diplomatic gift. In Egypt, these imported olive branches may have acquired ritual meanings, as they are depicted as offerings on the wall of the Aten temple and were used in wreaths for the burial of Tutankhamun. It is likely that, as well as being used for culinary purposes, olive oil was also used to various other ends, including as a perfume. The ancient Greeks smeared olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health. Olive oil was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples and was the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock, and in the Iliad, (XVII.53ff) there is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, by a spring; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in Greece invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial culture-hero Aristaeus the understanding of olive husbandry, along with cheese-making and bee-keeping. Olive was one of the woods used to fashion the most primitive Greek cult figures, called xoana, referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for centuries. It was purely a matter of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive grew first in Athens. In an archaic Athenian foundation myth, Athena won the patronage of Attica from Poseidon with the gift of the olive. According to the fourth-century BC father of botany, Theophrastus, olive trees ordinarily attained an age around 200 years, he mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the Acropolis; it was still to be seen there in the second century AD; and when Pausanias was shown it c. 170 AD, he reported "Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, but on the very day it was burnt it grew again to the height of two cubits." Indeed, olive suckers sprout readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Bronze Age. The olive was sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage. Theophrastus, in On the Causes of Plants, does not give as systematic and detailed an account of olive husbandry as he does of the vine, but he makes clear (in 1.16.10) that the cultivated olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rise to thorny, wild-type olives, spread far and wide by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a separate name, kotinos. In his Enquiry into Plants (2.1.2–4) he states that the olive can be propagated from a piece of the trunk, the root, a twig, or a stake. Ancient Rome According to Pliny the Elder, a vine, a fig tree, and an olive tree grew in the middle of the Roman Forum; the olive was planted to provide shade (the garden plot was recreated in the 20th century). The Roman poet Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance." Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods. Vitruvius describes of the use of charred olive wood in tying together walls and foundations in his De Architectura: The thickness of the wall should, in my opinion, be such that armed men meeting on top of it may pass one another without interference. In the thickness there should be set a very close succession of ties made of charred olive wood, binding the two faces of the wall together like pins, to give it lasting endurance. For that is a material which neither decay, nor the weather, nor time can harm, but even though buried in the earth or set in the water it keeps sound and useful forever. And so not |
alongside Titus Vinius, the fourth and twenty-second legions of Upper Germany refused to swear loyalty to the emperor. They toppled the statues of Galba and demanded that a new emperor be chosen. On the following day, the soldiers of Lower Germany also refused to swear their loyalty and proclaimed the governor of the province, Aulus Vitellius, as emperor. Galba tried to ensure his authority as emperor was recognized by adopting the nobleman Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus as his successor, an action that gained resentment from Otho. Galba was killed by the Praetorians on 15 January, followed shortly by Vinius and Piso. Their heads were placed on poles and Otho was proclaimed emperor. Decline and fall He accepted, or appeared to accept, the cognomen of Nero conferred upon him by the shouts of the populace, whom his comparative youth and the effeminacy of his appearance reminded of their lost favourite. Nero's statues were again set up, his freedmen and household officers reinstalled (including the young castrated boy Sporus whom Nero had taken in marriage and Otho also would live intimately with), and the intended completion of the Golden House announced. At the same time, the fears of the more sober and respectable citizens were relieved by Otho's liberal professions of his intention to govern equitably, and by his judicious clemency towards Aulus Marius Celsus, a consul-designate and devoted adherent of Galba. Otho soon realized that it was much easier to overthrow an emperor than rule as one: according to Suetonius Otho once remarked that "playing the Long Pipes is hardly my trade" (i.e., undertaking something beyond one's ability to do so). War with Vitellius Any further development of Otho's policy was checked once Otho had read through Galba's private correspondence and realized the extent of the revolution in Germany, where several legions had declared for Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the lower Rhine River, and were already advancing upon Italy. After a vain attempt to conciliate Vitellius by the offer of a share in the Empire, Otho, with unexpected vigor, prepared for war. From the much more remote provinces, which had quietly accepted his accession, little help was to be expected, but the legions of Dalmatia, Pannonia and Moesia were eager in his cause, the Praetorian cohorts were a formidable force and an efficient fleet gave him the mastery of the Italian seas. The fleet was at once dispatched to secure Liguria, and on 14 March Otho, undismayed by omens and prophecies, started northwards at the head of his troops in the hopes of preventing the entry of Vitellius' troops into Italy. But for this he was too late, and all that could be done was to throw troops into Placentia and hold the line of the Po. Otho's advanced guard successfully defended Placentia against Aulus Caecina Alienus, and compelled that general to fall back on Cremona, but the arrival of Fabius Valens altered the aspect of affairs. Vitellius' commanders now resolved to bring on a decisive battle, the Battle of Bedriacum, and their designs were assisted by the divided and irresolute counsels which prevailed in Otho's camp. The more experienced officers urged the importance of avoiding a battle until at least the legions from Dalmatia had arrived. However, the rashness of the emperor's brother Titianus and of Proculus, prefect of the Praetorian Guards, added to Otho's feverish impatience, overruled all opposition, and an immediate | once dispatched to secure Liguria, and on 14 March Otho, undismayed by omens and prophecies, started northwards at the head of his troops in the hopes of preventing the entry of Vitellius' troops into Italy. But for this he was too late, and all that could be done was to throw troops into Placentia and hold the line of the Po. Otho's advanced guard successfully defended Placentia against Aulus Caecina Alienus, and compelled that general to fall back on Cremona, but the arrival of Fabius Valens altered the aspect of affairs. Vitellius' commanders now resolved to bring on a decisive battle, the Battle of Bedriacum, and their designs were assisted by the divided and irresolute counsels which prevailed in Otho's camp. The more experienced officers urged the importance of avoiding a battle until at least the legions from Dalmatia had arrived. However, the rashness of the emperor's brother Titianus and of Proculus, prefect of the Praetorian Guards, added to Otho's feverish impatience, overruled all opposition, and an immediate advance was decided upon. Otho remained behind with a considerable reserve force at Brixellum on the southern bank of the Po. When this decision was taken, Otho's army already had crossed the Po and were encamped at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), a small village on the Via Postumia, and on the route by which the legions from Dalmatia would naturally arrive. Leaving a strong detachment to hold the camp at Bedriacum, the Othonian forces advanced along the Via Postumia in the direction of Cremona. At a short distance from that city they unexpectedly encountered the Vitellian troops. The Othonians, though taken at a disadvantage, fought desperately, but finally were forced to fall back in disorder upon their camp at Bedriacum. There on the next day the victorious Vitellians followed them, but only to come to terms at once with their disheartened enemy, and to be welcomed into the camp as friends. Death Otho was still in command of a formidable force: the Dalmatian legions had reached Aquileia and the spirit of his soldiers and their officers was unbroken. He was resolved to accept the verdict of the battle that his own impatience had hastened. In speech, he bade farewell to those about him, declaring: "It is far more just to perish one for all, than many for one", and then retiring to rest soundly for some hours. Early in the morning he stabbed himself in the heart with a dagger, which he had concealed under his pillow, and died as his attendants entered the tent. Otho's ashes were placed within a modest monument. He had reigned three months. His funeral was celebrated at once as he had wished. A plain tomb was erected in his honour at Brixellum, with the inscription Diis Manibus Marci Othonis. His 91-day reign would be the shortest until that of Pertinax, whose reign lasted 87 days in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors. Reasons for suicide It has been thought that Otho's suicide was committed in order to steer his country away from the path to civil war. Just as he had come to power, many Romans learned to respect Otho in his death. Few could believe that a renowned former companion of Nero had chosen such an honourable end. Tacitus wrote that some of the soldiers committed suicide beside his funeral pyre "because they loved their emperor and wished to share his glory". Writing during the reign of the Emperor Domitian (AD 81–96), the Roman poet Martial expressed his admiration for Otho's choice to spare the empire from civil war through sacrificing himself: Physical appearance Suetonius, in The Lives of the Caesars, comments on Otho's appearance and personal hygiene. Juvenal, in a passage in the Satire II ridiculing male homosexuality, specifically mentions Otho as being vain and effeminate, looking at himself in the mirror before going into battle, and "plaster[ing] his face with dough" in order to look good. Cultural references In opera Otho (or Ottone) is a character in L'incoronazione di Poppea (The Coronation of Poppaea), an Italian opera from 1643 by Claudio Monteverdi. Otho is in love with Poppaea but she spurns him. After learning Nero plans |
The Orsini family is an Italian noble family that was one of the most influential princely families in medieval Italy and Renaissance Rome. Members of the Orsini family include five popes: Stephen II (752-757), Paul I (757-767), Celestine III (1191–1198), Nicholas III (1277–1280), and Benedict XIII (1724–1730). In addition, the family included 34 cardinals, numerous condottieri, and other significant political and religious figures. Origins According to their own family legend, the Orsini are descended from the Julio-Claudian dynasty of ancient Rome. The Orsini carried on a political feud with the Colonna family for centuries in Rome, until it was stopped by Papal Bull in 1511. In 1571, the heads of both families married nieces of Pope Sixtus V as an act of reconciliation. The Orsini descend from Cajo Orso Orsini who lived c. 600 CE. Five popes are descended from him: Stephen II, Paul I, Celestine III, Nicholas III and Benedict XIII. Some members used the surname of Bobone-Orsini. One member by the name Bobone, lived during the early 11th century, father of Pietro, who was in turn father of Giacinto Bobone (1110–1198), who in 1191 became pope as Celestine III. One of the first great nepotist popes, he made two of his nephews cardinals and allowed his cousin Giovanni Gaetano (Giangaetano, died 1232) to buy the fiefs of Vicovaro, Licenza, Roccagiovine and Nettuno, which formed the nucleus of the future territorial power of the family. The Bobone surname was lost with his children, who were called de domo filiorum Ursi. Two of them, Napoleone and Matteo Rosso the Great (1178–1246), considerably increased the prestige of the family. The former was the founder of the first southern line, which died out with Camillo Pardo in 1553. He obtained the city of Manoppello, later a countship, and was gonfaloniere of the Papal States. Matteo Rosso, called the Great, was the effective lord of Rome from 1241, when he defeated the Imperial troops, until 1243, holding the title of Senator. Two of his sons, and Napoleone, were also Senators. Matteo ousted the family's traditional rivals, the Colonna family, from Rome and extended the Orsini territories southwards down to Avellino and northwards to Pitigliano. During his life, the family was firmly in the Guelph faction. He had some ten sons, who divided the fiefs after his deaths: Gentile (died 1246) originated the Pitigliano line and the second southern line, Rinaldo that of Monterotondo, Napoleone (died 1267) that of Bracciano, and another Matteo Rosso that of Montegiordano, from the name of the district in Rome housing the family's fortress. The most distinguished of his sons was Giovanni Gaetano (died 1280): elected pope as Nicholas III, he named his nephew Bertoldo (d. 1289) as count of Romagna, and had two nephews and a brother created cardinals. The second southern line The rise of the Orsini did not stop after Nicholas' death. Bertoldo's son, Gentile II (1250–1318), was two times Senator of Rome, podestà of Viterbo and, from 1314, Gran Giustiziere ("Great Justicer") of the Kingdom of Naples. He married Clarice Ruffo, daughter of the counts of Catanzaro, forming an alliance of the most powerful Calabrian dynasty. His son Romano (1268–1327), called Romanello, was Royal Vicar of Rome in 1326, and inherited the countship of Soana through his marriage with Anastasia de Montfort, Countess of Nola. Romano's stance was markedly Guelph. After his death, his two sons divided his fiefs, forming the Pitigliano and the second southern line. Roberto (1295–1345), Gentile II's grandson, married Sibilla del Balzo, daughter of the Great Senechal of the Kingdom of Naples. Among his sons, Giacomo (died 13 August 1379; Dean of Salisbury, Archdeacon of Leicester and Archdeacon of Durham) was created cardinal by Gregory XI in 1371, while Nicola (August 27, 1331 – February 14, 1399) obtained the counties of Ariano and Celano. The latter was also Senator of Rome and enlarged the family territories in Lazio and Tuscany. His second son, Raimondello Orsini del Balzo, supported Charles III' coup d'état in Naples against Queen Joan I. Under king Ladislaus he was among the few Neapolitan feudataries who were able to maintain their territorial power after the royal war against them. However, at his death in 1406 the southern Orsini fiefs were confiscated. Relationships with the royal family remained cold under Joan II; However, when Raimondello's son Giannantonio (1386–1453) sent his troops to help her against the usurpation attempt of James of Bourbon, he received in exchange the Principality of Taranto. The links with the court increased further under Sergianni Caracciolo, Joan's lover and Great Senechal. A younger brother of Giannantonio married one of Sergianni's daughters. However, the Orsini changed side when Alfonso V of Aragon started his conquest of the Kingdom of Naples. Giannantonio was awarded with the duchy of Bari, the position of Great Connestable and an appanage of 100,000 ducati. Giannantonio remained faithful to Alfonso's heir, Ferdinand I, but was killed during a revolt of nobles. Having died without legitimate sons, much of his possessions were absorbed into the Royal Chamber. Pitigliano line This line was initiated by Guido Orsini, second son of Romano, who inherited the county of Soana, on the western side of Lake Bolsena in southern Tuscany. He and his descendants ruled over the fiefs of Soana, Pitigliano and Nola, but in the early 15th century wars against the Republic of Siena and the Colonnas caused the loss of several territories. Bertoldo (died 1417) managed to keep only Pitigliano, while his grandson Orso (died July 5, 1479) was count of Nola | (died July 5, 1479) was count of Nola and fought as condottiere under the Duke of Milan and the Republic of Venice. Later he entered the service of Ferdinand I of Naples, but, not having taken part in the Barons' conspiracy, he was rewarded with the fiefs of Ascoli and Atripalda. He took part in the Aragonese campaign in Tuscany and was killed at the siege of Viterbo. The most outstanding member of the Pitigliano line was Niccolò, one of the major condottiere of the time. His son Ludovico (died January 27, 1534) and his nephew Enrico (died 1528) participated in the Italian Wars at the service of both France and Spain, often changing side with the typical ease of the Italian military leaders of the time. Two of Ludovico's daughters married relevant figures: Geronima to Pier Luigi Farnese, illegitimate son of Pope Paul III and Marzia to Gian Giacomo Medici of Marignano, an important general of the Spanish army. The line started to decay after the loss of Nola by Ludovico, who was also forced to accept the Sienese suzerainty over Pitigliano. Under his son Giovan Francesco (died May 8, 1567) the county entered the orbit of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Later, the attempt of Alessandro (died February 9, 1604) to obtain the title of Monterotondo was thwarted by Pope Gregory XIII. His son Giannantonio (March 25, 1569 – 1613) sold Pitigliano to Tuscany, in exchange for the marquisate of Monte San Savino. The line became extinct in 1640 with the death of Alessandro. Monterotondo line This line was founded by Rinaldo, third son of Matteo Rosso the Great. His son, Napoleone, became a cardinal in 1288 and remained a prominent member of the Curia until his death at Avignon in 1342. This branch of the family was often involved in the baronial struggles of the Late Middle Ages Rome, at least three members of the family being elected as Senators, while others fought as condottieri. Francesco in 1370 took part to the war of Florence against the Visconti of Milan. Orso (died July 24, 1424) died fighting for the king of Naples in the Battle of Zagonara against the Milanese. His sons Giacomo (died 1482) and Lorenzo (1452) battled for the Papal States, Naples and Florence. One of Giacomo's daughters, Clarice (1453–July 30, 1488) became Lorenzo de' Medici's wife. Franciotto Orsini was created cardinal by Leo X in 1517. The most important member of the Monterotondo Orsinis was Giovani Battista Orsini, who became cardinal under Sixtus IV (1483). He was probably among the promoters of the failed plot against Cesare Borgia in 1502, being assassinated on February 22 of 1503 as retaliation, together with other members of the family : Giulio survived captivity under Cesare, and Paolo and Francesco 4th Duke of Gravina were strangled to death on the 18th of January 1503. The line decayed from the late 16th century, when several members were assassinated or lost their lands for various reasons. Its last representatives Enrico (died September 12, 1643) and Francesco (1592 - September 21, 1650) sold Monterotondo to the Barberini in 1641. Bracciano line Napoleone, another son of Matteo Rosso the Great, received Bracciano, Nerola and other lands in what is now northern Lazio. In 1259 he was Senator of Rome. Thanks to the strategic positions of their fiefs, and to their famous castle built in Bracciano in 1426, they were the most powerful Orsini line in the Lazio. Count Carlo (died after 1485), son of another Napoleone (died October 3, 1480), was Papal Gonfaloniere. By his marriage with a Francesca Orsini of Monterotondo was born Gentile Virginio Orsini, one of the most prominent figures of Italian politics in the late 15th century. After Carlo's death, he enlarged the family's tenure with lands inherited by his wife, another Orsini from Salerno, and most of all he was amongst the favourites of Ferdinand I of Naples, who appointed him as Great Constable of Naples. Together with his cousin, the Cardinal Giovanni Battista, he was among the fiercest opponents of popes Innocent VIII and Alexander VI. In 1492 Gentile Virginio bought the county of Anguillara from Franceschetto Cybo. During Charles VIII of France's descent into Italy, he managed to keep Bracciano. Ferdinand II had his fiefs confiscated and imprisoned him in Castel dell'Ovo, where he was poisoned in 1497. The family recovered this setback under the more friendly Medici popes of the early 16th century. His son Giangiordano was Prince Assistant to the Papal Throne. His nephew Virginio was a famous admiral for the Papal States and France, but in 1539 he had his fiefs confiscated under the charge of treason. Paolo Giordano was created first Duke of Bracciano in 1560. The son of Girolamo Orsini and Francesca Sforza, he was grandson, on his father's side, of Felice della Rovere (illegitimate daughter of Pope Julius II) and Gian Giordano Orsini and, on his mother's side, of Count Bosio Sforza and Costanza Farnese, an illegitimate daughter of Pope Paul III. An accomplished condottiero, he was however also a ruthless figure who had his wife Isabella de' Medici murdered. For this and other homicides he had to flee to northern Italy. He was succeeded by Virginio, whose heir Paolo Giordano II married the princess of Piombino and was created Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. His brother Alessandro was cardinal and Papal legate, and another brother, Ferdinando (died March 4, 1660) acquired the assets of the other line of San Gemini. In the 17th century the Dukes of Bracciano moved their residence to Rome. This, along with a general economical decadence, damaged the dukedom, and last Duke and Prince, Flavio (March 4, 1620 – April 5, 1698) was forced by the huge debts to sell it to Livio Odescalchi. Gravina line The line of Gravina, from the name of the eponymous city in Apulia, is the only existing line of the Orsini. It descends from Francesco (died 1456), a son of Count Carlo of Bracciano. Most of his fief was located in northern Lazio, but he entered in the Neapolitan orbit when in 1418 he was called by Sergianni Caracciolo to fight against the Angevine troops, which he defeated. By marriage, he obtained the title of Count of Gravina. He was made Duke of Gravina by King Alfonso, a title definitely assigned to his son Giacomo (died 1472), to which had been added the counties of Conversano, Campagna and Copertino. Two of Francesco's sons, Marino (died 1471) and Giovanni Battista (died June 8, 1476), were respectively archbishop of Taranto and Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes. The fourth duke, Francesco, was part of a conspiracy along with his brothers Giulio and Paolo against Cesare Borgia but were found |
comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation. Some phenomena depend on the fact that light has both wave-like and particle-like properties. Explanation of these effects requires quantum mechanics. When considering light's particle-like properties, the light is modelled as a collection of particles called "photons". Quantum optics deals with the application of quantum mechanics to optical systems. Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including astronomy, various engineering fields, photography, and medicine (particularly ophthalmology and optometry, in which it is called physiological optics). Practical applications of optics are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, lasers, and fibre optics. History Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians. The earliest known lenses, made from polished crystal, often quartz, date from as early as 2000 BC from Crete (Archaeological Museum of Heraclion, Greece). Lenses from Rhodes date around 700 BC, as do Assyrian lenses such as the Nimrud lens. The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. These practical developments were followed by the development of theories of light and vision by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers, and the development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world. The word optics comes from the ancient Greek word (optikē), meaning "appearance, look". Greek philosophy on optics broke down into two opposing theories on how vision worked, the intromission theory and the emission theory. The intromission approach saw vision as coming from objects casting off copies of themselves (called eidola) that were captured by the eye. With many propagators including Democritus, Epicurus, Aristotle and their followers, this theory seems to have some contact with modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only speculation lacking any experimental foundation. Plato first articulated the emission theory, the idea that visual perception is accomplished by rays emitted by the eyes. He also commented on the parity reversal of mirrors in Timaeus. Some hundred years later, Euclid (4th–3rd century BC) wrote a treatise entitled Optics where he linked vision to geometry, creating geometrical optics. He based his work on Plato's emission theory wherein he described the mathematical rules of perspective and described the effects of refraction qualitatively, although he questioned that a beam of light from the eye could instantaneously light up the stars every time someone blinked. Euclid stated the principle of shortest trajectory of light, and considered multiple reflections on flat and spherical mirrors. Ptolemy, in his treatise Optics, held an extramission-intromission theory of vision: the rays (or flux) from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye, and the base defining the visual field. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed information back to the observer's intellect about the distance and orientation of surfaces. He summarized much of Euclid and went on to describe a way to measure the angle of refraction, though he failed to notice the empirical relationship between it and the angle of incidence. Plutarch (1st–2nd century AD) described multiple reflections on spherical mirrors and discussed the creation of magnified and reduced images, both real and imaginary, including the case of chirality of the images. During the Middle Ages, Greek ideas about optics were resurrected and extended by writers in the Muslim world. One of the earliest of these was Al-Kindi (c. 801–873) who wrote on the merits of Aristotelian and Euclidean ideas of optics, favouring the emission theory since it could better quantify optical phenomena. In 984, the Persian mathematician Ibn Sahl wrote the treatise "On burning mirrors and lenses", correctly describing a law of refraction equivalent to Snell's law. He used this law to compute optimum shapes for lenses and curved mirrors. In the early 11th century, Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) wrote the Book of Optics (Kitab al-manazir) in which he explored reflection and refraction and proposed a new system for explaining vision and light based on observation and experiment. He rejected the "emission theory" of Ptolemaic optics with its rays being emitted by the eye, and instead put forward the idea that light reflected in all directions in straight lines from all points of the objects being viewed and then entered the eye, although he was unable to correctly explain how the eye captured the rays. Alhazen's work was largely ignored in the Arabic world but it was anonymously translated into Latin around 1200 A.D. and further summarised and expanded on by the Polish monk Witelo making it a standard text on optics in Europe for the next 400 years. In the 13th century in medieval Europe, English bishop Robert Grosseteste wrote on a wide range of scientific topics, and discussed light from four different perspectives: an epistemology of light, a metaphysics or cosmogony of light, an etiology or physics of light, and a theology of light, basing it on the works of Aristotle and Platonism. Grosseteste's most famous disciple, Roger Bacon, wrote works citing a wide range of recently translated optical and philosophical works, including those of Alhazen, Aristotle, Avicenna, Averroes, Euclid, al-Kindi, Ptolemy, Tideus, and Constantine the African. Bacon was able to use parts of glass spheres as magnifying glasses to demonstrate that light reflects from objects rather than being released from them. The first wearable eyeglasses were invented in Italy around 1286. This was the start of the optical industry of grinding and polishing lenses for these "spectacles", first in Venice and Florence in the thirteenth century, and later in the spectacle making centres in both the Netherlands and Germany. Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on empirical knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses rather than using the rudimentary optical theory of the day (theory which for the most part could not even adequately explain how spectacles worked). This practical development, mastery, and experimentation with lenses led directly to the invention of the compound optical microscope around 1595, and the refracting telescope in 1608, both of which appeared in the spectacle making centres in the Netherlands. In the early 17th century, Johannes Kepler expanded on geometric optics in his writings, covering lenses, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, the principles of pinhole cameras, inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, and the optical explanations of astronomical phenomena such as lunar and solar eclipses and astronomical parallax. He was also able to correctly deduce the role of the retina as the actual organ that recorded images, finally being able to scientifically quantify the effects of different types of lenses that spectacle makers had been observing over the previous 300 years. After the invention of the telescope, Kepler set out the theoretical basis on how they worked and described an improved version, known as the Keplerian telescope, using two convex lenses to produce higher magnification. Optical theory progressed in the mid-17th century with treatises written by philosopher René Descartes, which explained a variety of optical phenomena including reflection and refraction by assuming that light was emitted by objects which produced it. This differed substantively from the ancient Greek emission theory. In the late 1660s and early 1670s, Isaac Newton expanded Descartes' ideas into a corpuscle theory of light, famously determining that white light was a mix of colours that can be separated into its component parts with a prism. In 1690, Christiaan Huygens proposed a wave theory for light based on suggestions that had been made by Robert Hooke in 1664. Hooke himself publicly criticised Newton's theories of light and the feud between the two lasted until Hooke's death. In 1704, Newton published Opticks and, at the time, partly because of his success in other areas of physics, he was generally considered to be the victor in the debate over the nature of light. Newtonian optics was generally accepted until the early 19th century when Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel conducted experiments on the interference of light that firmly established light's wave nature. Young's famous double slit experiment showed that light followed the superposition principle, which is a wave-like property not predicted by Newton's corpuscle theory. This work led to a theory of diffraction for light and opened an entire area of study in physical optics. Wave optics was successfully unified with electromagnetic theory by James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s. The next development in optical theory came in 1899 when Max Planck correctly modelled blackbody radiation by assuming that the exchange of energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called quanta. In 1905, Albert Einstein published the theory of the photoelectric effect that firmly established the quantization of light itself. In 1913, Niels Bohr showed that atoms could only emit discrete amounts of energy, thus explaining the discrete lines seen in emission and absorption spectra. The understanding of the interaction between light and matter that followed from these developments not only formed the basis of quantum optics but also was crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. The ultimate culmination, the theory of quantum electrodynamics, explains all optics and electromagnetic processes in general as the result of the exchange of real and virtual photons. Quantum optics gained practical importance with the inventions of the maser in 1953 and of the laser in 1960. Following the work of Paul Dirac in quantum field theory, George Sudarshan, Roy J. Glauber, and Leonard Mandel applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the statistics of light. Classical optics Classical optics is divided into two main branches: geometrical (or ray) optics and physical (or wave) optics. In geometrical optics, light is considered to travel in straight lines, while in physical optics, light is considered as an electromagnetic wave. Geometrical optics can be viewed as an approximation of physical optics that applies when the wavelength of the light used is much smaller than the size of the optical elements in the system being modelled. Geometrical optics Geometrical optics, or ray optics, describes the propagation of light in terms of "rays" which travel in straight lines, and whose paths are governed by the laws of reflection and refraction at interfaces between different media. These laws were discovered empirically as far back as 984 AD and have been used in the design of optical components and instruments from then until the present day. They can be summarised as follows: When a ray of light hits the boundary between two transparent materials, it is divided into a reflected and a refracted ray. The law of reflection says that the reflected ray lies in the plane of incidence, and the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. The law of refraction says that the refracted ray lies in the plane of incidence, and the sine of the angle of incidence divided by the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant: , where is a constant for any two materials and a given colour of light. If the first material is air or vacuum, is the refractive index of the second material. The laws of reflection and refraction can be derived from Fermat's principle which states that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. Approximations Geometric optics is often simplified by making the paraxial approximation, or "small angle approximation". The mathematical behaviour then becomes linear, allowing optical components and systems to be described by simple matrices. This leads to the techniques of Gaussian optics and paraxial ray tracing, which are used to find basic properties of optical systems, such as approximate image and object positions and magnifications. Reflections Reflections can be divided into two types: specular reflection and diffuse reflection. Specular reflection describes the gloss of surfaces such as mirrors, which reflect light in a simple, predictable way. This allows for the production of reflected images that can be associated with an actual (real) or extrapolated (virtual) location in space. Diffuse reflection describes non-glossy materials, such as paper or rock. The reflections from these surfaces can only be described statistically, with the exact distribution of the reflected light depending on the microscopic structure of the material. Many diffuse reflectors are described or can be approximated by Lambert's cosine law, which describes surfaces that have equal luminance when viewed from any angle. Glossy surfaces can give both specular and diffuse reflection. In specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with the surface normal, a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. The incident and reflected rays and the normal lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. This is known as the Law of Reflection. For flat mirrors, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. The image size is the same as the object size. The law also implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left-right inversion. Images formed from reflection in two (or any even number of) mirrors are not parity inverted. Corner reflectors produce reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which the incident rays came. This is called retroreflection. Mirrors with curved surfaces can be modelled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. For mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus. Other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. In particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration. Curved mirrors can form images with a magnification greater than or less than one, and the magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. An upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen. Refractions Refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has a changing index of refraction; this principle allows for lenses and the focusing of light. The simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between a uniform medium with index of refraction and another medium with index of refraction . In such situations, Snell's Law describes the resulting deflection of the light ray: where and are the angles between the normal (to the interface) and the incident and refracted waves, respectively. The index of refraction of a medium is related to the speed, , of light in that medium by , where is the speed of light in vacuum. Snell's Law can be used to predict the deflection of light rays as they pass through linear media as long as the indexes of refraction and the geometry of the media are known. For example, the propagation of light through a prism results in the light ray being deflected depending on the shape and orientation of the prism. In most materials, the index of refraction varies with the frequency of the light. Taking this into account, Snell's Law can be used to predict how a prism will disperse light into a spectrum. The discovery of this phenomenon when passing light through a prism is famously attributed to Isaac Newton. Some media have an index of refraction which varies gradually with position and, therefore, light rays in the medium are curved. This effect is responsible for mirages seen on hot days: a change in index of refraction air with height causes light rays to bend, creating the appearance of specular reflections in the distance (as if on the surface of a pool of water). Optical materials with varying indexes of refraction are called gradient-index (GRIN) materials. Such materials are used to make gradient-index optics. For light rays travelling from a material with a high index of refraction to a material with a low index of refraction, Snell's law predicts that there is no when is large. In this case, no transmission occurs; all the light is reflected. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection and allows for fibre optics technology. As light travels down an optical fibre, it undergoes total internal reflection allowing for essentially no light to be lost over the length of the cable. Lenses A device that produces converging or diverging light rays due to refraction is known as a lens. Lenses are characterized by their focal length: a converging lens has positive focal length, while a diverging lens has negative focal length. Smaller focal length indicates that the lens has a stronger converging or diverging effect. The focal length of a simple lens in air is given by the lensmaker's equation. Ray tracing can be used to show how images are formed by a lens. For a thin lens in air, the location of the image is given by the simple equation , where is the distance from the object to the lens, is the distance from the lens to the image, and is the focal length of the lens. In the sign convention used here, the object and image distances are positive if the object and image are on opposite sides of the lens. Incoming parallel rays are focused by a converging lens onto a spot one focal length from the lens, on the far side of the lens. This is called the rear focal point of the lens. Rays from an object at a finite distance are focused further from the lens than the focal distance; the closer the object is to the lens, the further the image is from the lens. With diverging lenses, incoming parallel rays diverge after going through the lens, in such a way that they seem to have originated at a spot one focal length in front of the lens. This is the lens's front focal point. Rays from an object at a finite distance are associated with a virtual image that is closer to the lens than the focal point, and on the same side of the lens as the object. The closer the object is to the lens, the closer the virtual image is to the lens. As with mirrors, upright images produced by a single lens are virtual, while inverted images are real. Lenses suffer from aberrations that distort images. Monochromatic aberrations occur because the geometry of the lens does not perfectly direct rays from each object point to a single point on the image, while chromatic aberration occurs because the index of refraction of the lens varies with the wavelength of the light. Physical optics In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as a wave. This model predicts phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which are not explained by geometric optics. The speed of light waves in air is approximately 3.0×108 m/s (exactly 299,792,458 m/s in vacuum). The wavelength of visible light waves varies between 400 and 700 nm, but the term "light" is also often applied to infrared (0.7–300 μm) and ultraviolet radiation (10–400 nm). The wave model can be used to make predictions about how an optical system will behave without requiring an explanation of what is "waving" in what medium. Until the middle of the 19th century, most physicists believed in an "ethereal" medium in which the light disturbance propagated. The existence of electromagnetic waves was predicted in 1865 by Maxwell's equations. These waves propagate at the speed of light and have varying electric and magnetic fields which are orthogonal to one another, and also to the direction of propagation of the waves. Light waves are now generally treated as electromagnetic waves except when quantum mechanical effects have to be considered. Modelling and design of optical systems using physical optics Many simplified approximations are available for analysing and designing optical systems. Most of these use a single scalar quantity to represent the electric field of the light wave, rather than using a vector model with orthogonal electric and magnetic vectors. The Huygens–Fresnel equation is one such model. This was derived empirically by Fresnel in 1815, based on Huygens' hypothesis that each point on a wavefront generates a secondary spherical wavefront, which Fresnel combined with the principle of superposition of waves. The Kirchhoff diffraction equation, which is derived using Maxwell's equations, puts the Huygens-Fresnel equation on a firmer physical foundation. Examples of the application of Huygens–Fresnel principle can be found in the articles on diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction. More rigorous models, involving the modelling of both electric and magnetic fields of the light wave, are required when dealing with materials whose electric and magnetic properties affect the interaction of light with the material. For instance, the behaviour of a light wave interacting with a metal surface is quite different from what happens when it interacts with a dielectric material. A vector model must also be used to model polarised light. Numerical modeling techniques such as the finite element method, the boundary element method and the transmission-line matrix method can be used to model the propagation of light in systems which cannot be solved analytically. Such models are computationally demanding and are normally only used to solve small-scale problems that require accuracy beyond that which can be achieved with analytical solutions. All of the results from geometrical optics can be recovered using the techniques of Fourier optics which apply many of the same mathematical and analytical techniques used in acoustic engineering and signal processing. Gaussian beam propagation is a simple paraxial physical optics model for the propagation of coherent radiation such as laser beams. This technique partially accounts for diffraction, allowing accurate calculations of the rate at which a laser beam expands with distance, and the minimum size to which the beam can be focused. Gaussian beam propagation thus bridges the gap between geometric and physical optics. Superposition and interference In the absence of nonlinear effects, the superposition principle can be used to predict the shape of interacting waveforms through the simple addition of the disturbances. This interaction of waves to produce a resulting pattern is generally termed "interference" and can result in a variety of outcomes. If two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are in phase, both the wave crests and wave troughs align. This results in constructive interference and an increase in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a brightening of the waveform in that location. Alternatively, if the two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are out of phase, then the wave crests will align with wave troughs and vice versa. This results in destructive interference and a decrease in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a dimming of the waveform at that location. See below for an illustration of this effect. Since the Huygens–Fresnel principle states that every point of a wavefront is associated with the production of a new disturbance, it is possible for a wavefront to interfere with itself constructively or destructively at different locations producing bright and dark fringes in regular and predictable patterns. Interferometry is the science of measuring these patterns, usually as a means of making precise determinations of distances or angular resolutions. The Michelson interferometer was a famous instrument which used interference effects to accurately measure the speed of light. The appearance of thin films and coatings is directly affected by interference effects. Antireflective coatings use destructive interference to reduce the reflectivity of the surfaces they coat, and can be used to minimise glare and unwanted reflections. The simplest case is a single layer with a thickness of one-fourth the wavelength of incident light. The reflected wave from the top of the film and the reflected wave from the film/material interface are then exactly 180° out of phase, causing destructive interference. The waves are only exactly out of phase for one wavelength, which would typically be chosen to be near the centre of the visible spectrum, around 550 nm. More complex designs using multiple layers can achieve low reflectivity over a broad band, or extremely low reflectivity at a single wavelength. Constructive interference in thin films can create a strong reflection of light in a range of wavelengths, which can be narrow or broad depending on the design of the coating. These films are used to make dielectric mirrors, interference filters, heat reflectors, and filters for colour separation in colour television cameras. This interference effect is also what causes the colourful rainbow patterns seen in oil slicks. Diffraction and optical resolution Diffraction is the process by which light interference is most commonly observed. The effect was first described in 1665 by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces'. Later that century, Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton also described phenomena now known to be diffraction in Newton's rings while James Gregory recorded his observations of diffraction patterns from bird feathers. The first physical optics model of diffraction that relied on the Huygens–Fresnel principle was developed in 1803 by Thomas Young in his interference experiments with the interference patterns of two closely spaced slits. Young showed that his results could only be explained if the two slits acted as two unique sources of waves rather than corpuscles. In 1815 and 1818, Augustin-Jean Fresnel firmly established the mathematics of how wave interference can account for diffraction. The simplest physical models of diffraction use equations that describe the angular separation of light and dark fringes due to light of a particular wavelength (λ). In general, the equation takes the form where is the separation between two wavefront sources (in the case of Young's experiments, it was two slits), is the angular separation between the central fringe and the th order fringe, where the central maximum is . This equation is modified slightly to take into account a variety of situations such as diffraction through a single gap, diffraction through multiple slits, or diffraction through a diffraction grating that contains a large number of slits at equal spacing. More complicated models of diffraction require working with the mathematics of Fresnel or Fraunhofer diffraction. X-ray diffraction makes use of the fact that atoms in a crystal have regular spacing at distances that are on the order of one angstrom. To see diffraction patterns, x-rays with similar wavelengths to that spacing are passed through the crystal. Since crystals are three-dimensional objects rather than two-dimensional gratings, the associated diffraction pattern varies in two directions according to Bragg reflection, with the associated bright spots occurring in unique patterns and being twice the spacing between atoms. Diffraction effects limit the ability of an optical detector to optically resolve separate light sources. In general, light that is passing through an aperture will experience diffraction and the best images that can be created (as described in diffraction-limited optics) appear as a central spot with surrounding bright rings, separated by dark nulls; this pattern is known as an Airy pattern, and the central bright lobe as an Airy disk. The size of such a disk is given by where θ is the angular resolution, λ is the wavelength of the light, and D is the diameter of the lens aperture. If the angular separation of the two points is significantly less than the Airy disk angular radius, then the two points cannot be resolved in the image, but if their angular separation is much greater than this, distinct images of the two points are formed and they can therefore be resolved. Rayleigh defined the somewhat arbitrary "Rayleigh criterion" that two points whose angular separation is equal to the Airy disk radius (measured to first null, that is, to the first place where no light is seen) can be considered to be resolved. It can be seen that the greater the diameter of the lens or its aperture, the finer the resolution. Interferometry, with its ability to mimic extremely large baseline apertures, allows for the greatest angular resolution possible. For astronomical imaging, the atmosphere prevents optimal resolution from being achieved in the visible spectrum due to the atmospheric scattering and dispersion which cause stars to twinkle. Astronomers refer to this effect as the quality of astronomical seeing. Techniques known as adaptive optics have been used to eliminate the atmospheric disruption of images and achieve results that approach the diffraction limit. Dispersion and scattering Refractive processes take place in the physical optics limit, where the wavelength of light is similar to other distances, as a kind of scattering. The simplest type of scattering is Thomson scattering which occurs when electromagnetic waves are deflected by single particles. In the limit of Thomson scattering, in which the wavelike nature of light is evident, light is dispersed independent of the frequency, in contrast to Compton scattering which is frequency-dependent and strictly a quantum mechanical process, involving the nature of light as particles. In a statistical sense, elastic scattering of light by numerous particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light is a process known as Rayleigh scattering while the similar process for scattering by particles that are similar or larger in wavelength is known as Mie scattering with the Tyndall effect being a commonly observed result. A small proportion of light scattering from atoms or molecules may undergo Raman scattering, wherein the frequency changes due | sky in photographs. Optical polarization is principally of importance in chemistry due to circular dichroism and optical rotation ("circular birefringence") exhibited by optically active (chiral) molecules. Modern optics Modern optics encompasses the areas of optical science and engineering that became popular in the 20th century. These areas of optical science typically relate to the electromagnetic or quantum properties of light but do include other topics. A major subfield of modern optics, quantum optics, deals with specifically quantum mechanical properties of light. Quantum optics is not just theoretical; some modern devices, such as lasers, have principles of operation that depend on quantum mechanics. Light detectors, such as photomultipliers and channeltrons, respond to individual photons. Electronic image sensors, such as CCDs, exhibit shot noise corresponding to the statistics of individual photon events. Light-emitting diodes and photovoltaic cells, too, cannot be understood without quantum mechanics. In the study of these devices, quantum optics often overlaps with quantum electronics. Specialty areas of optics research include the study of how light interacts with specific materials as in crystal optics and metamaterials. Other research focuses on the phenomenology of electromagnetic waves as in singular optics, non-imaging optics, non-linear optics, statistical optics, and radiometry. Additionally, computer engineers have taken an interest in integrated optics, machine vision, and photonic computing as possible components of the "next generation" of computers. Today, the pure science of optics is called optical science or optical physics to distinguish it from applied optical sciences, which are referred to as optical engineering. Prominent subfields of optical engineering include illumination engineering, photonics, and optoelectronics with practical applications like lens design, fabrication and testing of optical components, and image processing. Some of these fields overlap, with nebulous boundaries between the subjects' terms that mean slightly different things in different parts of the world and in different areas of industry. A professional community of researchers in nonlinear optics has developed in the last several decades due to advances in laser technology. Lasers A laser is a device that emits light, a kind of electromagnetic radiation, through a process called stimulated emission. The term laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser light is usually spatially coherent, which means that the light either is emitted in a narrow, low-divergence beam, or can be converted into one with the help of optical components such as lenses. Because the microwave equivalent of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices that emit microwave and radio frequencies are usually called masers. The first working laser was demonstrated on 16 May 1960 by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories. When first invented, they were called "a solution looking for a problem". Since then, lasers have become a multibillion-dollar industry, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications. The first application of lasers visible in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket barcode scanner, introduced in 1974. The laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser, but the compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become truly common in consumers' homes, beginning in 1982. These optical storage devices use a semiconductor laser less than a millimetre wide to scan the surface of the disc for data retrieval. Fibre-optic communication relies on lasers to transmit large amounts of information at the speed of light. Other common applications of lasers include laser printers and laser pointers. Lasers are used in medicine in areas such as bloodless surgery, laser eye surgery, and laser capture microdissection and in military applications such as missile defence systems, electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM), and lidar. Lasers are also used in holograms, bubblegrams, laser light shows, and laser hair removal. Kapitsa–Dirac effect The Kapitsa–Dirac effect causes beams of particles to diffract as the result of meeting a standing wave of light. Light can be used to position matter using various phenomena (see optical tweezers). Applications Optics is part of everyday life. The ubiquity of visual systems in biology indicates the central role optics plays as the science of one of the five senses. Many people benefit from eyeglasses or contact lenses, and optics are integral to the functioning of many consumer goods including cameras. Rainbows and mirages are examples of optical phenomena. Optical communication provides the backbone for both the Internet and modern telephony. Human eye The human eye functions by focusing light onto a layer of photoreceptor cells called the retina, which forms the inner lining of the back of the eye. The focusing is accomplished by a series of transparent media. Light entering the eye passes first through the cornea, which provides much of the eye's optical power. The light then continues through the fluid just behind the cornea—the anterior chamber, then passes through the pupil. The light then passes through the lens, which focuses the light further and allows adjustment of focus. The light then passes through the main body of fluid in the eye—the vitreous humour, and reaches the retina. The cells in the retina line the back of the eye, except for where the optic nerve exits; this results in a blind spot. There are two types of photoreceptor cells, rods and cones, which are sensitive to different aspects of light. Rod cells are sensitive to the intensity of light over a wide frequency range, thus are responsible for black-and-white vision. Rod cells are not present on the fovea, the area of the retina responsible for central vision, and are not as responsive as cone cells to spatial and temporal changes in light. There are, however, twenty times more rod cells than cone cells in the retina because the rod cells are present across a wider area. Because of their wider distribution, rods are responsible for peripheral vision. In contrast, cone cells are less sensitive to the overall intensity of light, but come in three varieties that are sensitive to different frequency-ranges and thus are used in the perception of colour and photopic vision. Cone cells are highly concentrated in the fovea and have a high visual acuity meaning that they are better at spatial resolution than rod cells. Since cone cells are not as sensitive to dim light as rod cells, most night vision is limited to rod cells. Likewise, since cone cells are in the fovea, central vision (including the vision needed to do most reading, fine detail work such as sewing, or careful examination of objects) is done by cone cells. Ciliary muscles around the lens allow the eye's focus to be adjusted. This process is known as accommodation. The near point and far point define the nearest and farthest distances from the eye at which an object can be brought into sharp focus. For a person with normal vision, the far point is located at infinity. The near point's location depends on how much the muscles can increase the curvature of the lens, and how inflexible the lens has become with age. Optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians usually consider an appropriate near point to be closer than normal reading distance—approximately 25 cm. Defects in vision can be explained using optical principles. As people age, the lens becomes less flexible and the near point recedes from the eye, a condition known as presbyopia. Similarly, people suffering from hyperopia cannot decrease the focal length of their lens enough to allow for nearby objects to be imaged on their retina. Conversely, people who cannot increase the focal length of their lens enough to allow for distant objects to be imaged on the retina suffer from myopia and have a far point that is considerably closer than infinity. A condition known as astigmatism results when the cornea is not spherical but instead is more curved in one direction. This causes horizontally extended objects to be focused on different parts of the retina than vertically extended objects, and results in distorted images. All of these conditions can be corrected using corrective lenses. For presbyopia and hyperopia, a converging lens provides the extra curvature necessary to bring the near point closer to the eye while for myopia a diverging lens provides the curvature necessary to send the far point to infinity. Astigmatism is corrected with a cylindrical surface lens that curves more strongly in one direction than in another, compensating for the non-uniformity of the cornea. The optical power of corrective lenses is measured in diopters, a value equal to the reciprocal of the focal length measured in metres; with a positive focal length corresponding to a converging lens and a negative focal length corresponding to a diverging lens. For lenses that correct for astigmatism as well, three numbers are given: one for the spherical power, one for the cylindrical power, and one for the angle of orientation of the astigmatism. Visual effects Optical illusions (also called visual illusions) are characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a percept that differs from the object being imaged. Optical illusions can be the result of a variety of phenomena including physical effects that create images that are different from the objects that make them, the physiological effects on the eyes and brain of excessive stimulation (e.g. brightness, tilt, colour, movement), and cognitive illusions where the eye and brain make unconscious inferences. Cognitive illusions include some which result from the unconscious misapplication of certain optical principles. For example, the Ames room, Hering, Müller-Lyer, Orbison, Ponzo, Sander, and Wundt illusions all rely on the suggestion of the appearance of distance by using converging and diverging lines, in the same way that parallel light rays (or indeed any set of parallel lines) appear to converge at a vanishing point at infinity in two-dimensionally rendered images with artistic perspective. This suggestion is also responsible for the famous moon illusion where the moon, despite having essentially the same angular size, appears much larger near the horizon than it does at zenith. This illusion so confounded Ptolemy that he incorrectly attributed it to atmospheric refraction when he described it in his treatise, Optics. Another type of optical illusion exploits broken patterns to trick the mind into perceiving symmetries or asymmetries that are not present. Examples include the café wall, Ehrenstein, Fraser spiral, Poggendorff, and Zöllner illusions. Related, but not strictly illusions, are patterns that occur due to the superimposition of periodic structures. For example, transparent tissues with a grid structure produce shapes known as moiré patterns, while the superimposition of periodic transparent patterns comprising parallel opaque lines or curves produces line moiré patterns. Optical instruments Single lenses have a variety of applications including photographic lenses, corrective lenses, and magnifying glasses while single mirrors are used in parabolic reflectors and rear-view mirrors. Combining a number of mirrors, prisms, and lenses produces compound optical instruments which have practical uses. For example, a periscope is simply two plane mirrors aligned to allow for viewing around obstructions. The most famous compound optical instruments in science are the microscope and the telescope which were both invented by the Dutch in the late 16th century. Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an objective lens and an eyepiece. The objective lens is essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a very small focal length while the eyepiece generally has a longer focal length. This has the effect of producing magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional source of illumination is used since magnified images are dimmer due to the conservation of energy and the spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern microscopes, known as compound microscopes have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability. A slightly different variety of microscope, the comparison microscope, looks at side-by-side images to produce a stereoscopic binocular view that appears three dimensional when used by humans. The first telescopes, called refracting telescopes, were also developed with a single objective and eyepiece lens. In contrast to the microscope, the objective lens of the telescope was designed with a large focal length to avoid optical aberrations. The objective focuses an image of a distant object at its focal point which is adjusted to be at the focal point of an eyepiece of a much smaller focal length. The main goal of a telescope is not necessarily magnification, but rather the collection of light which is determined by the physical size of the objective lens. Thus, telescopes are normally indicated by the diameters of their objectives rather than by the magnification which can be changed by switching eyepieces. Because the magnification of a telescope is equal to the focal length of the objective divided by the focal length of the eyepiece, smaller focal-length eyepieces cause greater magnification. Since crafting large lenses is much more difficult than crafting large mirrors, most modern telescopes are reflecting telescopes, that is, telescopes that use a primary mirror rather than an objective lens. The same general optical considerations apply to reflecting telescopes that applied to refracting telescopes, namely, the larger the primary mirror, the more light collected, and the magnification is still equal to the focal length of the primary mirror divided by the focal length of the eyepiece. Professional telescopes generally do not have eyepieces and instead place an instrument (often a charge-coupled device) at the focal point instead. Photography The optics of photography involves both lenses and the medium in which the electromagnetic radiation is recorded, whether it be a plate, film, or charge-coupled device. Photographers must consider the reciprocity of the camera and the shot which is summarized by the relation Exposure ∝ ApertureArea × ExposureTime × SceneLuminance In other words, the smaller the aperture (giving greater depth of focus), the less light coming in, so the length of time has to be increased (leading to possible blurriness if motion occurs). An example of the use of the law of reciprocity is the Sunny 16 rule which gives a rough estimate for the settings needed to estimate the proper exposure in daylight. A camera's aperture is measured by a unitless number called the f-number or f-stop, #, often notated as , and given by where is the focal length, and is the diameter of the entrance pupil. By convention, "#" is treated as a single symbol, and specific values of # are written by replacing the number sign with the value. The two ways to increase the f-stop are to either decrease the diameter of the entrance pupil or change to a longer focal length (in the case of a zoom lens, this can be done by simply adjusting the lens). Higher f-numbers also have a larger depth of field due to the lens approaching the limit of a pinhole camera which is able to focus all images perfectly, regardless of distance, but requires very long exposure times. The field of view that the lens will provide changes with the focal length of the lens. There are three basic classifications based on the relationship to the diagonal size of the film or sensor size of the camera to the focal length of the lens: Normal lens: angle of view of about 50° (called normal because this angle considered roughly equivalent to human vision) and a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the film or sensor. Wide-angle lens: angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than a normal lens. Long focus lens: angle of view narrower than a normal lens. This is any lens with a focal length longer than the diagonal measure of the film or sensor. The most common type of long focus lens is the telephoto lens, a design that uses a special telephoto group to be physically shorter than its focal length. Modern zoom lenses may have some or all of these attributes. The absolute value for the exposure time required depends on how sensitive to light the medium being used is (measured by the film speed, or, for digital media, by the quantum efficiency). Early photography used media that had very low light sensitivity, and so exposure times had to be long even for very bright shots. As technology has improved, so has the sensitivity through film cameras and digital cameras. Other results from physical and geometrical optics apply to camera optics. For example, the maximum resolution capability of a particular camera set-up is determined by the diffraction limit associated with the pupil size and given, roughly, by the Rayleigh criterion. Atmospheric optics The unique optical properties of the atmosphere cause a wide range of spectacular optical phenomena. The blue colour of the sky is a direct result of Rayleigh scattering which redirects higher frequency (blue) sunlight back into the field of view of the observer. Because blue light is scattered more easily than red light, the sun takes on a reddish hue when it is observed through a thick atmosphere, as during a sunrise or sunset. Additional particulate matter in the sky can scatter different colours at different angles creating colourful glowing skies at dusk and dawn. Scattering off of ice crystals and other particles in the atmosphere are responsible for halos, afterglows, coronas, rays of sunlight, and sun dogs. The variation in these kinds of phenomena is due to different particle sizes and geometries. Mirages are optical phenomena in which light rays are bent due to thermal variations in the refraction index of air, producing displaced or heavily distorted images of distant objects. Other dramatic optical phenomena associated with this include the Novaya Zemlya effect where the sun appears to rise earlier than predicted with a distorted shape. A spectacular form of refraction occurs with a temperature inversion called the Fata Morgana where objects on the horizon or even beyond the horizon, such as islands, cliffs, ships or icebergs, appear elongated and elevated, like "fairy tale castles". Rainbows are the result of a combination of internal reflection and dispersive refraction of light in raindrops. A single reflection off the backs of an array of raindrops produces a rainbow with an angular size on the sky that ranges from 40° to 42° with red on the outside. Double rainbows are produced by two internal reflections with angular size of 50.5° to 54° with violet on the outside. Because rainbows are seen with the sun 180° away from the centre of the rainbow, rainbows are more prominent the closer the sun is to the horizon. See also Ion optics Important publications in optics List of optical |
in Germany's Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany until World War II. After the War, it was divided between Czechoslovakia and Poland. Other places Os, Värnamo, a village in Värnamo Municipality, Småland province, Sweden OS, ICAO code for airports in Syria Religion Ōs, an Old English word denoting a god in Anglo-Saxon paganism, related to æsir O.S., Order of Santiago, a Spanish order dedicated to St James the Greater O.S., Order of Sikatuna, the national order of diplomatic merit of the Philippines Science Ocean Science (journal), an oceanographic journal Osmium, a chemical element (symbol Os) Sport Ohio State Buckeyes, a group of collegiate teams representing The Ohio State University Os TF, a sports club in Os, Norway On-sight climbing, an ascent of a rock climbing route on the first attempt Baltimore Orioles, an American baseball team nicknamed "O's" Leyton Orient, an English football (soccer) team nicknamed "O's Titles Ordinary seaman, an unlicensed member of the deck department of a merchant ship Ordnance | Anglo-Saxon paganism, related to æsir O.S., Order of Santiago, a Spanish order dedicated to St James the Greater O.S., Order of Sikatuna, the national order of diplomatic merit of the Philippines Science Ocean Science (journal), an oceanographic journal Osmium, a chemical element (symbol Os) Sport Ohio State Buckeyes, a group of collegiate teams representing The Ohio State University Os TF, a sports club in Os, Norway On-sight climbing, an ascent of a rock climbing route on the first attempt Baltimore Orioles, an American baseball team nicknamed "O's" Leyton Orient, an English football (soccer) team nicknamed "O's Titles Ordinary seaman, an unlicensed member of the deck department of a merchant ship Ordnance sergeant, an enlisted rank in the U.S. and Confederate armies during the American Civil War era Old Shirburnian, used by alumni of Sherborne School Old Stonyhurst, used by alumni of Stonyhurst College Other uses Ōs (rune) (ᚩ), a rune of the Anglo-Saxon fuþorc Old Style (O.S.) date, indicating use of an earlier calendar (in Anglophone countries, the Julian Calendar), as opposed to "N.S." (new style), usually indicating use of the Gregorian Calendar Ossetic language (ISO 639-1 abbreviation OS) Object sexuality, sexual attraction |
lengthens the light originating from the Big Bang to microwave levels via a process known as redshift; this microwave radiation background has wavelengths much longer than those of visible light, and so appears dark to the naked eye. Other explanations for the paradox have been offered, but none have wide acceptance in cosmology. History The first one to address the problem of an infinite number of stars and the resulting heat in the Cosmos was Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek monk from Alexandria, who states in his Topographia Christiana: "The crystal-made sky sustains the heat of the Sun, the moon, and the infinite number of stars; otherwise, it would have been full of fire, and it could melt or set on fire." Edward Robert Harrison's Darkness at Night: A Riddle of the Universe (1987) gives an account of the dark night sky paradox, seen as a problem in the history of science. According to Harrison, the first to conceive of anything like the paradox was Thomas Digges, who was also the first to expound the Copernican system in English and also postulated an infinite universe with infinitely many stars. Kepler also posed the problem in 1610, and the paradox took its mature form in the 19th-century work of Halley and Cheseaux. The paradox is commonly attributed to the German amateur astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers, who described it in 1823, but Harrison shows convincingly that Olbers was far from the first to pose the problem, nor was his thinking about it particularly valuable. Harrison argues that the first to set out a satisfactory resolution of the paradox was Lord Kelvin, in a little known 1901 paper, and that Edgar Allan Poe's essay Eureka (1848) curiously anticipated some qualitative aspects of Kelvin's argument: The paradox The paradox is that a static, infinitely old universe with an infinite number of stars distributed in an infinitely large space would be bright rather than dark. To show this, we divide the universe into a series of concentric shells, 1 light year thick. A certain number of stars will be in the shell 1,000,000,000 to 1,000,000,001 light years away. If the universe is homogeneous at a large scale, then there would be four times as many stars in a second shell, which is between 2,000,000,000 and 2,000,000,001 light years away. However, the second shell is twice as far away, so each star in it would appear one quarter as bright as the stars in the first shell. Thus the total light received from the second shell is the same as the total light received from the first shell. Thus each shell of a given thickness will produce the same net amount of light regardless of how far away it is. That is, the light of each shell adds to the total amount. Thus the more shells, the more light; and with infinitely many shells, there would be a bright night sky. While dark clouds could obstruct the light, these clouds would heat up, until they were as hot as the stars, and then radiate the same amount of light. Kepler saw this as an argument for a finite observable universe, or at least for a finite number of stars. In general relativity theory, it is still possible for the paradox to hold in a finite universe: though the sky would not be infinitely bright, every point in the sky would still be like the surface of a star. Explanation The poet Edgar Allan Poe suggested that the finite size of the observable universe resolves the apparent paradox. More specifically, because the universe is finitely old and the speed of light is finite, only finitely many stars can be observed from Earth (although the whole universe can be infinite in space). The density of stars within this finite volume is sufficiently low that any line of sight from Earth is unlikely to reach a star. However, the Big Bang theory seems to introduce a new problem: it states that the sky was much brighter in the | finite size of the observable universe resolves the apparent paradox. More specifically, because the universe is finitely old and the speed of light is finite, only finitely many stars can be observed from Earth (although the whole universe can be infinite in space). The density of stars within this finite volume is sufficiently low that any line of sight from Earth is unlikely to reach a star. However, the Big Bang theory seems to introduce a new problem: it states that the sky was much brighter in the past, especially at the end of the recombination era, when it first became transparent. All points of the local sky at that era were comparable in brightness to the surface of the Sun, due to the high temperature of the universe in that era; and most light rays will originate not from a star but the relic of the Big Bang. This problem is addressed by the fact that the Big Bang theory also involves the expansion of space, which can cause the energy of emitted light to be reduced via redshift. More specifically, the extremely energetic radiation from the Big Bang has been redshifted to microwave wavelengths (1100 times the length of its original wavelength) as a result of the cosmic expansion, and thus forms the cosmic microwave background radiation. This explains the relatively low light densities and energy levels present in most of our sky today despite the assumed bright nature of the Big Bang. The redshift also affects light from distant stars and quasars, but this diminution is minor, since the most distant galaxies and quasars have redshifts of only around 5 to 8.6. Other factors Steady state The redshift hypothesised in the Big Bang model would by itself explain the darkness of the night sky even if the universe were infinitely old. In the Steady state theory the universe is infinitely old and uniform in time as well as space. There is no Big Bang in this model, but there are stars and quasars at arbitrarily great distances. The expansion of the universe causes the light from these distant stars and quasars to redshift, so that the total light flux from the sky remains finite. Thus the observed radiation density (the sky brightness of extragalactic background light) can be independent of finiteness of the universe. Mathematically, the total electromagnetic energy density (radiation energy density) in thermodynamic equilibrium from Planck's law is e.g. for temperature 2.7 K it is 40 fJ/m3 ... 4.5×10−31 kg/m3 and for visible temperature 6000 K we get 1 J/m3 ... 1.1×10−17 kg/m3. But the total radiation emitted by a star (or other cosmic object) is at most equal to the total nuclear binding energy of isotopes in the star. For the density of the observable universe of about 4.6×10−28 kg/m3 and given the known abundance of the chemical elements, the corresponding maximal radiation energy density of 9.2×10−31 kg/m3, i.e. temperature 3.2 K (matching the value observed for the optical radiation temperature by Arthur Eddington). This is close to the summed energy density of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and the cosmic neutrino background. The Big Bang hypothesis predicts that the CBR should have the same energy density as the binding energy density of the primordial helium, which is much greater than the binding energy density of the non-primordial elements; so it gives almost the same result. However, the steady-state model does not predict the angular distribution of the microwave background temperature accurately (as the standard ΛCDM paradigm does). Nevertheless, the modified gravitation theories (without metric expansion of the universe) cannot be ruled out by CMB and BAO observations. Finite age of stars Stars have a finite age and a finite power, thereby implying that each star has a finite impact on a sky's light field density. Edgar Allan Poe suggested that this idea could provide a resolution to Olbers' paradox; a related theory was also proposed by Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux. However, stars are continually being born as well as dying. As long as the density of stars throughout the universe remains constant, regardless of whether the universe itself has a finite or infinite age, there would be infinitely many other stars in the same angular direction, with an infinite total impact. So the finite age of the stars does not explain the paradox. Brightness Suppose that the universe were not expanding, and always had the same stellar density; then the temperature of the universe would continually increase as the stars put out more radiation. Eventually, it would reach 3000 K (corresponding to a typical photon energy of 0.3 eV and so a frequency of 7.5×1013 Hz), and the photons would begin to be absorbed by the hydrogen plasma filling most of the universe, rendering outer space opaque. This maximal radiation density corresponds to about eV/m3 = , which is much greater than the observed value of . So the sky is about five hundred billion times darker than it would be if the universe was neither expanding nor too young to have reached equilibrium yet. However, recent observations increasing the lower bound on the number of galaxies suggest UV absorption by hydrogen and reemission in near-IR (not visible) wavelengths also plays a role. Fractal star distribution A different resolution, which does not rely on the Big Bang theory, was first proposed by Carl Charlier in 1908 and later rediscovered by Benoît Mandelbrot in 1974. They both postulated that if the stars in the universe were distributed in a hierarchical fractal cosmology (e.g., similar to Cantor dust)—the average density of any region diminishes as the region considered increases—it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain Olbers' paradox. This model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred. Mathematically, the light received from stars as a function of star distance in a hypothetical fractal cosmos is where: r0 = the distance of the nearest star, r0 > 0; r = the variable measuring distance from the Earth; L(r) = average luminosity per star at distance r; N(r) = number |
Antoine Faivre noted that rather than outright accepting "the triumph of scientism", occultists sought "an alternative solution", trying to integrate "scientific progress or modernity" with "a global vision that will serve to make the vacuousness of materialism more apparent". The Dutch scholar of hermeticism Wouter Hanegraaff remarked that occultism was "essentially an attempt to adapt esotericism" to the "disenchanted world", a post-Enlightenment society in which growing scientific discovery had eradicated the "dimension of irreducible mystery" previously present. In doing so, he noted, occultism distanced itself from the "traditional esotericism" which accepted the premise of an "enchanted" world. According to the British historian of Western esotericism Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, occultist groups typically seek "proofs and demonstrations by recourse to scientific tests or terminology". In his work about Lévi, the German historian of religion Julian Strube has argued that the occultist wish for a "synthesis" of religion, science, and philosophy directly resulted from the context of contemporary socialism and progressive Catholicism. Similar to spiritualism, but in declared opposition to it, the emergence of occultism should thus be seen within the context of radical social reform, which was often concerned with establishing new forms of "scientific religion" while at the same time propagating the revival of an ancient tradition of "true religion". Indeed, the emergence of both modern esotericism and socialism in July Monarchy France have been inherently intertwined. Another feature of occultists is thatunlike earlier esotericiststhey often openly distanced themselves from Christianity, in some cases (like that of Crowley) even adopting explicitly anti-Christian stances. This reflected how pervasive the influence of secularisation had been on all areas of European society. In rejecting Christianity, these occultists sometimes turned towards pre-Christian belief systems and embraced forms of Modern Paganism, while others instead took influence from the religions of Asia, such as Hinduism and Buddhism. In various cases, certain occultists did both. Another characteristic of these occultists was the emphasis that they placed on "the spiritual realization of the individual", an idea that would strongly influence the twentieth-century New Age and Human Potential Movement. This spiritual realization was encouraged both through traditional Western 'occult sciences' like alchemy and ceremonial magic, but by the start of the twentieth century had also begun to include practices drawn from non-Western contexts, such as yoga. Although occultism is distinguished from earlier forms of esotericism, many occultists have also been involved in older esoteric currents. For instance, occultists like François-Charles Barlet and Rudolf Steiner were also theosophers, adhering to the ideas of the early modern Christian thinker Jakob Bohme, and seeking to integrate ideas from Bohmian theosophy and occultism. It has been noted, however, that this distancing from the Theosophical Society should be understood in the light of polemical identity formations amongst esotericists towards the end of the nineteenth century. Etic uses of the term In the mid-1990s, a new definition of "occultism" was put forth by Wouter Hanegraaff. According to Hanegraaff, the term occultism can be used not only for the nineteenth-century groups which openly self-described using that term but can also be used in reference to "the type of esotericism that they represent". Seeking to define occultism so that the term would be suitable "as an etic category" for scholars, Hanegraaff devised the following definition: "a category in the study of religions, which comprises "all attempts by esotericists to come to terms with a disenchanted world or, alternatively, by people in general to make sense of esotericism from the perspective of a disenchanted secular world". Hanegraaff noted that this etic usage of the term would be independent of emic usages of the term employed by occultists and other esotericists themselves. In this definition, occultism covers many esoteric currents that have developed from the mid-nineteenth century onward, including Spiritualism, Theosophy, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the New Age. Employing this etic understanding of "occultism", Hanegraaff argued that its development could begin to be seen in the work of the Swedish esotericist Emanuel Swedenborg and in the Mesmerist movement of the eighteenth century, although added that occultism only emerged in "fully-developed form" as Spiritualism, a movement that developed in the United States during the mid-nineteenth century. Marco Pasi suggested that the use of Hanegraaff's definition might cause confusion by presenting a group of nineteenth-century esotericists who called themselves "occultists" as just one part of a broader category of esotericists whom scholars would call "occultists". Following these discussions, Julian Strube argued that Lévi and other contemporary authors who would now be regarded as esotericists developed their ideas not against the background of an esoteric tradition in the first place. Rather, Lévi's notion of occultism emerged in the context of highly influential radical socialist movements and widespread progressive, so-called neo-Catholic ideas. This further complicates Hanegraaff's characteristics of occultism, since, throughout the nineteenth century, they apply to these reformist movements rather than to a supposed group of esotericists. Modern usage The term occult has also been used as a substantivized adjective as "the occult", a term that has been particularly widely used among journalists and sociologists. This term was popularised by the publication of Colin Wilson's 1971 book The Occult. This term has been used as an "intellectual waste-basket" into which a wide array of beliefs and practices have been placed because they do not fit readily into the categories of religion or science. | an occult quality. Aether is another such element. Newton's contemporaries severely criticized his theory that gravity was effected through "action at a distance", as occult. Occultism In the English-speaking world, prominent figures in the development of occultism included Helena Blavatsky and other figures associated with her Theosophical Society, senior figures in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn like William Wynn Westcott and Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, as well as other individuals such as Paschal Beverly Randolph, Emma Hardinge Britten, Arthur Edward Waite, andin the early twentieth centuryAleister Crowley, Dion Fortune, and Israel Regardie. By the end of the nineteenth century, occultist ideas had also spread into other parts of Europe, such as the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, and the Kingdom of Italy. Unlike older forms of esotericism, occultism does not reject "scientific progress or modernity". Lévi had stressed the need to solve the conflict between science and religion, something that he believed could be achieved by turning to what he thought was the ancient wisdom found in magic. The French scholar of Western esotericism Antoine Faivre noted that rather than outright accepting "the triumph of scientism", occultists sought "an alternative solution", trying to integrate "scientific progress or modernity" with "a global vision that will serve to make the vacuousness of materialism more apparent". The Dutch scholar of hermeticism Wouter Hanegraaff remarked that occultism was "essentially an attempt to adapt esotericism" to the "disenchanted world", a post-Enlightenment society in which growing scientific discovery had eradicated the "dimension of irreducible mystery" previously present. In doing so, he noted, occultism distanced itself from the "traditional esotericism" which accepted the premise of an "enchanted" world. According to the British historian of Western esotericism Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, occultist groups typically seek "proofs and demonstrations by recourse to scientific tests or terminology". In his work about Lévi, the German historian of religion Julian Strube has argued that the occultist wish for a "synthesis" of religion, science, and philosophy directly resulted from the context of contemporary socialism and progressive Catholicism. Similar to spiritualism, but in declared opposition to it, the emergence of occultism should thus be seen within the context of radical social reform, which was often concerned with establishing new forms of "scientific religion" while at the same time propagating the revival of an ancient tradition of "true religion". Indeed, the emergence of both modern esotericism and socialism in July Monarchy France have been inherently intertwined. Another feature of occultists is thatunlike earlier esotericiststhey often openly distanced themselves from Christianity, in some cases (like that of Crowley) even adopting explicitly anti-Christian stances. This reflected how pervasive the influence of secularisation had been on all areas of European society. In rejecting Christianity, these occultists sometimes turned towards pre-Christian belief systems and embraced forms of Modern Paganism, while others instead took influence from the religions of Asia, such as Hinduism and Buddhism. In various cases, certain occultists did both. Another characteristic of these occultists was the emphasis that they placed on "the spiritual realization of the individual", an idea that would strongly influence the twentieth-century New Age and Human Potential Movement. This spiritual realization was encouraged both through traditional Western 'occult sciences' like alchemy and ceremonial magic, but by the start of the twentieth century had also begun to include practices drawn from non-Western contexts, such as yoga. Although occultism is distinguished from earlier forms of esotericism, many occultists have also been involved in older esoteric currents. For instance, occultists like François-Charles Barlet and Rudolf Steiner were also theosophers, adhering to the ideas of the early modern Christian thinker Jakob Bohme, and seeking to integrate ideas from Bohmian theosophy and occultism. It has been noted, however, that this distancing from the Theosophical Society should be understood in the light of polemical identity formations amongst esotericists towards the end of the nineteenth century. Etic uses of the term In the mid-1990s, a new definition of "occultism" was put forth by Wouter Hanegraaff. According to Hanegraaff, the term occultism can be used not only for the nineteenth-century groups which openly self-described using that term but can also be used in reference to "the type of esotericism that they represent". Seeking to define occultism so that the term would be suitable "as an etic category" for scholars, Hanegraaff devised the following definition: "a category in the study of religions, which comprises "all attempts by esotericists to come to terms with a disenchanted world or, alternatively, by people in general to make sense of esotericism from the perspective of a disenchanted secular world". Hanegraaff noted that this etic usage of the term would be independent of emic usages of the term employed by occultists and other esotericists themselves. In this definition, occultism covers many esoteric currents that have developed from the mid-nineteenth century onward, including Spiritualism, Theosophy, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the New Age. Employing this etic understanding of "occultism", Hanegraaff argued that its development could begin to be seen in the work of the Swedish esotericist |
of Scottish, Welsh and Irish inflection as well. In 2011, 47.3% of Oklahoma's population younger than age1 were minorities, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. In 2011, U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey data from 2005 to 2009 indicated about 5% of Oklahoma's residents were born outside the United States. This is lower than the national figure (about 12.5% of U.S. residents were foreign-born). Cities and towns The state is in the U.S. Census' Southern region. According to the 2020 United States Census, Oklahoma is the 28th-most populous state with inhabitants but the 19th-largest by land area spanning of land. In 2010, Oklahoma was divided into 77 counties and contains 597 incorporated municipalities consisting of cities and towns. In Oklahoma, cities are all those incorporated communities which are 1,000 or more in population and are incorporated as cities. Towns are limited to town board type of municipal government. Cities may choose among aldermanic, mayoral, council-manager, and home-rule charter types of government. Cities may also petition to incorporate as towns. The Oklahoma City suburb Nichols Hills is first on Oklahoma locations by per capita income at $73,661, though Tulsa County holds the highest average. Language English The English language has been official in the state of Oklahoma since 2010. The variety of North American English spoken is called Oklahoma English, and this dialect is quite diverse with its uneven blending of features of North Midland, South Midland, and Southern dialects. In 2000, 2,977,187 Oklahomans—92.6% of the resident population, five years or older—spoke only English at home, a decrease from 95% in 1990. 238,732 Oklahoma residents reported speaking a language other than English at home in the 2000 census, about 7.4% of the state's population. Native American languages The two most commonly spoken native North American languages are Cherokee and Choctaw with 10,000 Cherokee speakers living within the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area of eastern Oklahoma, and another 10,000 Choctaw speakers living in the Choctaw Nation directly south of the Cherokees. Cherokee is an official language in the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area and in the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. Twenty-five Native American languages are spoken in Oklahoma, second only to California. However, only Cherokee, if any, exhibits some language vitality at present. Ethnologue sees Cherokee as moribund because the only remaining active users of the language are members of the grandparent generation and older. Other languages Spanish is the second-most commonly spoken language in the state, with 141,060 speakers counted in 2000. German has 13,444 speakers representing about 0.4% of the state's population, and Vietnamese is spoken by 11,330 people, or about 0.4% of the population, many of whom live in the Asia District of Oklahoma City. Other languages include French with 8,258 speakers (0.3%), Chinese with 6,413 (0.2%), Korean with 3,948 (0.1%), Arabic with 3,265 (0.1%), other Asian languages with 3,134 (0.1%), Tagalog with 2,888 (0.1%), Japanese with 2,546 (0.1%), and African languages with 2,546 (0.1%). Religion Oklahoma is part of a geographical region characterized by conservative and Evangelical Christianity known as the "Bible Belt". Spanning the southern and eastern parts of the United States, the area is known for politically and socially conservative views, with the Republican Party having the greater number of voters registered between the two parties. Tulsa, the state's second-largest city, home to Oral Roberts University, is sometimes called the "buckle of the Bible Belt". In 2000, there were about 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims, with ten congregations to each group. According to the Pew Research Center in 2008, the majority of Oklahoma's religious adherents were Christian, accounting for about 80 percent of the population. The percentage of Catholics was half the national average, while the percentage of Evangelical Protestants was more than twice the national average (tied with Arkansas for the largest percentage of any state). In 2010, the state's largest church memberships were in the Southern Baptist Convention (886,394 members), the United Methodist Church (282,347), the Roman Catholic Church (178,430), and the Assemblies of God (85,926) and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) (47,349). Other religions represented in the state include Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam. According to the Pew Research Center in 2014, the majority of Oklahoma's religious adherents were Christian accounting for 79 percent of the population, 9 percent higher than the national average. The percentage of Evangelical Protestants declined since the last study, but they remain the largest religious group in the state at 47 percent, over 20 percent higher than the national average. The largest growth over the six years between Pew's 2008 and 2014 survey was in the number of people who identify as Unaffiliated in the state with an increase of 6 percent. Incarceration Oklahoma has been described as "the world's prison capital", with 1,079 of every 100,000 residents imprisoned in 2018, the highest incarceration rate of any state, and by comparison, higher than the incarceration rates of any country in the world. Economy Oklahoma is host to a diverse range of sectors including aviation, energy, transportation equipment, food processing, electronics, and telecommunications. Oklahoma is an important producer of natural gas, aircraft, and food. The state ranks third in the nation for production of natural gas, is the 27th-most agriculturally productive state, and also ranks 5th in production of wheat. Four Fortune 500 companies and six Fortune 1000 companies are headquartered in Oklahoma, and it has been rated one of the most business-friendly states in the nation, with the 7th-lowest tax burden in 2007. Total employment (2018): 1,385,228 Number of employer establishments: 93,561 In 2010, Oklahoma City-based Love's Travel Stops & Country Stores ranked 18th on the Forbes list of largest private companies, Tulsa-based QuikTrip ranked 37th, and Oklahoma City-based Hobby Lobby ranked 198th in 2010 report. Oklahoma's gross domestic product grew from $131.9 billion in 2006 to $147.5 billion in 2010, a jump of 10.6 percent. Oklahoma's gross domestic product per capita was $35,480 in 2010, which was ranked 40th among the states. Though oil has historically dominated the state's economy, a collapse in the energy industry during the 1980s led to the loss of nearly 90,000 energy-related jobs between 1980 and 2000, severely damaging the local economy. Oil accounted for 35 billion dollars in Oklahoma's economy in 2007, and employment in the state's oil industry was outpaced by five other industries in 2007. , the state's unemployment rate is 5.3%. Industry In mid-2011, Oklahoma had a civilian labor force of 1.7 million and non-farm employment fluctuated around 1.5 million. The government sector provides the most jobs, with 339,300 in 2011, followed by the transportation and utilities sector, providing 279,500 jobs, and the sectors of education, business, and manufacturing, providing 207,800, 177,400, and 132,700 jobs, respectively. Among the state's largest industries, the aerospace sector generates $11 billion annually. Tulsa is home to the largest airline maintenance base in the world, which serves as the global maintenance and engineering headquarters for American Airlines. In total, aerospace accounts for more than 10 percent of Oklahoma's industrial output, and it is one of the top 10 states in aerospace engine manufacturing. Because of its position in the center of the United States, Oklahoma is also among the top states for logistic centers, and a major contributor to weather-related research. The state is the top manufacturer of tires in North America and contains one of the fastest-growing biotechnology industries in the nation. In 2005, international exports from Oklahoma's manufacturing industry totaled $4.3 billion, accounting for 3.6 percent of its economic impact. Tire manufacturing, meat processing, oil and gas equipment manufacturing, and air conditioner manufacturing are the state's largest manufacturing industries. Energy Oklahoma is the nation's third-largest producer of natural gas, and its fifth-largest producer of crude oil. The state also has the second-greatest number of active drilling rigs, and it is even ranked fifth in crude oil reserves. While the state was ranked eighth for installed wind energy capacity in 2011, it still was at the bottom of states in usage of renewable energy in 2009, with 94% of its electricity being generated by non-renewable sources in 2009, including 25% from coal and 46% from natural gas. Ten years later in 2019, 53.5% of electricity was produced from natural gas and 34.6% from wind power. Oklahoma has no nuclear power plants. Ranking 13th for total energy consumption per capita in 2009, the state's energy costs were eighth-lowest in the nation. As a whole, the oil energy industry contributes $35 billion to Oklahoma's gross domestic product (GDP), and employees of the state's oil-related companies earn an average of twice the state's typical yearly income. In 2009, the state had 83,700 commercial oil wells churning of crude oil. 8.5% of the nation's natural gas supply is held in Oklahoma, with being produced in 2009. The Oklahoma Stack Play is a geographic referenced area in the Anadarko Basin. The oil field "Sooner Trend", Anadarko basin and the counties of Kingfisher and Canadian make up the basis for the "Oklahoma STACK". Other Plays such as the Eagle Ford are geological rather than geographical. According to Forbes magazine, Oklahoma City-based Devon Energy Corporation, Chesapeake Energy Corporation, and SandRidge Energy Corporation are the largest private oil-related companies in the nation, and all Oklahoma's Fortune 500 companies are energy-related. Tulsa's ONEOK and Williams Companies are the state's largest and second-largest companies respectively, also ranking as the nation's second- and third-largest companies in the field of energy, according to Fortune magazine. The magazine also placed Devon Energy as the second-largest company in the mining and crude oil-producing industry in the nation, while Chesapeake Energy ranks seventh respectively in that sector and Oklahoma Gas & Electric ranks as the 25th-largest gas and electric utility company. Oklahoma Gas & Electric, commonly referred to as OG&E (NYSE: OGE) operates four base electric power plants in Oklahoma. Two of them are coal-fired power plants: one in Muskogee, and the other in Red Rock. Two are gas-fired power plants: one in Harrah and the other in Konawa. OG&E was the first electric company in Oklahoma to generate electricity from wind farms in 2003. Wind generation Agriculture The 27th-most agriculturally productive state, Oklahoma is fifth in cattle production and fifth in production of wheat. Approximately 5.5 percent of American beef comes from Oklahoma, while the state produces 6.1 percent of American wheat, 4.2 percent of American pig products, and 2.2 percent of dairy products. The state had 85,500 farms in 2012, collectively producing $4.3 billion in animal products and fewer than one billion dollars in crop output with more than $6.1 billion added to the state's gross domestic product. Poultry and swine are its second- and third-largest agricultural industries. Education With an educational system made up of public school districts and independent private institutions, Oklahoma had 638,817 students enrolled in 1,845 public primary, secondary, and vocational schools in 533 school districts . Oklahoma has the highest enrollment of Native American students in the nation with 126,078 students in the 2009–10 school year. Oklahoma spent $7,755 for each student in 2008, and was 47th in the nation in expenditures per student, though its growth of total education expenditures between 1992 and 2002 ranked 22nd. The state is among the best in pre-kindergarten education, and the National Institute for Early Education Research rated it first in the United States with regard to standards, quality, and access to pre-kindergarten education in 2004, calling it "a model for early childhood schooling". High school dropout rate decreased from 3.1 to 2.5 percent between 2007 and 2008 with Oklahoma ranked among 18 other states with 3 percent or less dropout rate. In 2004, the state ranked 36th in the nation for the relative number of adults with high school diplomas, though at 85.2 percent, it had the highest rate among Southern states. According to a study conducted by the Pell Institute, Oklahoma ranks 48th in college-participation for low-income students. The University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State University, the University of Central Oklahoma, and Northeastern State University are the largest public institutions of higher education in Oklahoma, each operating through one primary campus and satellite campuses throughout the state. The two state universities, along with Oklahoma City University and the University of Tulsa, rank among the country's best in undergraduate business programs. Oklahoma City University School of Law, University of Oklahoma College of Law, and University of Tulsa College of Law are the state's only ABA-accredited institutions. Both University of Oklahoma and University of Tulsa are Tier1 institutions, with the University of Oklahoma ranked 68th and the University of Tulsa ranked 86th in the nation. Oklahoma holds eleven public regional universities, including Northeastern State University, the second-oldest institution of higher education west of the Mississippi River, also containing the only College of Optometry in Oklahoma and the largest enrollment of Native American students in the nation by percentage and amount. Langston University is Oklahoma's only historically black college. Six of the state's universities were placed in the Princeton Review's list of best 122 regional colleges in 2007, and three made the list of top colleges for best value. The state has 55 post-secondary technical institutions operated by Oklahoma's CareerTech program for training in specific fields of industry or trade. In the 2007–2008 school year, there were 181,973 undergraduate students, 20,014 graduate students, and 4,395 first-professional degree students enrolled in Oklahoma colleges. Of these students, 18,892 received a bachelor's degree, 5,386 received a master's degree, and 462 received a first professional degree. This means the state of Oklahoma produces an average of 38,278-degree-holders per completions component (i.e. July 1, 2007June 30, 2008). National average is 68,322 total degrees awarded per completions component. Beginning on April 2, 2018, tens of thousands of K–12 public school teachers went on strike due to lack of funding. According to the National Education Association, teachers in Oklahoma had ranked 49th out of the 50 states in terms of teacher pay in 2016. The Oklahoma Legislature had passed a measure a week earlier to raise teacher salaries by $6,100, but it fell short of the $10,000 raise for teachers, $5,000 raise for other school employees, and $200 million increase in extra education funding many had sought. A survey in 2019 found that the pay raise obtained by the strike lifted the State's teacher pay ranking to 34th in the nation. Non-English education The Cherokee Nation instigated a ten-year plan in 2005 that involved growing new speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood as well as speaking it exclusively at home. The plan was part of an ambitious goal that in fifty years would have at least 80% of their people fluent. The Cherokee Preservation Foundation has invested $3 million into opening schools, training teachers, and developing curricula for language education, as well as initiating community gatherings where the language can be actively used. A Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma educates students from pre-school through eighth grade. Culture Oklahoma is placed in the South by the United States Census Bureau, but other definitions place the state at least partly in the Southwest, Midwest, Upland South, and Great Plains. Oklahomans have a high rate of English, Scotch-Irish, German, and Native American ancestry, with 25 different native languages spoken. Because many Native Americans were forced to move to Oklahoma when White settlement in North America increased, Oklahoma has much linguistic diversity. Mary Linn, an associate professor of anthropology at the University of Oklahoma and the associate curator of Native American languages at the Sam Noble Museum, notes Oklahoma also has high levels of language endangerment. Sixty-seven Native American tribes are represented in Oklahoma, including 39 federally recognized tribes, who are headquartered and have tribal jurisdictional areas in the state. Western ranchers, Native American tribes, Southern settlers, and eastern oil barons have shaped the state's cultural predisposition, and its largest cities have been named among the most underrated cultural destinations in the United States. Residents of Oklahoma are associated with traits of Southern hospitality—the 2006 Catalogue for Philanthropy (with data from 2004) ranks Oklahomans 7th in the nation for overall generosity. The state has also been associated with a negative cultural stereotype first popularized by John Steinbeck's 1939 novel The Grapes of Wrath, which described the plight of uneducated, poverty-stricken Dust Bowl-era farmers deemed "Okies". However, the term is often used in a positive manner by Oklahomans. Arts In the state's largest urban areas, pockets of jazz culture flourish, and Native American, Mexican American, and Asian American communities produce music and art of their respective cultures. The Oklahoma Mozart Festival in Bartlesville is one of the largest classical music festivals on the southern plains, and Oklahoma City's Festival of the Arts has been named one of the top fine arts festivals in the nation. The state has a rich history in ballet with five Native American ballerinas attaining worldwide fame. These were Yvonne Chouteau, sisters Marjorie and Maria Tallchief, Rosella Hightower and Moscelyne Larkin, known collectively as the Five Moons. The New York Times rates the Tulsa Ballet as one of the top ballet companies in the United States. The Oklahoma City Ballet and University of Oklahoma's dance program were formed by ballerina Yvonne Chouteau and husband Miguel Terekhov. The university program was founded in 1962 and was the first fully accredited program of its kind in the United States. In Sand Springs, an outdoor amphitheater called "Discoveryland!" (NOW CLOSED) is the official performance headquarters for the musical Oklahoma! Ridge Bond, native of McAlester, Oklahoma, starred in the Broadway and International touring productions of Oklahoma!, playing the role of "Curly McClain" in more than 2,600 performances. In 1953 he was featured along with the Oklahoma! cast on a CBS Omnibus television broadcast. Bond was instrumental in the Oklahoma! title song becoming the Oklahoma state song and is also featured on the U.S. postage stamp commemorating the musical's 50th anniversary. Historically, the state has produced musical styles such as The Tulsa Sound and western swing, which was popularized at Cain's Ballroom in Tulsa. The building, known as the "Carnegie Hall of Western Swing", served as the performance headquarters of Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys during the 1930s. Stillwater is known as the epicenter of Red Dirt music, the best-known proponent of which is the late Bob Childers. Prominent theatre companies in Oklahoma include, in the capital city, Lyric Theatre of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City Theatre Company, Carpenter Square Theatre, Oklahoma Shakespeare in the Park, and CityRep. CityRep is a professional company affording equity points to those performers and technical theatre professionals. In Tulsa, Oklahoma's oldest resident professional company is American Theatre Company, and Theatre Tulsa is the oldest community theatre company west of the Mississippi. Other companies in Tulsa include Heller Theatre and Tulsa Spotlight Theater. The cities of Norman, Lawton, and Stillwater, among others, also host well-reviewed community theatre companies. Oklahoma is in the nation's middle percentile in per capita spending on the arts, ranking 17th, and contains more than 300 museums. The Philbrook Museum of Tulsa is considered one of the top 50 fine art museums in the United States, and the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History in Norman, one of the largest university-based art and history museums in the country, documents the natural history of the region. The collections of Thomas Gilcrease are housed in the Gilcrease Museum of Tulsa, which also holds the world's largest, most comprehensive collection of art and artifacts of the American West. The Egyptian art collection at the Mabee-Gerrer Museum of Art in Shawnee is considered to be the finest Egyptian collection between Chicago and Los Angeles. The Oklahoma City Museum of Art contains the most comprehensive collection of glass sculptures by artist Dale Chihuly in the world, and Oklahoma City's National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum documents the heritage of the American Western | half of Indian-held land within the territory for outside settlers and for purchase. Major land runs, including the Land Run of 1889, were held for settlers where certain territories were opened to settlement starting at a precise time. Usually land was open to settlers on a first come first served basis. Those who broke the rules by crossing the border into the territory before the official opening time were said to have been crossing the border sooner, leading to the term sooners, which eventually became the state's official nickname. Deliberations to make the territory into a state began near the end of the 19th century, when the Curtis Act continued the allotment of Indian tribal land. 20th and 21st centuries Attempts to create an all-Indian state named Oklahoma and a later attempt to create an all-Indian state named Sequoyah failed but the Sequoyah Statehood Convention of 1905 eventually laid the groundwork for the Oklahoma Statehood Convention, which took place two years later. On June 16, 1906, Congress enacted a statute authorizing the people of the Oklahoma and Indian Territories (as well what would become the states of Arizona and New Mexico) to form a constitution and state government in order to be admitted as a state. On November 16, 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt issued Presidential Proclamation no. 780, establishing Oklahoma as the 46th state in the Union. The new state became a focal point for the emerging oil industry, as discoveries of oil pools prompted towns to grow rapidly in population and wealth. Tulsa eventually became known as the "Oil Capital of the World" for most of the 20th century and oil investments fueled much of the state's early economy. In 1927, Oklahoman businessman Cyrus Avery, known as the "Father of Route 66", began the campaign to create U.S. Route 66. Using a stretch of highway from Amarillo, Texas to Tulsa, Oklahoma to form the original portion of Highway 66, Avery spearheaded the creation of the U.S. Highway 66 Association to oversee the planning of Route 66, based in his hometown of Tulsa. Oklahoma also has a rich African-American history. Many Black towns, founded by the Freedmen of the Five Tribes during Reconstruction, thrived in the early 20th century with the arrival of Black Exodusters who migrated from neighboring states, especially Kansas. The politician Edward P. McCabe encouraged Black settlers to come to what was then Indian Territory. McCabe discussed with President Theodore Roosevelt the possibility of making Oklahoma a majority-Black state. By the early 20th century, the Greenwood district of Tulsa was one of the most prosperous African-American communities in the United States. Jim Crow laws had established racial segregation since before the start of the 20th century, but Tulsa's Black residents had created a thriving area. Social tensions were exacerbated by the revival of the Ku Klux Klan after 1915. The Tulsa race massacre broke out in 1921, with White mobs attacking Black people and carrying out a pogrom in Greenwood. In one of the costliest episodes of racist violence in American history, sixteen hours of rioting resulted in 35 city blocks destroyed, $1.8 million in property damage, and a death toll estimated at between 75 and 300 people. By the late 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan had declined to negligible influence within the state. During the 1930s, parts of the state began suffering the consequences of poor farming practices. This period was known as the Dust Bowl, throughout which areas of Kansas, Texas, New Mexico and northwestern Oklahoma were hampered by long periods of little rainfall, strong winds, abnormally high temperatures, and most notably, severe dust storms sending thousands of farmers into poverty and forcing them to relocate to more fertile areas of the western United States. Over a twenty-year period ending in 1950, the state saw its only historical decline in population, dropping 6.9 percent as impoverished families migrated out of the state after the Dust Bowl. Soil and water conservation projects markedly changed practices in the state and led to the construction of massive flood control systems and dams; they built hundreds of reservoirs and man-made lakes to supply water for domestic needs and agricultural irrigation. By the 1960s, Oklahoma had created more than 200 lakes, the most in the nation. In 1995, Oklahoma City was the site of one of the most destructive act of domestic terrorism in American history. The Oklahoma City bombing of April 19, 1995, in which Timothy McVeigh detonated a large, crude explosive device outside the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, killed 168 people, including 19 children. For his crime, McVeigh was executed by the federal government on June 11, 2001. His accomplice, Terry Nichols, is serving life in prison without parole for helping plan the attack and prepare the explosive. On May 31, 2016, several cities experienced record setting flooding. On July 9, 2020, the Supreme Court of the United States determined in McGirt v. Oklahoma that the reservations of the Five Tribes, comprising much of Eastern Oklahoma, were never disestablished by Congress and thus are still "Indian Country" for the purposes of criminal law. Geography Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States, covering an area of , with of land and of water. It lies partly in the Great Plains near the geographical center of the 48 contiguous states. It is bordered on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas, on the northwest by Colorado, on the far west by New Mexico, and on the south and near-west by Texas. Topography Oklahoma is between the Great Plains and the Ozark Plateau in the Gulf of Mexico watershed, generally sloping from the high plains of its western boundary to the low wetlands of its southeastern boundary. Its highest and lowest points follow this trend, with its highest peak, Black Mesa, at above sea level, situated near its far northwest corner in the Oklahoma Panhandle. The state's lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town of Idabel, which dips to above sea level. Among the most geographically diverse states, Oklahoma is one of four to harbor more than 10 distinct ecological regions, with 11 in its borders—more per square mile than in any other state. Its western and eastern halves, however, are marked by extreme differences in geographical diversity: Eastern Oklahoma touches eight ecological regions and its western half contains three. Although having fewer ecological regions Western Oklahoma contains many rare, relic species. Oklahoma has four primary mountain ranges: the Ouachita Mountains, the Arbuckle Mountains, the Wichita Mountains, and the Ozark Mountains. Contained within the U.S. Interior Highlands region, the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains are the only major mountainous region between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians. A portion of the Flint Hills stretches into north-central Oklahoma, and near the state's eastern border, The Oklahoma Tourism & Recreation Department regards Cavanal Hill as the world's tallest hill; at , it fails their definition of a mountain by one foot. The semi-arid high plains in the state's northwestern corner harbor few natural forests; the region has a rolling to flat landscape with intermittent canyons and mesa ranges like the Glass Mountains. Partial plains interrupted by small, sky island mountain ranges like the Antelope Hills and the Wichita Mountains dot southwestern Oklahoma; transitional prairie and oak savannas cover the central portion of the state. The Ozark and Ouachita Mountains rise from west to east over the state's eastern third, gradually increasing in elevation in an eastward direction. More than 500 named creeks and rivers make up Oklahoma's waterways, and with 200 lakes created by dams, it holds the nation's highest number of artificial reservoirs. Most of the state lies in two primary drainage basins belonging to the Red and Arkansas rivers, though the Lee and Little rivers also contain significant drainage basins. Flora and fauna Due to Oklahoma's location at the confluence of many geographic regions, the state's climatic regions have a high rate of biodiversity. Forests cover 24 percent of Oklahoma and prairie grasslands composed of shortgrass, mixed-grass, and tallgrass prairie, harbor expansive ecosystems in the state's central and western portions, although cropland has largely replaced native grasses. Where rainfall is sparse in the state's western regions, shortgrass prairie and shrublands are the most prominent ecosystems, though pinyon pines, red cedar (junipers), and ponderosa pines grow near rivers and creek beds in the panhandle's far western reaches. Southwestern Oklahoma contains many rare, disjunct species including sugar maple, bigtooth maple, nolina and Texas live oak. Marshlands, cypress forests and mixtures of shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, blue palmetto, and deciduous forests dominate the state's southeastern quarter, while mixtures of largely post oak, elm, red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) and pine forests cover northeastern Oklahoma. The state holds populations of white-tailed deer, mule deer, antelope, coyotes, mountain lions, bobcats, elk, and birds such as quail, doves, cardinals, bald eagles, red-tailed hawks, and pheasants. In prairie ecosystems, American bison, greater prairie chickens, badgers, and armadillo are common, and some of the nation's largest prairie dog towns inhabit shortgrass prairie in the state's panhandle. The Cross Timbers, a region transitioning from prairie to woodlands in Central Oklahoma, harbors 351 vertebrate species. The Ouachita Mountains are home to black bear, red fox, gray fox, and river otter populations, which coexist with 328 vertebrate species in southeastern Oklahoma. Also, in southeastern Oklahoma lives the American alligator. Protected lands Oklahoma has fifty-one state parks, six national parks or protected regions, two national protected forests or grasslands, and a network of wildlife preserves and conservation areas. Six percent of the state's 10 million acres (40,000 km2) of forest is public land, including the western portions of the Ouachita National Forest, the largest and oldest national forest in the Southern United States. With , the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in north-central Oklahoma is the largest protected area of tallgrass prairie in the world and is part of an ecosystem that encompasses only ten percent of its former land area, once covering fourteen states. In addition, the Black Kettle National Grassland covers of prairie in southwestern Oklahoma. The Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge is the oldest and largest of nine National Wildlife Refuges in the state and was founded in 1901, encompassing . Of Oklahoma's federally protected parks or recreational sites, the Chickasaw National Recreation Area is the largest, with . Other sites include the Santa Fe and Trail of Tears national historic trails, the Fort Smith and Washita Battlefield national historic sites, and the Oklahoma City National Memorial. Climate Oklahoma is in a humid subtropical region. Oklahoma lies in a transition zone between semi-arid further to the west, humid continental to the north, and humid subtropical to the east and southeast. Most of the state lies in an area known as Tornado Alley characterized by frequent interaction between cold, dry air from Canada, warm to hot, dry air from Mexico and the Southwestern U.S., and warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico. The interactions between these three contrasting air currents produces severe weather (severe thunderstorms, damaging thunderstorm winds, large hail and tornadoes) with a frequency virtually unseen anywhere else on planet Earth. An average 62 tornadoes strike the state per year—one of the highest rates in the world. Because of Oklahoma's position between zones of differing prevailing temperature and winds, weather patterns within the state can vary widely over relatively short distances, and they can change drastically in a short time. On November 11, 1911, the temperature at Oklahoma City reached (the record high for that date), then a cold front of unprecedented intensity slammed across the state, causing the temperature to reach (the record low for that date) by midnight. This type of phenomenon is also responsible for many of the tornadoes in the area, such as the 1912 Oklahoma tornado outbreak when a warm front traveled along a stalled cold front, resulting in an average of about one tornado per hour. The humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) of central, southern and eastern Oklahoma is influenced heavily by southerly winds bringing moisture from the Gulf of Mexico. Traveling westward, the climate transitions progressively toward a semi-arid zone (Köppen BSk) in the high plains of the Panhandle and other western areas from about Lawton westward, less frequently touched by southern moisture. Precipitation and temperatures decline from east to west accordingly, with areas in the southeast averaging an annual temperature of and an annual rainfall of generally over and up to , while areas of the (higher-elevation) panhandle average , with an annual rainfall under . Over almost all of Oklahoma, winter is the driest season. Average monthly precipitation increases dramatically in the spring to a peak in May, the wettest month over most of the state, with its frequent and not uncommonly severe thunderstorm activity. Early June can still be wet, but most years see a marked decrease in rainfall during June and early July. Mid-summer (July and August) represents a secondary dry season over much of Oklahoma, with long stretches of hot weather with only sporadic thunderstorm activity not uncommon many years. Severe drought is common in the hottest summers, such as those of 1934, 1954, 1980 and 2011, all of which featured weeks on end of virtual rainlessness and highs well over . Average precipitation rises again from September to mid-October, representing a secondary wetter season, then declines from late October through December. The entire state frequently experiences temperatures above or below , though below-zero temperatures are rare in south-central and southeastern Oklahoma. Snowfall ranges from an average of less than in the south to just over on the border of Colorado in the panhandle. The state is home to the Storm Prediction Center, the National Severe Storms Laboratory, and the Warning Decision Training Division, all part of the National Weather Service and in Norman. Demographics Population The United States Census Bureau estimates Oklahoma's population was 3,963,516 during the 2020 United States Census, a 5.66% increase since the 2010 United States Census. In 2010, the center of population of Oklahoma was in Lincoln County near the town of Sparks. The state's 2006 per capita personal income ranked 37th at $32,210, though it has the third-fastest-growing per capita income in the U.S. Oklahoma ranks consistently among the lowest states in cost of living index. In 2011, 7.0% of Oklahomans were under the age of 5, 24.7% under 18, and 13.7% were 65 or older. Females made up 50.5% of the population. Race and ethnicity As of the 2010 Census, 72.2% of the population was white, 8.6% American Indian and Alaska Native, 7.4% black or African American, 1.7% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 4.1% from some other race and 5.9% of two or more races. 8.9% of Oklahoma's population were of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin (they may be of any race). In 2005, Oklahoma's estimated ancestral makeup was 14.5% German, 13.1% American, 11.8% Irish, 9.6% English, 8.1% African American, and 11.4% Native American (including 7.9% Cherokee) though the percentage of people claiming American Indian as their only race was 8.1%. Most people from Oklahoma who self-identify as having American ancestry are of overwhelmingly English and Scots-Irish ancestry with significant amounts of Scottish, Welsh and Irish inflection as well. In 2011, 47.3% of Oklahoma's population younger than age1 were minorities, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. In 2011, U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey data from 2005 to 2009 indicated about 5% of Oklahoma's residents were born outside the United States. This is lower than the national figure (about 12.5% of U.S. residents were foreign-born). Cities and towns The state is in the U.S. Census' Southern region. According to the 2020 United States Census, Oklahoma is the 28th-most populous state with inhabitants but the 19th-largest by land area spanning of land. In 2010, Oklahoma was divided into 77 counties and contains 597 incorporated municipalities consisting of cities and towns. In Oklahoma, cities are all those incorporated communities which are 1,000 or more in population and are incorporated as cities. Towns are limited to town board |
Oxbridge offers. Combined, the two universities award over one-sixth of all English full-time research doctorates. Oxford and Cambridge have common approaches to undergraduate admissions. Until the mid-1980s, entry was typically by sitting special entrance exams. Applications must be made at least three months earlier than to other UK universities (the deadline for applications to Oxbridge is mid-October whereas the deadline for all other universities, apart from applicants for medicine, is January). Additionally, candidates may not apply to both Oxford and Cambridge in the same year, apart from a few exceptions (e.g., organ scholars). Most candidates achieve, or are predicted to achieve, outstanding results in their final school exams, and consequently interviews are usually used to check whether the course is well suited to the applicant's interests and aptitudes, and to look for evidence of self-motivation, independent thinking, academic potential and ability to learn through the tutorial system. Membership of the Oxford and Cambridge Club is largely restricted to those who are members of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Criticism The word Oxbridge may also be used pejoratively: as a descriptor of social class (referring to the professional classes who dominated the intake of both universities at the beginning of the twentieth century), as shorthand for an elite that "continues to dominate Britain's political and cultural establishment" and a parental attitude that "continues to see UK higher education through an Oxbridge prism", or to describe a "pressure-cooker" culture that attracts and then fails to support overachievers "who are vulnerable to a kind of self-inflicted stress that can all too often become unbearable" and high-flying state school students who find "coping with the workload very difficult in terms of balancing work and life" and "feel socially out of [their] depth". The Sutton Trust maintains that the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge recruit disproportionately from 8 schools (Westminster School, Eton College, Hills Road Sixth Form College, St Paul's School, Peter Symonds College, St Paul's Girls' School, King's College School, Magdalen College School). They examined published admissions data from 2015 to 2017 and found that 8 schools accounted for 1,310 Oxbridge places during the three years, whereas 2,900 other schools accounted for 1,220. Related terms Other portmanteaus have been coined that extend the term Oxbridge, with different degree of recognition. The term Loxbridge is also used referring to the golden triangle of London, Oxford, and Cambridge. It was also adopted as the name of the Ancient History conference now known as AMPAH. Doxbridge is another example of this, referring to Durham, Oxford and Cambridge. Doxbridge was also used for an annual inter-collegiate sports tournament between some of the colleges of Durham, Oxford, Cambridge and York. Woxbridge is the name of the annual conference between the business schools of Warwick, Oxford and Cambridge. Thackeray's Pendennis, which introduced the term Oxbridge, also introduced Camford as another combination of the university names – "he was a Camford man and very nearly got the English Prize Poem" – but this term has never achieved the same degree of usage as Oxbridge. Camford is, however, used as the name of a fictional university city in the Sherlock Holmes | Pendennis, published in 1850, the main character attends the fictional Boniface College, Oxbridge. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this is the first recorded instance of the word. Virginia Woolf used it, citing Thackeray, in her 1929 essay A Room of One's Own. By 1957 the term was used in the Times Educational Supplement and in Universities Quarterly by 1958. When expanded, the universities are almost always referred to as "Oxford and Cambridge", the order in which they were founded. A notable exception is Tokyo's Cambridge and Oxford Society, probably arising from the fact that the Cambridge Club was founded there first, and also had more members than its Oxford counterpart when they amalgamated in 1905. Meaning In addition to being a collective term, Oxbridge is often used as shorthand for characteristics the two institutions share: They are the two oldest universities in continuous operation in the UK. Both were founded more than 800 years ago, and continued as England's only universities (barring short-lived foundations at such as those at Northampton and Durham) until the 19th century. Between them they have educated a large number of Britain's most prominent scientists, writers, and politicians, as well as noted figures in many other fields. Each has a similar collegiate structure, whereby the university is a co-operative of its constituent colleges, which are responsible for supervisions/tutorials (the principal undergraduate teaching method, unique to Oxbridge), accommodation and pastoral care. They have established similar institutions and facilities such as leading publishing houses (Oxford University Press and Cambridge University Press), botanical gardens (University of Oxford Botanic Garden and Cambridge University Botanic Garden), museums (the Ashmolean and the Fitzwilliam), legal deposit libraries (the Bodleian and the Cambridge University Library), debating societies (the Oxford Union and the Cambridge Union), and notable comedy groups (The Oxford Revue and The Cambridge Footlights). Rivalry between Oxford and Cambridge also has a long history, dating back to around 1209, when Cambridge was founded by scholars taking refuge from hostile Oxford townsmen, and celebrated to this day in varsity matches such as The Boat Race. They are usually the top-scoring institutions in cross-subject UK university rankings, so they are targeted by ambitious pupils, parents and schools. Entrance is extremely competitive and some schools promote themselves based on their achievement of Oxbridge offers. Combined, the two universities award over one-sixth of all English full-time research doctorates. Oxford and Cambridge have common approaches to undergraduate admissions. Until the |
his beylik. During his reign, the Ottomans made great strides towards transitioning from the Nomadic tribe system to settling down in permanent settlements. This helped them consolidate their position and rapidly develop into a major power. Moreover, the beylik's location in northwestern Anatolia, next to Christendom, imposed a military policy on the Ottomans, which gave them better chances to grow and expand compared to the beyliaks of the interior. Osman's beylik was also relatively far from both the Mongol invasions and the influence of the powerful Turkoman beyliks in southern and southwestern Anatolia. Add to that, its proximity to the Silk Road linking Byzantine lands in the west to areas controlled by the Mongols in the east, gave it prominent strategic and economic characteristics. Also, the Osmanic beylik was the only Islamic base facing the yet unconquered Byzantine regions, which made it a magnet to many Turkomen farmers, warriors, and Dervishes fleeing the Mongols, and aspiring to conquer new lands for economic and religious reasons. Osman's Dream Osman I had a close relationship with a local religious leader of dervishes named Sheikh Edebali, whose daughter he married. A story emerged among later Ottoman writers to explain the relationship between the two men, in which Osman had a dream while staying in the Sheikh's house. The story appears in the late-fifteenth-century chronicle of Aşıkpaşazade as follows: The dream became an important foundational myth for the empire, imbuing the House of Osman with God-given authority over the earth and providing its fifteenth-century audience with an explanation for Ottoman success. The dream story may also have served as a form of compact: just as God promised to provide Osman and his descendants with sovereignty, it was also implicit that it was the duty of Osman to provide his subjects with prosperity. Political relations at the beginning of Osman's reign According to the Bektashi narration, whose accuracy cannot be confirmed since it was only mentioned in Bektashi sources, plus the fact that it did not enjoy much support from the majority of researchers, Ḥājī Baktāš Walī was one of the Wafā'īyyah tariqah dervishes, a Murid of Bābā Eliyās al-Khorāsānī. Once Bābā Eliyās died, both Ḥājī Baktāš Walī and Sheikh Edebali became among his 60 successors, and grandmasters of the Ahyan Rûm brotherhood of warriors and farmers, who enjoyed great influence among the people. When Osman married Sheikh Edebali's daughter, he secured his control over the brotherhood, and soon became their new grandmaster. As a result of this marriage, all the Ahyan sheikhs became under Ottoman control. This has a major impact on the establishment and development of the Osmanic beylik after Osman's death during the reign of his son Orhan. Some argue that Osman's marriage to sheikh Edebali's daughter was his first brilliant political undertake. On the other hand, Turkish historian Professor Cemal Kafadar considers that the intermarriage between the Osmanic and Edebali's houses, explains the hostilities that later rose between the Ottomans and the Germiyanids, since the Germiyanid Turkoman house was rewarded lands and titles by the Seljuks because of their services in subjugating the Bābā'ī revolt in 1240 CE, and because Sheikh Edebali was considered by his followers a leader and successor to Bābā Ishāq, they all became the focus of attention of the Germiyanids. Kafadar adds that early in Osman reign, the young Emir showed political ingenuity forming relations with his neighbours. Osman's alliances transcended tribal, ethnic, and religious lines. and he may have followed his instinct and the requirements of his political aspirations, not mistaking the future results of the family connections he created and secured for his son after him. Osman reconstituted the political culture of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm in line with the needs of his beylik. He was more creative than his Turkomen neighbours in combining Turkic, Islamic, and Byzantine traditions. Additionally, the Emir also cooperated with the Byzantine Tekfurs of the neighbouring cities and villages. He forged an agreement, so his clan, whenever they move between grazing areas in the summer, leave their belongings in the Byzantine fortress of Bilecik, and upon their return, they give its governor a token of appreciation, in the form of cheese and butter made from sheep milk and preserved in animal skins, or a good carpet made from wool. This agreement reflects the coexistence between herders, farmers and urban dwellers, during Osman's reign. Osman's friendship with Köse Mihal, governor of Chirmenkia (modern Harmanköy), was the culmination of this coexistence between Muslims and Byzantines. As for his relations with other peoples, such as the Mongols, most of whom moved to the borders of western Anatolia, and the Germiyanid Turkomen, it was hostile. That is because the Turks, in general, despised the Mongols, and the Germiyanids were probably of non-Oghuz origin. Osman allied with the Ahyan Rûm brotherhood, they formed organized groups, members in each of which worked in a single trade. The brotherhood took the responsibility to preserve justice, prevent injustice, stop oppression, follow sharia law, dictate good morals, and carry out military duties if the need arises, to defend their rights and the rights of Muslims. The Emir also allied with newly arrived Turkomen clans to Anatolia. In general, the nomads have always had a strong militarized spirit compared to people installed in the cities. Thus, the clans were more active and effective than their city-dwelling kin. Soon enough, they become the beating heart of the Seljuk border provinces in total, and the Osmanic beylik in particular. Osman also enticed many Turkomen from the region of Paphlagonia to join his forces. These Turkomen were fine warriors, eager for jihad and conquest, each of them followed a Tariqah (an order of Sufism) and was supervised by a sheikh who taught them the meaning of jihad alongside many Islamic principles. However, another section of these Turkomen did not have close ties to Islam for various reasons, thus Osman entrusted them to several sheikhs and dervishes to be given proper Islamic education and be satiated with the values that glorify conquests aiming to spread the word of Islam. In fact, these sheikhs and dervishes were very enthusiastic about promoting the Turuq of the Khorasani Walis, and Osman's request gave them this chance. As for the ruling hierarchy, Osman was firstly subordinate to the Chobanid Emir in Kastamonu, followed by the Seljuk Sultan through the Germiyanid Bey in Kütahya, who was in turn subordinate to the Mongol Ilkhan in Tabriz. During this period, the Seljuk Sultans had lost their power over their local Emirs, and the Mongol Ilkhan practised his authority in Anatolia through his appointed Generals, where he requested that every local governor, including Osman, sends him soldiers whenever he requests so. As for the hierarchy of name delivering in khuṭbah, Imams used to pray for the guidance of the: Abbasid caliph in Egypt first, the Mongol Ilkhan in Tabriz, Seljuk Sultan in Konya, and finally the local Bey or Emir. Expansion of the Osmanic Beylik Until the end of thirteenth century, Osman I's conquests include the areas of Bilecik (Belokomis), Yenişehir (Melangeia), İnegöl (Angelokomis) and (Köprühisar), and Byzantine castles in these areas. According to Shaw, Osman's first real conquests followed the collapse of Seljuk authority when he was able to occupy the fortresses of Kulucahisar and Eskişehir. Then he captured the first significant city in his territories, Yenişehir, which became the Ottoman capital. In 1302, after soundly defeating a Byzantine force near Nicaea, Osman began settling his forces closer to Byzantine controlled areas. Alarmed by Osman's growing influence, the Byzantines gradually fled the Anatolian countryside. Byzantine leadership attempted to contain Ottoman expansion, but their efforts were poorly organized and ineffectual. Meanwhile, Osman spent the remainder of his reign expanding his control in two directions, north along the course of the Sakarya River and southwest towards the Sea of Marmara, achieving his objectives by 1308. That same year his followers participated in conquest of the Byzantine city of Ephesus near the Aegean Sea, thus capturing the last Byzantine city on the coast, although the city became part of the domain of the Emir of Aydin. Osman's last campaign was against the city of Bursa. Although Osman did not physically participate in the battle, the victory at Bursa proved to be extremely vital for the Ottomans as the city served as a staging ground against the Byzantines in Constantinople, and as a newly adorned capital for Osman's son, Orhan. Ottoman tradition holds that Osman died just after the capture of Bursa, but some scholars have argued that his death should be placed in 1324, the year of Orhan's accession. Conquest of Karacahisar After establishing his beylik, Osman had to fight on two fronts: one against the Byzantine, and the other against the Turkomen beyliks that opposed his rule, especially the Germiyanids. Osman focused on expanding at the expense of the Byzantines, and since that time, the primary Ottoman goal became the conquest of the remaining Byzantine lands. Some accounts indicate that the first battle Osman launched against the Byzantines was aimed to revenge a defeat that he suffered in the spring of 683 or 684 AH / 1284 or 1285 CE, where the Byzantines, led by the Tekfur of Bursa, ambushed him and his men. It is in doubt that Osman knew about this ambush from one of his spies. Nevertheless, he chose to clash with the Byzantines and he was defeated and forced to withdraw with casualties, including his nephew Koca Saruhan bey, son of Savcı Bey. Based on this, around 685 AH / 1286 CE, Osman went forward to Kulacahisar at the head of a military force of three hundred fighters, it was a fortress located two leagues away from İnegöl, within the scope of mount Uludağ. The Emir attacked the fort at night and managed to conquer it, extending his beylik northwards toward Lake İznik's proximity. The Ottoman victory at Kulacahisar triggered the fort's governor, who refused to be a subordinate subject to a Muslim ruler, especially a border Emir, so he allied himself with Karacahisar's governor, and both men agreed to fight the Muslims aiming at retaking all Byzantine lands that were lost recently. Thus, the Ottomans and the Byzantines met again in battle, somewhere between Bilecik and İnegöl, where fierce fighting took place in which Osman's brother Savcı Bey and the Byzantine commander Pilatos were killed. The Battle ended with an Ottoman victory. Then, the Ottomans entered Karacahisar where they, reportedly for the first time, converted the town's church into a mosque. Osman appointed a Qadi (magistrate) and a Subaşı (chief of police) for the newly conquered city. Historians differed in determining the date of this conquest, yet none made it prior to 685 AH / 1286 CE, or exceeding 691 AH / 1291 CE. Osman made his new city a staging base of his military campaigns against the Byzantines, and ordered that his name be delivered at the Friday khuṭbah, which was the first manifestation of his sovereignty and authority. Osman's latest victory was his greatest up to that date. Seljuk Sultan Alâeddin Kayqubad III expressed his deep appreciation for Osman's accomplishments in the name of the Seljuks and Islam, giving him the title of Ḥaḍrat ʻUthmān ghāzī marzubān 'Âli Jâh ʻUthmān Shāh (the honourable conqueror and border guardian Osman Shāh). The Sultan also bestowed upon Osman the governance of all the land he did conquered as well as the towns of Eskişehir and İnönü. Moreover, The Seljuk Sultan issued a decree exempting Osman from all types of taxes. Osman also received several gifts from the Sultan reflecting the new high stature to the Seljuk court. These gifts included: a golden war banner, a mehter (war drum), a tuğ (a pole with circularly arranged horse tail hairs), a tassel, a gilded sword, a loose saddle, and one hundred thousand dirhams. The decree also included the recognition of Osman's right to be mentioned in the Friday khuṭbah in all areas subject to him, and was permitted to mint coins in his name. Thus, Osman became a Sultan, but lacking only the title. It is narrated that when drums were beaten announcing Sultan's Kayqubad's arrival, Osman stood up in glorification, and remained so till the music halted. Since that day, Ottoman soldiers enacted standing in glorification for their Sultan whenever drums were beaten. Conquest of Bilecik, Yarhisar, and İnegöl Soon after the conquest of Karacahisar, Osman marched with his soldiers north towards Sakarya River. Upon his arrival there, he raided and looted the forts of Göynük and Yenice Taraklı. Many argue that during this time, Osman received a message from his Byzantine friend Köse Mihal, warning him of a secret conspiracy that is being prepared to by tekfurs of Bilecik and Yarhisar. The two were aiming at killing Osman after inviting him to attend their children's wedding. Osman was disappointed in being betrayed by Bilecik's tekfur. That is because he considered the relationship with Bilecik to be built on trust and good faith, especially that his clan was used to leave their belongings in this fortress whenever they moved between grazing areas, as previously mentioned. Osman devised a plan to escape the trap and take over the fortress. He sent forty of his soldiers carrying some of the clan's belongings to be kept in Bilecik, while most of its inhabitants were outside attending the wedding. Once his men entered the fort, they quickly overpowered its small garrison, and it fell to the Ottomans. Then, Osman went the feast followed by some Byzantine knights who were easily ambushed by his men later. A short battle took place in which Osman was victorious, and most of the Byzantines were killed. After that, Osman rode towards Yarhisar and took it by surprise; A large part of the fort's garrison was killed, while the rest were taken prisoners. The tekfur's daughter Holophira, was also captured in this action, she soon became Osman's daughter in law, having married his son Orhan sometime later, and her name was changed to Nilüfer Hatun. Afterwards, Osman and several of his men took over all towns and villages surrounding İnegöl, before laying siege on the fort itself and taking it with ease. Osman ordered the execution of İnegöl's tekfur since he was known for persecuting his Muslim neighbours, then placed a new garrison for the town, and distributed the loot among his men. Fall of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, and the Osmanic Beylik's independence Osman aspired, after his multiple victories, to expand on two axes, aiming to isolate the Byzantine cities he was looking to conquer. First, he blocked the road leading to İznik from the eastern side. Then, he advanced from the west towards Lopadion and Evrenos. After that Osman turned around Mount Uludağ from both north and south, avoiding the fortified city of Bursa, connecting with his Muslim neighbours in the southeast. During that time, the Byzantine Empire was preoccupied with ongoing clashes with its powerful enemies in Anatolia, such as the Germiyanids and the coastal beyliks, not to mention suppressing unrest and discord in Constantinople and the Balkans. The Empire was unable to face Osman's threats, thus, he felt free to expand at the Byzantines expense exploiting the current situation. At the same time, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm was seeing its final days. The Sultanate grip was slowly weakened over its Turkoman Beyliks. Sultan Alâeddin Kayqubad III became deeply unpopular after he purged the Seljuk administration of his predecessor's men with extreme violence. This prompted the Mongol Ilkhan Mahmud Ghazan to call upon Kayqubad to appear before him, and once the latter did in 1302, he was executed and replaced with his predecessor Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd bin Kaykāwūs in order to keep the peace in Anatolia. According to another account, Mongol and Tatar hordes raided Asia Minor in 699 AH / 1300 CE, and killed Sultan Kayqubad in his capital Konya. It was also said that Kaykāwūs himself killed his rival, coveting his own return on the throne. Another story suggests that Kayqubad escaped and sought refuge in the Byzantine court where he remained until his death. In all cases, Kaykāwūs's rule was short-lived, lasting between 4 and 6 years at most, and when he died in 1308 CE, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm was no more to be mentioned in the historical records, giving the way for the Turkoman beyliks to emerg as independent states. The demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm gave Osman autonomy over his dominion, he soon dubbed himself Padişah Āl-ıʿOsmān (sovereign of the house of Osman). After that, Osman set his sights towards conquering the last of the Byzantine cities, towns, and fortresses in Anatolia. According to one account, after Sultan Alâeddin Kayqubad III was killed by the Mongols, vizirs and notable leaders met and decided that since the late Sultan had no offspring, one of the local Emirs should take his place, and they found Osman perfect fitting the candidacy. Thus, the leaders offered the Emir the position, and Osman accepted becoming a Sultan since that date. It is likely that Kayqubad's and Kaykāwūs's deaths led to the Sultanate of Rûm falling into chaos, and promoted many of its regular soldiers to join the armies of local Emirs, including Osman. This gave the latter a great momentum and important military experiences enriching his army for the upcoming conquests. Battle of Bapheus Soon after Osman secured his independence and established control over | own return on the throne. Another story suggests that Kayqubad escaped and sought refuge in the Byzantine court where he remained until his death. In all cases, Kaykāwūs's rule was short-lived, lasting between 4 and 6 years at most, and when he died in 1308 CE, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm was no more to be mentioned in the historical records, giving the way for the Turkoman beyliks to emerg as independent states. The demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm gave Osman autonomy over his dominion, he soon dubbed himself Padişah Āl-ıʿOsmān (sovereign of the house of Osman). After that, Osman set his sights towards conquering the last of the Byzantine cities, towns, and fortresses in Anatolia. According to one account, after Sultan Alâeddin Kayqubad III was killed by the Mongols, vizirs and notable leaders met and decided that since the late Sultan had no offspring, one of the local Emirs should take his place, and they found Osman perfect fitting the candidacy. Thus, the leaders offered the Emir the position, and Osman accepted becoming a Sultan since that date. It is likely that Kayqubad's and Kaykāwūs's deaths led to the Sultanate of Rûm falling into chaos, and promoted many of its regular soldiers to join the armies of local Emirs, including Osman. This gave the latter a great momentum and important military experiences enriching his army for the upcoming conquests. Battle of Bapheus Soon after Osman secured his independence and established control over all fortresses he conquered, he sent messages to all remaining Byzantine tekfurs in Anatolia asking them to choose between accepting Islam, Ottoman sovereignty and paying jizyah, or war. Some of these tekfurs ended up accepting Islam, including Osman's old friend Köse Mihal, who became the Turkic leader's companion, and would play a considerable part in the upcoming expansions of the Osmanic beylik. His descendants became known in Ottoman history as Mihaloğulları (children of Michael, plural of Mihaloğlu). Other governors acknowledged Osman's sovereignty, while the rest kept their loyalty to the Byzantine Emperor. Thus, Osman started harassing their fortresses such as Bursa and Nicaea which was besieged in 1301 CE. The Ottoman raids also threatened the port city of Nicomedia with famine, as the Ottomans roamed the countryside prohibiting peasants from harvesting wheat. This provoked Bursa's tekfur among others to unite their efforts in order to eliminate this new emerging Islamic power. In the spring of 1302 CE, Emperor Michael IX launched a campaign that reached south to Magnesia. The Ottomans, awed by his large army, avoided an open battle. The Emperor sought to confront The Ottomans, but he was dissuaded by his generals. Encouraged by that, The Ottomans resumed their raids, virtually isolating the Emperor at Magnesia. Soon, the imperial army started dissolving without engaging in a single battle, that is because the local troops left to defend their homes which were continuously raided by the Ottomans, and the Alan mercenaries left as well, aiming to rejoin with their families in Thrace. The Byzantine emperor was forced to withdraw by the sea, followed by a wave of refugees. To counter the threat to Nicomedia, Michael's father, Andronikos II, sent a Byzantine force of some 2,000 men (half of whom were recently hired Alan mercenaries), under the megas hetaireiarches, Giorgios Mouzalon, to cross the Bosporus and relieve the city. The Byzantine response was a warning for the Islamic border villages and towns. However, when the locals noticed Osman's leadership and military strength, as well as his devotion to Islam, they rallied to support and stand with him in order to consolidate a new Islamic state that would unite them and form an impenetrable wall against the Byzantines. Several Byzantine deserters joined Osman as well, some of which were liberated prisoners of war who chose to align with him, reportedly due to his good treatment during their custody. Many Islamic warrior brotherhoods also joined the Ottomans. For example, the Gazi Rûm's (Raiders of the Romans), they were stationed on the borders of the Byzantine Empire and repelled its attacks on Muslim lands since the Abbasid era, gaining great experiences and knowledge in Byzantine strategies and tactics. Another example is the Ḥajjian Rûm's (pilgrims of [the land of] the Romans), a brotherhood of Muslim clergy concerned with teaching local villagers and recent converts the basics and different aspects of Islam, and had a side objective of assisting the Mujahideen in combat. The Byzantine and Ottoman armies eventually met on 1 Ḏū al-Ḥijjah 701 AH / 27 July 1302 CE at the plain of Bapheus located between Nicomedia and Nicaea. The Ottoman army consisted of light cavalry under Osman himself, and they numbered around 5,000, while the Byzantines numbered around 2,000 men. The Muslim cavalry charged toward the Byzantines fast, whose Alan contingent did not participate in the battle. As a result of the attack, the Byzantine line was broken, forcing Giorgios Mouzalon to withdraw into Nicomedia under the cover of the Alan force. Bapheus was the first major victory for the nascent Osmanic Beylik, and of major significance for its future expansion: the Byzantines effectively lost control of the countryside of Bithynia, withdrawing to their forts, which became isolated and fell one by one eventually. The Byzantine defeat also sparked a mass exodus of the Christian population from the area into the European parts of the empire, further altering the region's demographic balance. Coupled with the defeat at Magnesia, the Ottomans were able to reach the coasts of the Aegean Sea, threatening Byzantium with a final loss for their territory in Asia Minor. According to Halil İnalcık, the battle allowed the Ottomans to achieve the characteristics and qualities of a true state. Byzantine-Mongol convergence attempt After the victory in Bapheus, Osman divided the conquered lands among his kin and army leaders establishing Islamic hegemony and ending the Byzantine era in his new areas. He gave Eskişehir to his brother Gündüz bey, Karacahisar to his son Orhan, Yarhisar to Hasan Alp, and İnegöl to Turgut Alp. By that time, Emperor Andronikos II felt the pressure of the Ottoman expansion. The Emperor watched in fear how the demographic changes were rapidly taking place in Anatolia, and he decided to stop it. Yet, being recently defeated, Andronikos II couldn't face the Ottomans in an open battle. To add insult to injury for the Byzantine, conflicts were taking place in the Balkans. Thus, Andronikos II had no choice but to try making an alliance with the Mongols in Persia, who were controlling central and eastern Anatolia. To achieve that, the Emperor sent a letter to Ilkhan Mahmud Ghazan offering him a family rapprochement through marriage and establishing an alliance between both Empires. At that time, The Mongols were passing through a period of high tension with the Mamluks in Egypt and Syria, this did overwhelm the relations with the Byzantines, especially that Ghazan was preparing for another campaign to Damascus and Palestine after his first invasion in 699 AH / 1299 CE, in which many civilians were massacred and where the Mamluk army suffered a massive defeat at the Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar near Ḥimṣ. The Mamluks themselves were preparing for the upcoming war with the Mongols aiming to wash away the shame of their previous defeat. As a result, On 2 Ramaḍān 702 AH / 20 April 1303 CE, the Mongols and Mamluks engaged in a fierce battle on the outskirts of Damascus, known as the Battle of Shaqhab or Battle of Marj al-Saffar, in which the Mamluks won a decisive victory. This devastating defeat had a heavy toll on Ghazan and seems to have contributed to deteriorating his health further more, until he died in Qazvin on Sunday 11 Shawwāl 703 AH / 17 May 1304 CE. This eliminated any hope of a Byzantine-Mongol alliance, and allowed the Ottomans to continue on with their conquests. Byzantine-Catalan alliance After Ghazan's death, the Byzantine Emperor was forced to seek other solutions to the problem of Ottoman expansion. Thus, he hired a company of Catalan mercenaries led by Roger de Flor. The mercenaries had become unemployed after the signing of the Peace of Caltabellotta between the Crown of Aragon and the French dynasty of the Angevins in 1302 CE. The company arrived at Constantinople in January 1303 CE, where they were received by the Emperor himself, then, the mercenaries were housed in the district of Blachernae. The Emperor arranged the wedding of Roger de Flor to his niece, the 15-year-old princess Maria Asanina, daughter of the Tsar of Bulgaria Ivan Asen III and Irene Palaiologina. De Flor was named Megas doux (Great Dux, i.e., Commander of the Imperial forces), and was promised a four months payment for him and his men. The Catalans soon crossed to Asia Minor and fought against the Karasids and Germiyanids winning a fast victory. Afterward, they resolved to attack the maritime provinces of the Ottomans and moved to the town of Philadelphia which was besieged by Yakup I of Germiyan, who suffered a defeat at the hands of the Catalans and was forced to lift his siege and retreat. This victory proved that Byzantium had been able to gather sufficient military forces and material capabilities, it would have been able to eliminate the emerging turkic power, but it had neither. It was not long before the Catalans abandoned fighting the Muslims and turned their attention towards the Byzantines themselves. The reason for that was that the local population of Magnesia beheaded the Catalan garrison and stole its treasure, which infuriated Roger de Flor and made him march towards that city intending on revenge. The Byzantines were horrified by the mercenaries' attacks, and became preoccupied in defending themselves. Roger de Flor was soon killed by order of the emperor's son Michael IX, who saw the indiscipline of the Catalan mercenaries as a growing danger, as did the people of Constantinople, who rose up against the Catalans and killed many of them. Once the news reached the main Catalan force in Gallipoli, they went on a killing spree of their own, killing all the local Byzantines. Soon after this the Byzantines and the Catalans were at war with each other, giving way to Osman to move on with his conquests. Conquest of Yenişehir and Its Surroundings After securing his northern borders by reaching the Black and Marmara seas, Osman turned his attention towards the southern borders of his beylik. Thus, he attacked the Byzantine towns, villages, and fortresses surrounding the city of Yenişehir preparing to conquer it. Osman sent a large campaign to the fortress of Yāvandhisar and annexed it. Then, he attacked Yenişehir, took it with ease, and made it his temporary capital after fortifying and strengthening its defenses. Soon after that Osman started sending more campaigns against the remaining Byzantine cities conquering several fortresses including Lefke, Akhisar, Koçhisar, Yenicehisar, Marmaracık, and Köprühisar. In fact, conquering the aforementioned forts aimed at imposing a security belt around Yenişehir, thus Osman surrounded it with a series of front forts to ward off any invasions. Conquest of Bursa With Yenişehir in hands, Osman focused his efforts on isolated large cities starting with Bursa, unaware that this will be his last campaign. He gave the orders to start building two forts overseeing and surrounding the city, then, when the construction was completed, Osman provided the forts with large garrisons. This allowed his men to tighten the blockade and prevent any provisions reaching Bursa. The Ottoman siege lasted between six and nine years, this was due to the fact that the Ottomans had no Siege engines and they had never captured a large fortified city before. During the long siege, Osman and some of his military commanders conquered the smaller Byzantine fortresses on the vicinity of the beylik, in which Several tekfurs acknowledged Osman's sovereignty, and became among his subjects, some of them accepting Islam in the process. Soon after that, Osman started suffering from Gout, and couldn't accompany his men in any more campaigns or witness the Siege of Bursa, so he entrusted his son Orhan to complete this major task, while he retired in his capital. Orhan's continued the siege without any fighting, but he continued isolating Bursa from its surrounding forts, conquering Mudanya to cut off the city's connection to the sea. He also captured the city of Praenetos on the southern coast of İzmit, changing its name to Karamürsel, after the Muslim leader who took it "Karamürsel Bey". The last fort to fall was Beyce, which was considered Bursa's key as it overlooked it, and it was renamed Orhaneli. Orhan tightened the blockade around Bursa till its garrison fell into despair. Soon, the Byzantine emperor realized that the fall of the city into Muslim hands was inevitable, thus, he made a difficult decision ordering his governor to evacuate the city. Orhan entered Bursa on 2 Jumādā al-ʾŪlā 726 AH / 6 April 1326 CE, its people were not subjected to any harm after they recognized Ottoman sovereignty and pledged to pay jizyah. Saroz, the garrison's leader, surrendered to Orhan and pledged allegiance to his father Osman. He also converted to Islam and was given the title of "Bey" out of respect to his courage and patience during the long siege. According to some sources, Osman died just before the fall of the city, while others suggest that he lived long enough to hear about the victory on his death-bed. Family Due to the scarcity of sources about his life, very little is known about Osman's family relations. According to certain fifteenth-century Ottoman writers, Osman was descended from the Kayı branch of the Oghuz Turks, a claim which later became part of the official Ottoman genealogy and was eventually enshrined in the Turkish Nationalist historical tradition with the writings of M. F. Köprülü. However, the claim to Kayı lineage does not appear in the earliest extant Ottoman genealogies. Thus many scholars of the early Ottomans regard it as a later fabrication meant to shore up dynastic legitimacy with regard to the empire's Turkish rivals in Anatolia. Yazıcıoğlu Ali, in the early 15th century, traced Osman's genealogy to Oghuz Khagan, the mythical ancestors of Western Turks, through his senior grandson of his senior son, so giving the Ottoman sultans primacy among Turkish monarchs. It is very difficult for historians to determine what is factual and what is legendary about the many stories the Ottomans told about Osman and his exploits, and the Ottoman sources do not always agree with each other. According to one story, Osman had an uncle named Dündar with whom he had a quarrel early in his career. Osman wished to attack the local Christian lord of Bilecik, while Dündar opposed it, arguing that they already had enough enemies. Interpreting this as a challenge to his leadership position, Osman shot and killed his uncle with an arrow. This story first appears in Neşri's work but is missing in earlier Ottoman historical works. If it was true, it means that it was likely covered up in order to avoid tarnishing the reputation of the Ottoman dynasty's founder with the murder of a family member. It may also indicate an important change in the relationship of the Ottomans with their neighbors, shifting from relatively peaceful accommodation to a more aggressive policy of conquest. Marriages Malhun Hatun, daughter of Ömer Abdülaziz Bey Rabia Bala Hatun, daughter of Sheikh Edebali Sons Alaeddin Pasha – died in 1332, born to Rabia Orhan I – born to Malhun Çoban Bey (buried in Söğüt); Melik Bey (buried in Söğüt); Hamid Bey (buried in Söğüt); Pazarlu Bey (buried in Söğüt); Daughter (buried in Söğüt) Personality Ottoman historiography depicts Osman as a semi-holy person. It is known that among the Turkoman tribes, the tribe or part of it was named after its leader. The fact that the Kayi tribe became known by the name of Osman, suggests that the tribe became powerful because of his excellent leadership. Orientalist R. Rakhmanaliev writes that the historical role of Osman was that of a tribal leader, who enjoyed enormous success in uniting his people around him. The activities and personality of Osman as the founder of the state and dynasty are highly appreciated by historians of both the past and the present. The state and the dynasty of rulers are named after him. The population of the state was called Ottomans (Osmanlilar) until the beginning of the 20th century, that is until the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Historian F. Uspensky notes that Osman relied not only on force, but also cunningness. Historian and writer Lord Kinross writes that Osman was a wise, patient ruler, whom people sincerely respected and were ready to serve him faithfully. He had a natural sense of superiority, but he never sought to assert himself with the help of power, and therefore he was respected not only by those who were equal in position, but also those who exceeded his abilities on the battlefield or on wisdom. Osman did not arouse feelings of rivalry in his people—only loyalty. Herbert Gibbons believed that Osman was "great enough to exploit masterful people". According to Cemal Kafadar, Osman for the Ottomans was the same as Romulus for the Romans. Death According to the sources that say Osman lived to hear of the fall of Bursa, Orhan rushed back to Söğüt to inform his father of his great victory. Once he reached it, he was immediately summoned to Osman, who was on his death-bed. Soon after Osman heard the news, he died from natural causes. However, Osman managed to name Orhan to be his successor, although the latter was not Osman's first-born. Yet the dead Emir believed that Orhan better fits to rule compared with his elder half-brother Alâeddin, who was more passive and pious than Orhan. As for the exact cause of Osman's death, it is well known that he suffered from gout for several years, which seemingly caused his eventual death. This is confirmed by what Aşıkpaşazade mentioned in Tevarih-i Âl-i Osman when he talked about the late period of Osman's life, saying: "Osman had a bad foot from which he experienced severe pain". It is noted that Aşıkpaşazade used a similar expression when he talked about the death of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror: "The cause of his death was the issue in his feet". It is now known that gout is a genetic disease in the Ottoman dynasty, and many sultans suffered from it. The exact date of Osman's death is debatable. It is said that he died on 21 Ramaḍān 726 AH / 21 August 1326 CE at 70 years old. The 15th-century Ottoman historian Rouhi Çelebi, who wrote down the history of the Ottoman Empire until 1481 CE, indicates that Osman died in 1320. However, Uruç adiloğlu, another Ottoman historian who lived during the time of Sultans Mehmed the Conqueror and Bayezid II up until 1502 CE, says that Osman died in 1327 CE. Contemporary Turkish historian states that, despite the absence of documents mentioning Osman's name after the year 1320 CE, there are documents confirming Orhan's ascension to the throne in 1324 CE. Based on this, Osman's death might have occurred in the previous year. It is also certain that Osman's death was three or four months after the death of his father-in-law, Sheikh Edebali, and two months after the death of his wife, Rabia Bala Hatun, because it is known that Osman buried the two in Bilecik. Once Osman died, Orhan ordered the transfer of his body to Bursa, his new capital. Thus, Osman's body was laid there to rest. His grave is located today in the neighbourhood of Tophane. The reason behind the transferring Osman's body was due to a will Osman did tell his son about during the early years of besieging Bursa: "My Son, when I die, bury me under that silver dome in Bursa". However, Osman's current tomb dates back to the time of Sultan ʻAbdü'l-ʻAzīz (1861–1876 CE), because the first tomb was completely destroyed in a severe earthquake that struck the region |
out of conquered children would induce other people to adopt, not only out of the children of the conquered nations, but out of a crowd of their friends and relations, who would come as volunteers to join the Ottoman ranks. Acting on this advice, Orhan selected a thousand of the finest boys from conquered Christian families. The recruits were trained according to their individual abilities, and employed in posts ranging from professional soldier to Grand Vizier. This practice continued for centuries, until the reign of Sultan Mehmet IV. Politics Initial expansion Orhan, with the help of Ghazi commanders at the head of his forces of light cavalry, started a series of conquests of Byzantine territories in northwest Anatolia. First, in 1321, Mudanya was captured on the Sea of Marmara, which was the port of Bursa. He then sent a column under Konur Alp towards West Black Sea coast; another column under Aqueda to capture Kocaeli, and finally a column to capture the southeast coast of the Sea of Marmara. Then, he captured the city of Bursa just with diplomatic negotiations. The Byzantine commander of the Bursa fort, called Evrenos Bey, became a commander of a light cavalry force and even his sons and grandsons served Ottoman Beylik in this capacity to conquer and hold many areas in Balkans. Once the city of Bursa was captured, Orhan sent cavalry troops towards Bosphorus, capturing Byzantine coastal towns of Marmara. There were even sightings of Ottoman light cavalry along the Bosphoros coast. The Byzantine Emperor Andronicus III gathered together a mercenary army and set off towards Anatolia on the peninsular lands of Kocaeli. But at the present towns of Darica, at a site then called Pelekanon, not too far from Üsküdar, he met with Orhan's troops. In the ensuing battle of Pelekanon, the Byzantine forces were routed by Orhan's disciplined troops. Thereafter Andronicus abandoned the idea of getting the Kocaeli lands back and never again conducted a field battle against the Ottoman forces. The city of Nicaea (second only to Constantinople in the Byzantine Empire) surrendered to him after a three-year siege that concluded in 1331. The city of Nicomedia (now Izmit) was also captured, in 1337. Orhan gave the command of it to his eldest son, Suleyman Pasha, who had directed the operations of the siege. In 1338 by capturing Scutari (now Üsküdar) most of Northwest Anatolia was in Ottoman hands. The Byzantines still controlled the coastal strip from Sile on the Black Sea to Scutari and the city of Amastris (now Amasra) in Paphlagonia, but these were so scattered and isolated as to be no threat to the Ottomans. Then, there was a change of strategy in 1345. Instead of aiming to gain land from non-Muslims, Orhan took over a Turkish principality, Karesi (present Balıkesir and surrounds). According to Islamic philosophy of war, the areas under Islamic rule were to be abodes of peace and the other areas abodes of war. In abodes of war conducting a war was considered a good deed. Karesi principality was a state governed by a Turkish emir and its main inhabitants were Turkish; so it was an abode of peace. Ottomans had to have special justification for conquering fellow Muslim Turkish principalities. In the case of Karesi, the ruler had died and had left two sons whose claims to the post of Emir were equally valid. So there was a fight between the armed supporters of the two claimant princes. Orhan's pretext for invasion was that he was acting as a bringer of peace. In the end of the invasion by Ottoman troops the two brothers were pushed to the castle of their capital city of Pergamum (now Bergama). One was killed and the other was captured. The territories around Pergamum and Palaeocastro (Balıkesir) were annexed to Orhan's domains. This conquest was particularly important since it brought Orhan's territories to Çanakkale, the Anatolian side of the Dardanelles Straits. With the conquest of Karesi, nearly the whole of northwestern Anatolia was included in the Ottoman Beylik, and the four cities of Bursa, Nicomedia İzmit, Nicaea, İznik, and Pergamum (Bergama) had become strongholds of its power. At this stage of his conquests Orhan's Ottoman Principality had four provinces: Original land grant area of Söğüt and Eskişehir; Hüdavendigar (Domain of the Sultan) area of Bursa and İznik; Koca Eli peninsular area around İzmit; former principality of Karesi around Balıkesir and Bergama. Consolidation period A twenty-year period of peace followed the acquisition of Karesi. During this time, the Ottoman sovereign was actively occupied in perfecting the civil and military institutions which his brother had introduced, in securing internal order, in founding and endowing mosques and schools, and in the construction of vast public edifices, many of which still stand. Orhan did not continue with any other conquests in Anatolia except taking over Ankara from the commercial-religious fraternity guild of Ahis. The general diffusion of Turkish populations over Anatolia, before Osman's time, was in main part a push from the Mongol conquest of Central Asia, Iran and then East Anatolia. Turkish peoples had founded a number of principalities after the demise of the Anatolian Sultanate of Rum, after its defeat by the Ilkhanate Mongols. Although they were all of Turkish stock, they were all rivals for dominant status in Anatolia. After the Byzantine defeat of the Battle of Pelekanon, Orhan developed friendly relations with Andronicus III Palaeologus, and maintained them with some of his successors. Therefore, the Ottoman power experienced a twenty-year period of general repose. However, as the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347 dissipated the last resources of the Byzantine Empire, the auxiliary armies of the Emirs of Turkish principalities were frequently called over and employed in Europe. In 1346, The Emperor John VI Cantacuzene recognised Orhan as the most powerful sovereign of the Turks. He aspired to attach the Ottoman forces permanently to his interests, and hoped to achieve this by giving his second daughter, Theodora, in marriage to their ruler, despite differences of creed and the disparity of age. However, in Byzantine and in Western European history, dynastic marriages were quite usual and there are many examples which were much more strange. The splendour of the wedding between Orhan and Theodora at Selymbria (Silivri) is elaborately described by Byzantine writers. In the following year, Orhan and Theodora visited his imperial father-in-law at Üsküdar, (then Chrysopolis) the suburb of Constantinople on the Asiatic side of the Bosporus where there was a display of festive splendor. However, this close relationship soured when Byzantines suffered from marauding migrant Turcoman bands that had crossed the Marmara Sea and Dardanelles and pillaged several towns in Thrace. After a series of such raids, the Byzantines had to use superior forces to deal with them. Ibn Battuta gave the following account of Orhan during his reign: Decline of Byzantine Empire During Orhan's reign as the Ottoman emir, the Byzantine Empire declined – partly due to the ambitions of Italian maritime states and to the aggression of the Turcomans and other city Turks, but also due to civil wars within the empire. During these years the Byzantine Empire became so weak that commercial supremacy in the surrounding seas around it became a bone of contention for the Italian maritime commercial city states. The Republic of Genoa possessed Galata, a separate Genoese city across the Golden Horn from Constantinople itself. The Genoese had fought the Byzantines earlier in 1348 when the Byzantines had decreased their customs tariffs in order to attract trade to the Byzantine side of the Golden Horn. In 1352 the rivalry for trade led to a war between Genoa and Venice. The Genoese, in trying to repel a Venetian fleet from destroying their ships in Golden Horn, bombarded the sea walls of Constantinople and pushed the Byzantines to ally with the Venetians. The Venetians assembled a large naval force, including hired fleets from Peter IV of Aragon and from the Byzantine Empire of John VI Cantacuzene. The sea battle between the Venetian fleet under the command of Niccolo Pisani and the Genoese fleet under Paganino Doria led to defeat of Venetians and their Byzantine allies. Orhan opposed the Venetians, whose fleets and piratical raids were disrupting his seaward provinces, and who had met his diplomatic overtures with contempt. The Venetians were allies of John VI, so Orhan sent an auxiliary force across the straits to Galata, which there co-operated with the Genoese. In the midst of the distress and confusion that the Byzantine Empire now suffered, Orhan's eldest son, Suleyman Pasha, captured the Castle of Tzympe (Cinbi) in a bold move which gave the Turks a permanent foothold on the European side of the Dardanelles Straits. He also started to settle migrant Turcomans and town-dwelling Turks in the strategic city and castle of Gelibolu (Gallipoli), which had been devastated by a severe earthquake and was therefore evacuated by its inhabitants. Suleyman refused various financial inducements offered by John VI to empty the castle and the city. The emperor pleaded with his son-in-law Orhan to meet personally and discuss the matter, but the request was either rejected or could not be carried out due to Orhan's age and ill-health. This military situation remained unresolved, in part because of the eruption of hostilities | vast majority of the oriental writers concur in attributing to Alaeddin the introduction of laws respecting the costume of the various subjects of the empire, and the creation and funding of a standing army of regular troops. It was by his advice and that of a contemporary Turkish statesman that the celebrated corps of Janissaries was formed, an institution which European writers erroneously fix at a later date, and ascribe to Murad I. Janissaries Alaeddin, by his military legislation, may be truly said to have organized victory for the Ottoman dynasty. He organised for the Ottoman Beylik a standing army of regularly paid and disciplined infantry and horses, a full century before Charles VII of France established his fifteen permanent companies of men-at-arms, which are generally regarded as the first modern standing army. Orhan's predecessors, Ertuğrul and Osman I, had made war at the head of the armed vassals and volunteers. This army rode on horseback to their prince's banner when summoned for each expedition, and were disbanded as soon as the campaign was over. Alaeddin determined to ensure any future success by forming a corps of paid infantry, which was to be kept in constant readiness for service. These troops were called Yaya, or piyade. They were divided into tens, hundreds, and thousands with their commanders. Their pay was high, and their pride soon caused their sovereign some anxiety. Orhan wished to provide a check to them, and he took counsel for this purpose with his brother Alaeddin and Kara Khalil Çandarlı (of House of Candar), who was connected with the royal house by marriage. Çandarlı laid before his master and the vizier a project. Out of this arose the renowned corps of Janissaries, which was considered the scourge of the Balkans and Central Europe for a long time, until it was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826. Çandarlı proposed to Orhan to create an army entirely composed of the children of conquered places. Çandarlı argued that: He also claimed that the formation of Janissary out of conquered children would induce other people to adopt, not only out of the children of the conquered nations, but out of a crowd of their friends and relations, who would come as volunteers to join the Ottoman ranks. Acting on this advice, Orhan selected a thousand of the finest boys from conquered Christian families. The recruits were trained according to their individual abilities, and employed in posts ranging from professional soldier to Grand Vizier. This practice continued for centuries, until the reign of Sultan Mehmet IV. Politics Initial expansion Orhan, with the help of Ghazi commanders at the head of his forces of light cavalry, started a series of conquests of Byzantine territories in northwest Anatolia. First, in 1321, Mudanya was captured on the Sea of Marmara, which was the port of Bursa. He then sent a column under Konur Alp towards West Black Sea coast; another column under Aqueda to capture Kocaeli, and finally a column to capture the southeast coast of the Sea of Marmara. Then, he captured the city of Bursa just with diplomatic negotiations. The Byzantine commander of the Bursa fort, called Evrenos Bey, became a commander of a light cavalry force and even his sons and grandsons served Ottoman Beylik in this capacity to conquer and hold many areas in Balkans. Once the city of Bursa was captured, Orhan sent cavalry troops towards Bosphorus, capturing Byzantine coastal towns of Marmara. There were even sightings of Ottoman light cavalry along the Bosphoros coast. The Byzantine Emperor Andronicus III gathered together a mercenary army and set off towards Anatolia on the peninsular lands of Kocaeli. But at the present towns of Darica, at a site then called Pelekanon, not too far from Üsküdar, he met with Orhan's troops. In the ensuing battle of Pelekanon, the Byzantine forces were routed by Orhan's disciplined troops. Thereafter Andronicus abandoned the idea of getting the Kocaeli lands back and never again conducted a field battle against the Ottoman forces. The city of Nicaea (second only to Constantinople in the Byzantine Empire) surrendered to him after a three-year siege that concluded in 1331. The city of Nicomedia (now Izmit) was also captured, in 1337. Orhan gave the command of it to his eldest son, Suleyman Pasha, who had directed the operations of the siege. In 1338 by capturing Scutari (now Üsküdar) most of Northwest Anatolia was in Ottoman hands. The Byzantines still controlled the coastal strip from Sile on the Black Sea to Scutari and the city of Amastris (now Amasra) in Paphlagonia, but these were so scattered and isolated as to be no threat to the Ottomans. Then, there was a change of strategy in 1345. Instead of aiming to gain land from non-Muslims, Orhan took over a Turkish principality, Karesi (present Balıkesir and surrounds). According to Islamic philosophy of war, the areas under Islamic rule were to be abodes of peace and the other areas abodes of war. In abodes of war conducting a war was considered a good deed. Karesi principality was a state governed by a Turkish emir and its main inhabitants were Turkish; so it was an abode of peace. Ottomans had to have special justification for conquering fellow Muslim Turkish principalities. In the case of Karesi, the ruler had died and had left two sons whose claims to the post of Emir were equally valid. So there was a fight between the armed supporters of the two claimant princes. Orhan's pretext for invasion was that he was acting as |
was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 26 February 1618 until his regicide on 20 May 1622. Early life Osman II was born at Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ahmed I (1603–17) and one of his consorts Mahfiruz Hatun. According to later traditions, at a young age, his mother had paid a great deal of attention to Osman's education, as a result of which Osman II became a known poet and was believed to have mastered many languages, including Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin, and Italian; although this has since been refuted. Osman was born eleven months after his father Ahmed's transition to the throne. He was trained in the palace. According to foreign observers, he was one of the most cultured of Ottoman princes. Osman's failure to capture the throne at the death of his father Ahmed might have been caused by the absence of a mother to lobby in his favour; his own mother was probably already dead or in exile. Reign Osman II ascended the throne at the age of 14 as the result of a coup d'état against his uncle Mustafa I "the Intestable" (1617–18, 1622–23). Despite his youth, Osman II soon sought to assert himself as a ruler, and after securing the empire's eastern border by signing a peace treaty (Treaty of Serav) with Safavid Persia, he personally led the Ottoman campaign against Poland and King Sigismund III during the Moldavian Magnate Wars. Forced to sign a humiliating peace treaty with the Poles after the Battle of Khotyn (Chocim) in September–October, 1621, Osman II returned home to Constantinople in shame, blaming the cowardice of the Janissaries and the insufficiency of his statesmen for his humiliation. The basic and exceptional weakness from which Osman II suffered was the conspicuous absence of a female power basis in the harem. From 1620 until Osman's death, a governess (daye hatun, lit. wet-nurse) was appointed as a stand-in valide, and she could not counterbalance the contriving of Mustafa I's mother in the Old Palace. Although he did have a loyal chief black eunuch at his side, this could not compensate for the absence of what in the politics of that period was a winning combination, valide sultan–chief black eunuch, especially in the case of a young and very ambitious ruler. According to Piterberg, Osman II did not have haseki sultan, opposite with Peirce who claim that Ayşe was Osman's haseki. But it is clear that Ayşe could not take valide's role during her spouse's reign. In the autumn of 1620, Özi Beylerbeyi İskender | a loyal chief black eunuch at his side, this could not compensate for the absence of what in the politics of that period was a winning combination, valide sultan–chief black eunuch, especially in the case of a young and very ambitious ruler. According to Piterberg, Osman II did not have haseki sultan, opposite with Peirce who claim that Ayşe was Osman's haseki. But it is clear that Ayşe could not take valide's role during her spouse's reign. In the autumn of 1620, Özi Beylerbeyi İskender Pasha seized the secret letter sent by Transylvanian Prince Bethlen Gabor to Istanbul and sent it to Poland, and Osman also became a veteran of the people around him. He decided to embark on a Polish expedition. Continuing preparations for the Polish campaign, neither cold nor famine nor the British ambassador John Eyre could deter Osman. The ambassador of Sigismund III, the King of Poland, was brought into Istanbul despite the severe colds. The janissaries and army were not willing to go on a campaign, regardless of their conditions. Great winter of 1621 Following the murder of Şehzade Mehmed on 12 January 1621, a severe snow started in Istanbul. The people of Istanbul were drastically affected by the cold, which increased local violence on 24 January 1621, more so than the palace murder. This is the biggest natural disaster that concerns the capital in Osman's four-year short reign. Bostanzade Yahya Efendi, one of those who lived through this cold, tells that the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus were covered with ice in the end of January-beginning of February: "Between Üsküdar and Beşiktaş, the men walk around and go to Üsküdar. They came from Istanbul on foot. And the year became a gala (famine). It was snowing for 15 days, that the frosts were frozen from the severity of the cold, but that the river was open between Sarayburnu and Üsküdar. For this natural disaster, thirty thousand froze between Üsküdar and Istanbul from the cold," Haşimi Çelebi, "The road became Üsküdar, the Mediterranean froze a thousand thirty". As a result of the inconvenience of the Zahire ships, there was a complete famine in Istanbul, and 75 dirhams of bread jumped to one akche, and the oak of the meat to 15 akches. Death Seeking a counterweight to Janissary influence, Osman |
to commercial compilers. Characteristics Features characterizing the Oberon language include: Case sensitive syntax with uppercase keywords Type-extension with type test Modules and separate compiling String operations Isolating unsafe code Support for system programming Object orientation Oberon supports extension of record types for the construction of abstractions and heterogeneous structures. In contrast to the later dialects, Oberon-2 and Active Oberon, the original Oberon lacks a dispatch mechanism as a language feature but has it as a programming technique or design pattern. This gives great flexibility in OOP. In the Oberon operating system, two programming techniques are used together for the dispatch call: Method suite and Message handler. Method suite In this technique, a table of procedure variables is defined and a global variable of this type is declared in the extended module and assigned back in the generic module: MODULE Figures; (* Abstract module *) TYPE Figure* = POINTER TO FigureDesc; Interface* = POINTER TO InterfaceDesc; InterfaceDesc* = RECORD draw* : PROCEDURE (f : Figure); clear* : PROCEDURE (f : Figure); mark* : PROCEDURE (f : Figure); move* : PROCEDURE (f : Figure; dx, dy : INTEGER); END; FigureDesc* = RECORD if : Interface; END; PROCEDURE Init* (f : Figure; if : Interface); BEGIN f.if := if END Init; PROCEDURE Draw* (f : Figure); BEGIN f.if.draw(f) END Draw; (* Other procedures here *) END Figures. We extend the generic type Figure to a specific shape: MODULE Rectangles; IMPORT Figures; TYPE Rectangle* = POINTER TO RectangleDesc; RectangleDesc* = RECORD (Figures.FigureDesc) x, y, w, h : INTEGER; END; VAR if : Figures.Interface; PROCEDURE New* (VAR r : Rectangle); BEGIN NEW(r); Figures.Init(r, if) END New; PROCEDURE Draw* (f : Figure); VAR r : Rectangle; BEGIN r := f(Rectangle); (* f AS Rectangle *) (* ... *) END Draw; (* Other procedures here *) BEGIN (* Module initialisation *) NEW(if); if.draw := Draw; if.clear := Clear; if.mark := Mark; if.move := Move END Rectangles. Dynamic dispatch is only done via procedures in Figures module that is the generic module. Message handler This technique consists of replacing the set of methods with a single procedure, which discriminates among the various methods: MODULE Figures; (* Abstract module *) TYPE Figure* = POINTER TO FigureDesc; Message* = RECORD END; DrawMsg* = RECORD (Message) END; ClearMsg* = RECORD (Message) END; MarkMsg* = RECORD (Message) END; MoveMsg* = RECORD (Message) dx*, dy* : INTEGER END; Handler* = PROCEDURE (f : Figure; VAR msg : Message); FigureDesc* = RECORD (* Abstract *) handle : Handler; END; PROCEDURE Handle* (f : Figure; VAR msg : Message); BEGIN f.handle(f, msg) END Handle; PROCEDURE Init* (f : Figure; handle : Handler); BEGIN f.handle := handle END Init; END Figures. We extend the generic type Figure to a specific shape: MODULE Rectangles; IMPORT Figures; TYPE Rectangle* = POINTER TO RectangleDesc; RectangleDesc* = RECORD (Figures.FigureDesc) x, y, w, h : INTEGER; END; PROCEDURE Draw* (r : Rectangle); BEGIN (* ... *) END Draw; (* Other procedures here *) PROCEDURE Handle* (f: Figure; VAR msg: Figures.Message); VAR r : Rectangle; BEGIN r := f(Rectangle); IF msg IS Figures.DrawMsg THEN Draw(r) ELSIF msg IS Figures.MarkMsg THEN Mark(r) ELSIF msg IS Figures.MoveMsg THEN Move(r, msg(Figures.MoveMsg).dx, msg(Figures.MoveMsg).dy) ELSE (* ignore *) END END Handle; PROCEDURE New* (VAR r : Rectangle); BEGIN NEW(r); Figures.Init(r, Handle) END New; END Rectangles. In the Oberon operating system both of these techniques are used for dynamic dispatch. The first one is used for a known set of methods; the second is used for any new methods declared in the extension module. For example, if the extension module Rectangles were to implement a new Rotate() procedure, within the Figures module it could only be called via a message handler. Implementations and variants Oberon No-cost implementations of Oberon (the language) and Oberon (the operating system) can be found on the Internet (several are from ETHZ itself). Oberon-2 A few changes were made to the first released specification. For example, object-oriented programming (OOP) features were added, the FOR loop was reinstated. The result was Oberon-2. One release, named Native Oberon which includes an operating system, and can directly boot on IBM PC compatible class hardware. A .NET implementation of Oberon with the addition of some minor .NET-related extensions was also developed at ETHZ. In 1993, an ETHZ spin off company brought a dialect of Oberon-2 to the market named Oberon-L. In 1997, it was renamed Component Pascal. Oberon-2 compilers developed by ETH include versions for Microsoft Windows, Linux, Solaris, and classic Mac OS. Implementations from other sources exist for some other operating systems, including Atari TOS and AmigaOS. There is an Oberon-2 Lex scanner and Yacc parser by Stephen J Bevan of Manchester University, UK, based on the one in the Mössenböck and Wirth reference. It is at version 1.4. Other compilers include Oxford Oberon-2, which also understands Oberon-07, and Vishap Oberon. The latter is based on Josef Templ's Oberon to C language source-to-source compiler (transpiler) named Ofront, which in turn is based on the OP2 Compiler developed | POINTER TO InterfaceDesc; InterfaceDesc* = RECORD draw* : PROCEDURE (f : Figure); clear* : PROCEDURE (f : Figure); mark* : PROCEDURE (f : Figure); move* : PROCEDURE (f : Figure; dx, dy : INTEGER); END; FigureDesc* = RECORD if : Interface; END; PROCEDURE Init* (f : Figure; if : Interface); BEGIN f.if := if END Init; PROCEDURE Draw* (f : Figure); BEGIN f.if.draw(f) END Draw; (* Other procedures here *) END Figures. We extend the generic type Figure to a specific shape: MODULE Rectangles; IMPORT Figures; TYPE Rectangle* = POINTER TO RectangleDesc; RectangleDesc* = RECORD (Figures.FigureDesc) x, y, w, h : INTEGER; END; VAR if : Figures.Interface; PROCEDURE New* (VAR r : Rectangle); BEGIN NEW(r); Figures.Init(r, if) END New; PROCEDURE Draw* (f : Figure); VAR r : Rectangle; BEGIN r := f(Rectangle); (* f AS Rectangle *) (* ... *) END Draw; (* Other procedures here *) BEGIN (* Module initialisation *) NEW(if); if.draw := Draw; if.clear := Clear; if.mark := Mark; if.move := Move END Rectangles. Dynamic dispatch is only done via procedures in Figures module that is the generic module. Message handler This technique consists of replacing the set of methods with a single procedure, which discriminates among the various methods: MODULE Figures; (* Abstract module *) TYPE Figure* = POINTER TO FigureDesc; Message* = RECORD END; DrawMsg* = RECORD (Message) END; ClearMsg* = RECORD (Message) END; MarkMsg* = RECORD (Message) END; MoveMsg* = RECORD (Message) dx*, dy* : INTEGER END; Handler* = PROCEDURE (f : Figure; VAR msg : Message); FigureDesc* = RECORD (* Abstract *) handle : Handler; END; PROCEDURE Handle* (f : Figure; VAR msg : Message); BEGIN f.handle(f, msg) END Handle; PROCEDURE Init* (f : Figure; handle : Handler); BEGIN f.handle := handle END Init; END Figures. We extend the generic type Figure to a specific shape: MODULE Rectangles; IMPORT Figures; TYPE Rectangle* = POINTER TO RectangleDesc; RectangleDesc* = RECORD (Figures.FigureDesc) x, y, w, h : INTEGER; END; PROCEDURE Draw* (r : Rectangle); BEGIN (* ... *) END Draw; (* Other procedures here *) PROCEDURE Handle* (f: Figure; VAR msg: Figures.Message); VAR r : Rectangle; BEGIN r := f(Rectangle); IF msg IS Figures.DrawMsg THEN Draw(r) ELSIF msg IS Figures.MarkMsg THEN Mark(r) ELSIF msg IS Figures.MoveMsg THEN Move(r, msg(Figures.MoveMsg).dx, msg(Figures.MoveMsg).dy) ELSE (* ignore *) END END Handle; PROCEDURE New* (VAR r : Rectangle); BEGIN NEW(r); Figures.Init(r, Handle) END New; END Rectangles. In the Oberon operating system both of these techniques are used for dynamic dispatch. The first one is used for a known set of methods; the second is used for any new methods declared in the extension module. For example, if the extension module Rectangles were to implement a new Rotate() procedure, within the Figures module it could only be called via a message handler. Implementations and variants Oberon No-cost implementations of Oberon (the language) and Oberon (the operating system) can be found on the Internet (several are from ETHZ itself). Oberon-2 A few changes were made to the first released specification. For example, object-oriented programming (OOP) features were added, the FOR loop was reinstated. The result was Oberon-2. One release, named Native Oberon which includes an operating system, and can directly boot on IBM PC compatible class hardware. A .NET implementation of Oberon with the addition of some minor .NET-related extensions was also developed at ETHZ. In 1993, an ETHZ spin off company brought a dialect of Oberon-2 to the market named Oberon-L. In 1997, it was renamed Component Pascal. Oberon-2 compilers developed by ETH include versions for Microsoft Windows, Linux, Solaris, and classic Mac OS. Implementations from other sources exist for some other operating systems, including Atari TOS and AmigaOS. There is an Oberon-2 Lex scanner and Yacc parser by Stephen J Bevan of Manchester University, UK, based on the one in the Mössenböck and Wirth reference. It is at version 1.4. Other compilers include Oxford Oberon-2, which also understands Oberon-07, and Vishap Oberon. The latter is based on Josef Templ's Oberon to C language source-to-source compiler (transpiler) named Ofront, which in turn is based on the OP2 Compiler developed by Regis Crelier at ETHZ. Oberon-07 Oberon-07, defined by Niklaus Wirth in 2007 and revised in 2008, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016 is based on the original version of Oberon rather than Oberon-2. The main changes are: explicit numeric conversion functions (e.g., FLOOR and FLT) must be used, the WITH, LOOP and |
to open source a version of IrisGL as a public standard called OpenGL. However, SGI had many customers for whom the change from IrisGL to OpenGL would demand significant investment. Moreover, IrisGL had API functions that were irrelevant to 3D graphics. For example, it included a windowing, keyboard and mouse API, in part because it was developed before the X Window System and Sun's NeWS. And, IrisGL libraries were unsuitable for opening due to licensing and patent issues. These factors required SGI to continue to support the advanced and proprietary Iris Inventor and Iris Performer programming APIs while market support for OpenGL matured. One of the restrictions of IrisGL was that it only provided access to features supported by the underlying hardware. If the graphics hardware did not support a feature natively, then the application could not use it. OpenGL overcame this problem by providing software implementations of features unsupported by hardware, allowing applications to use advanced graphics on relatively low-powered systems. OpenGL standardized access to hardware, pushed the development responsibility of hardware interface programs (device drivers) to hardware manufacturers, and delegated windowing functions to the underlying operating system. With so many different kinds of graphics hardware, getting them all to speak the same language in this way had a remarkable impact by giving software developers a higher-level platform for 3D-software development. In 1992, SGI led the creation of the OpenGL Architecture Review Board (OpenGL ARB), the group of companies that would maintain and expand the OpenGL specification in the future. In 1994, SGI played with the idea of releasing something called "OpenGL++" which included elements such as a scene-graph API (presumably based on their Performer technology). The specification was circulated among a few interested parties – but never turned into a product. Microsoft released Direct3D in 1995, which eventually became the main competitor of OpenGL. Over 50 game developers signed an open letter to Microsoft, released on June 12, 1997, calling on the company to actively support Open GL. On December 17, 1997, Microsoft and SGI initiated the Fahrenheit project, which was a joint effort with the goal of unifying the OpenGL and Direct3D interfaces (and adding a scene-graph API too). In 1998, Hewlett-Packard joined the project. It initially showed some promise of bringing order to the world of interactive 3D computer graphics APIs, but on account of financial constraints at SGI, strategic reasons at Microsoft, and a general lack of industry support, it was abandoned in 1999. In July 2006, the OpenGL Architecture Review Board voted to transfer control of the OpenGL API standard to the Khronos Group. Version history The first version of OpenGL, version 1.0, was released on June 30, 1992, by Mark Segal and Kurt Akeley. Since then, OpenGL has occasionally been extended by releasing a new version of the specification. Such releases define a baseline set of features which all conforming graphics cards must support, and against which new extensions can more easily be written. Each new version of OpenGL tends to incorporate several extensions which have widespread support among graphics-card vendors, although the details of those extensions may be changed. OpenGL 2.0 Release date: September 7, 2004 OpenGL 2.0 was originally conceived by 3Dlabs to address concerns that OpenGL was stagnating and lacked a strong direction. 3Dlabs proposed a number of major additions to the standard. Most of these were, at the time, rejected by the ARB or otherwise never came to fruition in the form that 3Dlabs proposed. However, their proposal for a C-style shading language was eventually completed, resulting in the current formulation of the OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL or GLslang). Like the assembly-like shading languages it was replacing, it allowed replacing the fixed-function vertex and fragment pipe with shaders, though this time written in a C-like high-level language. The design of GLSL was notable for making relatively few concessions to the limits of the hardware then available. This harked back to the earlier tradition of OpenGL setting an ambitious, forward-looking target for 3D accelerators rather than merely tracking the state of currently available hardware. The final OpenGL 2.0 specification includes support for GLSL. Longs Peak and OpenGL 3.0 Before the release of OpenGL 3.0, the new revision had the codename Longs Peak. At the time of its original announcement, Longs Peak was presented as the first major API revision in OpenGL's lifetime. It consisted of an overhaul to the way that OpenGL works, calling for fundamental changes to the API. The draft introduced a change to object management. The GL 2.1 object model was built upon the state-based design of OpenGL. That is, to modify an object or to use it, one needs to bind the object to the state system, then make modifications to the state or perform function calls that use the bound object. Because of OpenGL's use of a state system, objects must be mutable. That is, the basic structure of an object can change at any time, even if the rendering pipeline is asynchronously using that object. A texture object can be redefined from 2D to 3D. This requires any OpenGL implementations to add a degree of complexity to internal object management. Under the Longs Peak API, object creation would become atomic, using templates to define the properties of an object which would be created with one function call. The object could then be used immediately across multiple threads. Objects would also be immutable; however, they could have their contents changed and updated. For example, a texture could change its image, but its size and format could not be changed. To support backwards compatibility, the old state based API would still be available, but no new functionality would be exposed via the old API in later versions of OpenGL. This would have allowed legacy code bases, such as the majority of CAD products, to continue to run while other software could be written against or ported to the new API. Longs Peak was initially due to be finalized in September 2007 under the name OpenGL 3.0, but the Khronos Group announced on October 30 that it had run into several issues that it wished to address before releasing the specification. As a result, the spec was delayed, and the Khronos Group went into a media blackout until the release of the final OpenGL 3.0 spec. The final specification proved far less revolutionary than the Longs Peak proposal. Instead of removing all immediate mode and fixed functionality (non-shader mode), the spec included them as deprecated features. The proposed object model was not included, and no plans have been announced to include it in any future revisions. As a result, the API remained largely the same with a few existing extensions being promoted to core functionality. Among some developer groups this decision caused something of an uproar, with many developers professing that they would switch to DirectX in protest. Most complaints revolved around the lack of communication by Khronos to the development community and multiple features being discarded that were viewed favorably by many. Other frustrations included the requirement of DirectX 10 level hardware to use OpenGL 3.0 and the absence of geometry shaders and instanced rendering as core features. Other sources reported that the community reaction was not quite as severe as originally presented, with many vendors showing support for the update. OpenGL 3.0 Release date: August 11, 2008 OpenGL 3.0 introduced a deprecation mechanism to simplify future revisions of the API. Certain features, marked as deprecated, could be completely disabled by requesting a forward-compatible context from the windowing system. OpenGL 3.0 features could still be accessed alongside these deprecated features, however, by requesting a full context. Deprecated features include: All fixed-function vertex and fragment processing Direct-mode rendering, using glBegin and glEnd Display lists Indexed-color rendering targets OpenGL Shading Language versions 1.10 and 1.20 OpenGL 3.1 Release date: March 24, 2009 OpenGL 3.1 fully removed all of the features which were deprecated in version 3.0, with the exception of wide lines. From this version onwards, it's not possible to access new features using a full context, or to access deprecated features using a forward-compatible context. An exception to the former rule is made if the implementation supports the ARB_compatibility extension, but this is not guaranteed. Hardware: Mesa supports ARM Panfrost with Version 21.0. OpenGL 3.2 Release date: August 3, 2009 OpenGL 3.2 further built on the deprecation mechanisms introduced by OpenGL 3.0, by dividing the specification into a core profile and compatibility profile. Compatibility contexts include the previously-removed fixed-function APIs, equivalent to the ARB_compatibility extension released alongside OpenGL 3.1, while core contexts do not. OpenGL 3.2 also included an upgrade to GLSL version 1.50. OpenGL 3.3 Release date: March 11, 2010 Mesa supports software Driver SWR, softpipe and for older Nvidia cards with NV50. OpenGL 4.0 Release date: March 11, 2010 OpenGL 4.0 was released alongside version 3.3. It was designed for hardware able to support Direct3D 11. As in OpenGL 3.0, this version of OpenGL contains a high number of fairly inconsequential extensions, designed to thoroughly expose the abilities of Direct3D 11-class hardware. Only the most influential extensions are listed below. Hardware support: Nvidia GeForce 400 series and newer, AMD Radeon HD 5000 Series and newer (FP64 shaders implemented by emulation on some TeraScale GPUs), Intel HD Graphics in Intel Ivy Bridge processors and newer. OpenGL 4.1 Release date: July 26, 2010 Hardware support: Nvidia GeForce 400 series and newer, AMD Radeon HD 5000 Series and newer (FP64 shaders implemented by emulation on some TeraScale GPUs), Intel HD Graphics in Intel Ivy Bridge processors and newer. Minimum "maximum texture size" is 16,384 × 16,384 for GPU's implementing this specification. OpenGL 4.2 Release date: August 8, 2011 Support for shaders with atomic counters and load-store-atomic read-modify-write operations to one level of a texture Drawing multiple instances of data captured from GPU vertex processing (including tessellation), to enable complex objects to be efficiently repositioned and replicated Support for modifying an arbitrary subset of a compressed texture, without having to re-download the whole texture to the GPU for significant performance improvements Hardware support: Nvidia GeForce 400 series and newer, AMD Radeon HD 5000 Series and newer (FP64 shaders implemented by emulation on some TeraScale GPUs), and Intel HD Graphics in Intel Haswell processors and newer. (Linux Mesa: Ivy Bridge and newer) OpenGL 4.3 Release date: August 6, 2012 Compute shaders leveraging GPU parallelism within the context of the graphics pipeline Shader storage buffer objects, allowing shaders to read and write buffer objects like image load/store from 4.2, but through the language rather than function calls. Image format parameter queries ETC2/EAC texture compression as a standard feature Full compatibility with OpenGL ES 3.0 APIs Debug abilities to receive debugging messages during application development Texture views to interpret textures in different ways without data replication Increased memory security and multi-application robustness Hardware support: AMD Radeon HD 5000 Series and newer (FP64 shaders implemented by emulation on some TeraScale GPUs), Intel HD Graphics in Intel Haswell processors and newer. (Linux Mesa: Ivy Bridge without stencil texturing, Haswell and newer), Nvidia GeForce 400 series and newer. VIRGL Emulation for virtual machines supports | bindings, some of the most noteworthy being the JavaScript binding WebGL (API, based on OpenGL ES 2.0, for 3D rendering from within a web browser); the C bindings WGL, GLX and CGL; the C binding provided by iOS; and the Java and C bindings provided by Android. In addition to being language-independent, OpenGL is also cross-platform. The specification says nothing on the subject of obtaining and managing an OpenGL context, leaving this as a detail of the underlying windowing system. For the same reason, OpenGL is purely concerned with rendering, providing no APIs related to input, audio, or windowing. Development OpenGL is an actively developed API. New versions of the OpenGL specifications are regularly released by the Khronos Group, each of which extends the API to support various new features. The details of each version are decided by consensus between the Group's members, including graphics card manufacturers, operating system designers, and general technology companies such as Mozilla and Google. In addition to the features required by the core API, graphics processing unit (GPU) vendors may provide additional functionality in the form of extensions. Extensions may introduce new functions and new constants, and may relax or remove restrictions on existing OpenGL functions. Vendors can use extensions to expose custom APIs without needing support from other vendors or the Khronos Group as a whole, which greatly increases the flexibility of OpenGL. All extensions are collected in, and defined by, the OpenGL Registry. Each extension is associated with a short identifier, based on the name of the company which developed it. For example, Nvidia's identifier is NV, which is part of the extension name GL_NV_half_float, the constant GL_HALF_FLOAT_NV, and the function glVertex2hNV(). If multiple vendors agree to implement the same functionality using the same API, a shared extension may be released, using the identifier EXT. In such cases, it could also happen that the Khronos Group's Architecture Review Board gives the extension their explicit approval, in which case the identifier ARB is used. The features introduced by each new version of OpenGL are typically formed from the combined features of several widely implemented extensions, especially extensions of type ARB or EXT. Documentation The OpenGL Architecture Review Board released a series of manuals along with the specification which have been updated to track changes in the API. These are commonly referred to by the colors of their covers: The Red Book OpenGL Programming Guide, 9th Edition. The Official Guide to Learning OpenGL, Version 4.5 with SPIR-V The Orange Book OpenGL Shading Language, 3rd edition. A tutorial and reference book for GLSL. Historic books (pre-OpenGL 2.0): The Green Book OpenGL Programming for the X Window System. A book about X11 interfacing and OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT). The Blue Book OpenGL Reference manual, 4th edition. Essentially a hard-copy printout of the Unix manual (man) pages for OpenGL. Includes a poster-sized fold-out diagram showing the structure of an idealised OpenGL implementation. The Alpha Book (white cover) OpenGL Programming for Windows 95 and Windows NT. A book about interfacing OpenGL with Microsoft Windows. OpenGL's documentation is also accessible via its official webpage. Associated libraries The earliest versions of OpenGL were released with a companion library called the OpenGL Utility Library (GLU). It provided simple, useful features which were unlikely to be supported in contemporary hardware, such as tessellating, and generating mipmaps and primitive shapes. The GLU specification was last updated in 1998 and depends on OpenGL features which are now deprecated. Context and window toolkits Given that creating an OpenGL context is quite a complex process, and given that it varies between operating systems, automatic OpenGL context creation has become a common feature of several game-development and user-interface libraries, including SDL, Allegro, SFML, FLTK, and Qt. A few libraries have been designed solely to produce an OpenGL-capable window. The first such library was OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT), later superseded by freeglut. GLFW is a newer alternative. These toolkits are designed to create and manage OpenGL windows, and manage input, but little beyond that. GLFW – A cross-platform windowing and keyboard-mouse-joystick handler; is more game-oriented freeglut – A cross-platform windowing and keyboard-mouse handler; its API is a superset of the GLUT API, and it is more stable and up to date than GLUT OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) – An old windowing handler, no longer maintained. Several "multimedia libraries" can create OpenGL windows, in addition to input, sound and other tasks useful for game-like applications Allegro 5 – A cross-platform multimedia library with a C API focused on game development Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL) – A cross-platform multimedia library with a C API SFML – A cross-platform multimedia library with a C++ API and multiple other bindings to languages such as C#, Java, Haskell, and Go Widget toolkits FLTK – A small cross-platform C++ widget library Qt – A cross-platform C++ widget toolkit. It provides many OpenGL helper objects, which even abstract away the difference between desktop GL and OpenGL ES wxWidgets – A cross-platform C++ widget toolkit Extension loading libraries Given the high workload involved in identifying and loading OpenGL extensions, a few libraries have been designed which load all available extensions and functions automatically. Examples include OpenGL Easy Extension library (GLEE), OpenGL Extension Wrangler Library (GLEW) and glbinding. Extensions are also loaded automatically by most language bindings, such as JOGL and PyOpenGL. Implementations Mesa 3D is an open-source implementation of OpenGL. It can do pure software rendering, and it may also use hardware acceleration on BSD, Linux, and other platforms by taking advantage of the Direct Rendering Infrastructure. As of version 20.0, it implements version 4.6 of the OpenGL standard. History In the 1980s, developing software that could function with a wide range of graphics hardware was a real challenge. Software developers wrote custom interfaces and drivers for each piece of hardware. This was expensive and resulted in multiplication of effort. By the early 1990s, Silicon Graphics (SGI) was a leader in 3D graphics for workstations. Their IRIS GL API became the industry standard, used more widely than the open standards-based PHIGS. This was because IRIS GL was considered easier to use, and because it supported immediate mode rendering. By contrast, |
the center of force. Let be the distance between the object and the center and be the angle it has rotated. Let and be the standard Euclidean bases and let and be the radial and transverse polar basis with the first being the unit vector pointing from the central body to the current location of the orbiting object and the second being the orthogonal unit vector pointing in the direction that the orbiting object would travel if orbiting in a counter clockwise circle. Then the vector to the orbiting object is We use and to denote the standard derivatives of how this distance and angle change over time. We take the derivative of a vector to see how it changes over time by subtracting its location at time from that at time and dividing by . The result is also a vector. Because our basis vector moves as the object orbits, we start by differentiating it. From time to , the vector keeps its beginning at the origin and rotates from angle to which moves its head a distance in the perpendicular direction giving a derivative of . We can now find the velocity and acceleration of our orbiting object. The coefficients of and give the accelerations in the radial and transverse directions. As said, Newton gives this first due to gravity is and the second is zero. Equation (2) can be rearranged using integration by parts. We can multiply through by because it is not zero unless the orbiting object crashes. Then having the derivative be zero gives that the function is a constant. which is actually the theoretical proof of Kepler's second law (A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time). The constant of integration, h, is the angular momentum per unit mass. In order to get an equation for the orbit from equation (1), we need to eliminate time. (See also Binet equation.) In polar coordinates, this would express the distance of the orbiting object from the center as a function of its angle . However, it is easier to introduce the auxiliary variable and to express as a function of . Derivatives of with respect to time may be rewritten as derivatives of with respect to angle. (reworking (3)) Plugging these into (1) gives So for the gravitational force – or, more generally, for any inverse square force law – the right hand side of the equation becomes a constant and the equation is seen to be the harmonic equation (up to a shift of origin of the dependent variable). The solution is: where A and θ0 are arbitrary constants. This resulting equation of the orbit of the object is that of an ellipse in Polar form relative to one of the focal points. This is put into a more standard form by letting be the eccentricity, letting be the semi-major axis. Finally, letting so the long axis of the ellipse is along the positive x coordinate. When the two-body system is under the influence of torque, the angular momentum h is not a constant. After the following calculation: we will get the Sturm-Liouville equation of two-body system. Relativistic orbital motion The above classical (Newtonian) analysis of orbital mechanics assumes that the more subtle effects of general relativity, such as frame dragging and gravitational time dilation are negligible. Relativistic effects cease to be negligible when near very massive bodies (as with the precession of Mercury's orbit about the Sun), or when extreme precision is needed (as with calculations of the orbital elements and time signal references for GPS satellites.). Orbital planes The analysis so far has been two dimensional; it turns out that an unperturbed orbit is two-dimensional in a plane fixed in space, and thus the extension to three dimensions requires simply rotating the two-dimensional plane into the required angle relative to the poles of the planetary body involved. The rotation to do this in three dimensions requires three numbers to uniquely determine; traditionally these are expressed as three angles. Orbital period The orbital period is simply how long an orbiting body takes to complete one orbit. Specifying orbits Six parameters are required to specify a Keplerian orbit about a body. For example, the three numbers that specify the body's initial position, and the three values that specify its velocity will define a unique orbit that can be calculated forwards (or backwards) in time. However, traditionally the parameters used are slightly different. The traditionally used set of orbital elements is called the set of Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his laws. The Keplerian elements are six: Inclination (i) Longitude of the ascending node (Ω) Argument of periapsis (ω) Eccentricity (e) Semimajor axis (a) Mean anomaly at epoch (M0). In principle, once the orbital elements are known for a body, its position can be calculated forward and backward indefinitely in time. However, in practice, orbits are affected or perturbed, by other forces than simple gravity from an assumed point source (see the next section), and thus the orbital elements change over time. Orbital perturbations An orbital perturbation is when a force or impulse which is much smaller than the overall force or average impulse of the main gravitating body and which is external to the two orbiting bodies causes an acceleration, which changes the parameters of the orbit over time. Radial, prograde and transverse perturbations A small radial impulse given to a body in orbit changes the eccentricity, but not the orbital period (to first order). A prograde or retrograde impulse (i.e. an impulse applied along the orbital motion) changes both the eccentricity and the orbital period. Notably, a prograde impulse at periapsis raises the altitude at apoapsis, and vice versa and a retrograde impulse does the opposite. A transverse impulse (out of the orbital plane) causes rotation of the orbital plane without changing the period or eccentricity. In all instances, a closed orbit will still intersect the perturbation point. Orbital decay If an orbit is about a planetary body with a significant atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of drag. Particularly at each periapsis, the object experiences atmospheric drag, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric (more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower. With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and intersect the central body. The bounds of an atmosphere vary wildly. During a solar maximum, the Earth's atmosphere causes drag up to a hundred kilometres higher than during a solar minimum. Some satellites with long conductive tethers can also experience orbital decay because of electromagnetic drag from the Earth's magnetic field. As the wire cuts the magnetic field it acts as a generator, moving electrons from one end to the other. The orbital energy is converted to heat in the wire. Orbits can be artificially influenced through the use of rocket engines which change the kinetic energy of the body at some point in its path. This is the conversion of chemical or electrical energy to kinetic energy. In this way changes in the orbit shape or orientation can be facilitated. Another method of artificially influencing an orbit is through the use of solar sails or magnetic sails. These forms of propulsion require no propellant or energy input other than that of the Sun, and so can be used indefinitely. See statite for one such proposed use. Orbital decay can occur due to tidal forces for objects below the synchronous orbit for the body they're orbiting. The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit, the orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it. The gravity of the bulges is slightly off of the primary-satellite axis and thus has a component along with the satellite's motion. The near bulge slows the object more than the far bulge speeds it up, and as a result, the orbit decays. Conversely, the gravity of the satellite on the bulges applies torque on the primary and speeds up its rotation. Artificial satellites are too small to have an appreciable tidal effect on the planets they orbit, but several moons in the Solar System are undergoing orbital decay by this mechanism. Mars' innermost moon Phobos is a prime example and is expected to either impact Mars' surface or break up into a ring within 50 million years. Orbits can decay via the emission of gravitational waves. This mechanism is extremely weak for most stellar objects, only becoming significant in cases where there is a combination of extreme mass and extreme acceleration, such as with black holes or neutron stars that are orbiting each other closely. Oblateness The standard analysis of orbiting bodies assumes that all bodies consist of uniform spheres, or more generally, concentric shells each of uniform density. It can be shown that such bodies are gravitationally equivalent to point sources. However, in the real world, many bodies rotate, and this introduces oblateness and distorts the gravity field, and gives a quadrupole moment to the gravitational field which is significant at distances comparable to the radius of the body. In the general case, the gravitational potential of a rotating body such as, e.g., a planet is usually expanded in multipoles accounting for the departures of it from spherical symmetry. From the point of view of satellite dynamics, of particular relevance are the so-called even zonal harmonic coefficients, or even zonals, since they induce secular orbital perturbations which are cumulative over time spans longer than the orbital period. They do depend on the orientation of the body's symmetry axis in the space, affecting, in general, the whole orbit, with the exception of the semimajor axis. Multiple gravitating bodies The effects of other gravitating bodies can be significant. For example, the orbit of the Moon cannot be accurately described without allowing for the action of the Sun's gravity as well as the Earth's. One approximate result is that bodies will usually have reasonably stable orbits around a heavier planet or moon, in spite of these perturbations, provided they are orbiting well within the heavier body's Hill sphere. When there are more than two gravitating bodies it is referred to as an n-body problem. Most n-body problems have no closed form solution, although some special cases have been formulated. Light radiation and stellar wind For smaller bodies particularly, light and stellar wind can cause significant perturbations to the attitude and direction of motion of the body, and over time can be significant. Of the planetary bodies, the motion of asteroids is particularly affected over large periods when the asteroids are rotating relative to the Sun. Strange orbits Mathematicians have discovered that it is possible in principle to have multiple bodies in non-elliptical orbits that repeat periodically, although most such orbits are not stable regarding small perturbations in mass, position, or velocity. However, some special stable cases have been identified, including a planar figure-eight orbit occupied by three moving bodies. Further studies have discovered that nonplanar orbits are also possible, including one involving 12 masses moving in 4 roughly circular, interlocking orbits topologically equivalent to the edges of a cuboctahedron. Finding such orbits naturally occurring in the universe is thought to be extremely unlikely, because of the improbability of the required conditions occurring by chance. Astrodynamics Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission design and control. Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems under the influence of gravity, including spacecraft and natural astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets. Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbit plane changes, and interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers. General relativity is a more exact theory than Newton's laws for calculating orbits, and is sometimes necessary for greater accuracy or in high-gravity situations (such as orbits close to the Sun). Earth orbits Low Earth orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits with altitudes up to 2,000 km (0–1,240 miles). Medium Earth orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2,000 km (1,240 miles) to just below geosynchronous orbit at . Also known as an intermediate circular orbit. These are "most commonly at , or , with an orbital period of 12 hours." Both geosynchronous orbit (GSO) and geostationary orbit (GEO) are orbits around Earth matching Earth's sidereal rotation period. All geosynchronous and geostationary orbits have a semi-major axis of . All geostationary orbits are also geosynchronous, but not all geosynchronous orbits are geostationary. A geostationary orbit stays exactly above the equator, whereas a geosynchronous orbit may swing north and south to cover more of the Earth's surface. Both complete one full orbit of Earth per sidereal day (relative to the stars, not the Sun). High Earth orbit: Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,240 miles). Scaling in gravity The gravitational constant G has been calculated as: (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 (kg/m3)−1s−2. Thus the constant has dimension density−1 time−2. This corresponds to the following properties. Scaling of distances (including sizes of bodies, while keeping the densities the same) gives similar orbits without scaling the time: if for example distances are halved, masses are divided by 8, gravitational forces by 16 and gravitational accelerations by 2. Hence velocities are halved and orbital periods and other travel times related to gravity remain the same. For example, when an object is dropped from a tower, the time it takes to fall to the ground remains the same with a scale model of the tower on a scale model of the Earth. Scaling of distances while keeping the masses the same (in the case of point masses, or by adjusting the densities) gives similar orbits; if distances are multiplied by 4, gravitational forces and accelerations are divided by 16, velocities are halved and orbital periods are multiplied by 8. When all densities are multiplied by 4, orbits are the same; gravitational forces are multiplied by 16 and accelerations by 4, velocities are doubled and orbital periods are halved. When all densities are multiplied by 4, and all sizes are halved, orbits are similar; masses are divided by 2, gravitational forces are the same, gravitational accelerations are doubled. Hence velocities are the same and orbital periods are halved. In all these cases of scaling. if densities are multiplied by 4, times are halved; if velocities are doubled, forces are multiplied by 16. These properties are illustrated in the formula (derived from the formula for the orbital period) for an elliptical orbit with semi-major axis a, of a small body around a spherical body with radius r and average density ρ, where T is the orbital period. See also Kepler's Third Law. Patents The application of certain orbits or orbital maneuvers to specific useful purposes have been the subject of patents. Tidal locking Some bodies are tidally locked with other bodies, meaning that one side of the celestial body is permanently facing its host object. This is the case for Earth-Moon and Pluto-Charon system. See also Ephemeris is a compilation of positions of naturally occurring astronomical objects as well as artificial satellites in the sky at a given time or times. Free drift Klemperer rosette List of orbits Molniya orbit Orbit determination Orbital spaceflight Perifocal coordinate system Polar Orbits Radial trajectory Rosetta (orbit) VSOP (planets) Notes References Further reading Andrea Milani and | the Sun. For the planets, the cubes of their distances from the Sun are proportional to the squares of their orbital periods. Jupiter and Venus, for example, are respectively about 5.2 and 0.723 AU distant from the Sun, their orbital periods respectively about 11.86 and 0.615 years. The proportionality is seen by the fact that the ratio for Jupiter, 5.23/11.862, is practically equal to that for Venus, 0.7233/0.6152, in accord with the relationship. Idealised orbits meeting these rules are known as Kepler orbits. Isaac Newton demonstrated that Kepler's laws were derivable from his theory of gravitation and that, in general, the orbits of bodies subject to gravity were conic sections (this assumes that the force of gravity propagates instantaneously). Newton showed that, for a pair of bodies, the orbits' sizes are in inverse proportion to their masses, and that those bodies orbit their common center of mass. Where one body is much more massive than the other (as is the case of an artificial satellite orbiting a planet), it is a convenient approximation to take the center of mass as coinciding with the center of the more massive body. Advances in Newtonian mechanics were then used to explore variations from the simple assumptions behind Kepler orbits, such as the perturbations due to other bodies, or the impact of spheroidal rather than spherical bodies. Lagrange (1736–1813) developed a new approach to Newtonian mechanics emphasizing energy more than force, and made progress on the three body problem, discovering the Lagrangian points. In a dramatic vindication of classical mechanics, in 1846 Urbain Le Verrier was able to predict the position of Neptune based on unexplained perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) in his 1916 paper The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity explained that gravity was due to curvature of space-time and removed Newton's assumption that changes propagate instantaneously. This led astronomers to recognize that Newtonian mechanics did not provide the highest accuracy in understanding orbits. In relativity theory, orbits follow geodesic trajectories which are usually approximated very well by the Newtonian predictions (except where there are very strong gravity fields and very high speeds) but the differences are measurable. Essentially all the experimental evidence that can distinguish between the theories agrees with relativity theory to within experimental measurement accuracy. The original vindication of general relativity is that it was able to account for the remaining unexplained amount in precession of Mercury's perihelion first noted by Le Verrier. However, Newton's solution is still used for most short term purposes since it is significantly easier to use and sufficiently accurate. Planetary orbits Within a planetary system, planets, dwarf planets, asteroids and other minor planets, comets, and space debris orbit the system's barycenter in elliptical orbits. A comet in a parabolic or hyperbolic orbit about a barycenter is not gravitationally bound to the star and therefore is not considered part of the star's planetary system. Bodies that are gravitationally bound to one of the planets in a planetary system, either natural or artificial satellites, follow orbits about a barycenter near or within that planet. Owing to mutual gravitational perturbations, the eccentricities of the planetary orbits vary over time. Mercury, the smallest planet in the Solar System, has the most eccentric orbit. At the present epoch, Mars has the next largest eccentricity while the smallest orbital eccentricities are seen with Venus and Neptune. As two objects orbit each other, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest. (More specific terms are used for specific bodies. For example, perigee and apogee are the lowest and highest parts of an orbit around Earth, while perihelion and aphelion are the closest and farthest points of an orbit around the Sun.) In the case of planets orbiting a star, the mass of the star and all its satellites are calculated to be at a single point called the barycenter. The paths of all the star's satellites are elliptical orbits about that barycenter. Each satellite in that system will have its own elliptical orbit with the barycenter at one focal point of that ellipse. At any point along its orbit, any satellite will have a certain value of kinetic and potential energy with respect to the barycenter, and that energy is a constant value at every point along its orbit. As a result, as a planet approaches periapsis, the planet will increase in speed as its potential energy decreases; as a planet approaches apoapsis, its velocity will decrease as its potential energy increases. Understanding orbits There are a few common ways of understanding orbits: A force, such as gravity, pulls an object into a curved path as it attempts to fly off in a straight line. As the object is pulled toward the massive body, it falls toward that body. However, if it has enough tangential velocity it will not fall into the body but will instead continue to follow the curved trajectory caused by that body indefinitely. The object is then said to be orbiting the body. As an illustration of an orbit around a planet, the Newton's cannonball model may prove useful (see image below). This is a 'thought experiment', in which a cannon on top of a tall mountain is able to fire a cannonball horizontally at any chosen muzzle speed. The effects of air friction on the cannonball are ignored (or perhaps the mountain is high enough that the cannon is above the Earth's atmosphere, which is the same thing). If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial speed, the trajectory of the ball curves downward and hits the ground (A). As the firing speed is increased, the cannonball hits the ground farther (B) away from the cannon, because while the ball is still falling towards the ground, the ground is increasingly curving away from it (see first point, above). All these motions are actually "orbits" in a technical sense—they are describing a portion of an elliptical path around the center of gravity—but the orbits are interrupted by striking the Earth. If the cannonball is fired with sufficient speed, the ground curves away from the ball at least as much as the ball falls—so the ball never strikes the ground. It is now in what could be called a non-interrupted or circumnavigating, orbit. For any specific combination of height above the center of gravity and mass of the planet, there is one specific firing speed (unaffected by the mass of the ball, which is assumed to be very small relative to the Earth's mass) that produces a circular orbit, as shown in (C). As the firing speed is increased beyond this, non-interrupted elliptic orbits are produced; one is shown in (D). If the initial firing is above the surface of the Earth as shown, there will also be non-interrupted elliptical orbits at slower firing speed; these will come closest to the Earth at the point half an orbit beyond, and directly opposite the firing point, below the circular orbit. At a specific horizontal firing speed called escape velocity, dependent on the mass of the planet and the distance of the object from the barycenter, an open orbit (E) is achieved that has a parabolic path. At even greater speeds the object will follow a range of hyperbolic trajectories. In a practical sense, both of these trajectory types mean the object is "breaking free" of the planet's gravity, and "going off into space" never to return. The velocity relationship of two moving objects with mass can thus be considered in four practical classes, with subtypes: No orbit Suborbital trajectories Range of interrupted elliptical paths Orbital trajectories (or simply, orbits) Open (or escape) trajectories It is worth noting that orbital rockets are launched vertically at first to lift the rocket above the atmosphere (which causes frictional drag), and then slowly pitch over and finish firing the rocket engine parallel to the atmosphere to achieve orbit speed. Once in orbit, their speed keeps them in orbit above the atmosphere. If e.g., an elliptical orbit dips into dense air, the object will lose speed and re-enter (i.e. fall). Occasionally a space craft will intentionally intercept the atmosphere, in an act commonly referred to as an aerobraking maneuver. Newton's laws of motion Newton's law of gravitation and laws of motion for two-body problems In most situations, relativistic effects can be neglected, and Newton's laws give a sufficiently accurate description of motion. The acceleration of a body is equal to the sum of the forces acting on it, divided by its mass, and the gravitational force acting on a body is proportional to the product of the masses of the two attracting bodies and decreases inversely with the square of the distance between them. To this Newtonian approximation, for a system of two-point masses or spherical bodies, only influenced by their mutual gravitation (called a two-body problem), their trajectories can be exactly calculated. If the heavier body is much more massive than the smaller, as in the case of a satellite or small moon orbiting a planet or for the Earth orbiting the Sun, it is accurate enough and convenient to describe the motion in terms of a coordinate system that is centered on the heavier body, and we say that the lighter body is in orbit around the heavier. For the case where the masses of two bodies are comparable, an exact Newtonian solution is still sufficient and can be had by placing the coordinate system at the center of the mass of the system. Defining gravitational potential energy Energy is associated with gravitational fields. A stationary body far from another can do external work if it is pulled towards it, and therefore has gravitational potential energy. Since work is required to separate two bodies against the pull of gravity, their gravitational potential energy increases as they are separated, and decreases as they approach one another. For point masses, the gravitational energy decreases to zero as they approach zero separation. It is convenient and conventional to assign the potential energy as having zero value when they are an infinite distance apart, and hence it has a negative value (since it decreases from zero) for smaller finite distances. Orbital energies and orbit shapes When only two gravitational bodies interact, their orbits follow a conic section. The orbit can be open (implying the object never returns) or closed (returning). Which it is depends on the total energy (kinetic + potential energy) of the system. In the case of an open orbit, the speed at any position of the orbit is at least the escape velocity for that position, in the case of a closed orbit, the speed is always less than the escape velocity. Since the kinetic energy is never negative if the common convention is adopted of taking the potential energy as zero at infinite separation, the bound orbits will have negative total energy, the parabolic trajectories zero total energy, and hyperbolic orbits positive total energy. An open orbit will have a parabolic shape if it has the velocity of exactly the escape velocity at that point in its trajectory, and it will have the shape of a hyperbola when its velocity is greater than the escape velocity. When bodies with escape velocity or greater approach each other, they will briefly curve around each other at the time of their closest approach, and then separate, forever. All closed orbits have the shape of an ellipse. A circular orbit is a special case, wherein the foci of the ellipse coincide. The point where the orbiting body is closest to Earth is called the perigee, and is called the periapsis (less properly, "perifocus" or "pericentron") when the orbit is about a body other than Earth. The point where the satellite is farthest from Earth is called the apogee, apoapsis, or sometimes apifocus or apocentron. A line drawn from periapsis to apoapsis is the line-of-apsides. This is the major axis of the ellipse, the line through its longest part. Kepler's laws Bodies following closed orbits repeat their paths with a certain time called the period. This motion is described by the empirical laws of Kepler, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws. These can be formulated as follows: The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun in one of the focal points of that ellipse. [This focal point is actually the barycenter of the Sun-planet system; for simplicity, this explanation assumes the Sun's mass is infinitely larger than that planet's.] The planet's orbit lies in a plane, called the orbital plane. The point on the orbit closest to the attracting body is the periapsis. The point farthest from the attracting body is called the apoapsis. There are also specific terms for orbits about particular bodies; things orbiting the Sun have a perihelion and aphelion, things orbiting the Earth have a perigee and apogee, and things orbiting the Moon have a perilune and apolune (or periselene and aposelene respectively). An orbit around any star, not just the Sun, has a periastron and an apastron. As the planet moves in its orbit, the line from the Sun to the planet sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane for a given period of time, regardless of which part of its orbit the planet traces during that period of time. This means that the planet moves faster near its perihelion than near its aphelion, because at the smaller distance it needs to trace a greater arc to cover the same area. This law is usually stated as "equal areas in equal time." For a given orbit, the ratio of the cube of its semi-major axis to the square of its period is constant. Limitations of Newton's law of gravitation Note that while bound orbits of a point mass or a spherical body with a Newtonian gravitational field are closed ellipses, which repeat the same path exactly and indefinitely, any non-spherical or non-Newtonian effects (such as caused by the slight oblateness of the Earth, or by relativistic effects, thereby changing the gravitational field's behavior with distance) will cause the orbit's shape to depart from the closed ellipses characteristic of Newtonian two-body motion. The two-body solutions were published by Newton in Principia in 1687. In 1912, Karl Fritiof Sundman developed a converging infinite series that solves the three-body problem; however, it converges too slowly to be of much use. Except for special cases like the Lagrangian points, no method is known to solve the equations of motion for a system with four or more bodies. Approaches to many-body problems Rather than an exact closed form solution, orbits with many bodies can be approximated with arbitrarily high accuracy. These approximations take two forms: One form takes the pure elliptic motion as a basis and adds perturbation terms to account for the gravitational influence of multiple bodies. This is convenient for calculating the positions of astronomical bodies. The equations of motion of the moons, planets, and other bodies are known with great accuracy, and are used to generate tables for celestial navigation. Still, there are secular phenomena that have to be dealt with by post-Newtonian methods. The differential equation form is used for scientific or mission-planning purposes. According to Newton's laws, the sum of all the forces acting on a body will equal the mass of the body times its acceleration (F = ma). Therefore accelerations can be expressed in terms of positions. The perturbation terms are much easier to describe in this form. Predicting subsequent positions and velocities from initial values of position and velocity corresponds to solving an initial value problem. Numerical methods calculate the positions and velocities of the objects a short time in the future, then repeat the calculation ad nauseam. However, tiny arithmetic errors from the limited accuracy of a computer's math are cumulative, which limits the accuracy of this approach. Differential simulations with large numbers of objects perform the calculations in a hierarchical pairwise fashion between centers of mass. Using this scheme, galaxies, star clusters and other large assemblages of objects have been simulated. Newtonian analysis of orbital motion The following derivation applies to such an elliptical orbit. We start only with the Newtonian law of gravitation stating that the gravitational acceleration towards the central body is related to the inverse of the square of the distance between them, namely where F2 is the force acting on the mass m2 caused by the gravitational attraction mass m1 has for m2, G is the universal gravitational constant, and r is the distance between the two masses centers. From Newton's Second Law, the summation of the forces acting on m2 related to that body's acceleration: where A2 is the acceleration of m2 caused by the force of gravitational attraction F2 of m1 acting on m2. Combining Eq. 1 and 2: Solving for the acceleration, A2: where is the standard gravitational parameter, in this case . It is understood that the system being described is m2, hence the subscripts can be dropped. We assume that the central body is massive enough that it can be considered to be stationary and we ignore the more subtle effects of general relativity. When a pendulum or an object attached to a spring swings in an ellipse, the inward acceleration/force is proportional to the distance Due to the way vectors add, the component of the force in the or in the directions are also proportionate to the respective components of the distances, . Hence, the entire analysis can be done separately in these dimensions. This results in the harmonic parabolic equations and of the ellipse. In contrast, with the decreasing relationship , the dimensions cannot be separated. The location of the orbiting object at the current time is located in the plane using vector calculus in polar coordinates both with the standard Euclidean basis and with the polar basis with the origin coinciding with the center of |
A left-handed bowler who bowls with the same (finger spin) action as an off spinner is known as a left-arm orthodox spin bowler. While the orthodox spinner has the same action as an off-spinner, the ball itself spins in the opposite direction (akin to a right arm leg spinner). Such a ball is not normally called an off break, but a left-arm orthodox spinner. Terminology Off spin: Sometimes the term off spin is used to mean the off break delivery. At other times the term off spin has a wider meaning, to include all deliveries bowled by an off spinner, including non-off break deliveries. Off spinner: The term off spinner can be used to mean either the bowler or the off break delivery. Offie: The term offie can also be used to mean either the bowler or the off break delivery. Technique An off break is bowled by holding the cricket ball in the palm of the hand with the seam running across under all the fingers. As the ball is released, the fingers roll down the right side of the ball (for a right-handed bowler), giving the ball a clockwise spin as seen from behind. Notable off spinners Notable off spinners include: Muttiah Muralitharan of Sri Lanka, who has the most wickets in both ODIs and Test matches, E. A. S. Prasanna and Srinivas Venkataraghavan, two of the legendary Indian spin quartet Harbhajan Singh and Ravichandran Ashwin of India Saqlain Mushtaq and Saeed Ajmal of Pakistan. Saqlain Mushtaq was credited with the invention of the "doosra", which is bowled with | that any miscalculation can more easily result in an outside edge off the bat and a catch going to the wicket-keeper or slips fielders. A left-handed bowler who bowls with the same (finger spin) action as an off spinner is known as a left-arm orthodox spin bowler. While the orthodox spinner has the same action as an off-spinner, the ball itself spins in the opposite direction (akin to a right arm leg spinner). Such a ball is not normally called an off break, but a left-arm orthodox spinner. Terminology Off spin: Sometimes the term off spin is used to mean the off break delivery. At other times the term off spin has a wider meaning, to include all deliveries bowled by an off spinner, including non-off break deliveries. Off spinner: The term off spinner can be used to mean either the bowler or the off break delivery. Offie: The term offie can also be used to mean either the bowler or the off break delivery. Technique An off break is bowled by holding the cricket ball in the palm of the hand with the seam running across under all the fingers. As the ball is released, the fingers roll down the right side of the ball (for a right-handed bowler), giving the ball a clockwise spin as seen from behind. Notable off spinners Notable off spinners include: Muttiah Muralitharan of Sri Lanka, who has the most wickets in both ODIs and Test matches, E. A. S. Prasanna and Srinivas Venkataraghavan, two of the legendary Indian spin quartet Harbhajan Singh and Ravichandran Ashwin of India Saqlain Mushtaq and Saeed Ajmal of Pakistan. Saqlain Mushtaq was credited with the invention of the "doosra", which is bowled with a similar-looking action to the off break but spins the opposite way, just as the leg spinner's googly turns the opposite way from his stock ball. Jim Laker and Graeme Swann of England Nathan Lyon of Australia. Ajantha Mendis: inventor of the carrom ball Lance Gibbs: first spinner to pass 300 wickets Shakib al Hasan of Bangladesh Other deliveries bowled by off spin bowlers Another common weapon of the off spinner is the arm ball, which does |
provide that 'O Canada' shall be the National Anthem of Canada while 'God Save the Queen' shall be the Royal Anthem of Canada", of which parliament approved. In 1967, the Prime Minister advised Governor General Georges Vanier to appoint the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons on the National and Royal Anthems; the group first met in February and, within two months, on April 12, 1967, presented its conclusion that "O Canada" should be designated as the national anthem and "God Save the Queen" as the royal anthem of Canada, one verse from each, in both official languages, to be adopted by parliament. The group was then charged with establishing official lyrics for each song. For "O Canada", the Robert Stanley Weir version of 1908 was recommended for the English words, with a few minor changes: two of the "stand on guard" phrases were replaced with "from far and wide" and "God keep our land". In 1970, the Queen in Right of Canada purchased the right to the lyrics and music of "O Canada" from Gordon V. Thompson Music for $1. The song finally became the official national anthem in 1980 with the passage of the National Anthem Act. The Act replaced two of the repetitions of the phrase "We stand on guard" in the English lyrics, as had been proposed by the Senate Special Joint Committee. This change was controversial with traditionalists and, for several years afterwards, it was not uncommon to hear people still singing the old lyrics at public events. In contrast, the French lyrics are unchanged from the original version. Inclusive language debates In June 1990, Toronto City Council voted 12 to 7 in favour of recommending to the Canadian government that the phrase "our home and native land" be changed to "our home and cherished land" and that "in all thy sons command" be partly reverted to "in all of us command". Councillor Howard Moscoe said that the words "native land" were not appropriate for the many Canadians who were not native-born and that the word "sons" implied "that women can't feel true patriotism or love for Canada". Senator Vivienne Poy similarly criticized the English lyrics of the anthem as being sexist and she introduced a bill in 2002 proposing to change the phrase "in all thy sons command" to "in all of us command". In the late 2000s, the anthem's religious references (to God in English and to the Christian cross in French) were criticized by secularists. In the speech from the throne delivered by Governor General Michaëlle Jean on March 3, 2010, a plan to have parliament review the "original gender-neutral wording of the national anthem" was announced. However, three-quarters of Canadians polled after the speech objected to the proposal and, two days later, the prime minister's office announced that the cabinet had decided not to restore the original lyrics. In another attempt to make the anthem gender-neutral, Liberal MP Mauril Bélanger introduced a private member's bill in September 2014. His Bill C-624, An Act to amend the National Anthem Act (gender), was defeated at second reading in April 2015. Following the 2015 federal election, Bélanger reintroduced the bill in the new parliament as Bill C-210 in January 2016. In June 2016, the bill passed its third reading with a vote of 225 to 74 in the House of Commons. The bill passed its third reading in the Senate with a voice vote on January 31, 2018, and received royal assent on February 7, 2018. Second and third stanzas: historical refrain Below are some slightly different versions of the second and third stanzas and the chorus, plus an additional fourth stanza. These are rarely sung. O Canada! Where pines and maples grow. Great prairies spread and lordly rivers flow. How dear to us thy broad domain, From East to Western sea. Thou land of hope for all who toil! Thou True North, strong and free! Chorus God keep our land glorious and free! 𝄆 O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. 𝄇 O Canada! Beneath thy shining skies May stalwart sons, and gentle maidens rise, To keep thee steadfast through the years From East to Western sea. Our own beloved native land! Our True North, strong and free! Chorus Ruler supreme, who hearest humble prayer, Hold our Dominion within thy loving care; Help us to find, O God, in thee A lasting, rich reward, As waiting for the better Day, We ever stand on guard. Chorus Original French version The first verse is the same. The other verses follow. Sous l'œil de Dieu, près du fleuve géant, Le Canadien grandit en espérant. Il est né d'une race fière, Béni fut son berceau. Le ciel a marqué sa carrière Dans ce monde nouveau. Toujours guidé par sa lumière, 𝄆 Il gardera l'honneur de son drapeau. 𝄇 De son patron, précurseur du vrai Dieu, Il porte au front l'auréole de feu. Ennemi de la tyrannie Mais plein de loyauté, Il veut garder dans l'harmonie, Sa fière liberté; Et par l'effort de son génie, 𝄆 Sur notre sol asseoir la vérité. 𝄇 Amour sacré du trône et de l'autel, Remplis nos cœurs de ton souffle immortel! Parmi les races étrangères, Notre guide est la loi : Sachons être un peuple de frères, Sous le joug de la foi. Et répétons, comme nos pères, 𝄆 Le cri vainqueur : « Pour le Christ et le roi! » 𝄇 Under the eye of God, near the giant river, The Canadian grows hoping. He was born of a proud race, Blessed was his birthplace. Heaven has noted his career In this new world. Always guided by its light, 𝄆 He will keep the honour of his flag. 𝄇 From his patron, the precursor of the true God, He wears the halo of fire on his brow. Enemy of tyranny But full of loyalty, He wants to keep in harmony, His proud freedom; And by the effort of his genius, 𝄆 Set on our ground the truth. 𝄇 Sacred love of the throne and the altar, Fill our hearts with your immortal breath! Among the foreign races, Our guide is the law: Let | "sons" implied "that women can't feel true patriotism or love for Canada". Senator Vivienne Poy similarly criticized the English lyrics of the anthem as being sexist and she introduced a bill in 2002 proposing to change the phrase "in all thy sons command" to "in all of us command". In the late 2000s, the anthem's religious references (to God in English and to the Christian cross in French) were criticized by secularists. In the speech from the throne delivered by Governor General Michaëlle Jean on March 3, 2010, a plan to have parliament review the "original gender-neutral wording of the national anthem" was announced. However, three-quarters of Canadians polled after the speech objected to the proposal and, two days later, the prime minister's office announced that the cabinet had decided not to restore the original lyrics. In another attempt to make the anthem gender-neutral, Liberal MP Mauril Bélanger introduced a private member's bill in September 2014. His Bill C-624, An Act to amend the National Anthem Act (gender), was defeated at second reading in April 2015. Following the 2015 federal election, Bélanger reintroduced the bill in the new parliament as Bill C-210 in January 2016. In June 2016, the bill passed its third reading with a vote of 225 to 74 in the House of Commons. The bill passed its third reading in the Senate with a voice vote on January 31, 2018, and received royal assent on February 7, 2018. Second and third stanzas: historical refrain Below are some slightly different versions of the second and third stanzas and the chorus, plus an additional fourth stanza. These are rarely sung. O Canada! Where pines and maples grow. Great prairies spread and lordly rivers flow. How dear to us thy broad domain, From East to Western sea. Thou land of hope for all who toil! Thou True North, strong and free! Chorus God keep our land glorious and free! 𝄆 O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. 𝄇 O Canada! Beneath thy shining skies May stalwart sons, and gentle maidens rise, To keep thee steadfast through the years From East to Western sea. Our own beloved native land! Our True North, strong and free! Chorus Ruler supreme, who hearest humble prayer, Hold our Dominion within thy loving care; Help us to find, O God, in thee A lasting, rich reward, As waiting for the better Day, We ever stand on guard. Chorus Original French version The first verse is the same. The other verses follow. Sous l'œil de Dieu, près du fleuve géant, Le Canadien grandit en espérant. Il est né d'une race fière, Béni fut son berceau. Le ciel a marqué sa carrière Dans ce monde nouveau. Toujours guidé par sa lumière, 𝄆 Il gardera l'honneur de son drapeau. 𝄇 De son patron, précurseur du vrai Dieu, Il porte au front l'auréole de feu. Ennemi de la tyrannie Mais plein de loyauté, Il veut garder dans l'harmonie, Sa fière liberté; Et par l'effort de son génie, 𝄆 Sur notre sol asseoir la vérité. 𝄇 Amour sacré du trône et de l'autel, Remplis nos cœurs de ton souffle immortel! Parmi les races étrangères, Notre guide est la loi : Sachons être un peuple de frères, Sous le joug de la foi. Et répétons, comme nos pères, 𝄆 Le cri vainqueur : « Pour le Christ et le roi! » 𝄇 Under the eye of God, near the giant river, The Canadian grows hoping. He was born of a proud race, Blessed was his birthplace. Heaven has noted his career In this new world. Always guided by its light, 𝄆 He will keep the honour of his flag. 𝄇 From his patron, the precursor of the true God, He wears the halo of fire on his brow. Enemy of tyranny But full of loyalty, He wants to keep in harmony, His proud freedom; And by the effort of his genius, 𝄆 Set on our ground the truth. 𝄇 Sacred love of the throne and the altar, Fill our hearts with your immortal breath! Among the foreign races, Our guide is the law: Let us know how to be a people of brothers, Under the yoke of faith. And repeat, like our fathers, 𝄆 The battle cry: "For Christ and King!" 𝄇 Performances "O Canada" is routinely played before sporting events involving Canadian teams. Singers at such public events often mix the English and French lyrics to represent Canada's linguistic duality. Other linguistic variations have also been performed: During the opening ceremonies of the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, "O Canada" was sung in the southern Tutchone language by Yukon native Daniel Tlen. At a National Hockey League (NHL) game in Calgary, in February 2007, Cree singer Akina Shirt became the first person ever to perform "O Canada" in the Cree language at such an event. Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, the National Basketball Association, and the NHL all require venues to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (including all-star games), with the away team's anthem being performed first, followed by the host country. The NHL's Buffalo Sabres play both anthems before every home game, regardless of the opponent, in recognition of the team's significant Canadian fanbase. Major League Baseball teams have played the song at games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the former Montreal Expos, and National Basketball Association teams do so for games involving the Toronto Raptors, and previously, the Vancouver Grizzlies. Major League Soccer has the anthem performed at matches involving Toronto FC, CF Montréal, and Vancouver Whitecaps FC. Laws and etiquette The National Anthem Act specifies the lyrics and melody of "O Canada", placing both of them in the public domain, allowing the anthem to be freely reproduced or used as a base for derived works, including musical arrangements. There are no regulations governing the performance of "O Canada", leaving citizens to exercise their best judgment. When it is performed at an event, traditional etiquette is to either start or end the ceremonies with the anthem, including situations when other anthems are played and for the audience to stand during the performance. Civilian men usually remove their hats, while women and children are not required to do so. Military men and women in uniform traditionally keep their hats on |
colonization questions had become exciting ones throughout the whole country, and the students deemed it to be their duty thoroughly to examine them, in view of their bearing upon their future responsibilities as ministers of the gospel." Shortly after their arrival at Lane, the Oneida contingent held a lengthy, well-publicized series of debates, over 18 days during February 1834, on the topic of abolition versus colonization, concluding with the endorsement of the former and rejection of the latter. (Although announced as debate, no one spoke in favor of colonization on any of the evenings.) The trustees and administrators of Lane, fearful of violence like the Cincinnati riots of 1829, prohibited off-topic discussions, even at meals. The Lane Rebels, including almost all of Lane's theological students, among them the entire Oneida contingent, resigned en masse in December, and published a pamphlet explaining their decision. A trustee, Asa Mahan, resigned also, and the trustees fired John Morgan, a faculty member who supported the students. A chance encounter with Shipherd, who was travelling around Ohio recruiting students for his new Collegiate Institute, led to the proposal that they come to Oberlin, along with Mahan and the fired Lane professor. They did so, but only after Oberlin agreed to their conditions: Oberlin, like Oneida, would admit African Americans on an equal basis. At the time, this was a radical and unpopular measure, even dangerous. Previous attempts at "racially" integrated schools, the Noyes Academy and the Canterbury Female Boarding School, had been met with violence that destroyed both schools. Refugees from both had enrolled at Oneida. No one was calling for racially integrated schools, except at Oneida. This measure caused the trustees "a great struggle to overcome their prejudices". Moving their meeting to Elyria on January 1, 1835, at the Temperance House instead of Oberlin, so as to avoid a hostile and possibly disruptive audience, the trustees agreed to hire Mahan and Morgan, but took no action on the Black question. They tabled it, until it was made clear that if they did not agree, they would lose the Tappans' money, the cadre of students, Mahan, Finney, and Shipherd himself, who threatened to quit and set forth at length the reasons Oberlin should educate Blacks. The Trustees, meeting on February 9 in Shipherd's house, reexamined the question, and it passed after Trustee Chairman John Keep broke a 3–3 tie vote. There would be no restrictions on discussion of slavery or any other topic. Asa Mahan, the Lane trustee who resigned with the students, would become president. This initiative came from the Oneida students, and Weld in particular. Professor John Morgan, fired by Lane for supporting the students, would be hired also. Under what Fletcher labeled the "Finney compact", in sharp contrast with and in reaction to recent events at Lane, the internal affairs of the college were to be under faculty control, "much to the irritation of our latter-day trustees, and occasionally our presidents and deans". This commitment to academic freedom was a key innovation in American higher education. "In the summer of 1835, they all arrived in Oberlin—President Mahan, Father Finney, Professor Morgan, the Lane rebels, the first black students, and the Tappans' money." The Oberlin Anti-Slavery Society, calling for "immediate emancipation", was founded in June, 1835. The names of Shipherd, Mahan, and Finney are first on its founding document, followed by names of the Oneida contingent. Oberlin replaced Oneida as "the hot-bed of Abolitionism", "the most progressive college in the United States". Oberlin sent forth cadres of minister-abolitionists every year: 19th century - post founding Asa Mahan (1799–1889) accepted the position of first president of the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1835, simultaneously serving as the chair of intellectual and moral philosophy and professor of theology. Mahan's strong advocacy of immediatism—the immediate and complete freeing of all slaves—greatly influenced the philosophy of the college. Two years after its founding, the school began admitting African Americans, becoming the second college in the United States to do so, and the oldest still in existence. The college experienced financial distress, and Rev. John Keep and William Dawes were sent to England to raise funds in 1839–40. A nondenominational seminary, Oberlin's Graduate School of Theology (first called the undergraduate Theological Department), was established alongside the college in 1833. In 1965, the board of trustees voted to discontinue graduate instruction in theology at Oberlin, and in September 1966, six faculty members and 22 students merged with the Divinity School of Vanderbilt University. Oberlin's role as an educator of African-American students prior to the Civil War and thereafter was significant. In 1844, Oberlin Collegiate Institute graduated its first black student, George Boyer Vashon, who later became one of the founding professors of Howard University and the first black lawyer admitted to the Bar in New York State. The college's treatment of African Americans was inconsistent. Although intensely anti-slavery, and admitting black students from 1835, the school began segregating its black students by the 1880s with the fading of evangelical idealism. Nonetheless, Oberlin graduates accounted for a significant percentage of African-American college graduates by the end of the 19th century. The college was listed as a National Historic Landmark on December 21, 1965, for its significance in admitting African Americans and women. Oberlin is the oldest coeducational college in the United States, having admitted four women in 1837. These four women, who were the first to enter as full students, were Mary Kellogg (Fairchild), Mary Caroline Rudd, Mary Hosford, and Elizabeth Prall. All but Kellogg graduated. Mary Jane Patterson graduated in 1862, the first black woman to earn a B.A. degree. Soon, women were fully integrated into the college, and comprised from a third to half of the student body. The religious founders, especially evangelical theologian Charles Grandison Finney, saw women as morally superior to men. Oberlin ceased operating for seven months in 1839 and 1840 due to lack of funds, making it the second oldest continuously operating coeducational liberal arts college in the United States. Mahan, who was often in conflict with faculty, resigned his position as president in 1850. Replacing him was famed abolitionist and preacher Charles Grandison Finney, a professor at the college since its founding who served until 1866. At the same time, the institute was renamed Oberlin College, and in 1851 received a charter with that name. Under Finney's leadership, Oberlin's faculty and students increased their abolitionist activity. They participated with the townspeople in efforts to assist fugitive slaves on the Underground Railroad where Oberlin was a stop, as well as to resist the Fugitive Slave Act. One historian called Oberlin "the town that started the Civil War" due to its reputation as a hotbed of abolitionism. In 1858, both students and faculty were involved in the controversial Oberlin-Wellington Rescue of a fugitive slave, which received national press coverage. Two participants in this raid, Lewis Sheridan Leary and John Anthony Copeland, along with another Oberlin resident, Shields Green, also participated in John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry. This heritage was commemorated on campus by the 1977 installation of sculptor Cameron Armstrong's "Underground Railroad Monument", a railroad track rising from the ground toward the sky, and monuments to the Oberlin-Wellington Rescue and the Harper's Ferry Raid, which followed an 1841 incident in which a group of "fanatical abolition anarchists" from Oberlin, using saws and axes, freed two captured fugitive slaves from the Lorain County jail. In 1866, James Fairchild became Oberlin's third president, and first alumnus to lead it. A committed abolitionist, Fairchild, at that point chair of theology and moral philosophy, had played a role in the Oberlin-Wellington Rescue, hiding fugitive slave John Price in his home. During Fairchild's tenure, the faculty and physical plant of the college expanded dramatically. In 1889, he resigned as president but remained as chair of systematic theology. In 1896, Fairchild returned as acting president until 1898. Oberlin College was prominent in sending Christian missionaries abroad. In 1881, students at Oberlin formed the Oberlin Band to journey as a group to remote Shanxi province in China. A total of 30 members of the Oberlin Band worked in Shanxi as missionaries over the next two decades. Ten died of disease, and in 1900, fifteen of the Oberlin missionaries, including wives and children, were killed by Boxers or Chinese government soldiers during the Boxer Rebellion. The Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association, an independent foundation, was established in their memory. The Association, with offices on campus, sponsors Oberlin graduates to teach in China, India, and Japan. It also hosts scholars and artists from Asia to spend time on the Oberlin campus. 20th century Henry Churchill King became Oberlin's sixth president in 1902. At Oberlin from 1884 onward, he taught in mathematics, philosophy, and theology. Robert K. Carr served as Oberlin College president from 1960 to 1970, during the tumultuous period of student activism. Under his presidency, the school's physical plant added 15 new buildings. Under his leadership, student involvement in college affairs increased, with students serving on nearly all college committees as voting members (including the board of trustees). Despite these accomplishments, Carr clashed repeatedly with the students over the Vietnam War, and he left office in 1969 with history professor Ellsworth C. Clayton becoming acting president. Carr was forced to resign in 1970. Oberlin (and Princeton) alumnus Robert W. Fuller's commitment to educational reform—which he had already demonstrated as a Trinity College dean—led his alma mater to make him its tenth president in November 1970. At 33 years old, Fuller became one of the youngest college presidents in U.S. history. During his Oberlin presidency—a turbulent time at Oberlin and in higher education generally—Fuller reshaped the student body by tripling the enrollment of minorities at the college. He recruited and hired the first four African-American athletic coaches at a predominantly white American college or university, including Tommie Smith, the gold medalist sprinter from the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. In 1970, Oberlin made the cover of Life as one of the first colleges in the country to have co-ed dormitories. Fuller was succeeded by the longtime Dean of the Conservatory, Emil Danenberg, who served as president from 1975 to 1982, and died in office. In 1983, following a nationwide search, Oberlin hired S. Frederick Starr, an expert on Russian and Eurasian affairs and skilled musician, as its 12th president. Starr's academic and musical accomplishments boded well for his stewardship of both the college and the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music. Despite increasing minority hiring, Starr's tenure was marked by clashes with students over divestment from South Africa and the dismissal of a campus minister, as well as Starr's reframing Oberlin as the "Harvard of the Midwest." A particularly vitriolic clash with students on the front lawn of his home in April 1990 led Starr to take a leave of absence from July 1991 to February 1992. He resigned in March 1993, effective in June of that year. 21st century Nancy Dye became the 13th president of Oberlin College in July 1994, succeeding the embattled Starr. Oberlin's first female president, she oversaw the construction of new buildings, increased admissions selectivity, and helped increase the endowment with the largest capital campaign to that point. Dye was known for her accessibility and inclusiveness. Especially in her early years, she was a regular attendee at football games, concerts, and dorm parties. Dye served as president for nearly 13 years, resigning on June 30, 2007. Marvin Krislov served as president of the college from 2007 to 2017, moving on to assume the presidency of Pace University. On May 30, 2017, Carmen Twillie Ambar was announced as the 15th president of Oberlin College, becoming the first African-American person and second woman to hold the position. Oberlin's first and only hired trade union expert, Chris Howell, argued that the college engaged in "illegal" tactics to attempt to decertify its service workers' July 1999 vote to become members of United Automobile Workers union. Howell wrote that college workers sought the union's representation in response to the administration's effort to "speed up work" to meet a "mounting budget crisis". In February 2013, the college received significant press concerning its so-called "No Trespass List", a secret list maintained by the college of individuals barred from campus without due process. Student activists and members of the surrounding town joined to form the One Town Campaign, which challenged this policy. On February 13, 2013, a forum at the Oberlin Public Library that attracted over 200 people, including members of the college administration, the Oberlin city council and national press, saw speakers compare the atmosphere of the college to "a gated community". In September 2014, on Rosh Hashanah, Oberlin Students for Free Palestine placed 2,133 black flags in the main square of the campus as a "call to action" in honor of the 2,133 Palestinians who died in the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict. In January 2016, hundreds of Oberlin alumni signed a letter to the Oberlin administration stating that this protest was an example of anti-Semitism on the campus. Oberlin SFP responded with their own letter, detailing why protest of Israel does not constitute anti-semitism. They wrote, "Feeling discomfort because one must confront the realities of Operation Protective Edge carried out in the name of the safety of the Jewish people does not amount to anti-Semitism." In early 2016, an Oberlin professor, Joy Karega, suggested Israel was behind 9/11 and blamed it for the Charlie Hebdo attacks and for ISIS, prompting a rebuke from faculty and administration. After five and a half months of discussion, the school suspended and then fired her. The following week, the home of a Jewish professor at Oberlin was vandalized and a note that read "Gas Jews Die" was left on his front door. Academics Oberlin was ranked tied for the 33rd best national liberal arts college, tied for 11th for "Most Innovative", and tied for 12th best in undergraduate teaching among liberal arts colleges in the 2020 edition of U.S. News & World Reports "Best Colleges" ranking. Of Oberlin's nearly 3,000 students, nearly 2,400 are enrolled in the College of Arts & Sciences, a little over 400 in the Conservatory of Music, and the remaining 180 or so in both College and Conservatory under the five-year Double-Degree program. The College of Arts & Sciences offers over 50 majors, minors, and concentrations. Based on students graduating with a given major, its most popular majors over the last ten years have been (in order) English, Biology, History, Politics, and Environmental Studies. The college's science programs are considered strong, especially Biology, Chemistry and Physics. The college is home to the world's first undergraduate Neuroscience program. The Conservatory of Music is located on the college campus. Conservatory admission is selective, with over 1400 applicants worldwide auditioning for 120 seats. There are 500 performances yearly, most free of charge, with concerts and recitals almost daily. The Conservatory was one of the recipients of the 2009 National Medal of Arts. The Allen Memorial Art Museum, with over 13,000 holdings, was the first college art museum west of the Alleghenies. College Libraries The Oberlin College Libraries has branches for art, music, and science, a central storage facility, and the Mary Church Terrell Main Library. The libraries have collections of print and media materials and provide access to various online databases and journals. Beyond the 2.4 million-plus items available on campus, Oberlin students have access to more than 46 million volumes from over 85 Ohio institutions through the OhioLINK consortium. In the summer of 2007, the main level of the main library was converted into an Academic Commons that provides integrated learning support and is a hub of both academic and social activity. Experimental College The college's "Experimental College" or ExCo program, a student-run department, allows any student or interested person to teach their own class for a limited amount of college credit. ExCo classes by definition focus on material not covered by existing departments or faculty. Winter term Another aspect of Oberlin's academics is the winter term during January. This term was created to allow students to do something outside the regular course offerings of the college. Students may work alone or in groups, either on or off campus, and may design their own project or pick from a list of projects and internships set up by the college each year. Students must complete a winter term project three years out of their four in the College of Arts and Sciences. Projects range from serious academic research with co-authorship in scientific journals, to humanitarian projects, to making films about historic Chicago neighborhoods, to learning how to bartend. A full-credit project is suggested to involve five to six hours per weekday. Creativity and Leadership Created in 2005 as a part of the Northeast Ohio Collegiate Entrepreneurship Program (NEOCEP), a Kauffman Campuses Initiative, and sponsored by the Burton D. Morgan and Ewing Marion Kauffman, the department is focused on supporting and highlighting entrepreneurship within the student body. This is done through a series of classes, symposia, Winter Term programs, grants, and fellowships available at no cost to current students and in some cases, recent alumni. One such opportunity is the Creativity and Leadership Fellowship, a one-year fellowship for graduating seniors that includes a stipend of up to $30,000 dollars to advance an entrepreneurial venture. In 2012, the Creativity and Leadership department announced LaunchU, a business accelerator open to Oberlin College students and alumni who are pursuing an entrepreneurial venture. The selective, three-week intensive program connects the participants with other entrepreneurs and business leaders chosen from the surrounding northeast Ohio region as well as the extensive Oberlin College alumni network. LaunchU culminates in | for 11th for "Most Innovative", and tied for 12th best in undergraduate teaching among liberal arts colleges in the 2020 edition of U.S. News & World Reports "Best Colleges" ranking. Of Oberlin's nearly 3,000 students, nearly 2,400 are enrolled in the College of Arts & Sciences, a little over 400 in the Conservatory of Music, and the remaining 180 or so in both College and Conservatory under the five-year Double-Degree program. The College of Arts & Sciences offers over 50 majors, minors, and concentrations. Based on students graduating with a given major, its most popular majors over the last ten years have been (in order) English, Biology, History, Politics, and Environmental Studies. The college's science programs are considered strong, especially Biology, Chemistry and Physics. The college is home to the world's first undergraduate Neuroscience program. The Conservatory of Music is located on the college campus. Conservatory admission is selective, with over 1400 applicants worldwide auditioning for 120 seats. There are 500 performances yearly, most free of charge, with concerts and recitals almost daily. The Conservatory was one of the recipients of the 2009 National Medal of Arts. The Allen Memorial Art Museum, with over 13,000 holdings, was the first college art museum west of the Alleghenies. College Libraries The Oberlin College Libraries has branches for art, music, and science, a central storage facility, and the Mary Church Terrell Main Library. The libraries have collections of print and media materials and provide access to various online databases and journals. Beyond the 2.4 million-plus items available on campus, Oberlin students have access to more than 46 million volumes from over 85 Ohio institutions through the OhioLINK consortium. In the summer of 2007, the main level of the main library was converted into an Academic Commons that provides integrated learning support and is a hub of both academic and social activity. Experimental College The college's "Experimental College" or ExCo program, a student-run department, allows any student or interested person to teach their own class for a limited amount of college credit. ExCo classes by definition focus on material not covered by existing departments or faculty. Winter term Another aspect of Oberlin's academics is the winter term during January. This term was created to allow students to do something outside the regular course offerings of the college. Students may work alone or in groups, either on or off campus, and may design their own project or pick from a list of projects and internships set up by the college each year. Students must complete a winter term project three years out of their four in the College of Arts and Sciences. Projects range from serious academic research with co-authorship in scientific journals, to humanitarian projects, to making films about historic Chicago neighborhoods, to learning how to bartend. A full-credit project is suggested to involve five to six hours per weekday. Creativity and Leadership Created in 2005 as a part of the Northeast Ohio Collegiate Entrepreneurship Program (NEOCEP), a Kauffman Campuses Initiative, and sponsored by the Burton D. Morgan and Ewing Marion Kauffman, the department is focused on supporting and highlighting entrepreneurship within the student body. This is done through a series of classes, symposia, Winter Term programs, grants, and fellowships available at no cost to current students and in some cases, recent alumni. One such opportunity is the Creativity and Leadership Fellowship, a one-year fellowship for graduating seniors that includes a stipend of up to $30,000 dollars to advance an entrepreneurial venture. In 2012, the Creativity and Leadership department announced LaunchU, a business accelerator open to Oberlin College students and alumni who are pursuing an entrepreneurial venture. The selective, three-week intensive program connects the participants with other entrepreneurs and business leaders chosen from the surrounding northeast Ohio region as well as the extensive Oberlin College alumni network. LaunchU culminates in a public pitch competition before a guest panel of investors, where the participants have the opportunity to be awarded up to $15,000 in funding. The winner of the 2014 LaunchU pitch competition was Chai Energy, a Los Angeles-based green energy startup focused on modernizing and personalizing home energy monitoring. In 2014, LaunchU announced the creation of an online network in order to build stronger connections between entrepreneurs within the Oberlin College students and alumni network with a focus on attracting younger alumni. Campus culture Political activism The Oberlin student body has a long history of activism and a reputation for being notably liberal. The college was ranked among the Princeton Review's list of "Colleges with a Conscience" in 2005. In the 1960s, Memorial Arch became a rallying point for the college's civil rights activists and its anti-war movement. Oberlin supplied a disproportionate number of participants in Mississippi Freedom Summer, rebuilt the Antioch Missionary Baptist Church in the Carpenters for Christmas project, supported NAACP sponsored sit-ins in Cleveland to integrate the building-trades, and with the SCLC participated in demonstrations at Hammermill Paper. In 1995, Emeritus Professor of Sociology (1966–2007), James Leo Walsh told The Oberlin Review that students "carried out dozens of protests against the Vietnam war ranging from peaceful picketing to surrounding a local naval recruiter's car"."Oberlin College: James Leo Walsh . 2015. Accessed 6 May 2015. In November 2002, 100 college workers students and faculty held a "mock funeral 'for the spirit of Oberlin'" in response to the administration's laying off 11 workers and reducing the work hours of five other workers without negotiation with college unions. Oberlin Students have protested instances of fracking in Ohio such as "the first natural gas and fracturing industry conference in the state" in 2011. In 2004, student activism led to a campus-wide ban on sales of Coca-Cola products. However, this was revoked in spring 2014, and students may now buy Coca-Cola products from the student union. In 2013, after the discovery of hateful messages and the alleged sighting of a person wearing KKK robes, president Marvin Krislov cancelled classes and called for a day of reflection and change. In a public statement, he stated that an investigation had identified two students believed to be largely responsible, who had been removed from campus. One of the students responsible said to police that he was "doing it as a joke to see the college overreact to it". During the fall 2014 semester, Oberlin's Student Labor Action Coalition organized a petition to permit dining hall temporary workers working four-hour shifts to eat one meal from food the college throws out each day. The petition garnered over 1,000 signatures and resulted in workers obtaining the opportunity to put food into a management-given styrofoam container to eat after their shifts.Sandrick, Bob."Oberlin College students protest meals, push for more diversity" . 22 December 2013. Cleveland.com. Accessed 25 May 2016 In May 2015, students temporarily took over their school's administration building to protest a $2,300 increase in tuition cost between the 2015 and 2016 academic school years. Students initially proposed, "... moving from providing merit aid to need-based scholarships, loosening on-campus dining and housing requirements, reducing food waste and temporary workers in Campus Dining Services ... " to the school's Vice President of Finance Mike Frandsen on Monday, April 27, 2015, in which their demands were declined for issue. $10,931,088 were allocated to management salaries for the 2013–2014 school year, much of which came from student tuition.Harris, Melissa, "Students Meet with Frandsen After Protests" . 1 May 2015. The Oberlin Review. Accessed May 6, 2015. In December 2015, Oberlin's Black Student Union issued a series of 50 specific demands of the college and conservatory including promoting certain black faculty to tenured positions, hiring more black faculty, firing other faculty members, and obtaining a $15 an hour minimum wage for all campus workers and guaranteed health care in their contracts. The board of trustees responded by appointing some of the individual faculty and by, "reviewing the allocation of faculty positions with consideration of how they will contribute to interactional diversity in the curriculum" in the college's 2016–2021 strategic plan. "Oberlin College Strategic Plan 2016–2021"Oberlin College and Conservatory Communications Staff. "5 Receive Tenure" 30 March 2016. Accessed 25 May 2015 The college opposed firing any employees in response and neglected to issue formal responses to many of the other demands, though it has sought to cut wages and health care funds for administrators, office workers and library support staff during contract negotiations with the Office and Professional Employees International Union. Many campus workers still earn the minimum wage. Over 75 students protested the college's attempt to alter administrator, office worker and library support staff contracts during spring 2016 contract negotiations. Alums for Campus Fairness has called on Oberlin to address the antisemitic hate-speech directed to Jewish students. Gibson's Bakery v. Oberlin College In 2016, Oberlin faculty and students staged large demonstrations urging a boycott of the Gibson's Bakery and Market, a downtown Oberlin business, following a shoplifting incident involving an African-American student, on the grounds that the store was racist. In June 2019, the college was found liable for libel and tortious interference in a lawsuit initiated by the store; the bakery was awarded damages of $44 million by the jury, but the judge reduced the value of the award to $31.5 million. In October 2019, the college appealed the case to the Ninth District Court of Appeals in Akron, Ohio. LGBT advocacy Oberlin is also known for its liberal attitude toward sexuality and gender expression. Oberlin has been consistently ranked among the friendliest college campuses for LGBT students by multiple publications, including The Advocate, Newsweek, and The Princeton Review. Student Cooperative Association The Oberlin Student Cooperative Association, or OSCA, is a non-profit corporation that houses 174 students in four housing co-ops and feeds 594 students in eight dining co-ops. Its budget is more than $2 million, making it the third-largest of its kind in North America behind the Berkeley Student Cooperative and the Inter-Cooperative Council of Ann Arbor. OSCA is entirely student-run, with all participating students working as cooks, buyers, administrators, and coordinators. Every member is required to do at least one hour per week of cleaning if they are able, encouraging accountability for the community and the space. Most decisions within OSCA are made by modified consensus. Oberlin bans all fraternities and sororities, making the co-ops the largest student-organized social system at the college. In addition to OSCA's four housing/dining and three dining-only cooperatives, Brown Bag Co-op is an OSCA-backed grocery that sells personal servings of food at bulk prices. OSCA also funds the Nicaragua Sister Partnership (NICSIS), a "sister cooperative" with Nicaragua's National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (UNAG). Outside of OSCA, other Oberlin co-ops include the Bike Co-op, Pottery Co-op, and SWAP: The Oberlin Book Co-op. In the spring of 2013, the Board of Directors of OSCA made a decision in a closed-door meeting to remove the Kosher-Halal Co-op from the Association after disputes over budgets and kitchen inspections. Although KHC served both Kosher and Halal food, the membership was predominantly Jewish, and some alumni wrote that they believed the expulsion to be anti-Semitic in nature. Music In addition to Oberlin Conservatory, Oberlin has musical opportunities available for amateur musicians and students in the college. Oberlin Steel, a steel pan ensemble founded around 1980, plays calypso/soca music from Trinidad and Tobago and has been performing at Oberlin's Commencement Illumination event for over 30 years. Oberlin College Taiko, founded in 2008, explores and shares Japanese taiko drumming as both a traditional and contemporary art form. The entirely student-run Oberlin College Marching Band (OCMB), founded in 1998, performs at various sporting events including football games, women's rugby, and pep rallies throughout the year. There are a number of a cappella groups, including the Obertones (men and nonbinary), Nothing But Treble (women and nonbinary), the Acapelicans (women and nonbinary), 'Round Midnight (all gender, jazz/folk), Pitch, Please (all gender), and Challah Cappella (all gender, Jewish). Other notable music organizations include the Black Musicians Guild and the Arts and Sciences Orchestra. Students in the college can form chamber groups and receive coaching through the Conservatory. Student composers also provide a demand for musicians to perform their work. Film Thomas Edison's moving picture show was shown in Oberlin in February 1900. Just seven years later, Oberlin's Apollo Theater opened, installing sound equipment for the 1928 release of The Jazz Singer, the first "talkie". The theater has since been a mainstay in the Oberlin community at its comfortable locale on south campus, and in 2012 (after a year of renovations) became the centerpiece for The Danny DeVito and Rhea Perlman Cinema Studies Center for Media Education and Production. The area above the theatre includes editing labs, an animation area, a recording studio and small projection screening room. Art rental Oberlin's Allen Memorial Art Museum has an art rental program, where students can borrow original etchings, lithographs and paintings by artists including Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Andy Warhol, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso for five dollars per semester. The program was started in the 1940s by Ellen H. Johnson, a professor of art at Oberlin, in order to "develop the aesthetic sensibilities of students and encourage ordered thinking and discrimination in other areas of their lives." Sustainability In 2006, Oberlin became one of the charter institutions to sign the ACUPCC and set a target climate neutrality date for 2025. Oberlin's innovative Adam Joseph Lewis Center For Environmental Studies, a building the Department of Energy labeled as one of the "milestone" buildings of the 20th century, incorporates a 4,600 square foot (425 square meter) photovoltaic array, the biggest of its kind in Ohio at the time. The AJLC also features a Living Machine, garden, orchard, and parking lot solar array. The school utilizes biodiesel, hybrid, and electric vehicles for various purposes, offers financial support to a local transit company providing public transportation to the school, and has been home to the Oberlin Bike Co-op, a cooperatively run bicycle center, since 1986. Each residence hall monitors and displays real time and historic electricity and water use. Some dorms also have special lamps which display a color depending on how real time energy use compares to the average historic energy use. The school's Campus Committee on Shareholder Responsibility provides students, faculty, and staff with the opportunity to make suggestions and decisions on proxy votes. A student board, the Oberlin College Green EDGE Fund, manages a set of accounts to support local sustainability, resource efficiency, and carbon offsetting projects. The Green EDGE Fund, created in 2007, allocates grants for environmental sustainability projects and verifiable carbon offsetting projects within the Oberlin community, as well as loans from a revolving fund for projects at Oberlin College that reduce resource consumption and have calculable financial savings for the college. In 2007, Oberlin received a grade of "B+" from the Sustainable Endowments Institute's annual College Sustainability Report Card, and was featured among schools as a "Campus Sustainability Leader". In 2008, Oberlin received an "A-" on the annual College Sustainability Report Card. It was also listed as the school with the greenest conscience by Plenty in their green campuses ratings. In 2011, the college received an A on the Sustainability Report card. Oberlin College participated in AASHE's Sustainability Tracking, Assessment, and Rating System (STARS) in early 2012. Oberlin College was one of only 43 institutions to receive a grade of Gold in STARS. According to a 2010 article in The Oberlin Review, renovated dorms may use more electricity. This is the case for several dorms renovated during the summer of 2008. The college architect, Steve Varelmann, has called the numbers "erratic and |
(née Clancy) and Oliver Clay North, a U.S. Army major. He grew up in Philmont, New York, and graduated from Ockawamick Central High School in 1961. He attended the State University of New York at Brockport for two years. While at Brockport, North spent a summer at the United States Marine Corps Platoon Leaders Class at Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia, and gained an appointment to the United States Naval Academy in 1963. He received his commission as second lieutenant in 1968, having missed a year due to serious back and leg injuries from an auto accident in which a classmate was killed. One of North's classmates at the academy was future secretary of the Navy and U.S. senator Jim Webb, whom he beat in a middleweight championship boxing match at Annapolis. (North had shown films of this match to Marine Medical Corps officials to prove that he had fully recovered from his serious accident and could endure the rigors of midshipman training.) Their graduating class included Dennis C. Blair, Michael Mullen, Charles Bolden and Michael Hagee. U.S. Marine Corps career Vietnam North served as a platoon commander during the Vietnam War, where during his combat service, he was awarded the Silver Star, Bronze Star Medal with Combat V, and two Purple Heart medals. At the time of his being awarded the Silver Star, North was a platoon commander leading his Marines in Operation Virginia Ridge. North led a counter-assault against the People's Army of Vietnam, as his platoon took on heavy machine gun fire and rocket propelled grenades. Throughout the battle, North displayed "courage, dynamic leadership and unwavering devotion to duty in the face of grave personal danger". Post-Vietnam In 1970, North returned to South Vietnam to testify as a character witness at the trial of Lance Corporal Randall Herrod, a U.S. Marine formerly under his command who, along with four others, had been charged with the murder of sixteen Vietnamese civilians in the village of Son Thang. North claims Herrod had previously saved his life. Herrod and one other Marine were acquitted. North's post-Vietnam career included: instructor at the Marine Basic School from 1969 to 1974; director of the Northern Training Area in Okinawa, Japan (1973–1974); plans and policy analyst with the manpower division at Headquarters Marine Corps from 1975 to 1978; and operations officer (S3) for 3rd Battalion, 8th Regiment, 2nd Marine Division at Camp Lejeune (1978–80). He graduated from the College of Naval Command and Staff at the Navy War College in 1981. National Security Council staff In 1981, North began his assignment to the National Security Council staff in Washington, D.C., where he served as a lobbyist from 1981 to 1983; and deputy director for political–military affairs from 1983 until his reassignment in 1986. In 1983, North was promoted to lieutenant colonel. During his tenure at the National Security Council, North managed a number of missions. This included leading the hunt for those responsible for the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing that killed 299 American and French military personnel, an effort that saw North arrange a mid-air interception of an EgyptAir jet carrying those responsible for the Achille Lauro hijacking. While at the National Security Council, he also helped plan the U.S. invasion of Grenada and the 1986 bombing of Libya. During his Iran-Contra trial, North spent his last two years on active duty assigned to Headquarters Marine Corps in Arlington, Virginia. He submitted his request to retire from the Marine Corps effective May 1, 1988, following his indictment for conspiring to defraud the United States by channeling the profits from US arms sales to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. After his trial and felony convictions, all convictions were reversed on appeal. Military awards North received the following military awards and decorations: Iran–Contra affair North came into the public spotlight as a result of his participation in the Iran–Contra affair, a political scandal during the Reagan administration, in which he claimed partial responsibility for the sale of weapons through intermediaries to Iran, with the profits being channeled to the Contras in Nicaragua. It was alleged that he was responsible for the establishment of a covert network which subsequently funneled those funds to the Contras. Congress passed the Boland Amendment (to the House Appropriations Bill of 1982 and following years), which prohibited the appropriation of U.S. funds by intelligence agencies for the support of the Contras. North solicited $10 million from the Sultan of Brunei to skirt U.S. prohibitions on funding the Contras. However, he gave the wrong number of the Swiss bank account intended to launder the money, and it went instead to a Swiss businessman. A Senate committee investigating the transaction tracked it down so it could be returned to Brunei. In an August 23, 1986, e-mail to National Security Advisor John Poindexter, North described a meeting with a representative of Panamanian General Manuel Noriega: "You will recall that over the years Manuel Noriega in Panama and I have developed a fairly good relationship," North writes before explaining Noriega's proposal. If U.S. officials can "help clean up his image" and lift the ban on arms sales to the Panamanian Defense Force, Noriega will "'take care of' the Sandinista leadership for us." North told Poindexter that General Noriega could assist with sabotage against the ruling party of Nicaragua, the Sandinista National Liberation Front. North supposedly suggested that Noriega be paid $1 million in cash from Project Democracy funds raised from the sale of U.S. arms to Iran for the Panamanian leader's help in destroying Nicaraguan economic installations. In November 1986, as the sale of weapons was made public, North was dismissed by President Ronald Reagan. In an interview with Cigar Aficionado magazine, North said that on February 11, 1987, the Federal Bureau of Investigation detected an attack on North's family from the Peoples Committee for Libyan Students, with an order to kill North. Although government officials later expressed skepticism of this claim, and no charges for this alleged plot were brought, his family was moved to Camp Lejeune in North Carolina and lived with federal agents until North retired from the Marine Corps the following year. In July 1987, North was summoned to testify before televised hearings of a joint congressional committee that was formed to investigate the Iran–Contra scandal. During the hearings, North admitted that he had misled Congress, for which, along with other actions, he was later charged. He defended his actions by stating that he believed in the goal of aiding the Contras, whom he saw as freedom fighters against the Sandinistas and said that he viewed the Iran–Contra scheme as a "neat idea." North admitted shredding government documents related to these activities at William Casey's suggestion when the Iran–Contra scandal became public. He also testified that Robert McFarlane had asked him to alter official records to delete references to direct assistance to the Contras and that he had helped. North was indicted in March 1988 on 16 felony counts. His trial opened in February 1989, and on May 4, 1989, he was initially convicted of three: accepting an illegal gratuity, aiding and abetting in the obstruction of a congressional inquiry, and ordering the destruction of documents through his secretary, Fawn Hall. He was sentenced by U.S. District Judge Gerhard Gesell on July 5, 1989, to a three-year suspended prison term, two years probation, $150,000 in fines, and 1,200 hours of community service. North performed some of his community service within Potomac Gardens, a public housing project in southeast Washington, DC. However, on July 20, 1990, with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union, North's convictions | had misled Congress, for which, along with other actions, he was later charged. He defended his actions by stating that he believed in the goal of aiding the Contras, whom he saw as freedom fighters against the Sandinistas and said that he viewed the Iran–Contra scheme as a "neat idea." North admitted shredding government documents related to these activities at William Casey's suggestion when the Iran–Contra scandal became public. He also testified that Robert McFarlane had asked him to alter official records to delete references to direct assistance to the Contras and that he had helped. North was indicted in March 1988 on 16 felony counts. His trial opened in February 1989, and on May 4, 1989, he was initially convicted of three: accepting an illegal gratuity, aiding and abetting in the obstruction of a congressional inquiry, and ordering the destruction of documents through his secretary, Fawn Hall. He was sentenced by U.S. District Judge Gerhard Gesell on July 5, 1989, to a three-year suspended prison term, two years probation, $150,000 in fines, and 1,200 hours of community service. North performed some of his community service within Potomac Gardens, a public housing project in southeast Washington, DC. However, on July 20, 1990, with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union, North's convictions were vacated, after the appeals court found that witnesses in his trial might have been impermissibly affected by his immunized congressional testimony. The individual members of the prosecution team had isolated themselves from news reports and discussion of North's testimony, and while the defense could show no specific instance in which North's congressional testimony was used in his trial, the Court of Appeals ruled that the trial judge had made an insufficient examination of the issue. Consequently, North's convictions were reversed. After further hearings on the immunity issue, Judge Gesell dismissed all charges against North on September 16, 1991. Politics In the 1994 election, North unsuccessfully ran for the United States Senate as the Republican Party candidate in Virginia. Republican senator John Warner of Virginia endorsed Marshall Coleman, a Republican who ran as an independent, instead of North. North lost, garnering 43 percent of votes, while incumbent Democrat Charles Robb, a son-in-law of President Lyndon B. Johnson, won reelection with 46 percent. Coleman received 11 percent. North's candidacy was documented in the 1996 film A Perfect Candidate. In his failed bid to unseat Robb, North raised $20.3 million in a single year through nationwide direct-mail solicitations, telemarketing, fundraising events, and contributions from major donors. About $16 million of that amount was from direct mail alone. This was the biggest accumulation of direct-mail funds for a statewide campaign to that date, and it made North the top direct-mail political fundraiser in the country in 1994. Freedom Alliance In 1990, North founded the Freedom Alliance, a 501(c)(3) foundation "to advance the American heritage of freedom by honoring and encouraging military service, defending the sovereignty of the United States, and promoting a strong national defense." The foundation's primary activities include providing support for wounded combat soldiers and providing scholarships for the children of service members killed in action. Beginning in 2003, Sean Hannity has raised over $10 million for the Freedom Alliance Scholarship Fund through Freedom Concerts and donations from The Sean Hannity Show and its listeners. The charity has been criticized by conservative blogger Debbie Schlussel for distributing too little of its funds for charitable purposes. Hannity, North, and other charity spokespersons say that all of the "net" proceeds from the Freedom Concerts are donated to the fund. National Rifle Association On May 7, 2018, the National Rifle Association (NRA) announced that North would become the organization's next president within the following weeks. He succeeded Pete Brownell, the incumbent. North is a board member in the NRA and appeared at NRA national conventions in 2007 and 2008. North began his term as president in September 2018. In April 2019, in the midst of a wide-ranging dispute involving the NRA's chief executive Wayne LaPierre, the NRA's advertising agency Ackerman McQueen, and the NRA's law firm Brewer Attorneys & Counselors, North announced that he would not serve a second term as president, ostensibly against his wishes. On April 24, 2019, North asked LaPierre to resign. On April 16, 2019, North and NRA first vice president Richard Childress wrote to the chairman of the NRA audit committee and the NRA's secretary and general counsel calling for an independent audit of the billing from the NRA's law firm, Brewer Attorneys & Counselors. In an April 24, 2019 letter to the executive committee of the NRA board, North said that he was forming a committee to investigate alleged financial improprieties, allegations which he said threatened the NRA's non-profit status. In an April 25, 2019 letter to the NRA board, LaPierre said that North was threatening to release damaging information about him. On April 27, 2019, in a letter read on his behalf at the NRA's annual convention in Indianapolis, Indiana, North announced he would not serve a second term. North's term ended on April 29, 2019, when he was replaced by Carolyn D. Meadows. On May 3, 2019, Senators Ron Wyden of Oregon, Sheldon Whitehouse of Rhode Island, and Bob Menendez of New Jersey, members of the Senate Finance Committee, wrote to North, LaPierre, and the NRA's advertising agency Ackerman McQueen requesting copies of the letters to the NRA board by North and LaPierre, seeking documents related to the allegations, and directing records preservation. Books and media Nonfiction Under Fire: An American Story, co-author William Novak, Zondervan, January 1, 1991, One More Mission: Oliver North Returns to Vietnam, co-author David Roth, Zondervan, January 1, 1993, War Stories: Operation Iraqi Freedom, Regnery History, November 1, 2003, True Freedom: The Liberating Power of Prayer, Multnomah Press, December 21, 2003, A Greater Freedom: Stories of Faith from Operation Iraqi Freedom, B&H Books, April 15, 2004, War Stories II: Heroism in the Pacific, Regnery History, October 1, 2004, War Stories III: The Heroes Who Defeated Hitler, Regnery History, November 11, 2005, American Heroes: In the Fight Against Radical Islam, Broadman & Holman Publishing, May 1, 2008, American Heroes: In Special Operations, Fidelis Books, November 1, 2010, American Heroes: On the Homefront, Threshold Editions, November 5, 2013, Veterans' Lament: Is This the America Our Heroes Fought For?, co-author David Goetsch, Fidelis Books, October 6, 2020, Fiction Mission Compromised, co -author Joe Musser, Broadman & Holman Publishers, September 2, 2002, The Jericho Sanction, co-author Joe Musser, Broadman & Holman Publishers, August 1, 2003, The Assassins, co-author Joe Musser, Broadman & Holman Publishers, October 1, 2005, Heroes Proved, Threshold Editions, November 20, 2012, Counterfeit Lies:, co-author Bob Hamer, Threshold Editions, June 10, 2014, The Rifleman, Fidelis Books, December 10, 2019, Film, television and radio In 1991, North appeared on the first season of The Jerry Springer Show. From 1995 to 2003, he was host of his own nationally syndicated radio program on Radio America known as the Oliver North Radio Show or Common Sense Radio With Oliver North. He also served as co-host of Equal Time on MSNBC from 1999 to 2000. North was the host of the television show War Stories with Oliver North from 2001 to 2016 and is a regular commentator on Hannity, both on the Fox News Channel. North appeared as himself on many television shows, including the sitcom Wings in 1991, and three episodes of the TV military drama JAG in 1995, 1996, and 2002 as "Ollie", a close friend of the deceased father of Tracey Needham's character Meg Austin. In addition, he regularly speaks at both public and private events. North appears in an episode of Auction Kings to have his Marine Corps sword returned after it was lost and presumably stolen in 1980. North was credited as a military consultant in the 2012 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops II and voiced himself in one level of the game. In Season 4, Episode 15 Stanny Slickers II: The Legend of Ollie's Gold of the TV series American Dad! Stan Smith searches under his house for Oliver North's hidden gold. In 2014, he received story credit for an episode of the TV series The Americans where the protagonist Soviet spies infiltrate a Contra training base in the United States. Personal life In 1967, North married Betsy Stuart; they have four children. Although raised in the Roman Catholic faith of his mother, North has long attended Protestant or evangelical services with his wife and children. The Norths live in McLean, Virginia. References Further reading External links list of Oliver North's television appearances Freedom Alliance Oliver North Features at Creators Syndicate C-SPAN Sen. Inouye |
a new approach addressing learning, innovation, development and growth with targets for 2017. Boye and his administration have been criticised for mismanaging the celebrations for the 200th anniversary of Hans Christian Andersen in 2005, above all for allegedly signing a contract with Tina Turner for a show which resulted in a deficit of 13 million kroner. In the 2013 municipal elections, Boye was successful in obtaining sufficient support from the Liberals and the left to ensure his continuation as mayor from the beginning of 2014. Boye announced in December 2016 that he would resign as mayor on 1 January 2017. The new mayor of Odense would be Peter Rahbæk Juel, also a member of the Social Democrats. Rahbæk Juel succeeded Boye as announced and continues to serve as mayor after the municipal elections in November 2017. Economy Odense is Funen's most important industrial and commercial centre, and the city's central location in Denmark makes it one of the national convention and congress centres. Enterprises include the Albani Brewery, ABB (Asea Brown Boveri), Kansas Workwear (clothing), Plus Pack (canning and containers) as well as manufacturers in the electrical sector such as Riegens / SG Lighting. In recent years there has been a general trend from manufacturing into the service sector. By 2002, 51% of the workforce was employed by the service sector while only 13% were working in industry. Lindø Wharf, once Denmark's largest shipbuilding facility, has now been converted into Lindø Industrial Park specialising in the production and storage of components for the offshore industries, creating a variety of new tenants. GASA, a large horticultural centre, supplies fruit, vegetables, flowers and plants to most of the country as well as for export. Established in 1988, Denmark's major commercial television channel TV 2 is based in Odense. The Rosengårdcentret shopping centre is located in the south-eastern part of Odense. The centre dates from 1971 and is the largest in Denmark with floor space and more than 150 shops as well as restaurants, a cinema and a fitness centre. A wide variety of shops can be found in the city centre, especially on Kongensgade and Vestergade and adjacent pedestrian streets. Tourism is an important source of income for the city. In 2008 Odense Municipality was listed seventh in Denmark for turnover on tourism, reaching 1.6 million Danish kroner for the year. In 2011, Odense Zoo was Funen's most popular tourist attraction and the eleventh most popular in Denmark with 405,913 visitors. The zoo was founded in 1930 and covers an area of and has roughly 2,000 animals, covering 147 species. In 2001, Odense Zoo inaugurated a DKK 60 million "Oceanium" featuring South American animal life. Nightlife in the city culminates in Brandts Passage, which contains numerous restaurants, bars and cafes, such as the Envy-Lounge, Australian Bar, Brandts Kladefabrik and Cafe Biografen. The jazz club, Jazzhus Dexter, is situated on the Vindegade. Other notable nightlife venues include Franck A, Froggys and Club Retro. Restaurants include the Cuckoos Nest bar and restaurant, the Brasserie Klitgaard, the Den Gamle Kro, set in a 17th-century half-timbered house, Kvægtorvet, run by leading chef Klavs Styrbæk who serves fresh fish and meat dishes, which is now closed, and the Under Lindetraet in an 18th-century cottage opposite the Hans Christian Andersen house which serves Franco-Danish cuisine. Hotels of note include the Radisson SAS HC Andersen Hotel, the First Hotel Grand with its brasserie bar, the 68-room Old English-style Clarion Collection Hotel Plaza, City Hotel, which is in close proximity to the Hans Christian Andersen museum, and the 140-room Danhostel Odense City. Landmarks Nonnebakken, a hill in the Odense area, is the site of one of Denmark's six former Viking ring castles, built during the reign of Sweyn Forkbeard, who had forced his father Harold Bluetooth to leave the country and seek refuge by the Jomsvikings in Wollin (modern Poland) in around 975. The fort provided its occupier the command of the Odense River passing next to the hill. The archaeological remains of the fort were heavily damaged when a building for the Odd Fellow lodge was constructed on the site during the late nineteenth century. Churches Odense is the see of the bishop of Funen. Saint Canute's Cathedral () was formerly connected with the great Benedictine monastery of the same name, and is one of the largest and finest buildings of its kind in Denmark. Originally dating from 1081 to 1093, the church was rebuilt in the 13th century in brick in a pure Gothic style. Under the altar lies Canute (Danish: Knud), the patron saint of Denmark and his brother on public display. A large fragment of Byzantine cloth is displayed next to the two skeletons. The cathedral also boasts one of Denmark's most remarkable altarpieces, a magnificent triptych by Claus Berg. Kings Jens and Christian II are buried in the city. St Alban's Church, built in the Neogothic style and consecrated in 1908, is the Roman Catholic church of Odense. Its steeple is high. St Mary's Church (Vor Frue Kirke or Our Lady's Church), built in the 13th century and restored in 1851–1852 and again in 1864, contains a carved 16th-century altarpiece by Claus Berg of Lübeck. St John's Church (Sankt Hans Kirke), first mentioned in 1295, was built by the Knights Hospitaller, also known as the Order of Saint John. Not much of the original building remains as it was rebuilt in 1636 and subsequently restored. Built of red brick with horizontal decorations on the chancel wall, it has large Gothic windows. The date of 1496 on one of the bells in the step-ribbed tower may well be the year the church was completed. The tower is adjacent to Odense Palace which was originally built as a monastery. Ansgars Church was the first church to be built in Odense since the Middle Ages. Completed in 1902, it was designed by Niels Jacobsen in the late Romanesque style in red brick on granite foundations. The cross-shaped interior is complemented by a spired bell-tower, high. The Peace Church (Fredenskirke) consecrated in 1920 was so named in gratitude for the end of the First World War. The church was the work of Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint who went on to design Copenhagen's Grundtvig's Church. City Hall Odense's City Hall (Odense Rådhus), with its medieval Italian look, was designed by Johan Daniel Herholdt and Carl Lendorf in the Historicist style. Completed in 1883, it combines red masonry with sandstone decorations, stepped gables and a saw-tooth course. It stands on the site of a smaller building from 1480. In 1937 Bent Helveg-Møller won the competition for the building's enlargement. The tower over the main entrance was torn down in 1942 but was not rebuilt. As work was delayed during the war, the extension was not completed until 1955. In conjunction with Hans Christian Andersen's 200th anniversary in 2005, comprehensive renovation work was completed on the building's interiors, including the entrance halls, meeting rooms, banqueting hall and council chamber. Palaces and theatres Odense Palace was erected by Frederick IV, who died there in 1730. Now an administrative building, it stands on the site of Sankt Hans Kloster, a 15th-century monastery which was transferred to the Crown in 1536. The main white Baroque wing with 13 bays was designed by J.C. Krieger for Frederick IV and completed in 1723. Set in a park, the King's Garden was constructed to a French design by Johan Cornelius Krieger. Odense Teater, first established in 1796, is Denmark's second oldest theatrical enterprise and one of the country's three main theatres. The original building was on Sortebrødre Torv was used until 1914 when a new building designed by Jacobsen was opened on Jernbanegade. It has three stages: Store Scene, Værkstedet, and Foyerscenen. The theatre also has stages in the former sugar factory Sukkerkogeriet, where it runs the first drama school outside Copenhagen established in 1941. It is notable in theatrical history for staging the première of Henrik Ibsen's first contemporary realist drama The Pillars of Society on 14 November 1877. Teater Momentum or Teater uden Ryglæn, publicly funded by the municipal government and the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, is also of note. Established in 2005, it signs on a new director each year who is charged with creating the "volume" of the year with a set of plays and performers. It also puts on other cultural entertainment including concerts, debates, lectures and poetry. Odense Symphony Orchestra (Odense Symfoniorkester), one of Denmark's five regional orchestras, was formally established in 1946. The orchestra is based in Odense Concert Hall, which was inaugurated in 1982. Most of the orchestra’s concerts are given in the Carl Nielsen Hall, a seating capacity of 1,212 and a large 46-stops organ built by Marcussen & Son. First established in 1948, Funen Opera (Den Fynske Opera) was reopened in 1996 after a period of closure. It specializes in presenting contemporary operas in Danish. Hans Christian Andersen connections Remembered above all for his fairy tales, Hans Christian Andersen was born in Odense in 1805. It is thought his birthplace is the small yellow house on the corner of Hans Jensens Stræde and Bangs Boder in the old town. In 1908 the house was opened as the Hans Christian Andersen Museum. It documents his life from his childhood years as the son of a struggling shoemaker, to his schooling, career as an author, and later life, with artefacts providing an insight into his acquaintances and adventures. Andersen's childhood home is on Munkemøllestræde not far from the cathedral. He lived in the little half-timbered house from the age of two until he was 14. Opened as a museum in 1930, the house contains an exhibition of the cobbling tools used by his father and other items based on Andersen's own descriptions. Throughout the city there are numerous statues and sculptures representing characters from the stories of Hans Christian Andersen. They include the Steadfast Tin Soldier, the Mermaid, the Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep, the Toad, the Darning Needle, the Emperor's New Clothes, the Sea Horse, the Paper Boat, the Flying Trunk and the Wild Swans. There is also a distinctive statue of Andersen in Eventyrparken (The Fairy Tale Park) beside the cathedral. Sculpted by Louis Hasselriis in 1888, it shows the storyteller with a book in his hand, ready to entertain onlookers with his fairy tales. Museums The museums in Odense are mainly governed by the Odense City Museums, a department of the municipal government. Funen's Art Museum (Fyns Kunstmuseum), formerly The Museum of Funen's Abbey, is one of Denmark's oldest art museums, dating to 1885. It contains the principal works by Jens Juel, Dankvart Dreyer, P.S. Krøyer and H. A. Brendekilde. The open-air The Funen Village museum (Den Fynske Landsby) tries to emulate what country life was like in Denmark at the time of Andersen's life and contains houses of historical Odense. The Carl Nielsen Museum is dedicated to the life of Carl Nielsen and his wife, the sculptor Anne Marie Carl-Nielsen. It documents his life from his childhood in the town of Nr. Lyndelse, to his career and success on the European music scene, with his violins, his bugle and his grand piano on display, as well as a number of his musical scores, including six symphonies, three concertos, two operas, and chamber music and numerous songs. The Møntergården cultural history museum of Odense is one of the most notable remaining Renaissance buildings of the city, built in 1646 by the nobleman Falk Gøye. It has many artefacts related to the early Viking history in Odense, and is named after the narrow street Møntestræde adjacent to the building, where a coin workshop once operated in around 1420. Located in a courtyard of half-timbered houses, the museum also has exhibits on Funen's ancient history, as well as Odense in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The Danish Railway Museum is the national railway museum of Denmark, the largest such museum in Scandinavia. It was established in 1975 in a former engine shed adjacent to the city's main railway station and has an area of over , with some 50 locomotives and railway carriages on 20 rail tracks from all periods of Danish rail history. The oldest steam engine dates back to 1869. The Brandts Museum of Photographic Art (Museet for Fotokunst) in Odense is the only national Danish art museum dedicated specifically to photographic art. It was founded on 13 September 1985 as part of the Brandts International Centre for Art and Culture and opened its own exhibition space in 1987. The Media Museum of Odense documents the history of the freedom of speech in Denmark since 1849, and the development of the printing press and the history of Danish broadsheet Berlingske. Education Odense University Odense University, established by law in 1964, was the first of three new provincial universities created to relieve pressure on the universities of Copenhagen and Aarhus. Teaching began in 1966. By the end of the 20th century, there were 11,000 students and some 5,000 employees. Before it became part of the University of Southern Denmark in 1998, it had four faculties covering arts, medicine, and natural and social sciences. The university building which opened in 1971 was designed by KHR Arkitekter. University of Southern Denmark The University of Southern Denmark (Syddansk Universitet) was established in 1998 as a merger of Odense University, the Southern Denmark Business School (Handelshøjskole Syd), the Southern Engineering School (Ingeniørhøjskole Syd) and the South Jutland University Centre (Sydjysk Universitetscenter). The main campus is in Odense but there are also departments in Copenhagen, Esbjerg, Kolding, Slagelse and Sønderborg. With some 26,000 students (2012), the establishment is Denmark's third largest university. The Faculty of Engineering (Det Tekniske Fakultet) combines several institutions: Odense Maskinteknikum (a mechanical engineering college which was established in 1905 and in 1962 became the Southern Engineering School), the Mads Clausen Institute and the Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller Institute. Other educational institutions Odense also includes departments of the University College Lillebaelt headquartered in Vejle. The university is the result of a merger between several further education institutions on Funen and in Jelling, Vejle and Svendborg. UCL is currently undertaking comprehensive renovation of the buildings on Niels Bohrs Allé from the 1960s where it will concentrate its Odense interests. It intends to open University College Lillebælt Campus Odense in August 2014. Aimed at improving employment opportunities in business, the Lillebaelt Academy of Professional Higher Education (Erhvervsakademiet Lillebælt) was established in 2009 as a result of a merger between Tietgen Business College, SDE college, Kold College and Vejle Business College. In 2014, it had 3,200 students and a staff of 300. Its programmes are offered at various locations in Odense and Vejle. Under the auspices of the municipality, the Odense School of Music (Odense Musikskole) offers educational courses with an emphasis on music to children and young people up to the age of 25. Kold College is a privately run institution offering vocational courses in food, agriculture and gardening. Founded in 2004, after a merger between Datum Tekniske Skole and Gartnerskolen Søhus, it changed its name to Kold College in 2008. It also offers secondary education courses in the natural sciences. The college is named after Christen Kold who founded vocational schools on Funen in the mid-19th century. Funen Art Academy is an independent, nationally recognized educational institution located in the Brandts complex in central Odense which offers 5-year course in the visual arts. Odense is home to eight gymnasiums (Grammar schools), 21 state grade schools as well as a number of private schools. Sports Odense's most important football clubs are Odense Boldklub (OB), BK Marienlyst (BM), B1909, and B1913. OB has a history going back to 1887 when it was founded as Odense Kricketklub (Odense Cricket Club). It changed its name to Odense Boldklub in 1893 after football was included in its activities. The club has won three national championships, and five cup titles. The club play their home matches at Odense Stadium, also known as Odense Stadion. BK Marienlyst, founded in 1922, are in the Danish 2nd Division, and play their home matches at Marienlystcentret, which has a capacity of 1,200. The club also has a notable volleyball team. RC Odense represents the city at rugby in combination with Lindø RSC. The Odense Bulldogs are a professional ice hockey team based in Odense. They play in the top Danish League Metal Ligaen, as the only team from Funen. In tennis, Tennis Club Odense is located near the Odense River. The country's largest tennis centre is due to open in Marienlyst in 2014. The H.C. Andersen Marathon is held annually in Odense. On Ascension Sunday, children can participate in Eventyrløbet (the Fairy Tale Run) with circuits from 2.5 to 10 km. There are many smaller sports clubs in Odense covering athletics, badminton, basketball, boxing, climbing, cycling, fencing, football, golf, gymnastics, handball, jujitsu, karate, riding, roller-skating, shooting, swimming, table tennis, tennis, volleyball, yoga and wrestling as well as several specialising in facilities for people with disabilities. Esports In early December 2017, the ESL Pro League Season 6 finals were held in the 4,000-seat Arena Fyn. The event would return to Odense for its Season 8 finals, won by the hometown heroes Astralis, in December 2018. The season 10 offline finals of ESL Pro League were also held in the city. Transport The Port of Odense consists of three main basins and a number of facilities along the canal, with quays measuring roughly in length in total. Vessels up to a length of and a draft of are facilitated in the port. The wharf for tankers is situated outside the harbour on the southern side of the canal, with facilities for tankers, general cargo ships, bulk, and LPG ships, and has a depth of . Accessibility to Odense was greatly increased when the ferry service between the two main Danish islands, Zealand and Funen, was replaced by the Great Belt Bridge – opened in 1997 for rail traffic, 1998 for road traffic. When the bridge opened, it was the second longest suspension bridge in the world. Aarhus can be reached by train in 1 hour and 33 minutes while, thanks to the Great Belt Bridge, trains to Copenhagen can take as little as an hour and a quarter. Odense's main railway station Odense Station lies on the line between Copenhagen and Jutland, the peninsular mainland. International trains connect the town with Hamburg in Germany. Local and regional trains link Odense to the rest of Denmark. A | new approach addressing learning, innovation, development and growth with targets for 2017. Boye and his administration have been criticised for mismanaging the celebrations for the 200th anniversary of Hans Christian Andersen in 2005, above all for allegedly signing a contract with Tina Turner for a show which resulted in a deficit of 13 million kroner. In the 2013 municipal elections, Boye was successful in obtaining sufficient support from the Liberals and the left to ensure his continuation as mayor from the beginning of 2014. Boye announced in December 2016 that he would resign as mayor on 1 January 2017. The new mayor of Odense would be Peter Rahbæk Juel, also a member of the Social Democrats. Rahbæk Juel succeeded Boye as announced and continues to serve as mayor after the municipal elections in November 2017. Economy Odense is Funen's most important industrial and commercial centre, and the city's central location in Denmark makes it one of the national convention and congress centres. Enterprises include the Albani Brewery, ABB (Asea Brown Boveri), Kansas Workwear (clothing), Plus Pack (canning and containers) as well as manufacturers in the electrical sector such as Riegens / SG Lighting. In recent years there has been a general trend from manufacturing into the service sector. By 2002, 51% of the workforce was employed by the service sector while only 13% were working in industry. Lindø Wharf, once Denmark's largest shipbuilding facility, has now been converted into Lindø Industrial Park specialising in the production and storage of components for the offshore industries, creating a variety of new tenants. GASA, a large horticultural centre, supplies fruit, vegetables, flowers and plants to most of the country as well as for export. Established in 1988, Denmark's major commercial television channel TV 2 is based in Odense. The Rosengårdcentret shopping centre is located in the south-eastern part of Odense. The centre dates from 1971 and is the largest in Denmark with floor space and more than 150 shops as well as restaurants, a cinema and a fitness centre. A wide variety of shops can be found in the city centre, especially on Kongensgade and Vestergade and adjacent pedestrian streets. Tourism is an important source of income for the city. In 2008 Odense Municipality was listed seventh in Denmark for turnover on tourism, reaching 1.6 million Danish kroner for the year. In 2011, Odense Zoo was Funen's most popular tourist attraction and the eleventh most popular in Denmark with 405,913 visitors. The zoo was founded in 1930 and covers an area of and has roughly 2,000 animals, covering 147 species. In 2001, Odense Zoo inaugurated a DKK 60 million "Oceanium" featuring South American animal life. Nightlife in the city culminates in Brandts Passage, which contains numerous restaurants, bars and cafes, such as the Envy-Lounge, Australian Bar, Brandts Kladefabrik and Cafe Biografen. The jazz club, Jazzhus Dexter, is situated on the Vindegade. Other notable nightlife venues include Franck A, Froggys and Club Retro. Restaurants include the Cuckoos Nest bar and restaurant, the Brasserie Klitgaard, the Den Gamle Kro, set in a 17th-century half-timbered house, Kvægtorvet, run by leading chef Klavs Styrbæk who serves fresh fish and meat dishes, which is now closed, and the Under Lindetraet in an 18th-century cottage opposite the Hans Christian Andersen house which serves Franco-Danish cuisine. Hotels of note include the Radisson SAS HC Andersen Hotel, the First Hotel Grand with its brasserie bar, the 68-room Old English-style Clarion Collection Hotel Plaza, City Hotel, which is in close proximity to the Hans Christian Andersen museum, and the 140-room Danhostel Odense City. Landmarks Nonnebakken, a hill in the Odense area, is the site of one of Denmark's six former Viking ring castles, built during the reign of Sweyn Forkbeard, who had forced his father Harold Bluetooth to leave the country and seek refuge by the Jomsvikings in Wollin (modern Poland) in around 975. The fort provided its occupier the command of the Odense River passing next to the hill. The archaeological remains of the fort were heavily damaged when a building for the Odd Fellow lodge was constructed on the site during the late nineteenth century. Churches Odense is the see of the bishop of Funen. Saint Canute's Cathedral () was formerly connected with the great Benedictine monastery of the same name, and is one of the largest and finest buildings of its kind in Denmark. Originally dating from 1081 to 1093, the church was rebuilt in the 13th century in brick in a pure Gothic style. Under the altar lies Canute (Danish: Knud), the patron saint of Denmark and his brother on public display. A large fragment of Byzantine cloth is displayed next to the two skeletons. The cathedral also boasts one of Denmark's most remarkable altarpieces, a magnificent triptych by Claus Berg. Kings Jens and Christian II are buried in the city. St Alban's Church, built in the Neogothic style and consecrated in 1908, is the Roman Catholic church of Odense. Its steeple is high. St Mary's Church (Vor Frue Kirke or Our Lady's Church), built in the 13th century and restored in 1851–1852 and again in 1864, contains a carved 16th-century altarpiece by Claus Berg of Lübeck. St John's Church (Sankt Hans Kirke), first mentioned in 1295, was built by the Knights Hospitaller, also known as the Order of Saint John. Not much of the original building remains as it was rebuilt in 1636 and subsequently restored. Built of red brick with horizontal decorations on the chancel wall, it has large Gothic windows. The date of 1496 on one of the bells in the step-ribbed tower may well be the year the church was completed. The tower is adjacent to Odense Palace which was originally built as a monastery. Ansgars Church was the first church to be built in Odense since the Middle Ages. Completed in 1902, it was designed by Niels Jacobsen in the late Romanesque style in red brick on granite foundations. The cross-shaped interior is complemented by a spired bell-tower, high. The Peace Church (Fredenskirke) consecrated in 1920 was so named in gratitude for the end of the First World War. The church was the work of Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint who went on to design Copenhagen's Grundtvig's Church. City Hall Odense's City Hall (Odense Rådhus), with its medieval Italian look, was designed by Johan Daniel Herholdt and Carl Lendorf in the Historicist style. Completed in 1883, it combines red masonry with sandstone decorations, stepped gables and a saw-tooth course. It stands on the site of a smaller building from 1480. In 1937 Bent Helveg-Møller won the competition for the building's enlargement. The tower over the main entrance was torn down in 1942 but was not rebuilt. As work was delayed during the war, the extension was not completed until 1955. In conjunction with Hans Christian Andersen's 200th anniversary in 2005, comprehensive renovation work was completed on the building's interiors, including the entrance halls, meeting rooms, banqueting hall and council chamber. Palaces and theatres Odense Palace was erected by Frederick IV, who died there in 1730. Now an administrative building, it stands on the site of Sankt Hans Kloster, a 15th-century monastery which was transferred to the Crown in 1536. The main white Baroque wing with 13 bays was designed by J.C. Krieger for Frederick IV and completed in 1723. Set in a park, the King's Garden was constructed to a French design by Johan Cornelius Krieger. Odense Teater, first established in 1796, is Denmark's second oldest theatrical enterprise and one of the country's three main theatres. The original building was on Sortebrødre Torv was used until 1914 when a new building designed by Jacobsen was opened on Jernbanegade. It has three stages: Store Scene, Værkstedet, and Foyerscenen. The theatre also has stages in the former sugar factory Sukkerkogeriet, where it runs the first drama school outside Copenhagen established in 1941. It is notable in theatrical history for staging the première of Henrik Ibsen's first contemporary realist drama The Pillars of Society on 14 November 1877. Teater Momentum or Teater uden Ryglæn, publicly funded by the municipal government and the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, is also of note. Established in 2005, it signs on a new director each year who is charged with creating the "volume" of the year with a set of plays and performers. It also puts on other cultural entertainment including concerts, debates, lectures and poetry. Odense Symphony Orchestra (Odense Symfoniorkester), one of Denmark's five regional orchestras, was formally established in 1946. The orchestra is based in Odense Concert Hall, which was inaugurated in 1982. Most of the orchestra’s concerts are given in the Carl Nielsen Hall, a seating capacity of 1,212 and a large 46-stops organ built by Marcussen & Son. First established in 1948, Funen Opera (Den Fynske Opera) was reopened in 1996 after a period of closure. It specializes in presenting contemporary operas in Danish. Hans Christian Andersen connections Remembered above all for his fairy tales, Hans Christian Andersen was born in Odense in 1805. It is thought his birthplace is the small yellow house on the corner of Hans Jensens Stræde and Bangs Boder in the old town. In 1908 the house was opened as the Hans Christian Andersen Museum. It documents his life from his childhood years as the son of a struggling shoemaker, to his schooling, career as an author, and later life, with artefacts providing an insight into his acquaintances and adventures. Andersen's childhood home is on Munkemøllestræde not far from the cathedral. He lived in the little half-timbered house from the age of two until he was 14. Opened as a museum in 1930, the house contains an exhibition of the cobbling tools used by his father and other items based on Andersen's own descriptions. Throughout the city there are numerous statues and sculptures representing characters from the stories of Hans Christian Andersen. They include the Steadfast Tin Soldier, the Mermaid, the Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep, the Toad, the Darning Needle, the Emperor's New Clothes, the Sea Horse, the Paper Boat, the Flying Trunk and the Wild Swans. There is also a distinctive statue of Andersen in Eventyrparken (The Fairy Tale Park) beside the cathedral. Sculpted by Louis Hasselriis in 1888, it shows the storyteller with a book in his hand, ready to entertain onlookers with his fairy tales. Museums The museums in Odense are mainly governed by the Odense City Museums, a department of the municipal government. Funen's Art Museum (Fyns Kunstmuseum), formerly The Museum of Funen's Abbey, is one of Denmark's oldest art museums, dating to 1885. It contains the principal works by Jens Juel, Dankvart Dreyer, P.S. Krøyer and H. A. Brendekilde. The open-air The Funen Village museum (Den Fynske Landsby) tries to emulate what country life was like in Denmark at the time of Andersen's life and contains houses of historical Odense. The Carl Nielsen Museum is dedicated to the life of Carl Nielsen and his wife, the sculptor Anne Marie Carl-Nielsen. It documents his life from his childhood in the town of Nr. Lyndelse, to his career and success on the European music scene, with his violins, his bugle and his grand piano on display, as well as a number of his musical scores, including six symphonies, three concertos, two operas, and chamber music and numerous songs. The Møntergården cultural history museum of Odense is one of the most notable remaining Renaissance buildings of the city, built in 1646 by the nobleman Falk Gøye. It has many artefacts related to the early Viking history in Odense, and is named after the narrow street Møntestræde adjacent to the building, where a coin workshop once operated in around 1420. Located in a courtyard of half-timbered houses, the museum also has exhibits on Funen's ancient history, as well as Odense in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The Danish Railway Museum is the national railway museum of Denmark, the largest such museum in Scandinavia. It was established in 1975 in a former engine shed adjacent to the city's main railway station and has an area of over , with some 50 locomotives and railway carriages on 20 rail tracks from all periods of Danish rail history. The oldest steam engine dates back to 1869. The Brandts Museum of Photographic Art (Museet for Fotokunst) in Odense is the only national Danish art museum dedicated specifically to photographic art. It was founded on 13 September 1985 as part of the Brandts International Centre for Art and Culture and opened its own exhibition space in 1987. The Media Museum of Odense documents the history of the freedom of speech in Denmark since 1849, and the development of the printing press and the history of Danish broadsheet Berlingske. Education Odense University Odense University, established by law in 1964, was the first of three new provincial universities created to relieve pressure on the universities of Copenhagen and Aarhus. Teaching began in 1966. By the end of the 20th century, there were 11,000 students and some 5,000 employees. Before it became part of the University of Southern Denmark in 1998, it had four faculties covering arts, medicine, and natural and social sciences. The university building which opened in 1971 was designed by KHR Arkitekter. University of Southern Denmark The University of Southern Denmark (Syddansk Universitet) was established in 1998 as a merger of Odense University, the Southern Denmark Business School (Handelshøjskole Syd), the Southern Engineering School (Ingeniørhøjskole Syd) and the South Jutland University Centre (Sydjysk Universitetscenter). The main campus is in Odense but there are also departments in Copenhagen, Esbjerg, Kolding, Slagelse and Sønderborg. With some 26,000 students (2012), the establishment is Denmark's third largest university. The Faculty of Engineering (Det Tekniske Fakultet) combines several institutions: Odense Maskinteknikum (a mechanical engineering college which was established in 1905 and in 1962 became the Southern Engineering School), the Mads Clausen Institute and the Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller Institute. Other educational institutions Odense also includes departments of the University College Lillebaelt headquartered in Vejle. The university is the result of a merger between several further education institutions on Funen and in Jelling, Vejle and Svendborg. UCL is currently undertaking comprehensive renovation of the buildings on Niels Bohrs Allé from the 1960s where it will concentrate its Odense interests. It intends to open University College Lillebælt Campus Odense in August 2014. Aimed at improving employment opportunities in business, the Lillebaelt Academy of Professional Higher Education (Erhvervsakademiet Lillebælt) was established in 2009 as a result of a merger between Tietgen Business College, SDE college, Kold College and Vejle Business College. In 2014, it had 3,200 students and a staff of 300. Its programmes are offered at various locations in Odense and Vejle. Under the auspices of the municipality, the Odense School of Music (Odense Musikskole) offers educational courses with an emphasis on music to children and young people up to the age of 25. Kold College is a privately run institution offering vocational courses in food, agriculture and gardening. Founded in 2004, after a merger between Datum Tekniske Skole and Gartnerskolen Søhus, it changed its name to Kold College in 2008. It also offers secondary education courses in the natural sciences. The college is named after Christen Kold who founded vocational schools on Funen in the mid-19th century. Funen Art Academy is an independent, nationally recognized educational institution located in the Brandts complex in central Odense which offers 5-year course in the visual arts. Odense is home to eight gymnasiums (Grammar schools), 21 state grade schools as well as a number of private schools. Sports Odense's most important football clubs are Odense Boldklub (OB), BK Marienlyst (BM), B1909, and B1913. OB has a history going back to 1887 when it was founded as Odense Kricketklub (Odense Cricket Club). It changed its name to Odense Boldklub in 1893 after football was included in its activities. The club has won three national championships, and five cup titles. The club play their home matches at Odense Stadium, also known as Odense Stadion. BK Marienlyst, founded in 1922, are in the Danish 2nd Division, and play their home matches at Marienlystcentret, which has a capacity of 1,200. The club also has a notable volleyball team. RC Odense represents the city at rugby in combination with Lindø RSC. The Odense Bulldogs are a professional ice hockey team based in Odense. They play in the top Danish League Metal Ligaen, as the only team from Funen. In tennis, Tennis Club Odense is located near the Odense River. The country's largest tennis centre is due to open in Marienlyst in 2014. The H.C. Andersen Marathon is held annually in Odense. On Ascension Sunday, children can participate in Eventyrløbet (the Fairy Tale Run) with circuits from 2.5 to 10 km. There are many smaller sports clubs in Odense covering athletics, badminton, basketball, boxing, climbing, cycling, fencing, football, golf, gymnastics, handball, jujitsu, karate, riding, roller-skating, shooting, swimming, table tennis, tennis, volleyball, yoga and wrestling as well as several specialising in facilities for people with disabilities. Esports In early December 2017, the ESL Pro League Season 6 finals were held in the 4,000-seat Arena Fyn. The event would return to Odense |
Vorbis. It has since been adopted in the specifications of Ogg encapsulations for other Xiph.Org codecs including Theora, Speex, FLAC and Opus. VorbisComment is the simplest and most widely-supported mechanism for storing metadata with Xiph.Org codecs. Notably, one or more METADATA_BLOCK_PICTURE=… in a VorbisComment for thumbnails and cover art have Base64-encoded values of the corresponding FLAC METADATA_BLOCK_PICTURE. In other words, FLAC stores thumbnails and cover art in binary blocks—outside of the FLAC tags in a little-endian METADATA_BLOCK_VORBIS_COMMENT. Other existing and proposed mechanisms are: FLAC metadata blocks Ogg Skeleton Continuous Media Markup Language (deprecated) History The Ogg project began with a simple audio compression package as part of a larger project in 1993. The software was originally named Squish but due to an existing trade mark it was renamed to OggSquish. This name was later used for the whole Ogg project. In 1997, the Xiphophorus OggSquish was described as "an attempt both to create a flexible compressed audio format for modern audio applications as well as to provide the first audio format that is common on any and every modern computer platform". The OggSquish was in 2000 referred to as "a group of several related multimedia and signal processing projects". In 2000, two projects were in active development for planned release: Ogg Vorbis format and libvorbis—the reference implementation of Vorbis. Research also included work on future video and lossless audio coding. In 2001, OggSquish was renamed to Ogg and it was described as "the umbrella for a group of several related multimedia and signal processing projects". Ogg has come to stand for the file format, as part of the larger Xiph.org multimedia project. Squish became just the name of one of the Ogg codecs. In 2009, Ogg is described as "a multimedia container format, and the native file and stream format for the Xiph.org multimedia codecs". The Ogg reference implementation was separated from Vorbis on September 2, 2000. In May 2003, two Internet RFCs were published relating to the format. The Ogg bitstream was defined in (which is classified as 'informative') and its Internet content type (application/ogg) in (which is, , a proposed standard protocol). In September 2008, RFC 3534 was obsoleted by , which added content types video/ogg, audio/ogg and filename extensions .ogx, .ogv, .oga, .spx. OGM In 2002, the lack of formal video support in Ogg resulted in the development of the OGM file format, a hack on Ogg that allowed embedding of video from the Microsoft DirectShow framework into an Ogg-based wrapper. OGM was initially supported only by closed source Windows-only tools, but the codebase was subsequently opened. Later, video (and subtitle) support were formally specified for Ogg but in a manner incompatible with OGM. Independently, the Matroska container format reached maturity and provided an alternative for people interested in combining Vorbis audio and arbitrary video codecs. As a result, OGM is no longer supported or developed and is formally discouraged by Xiph.org. Today, video in Ogg is found with the .ogv file extension, which is formally specified and officially supported. Software and codecs that support .ogm files are available without charge. 2006 Although Ogg had not reached anywhere near the ubiquity of the MPEG standards (e.g., MP3/MP4), , it was commonly used to encode free content (such as free music, multimedia on Wikimedia Foundation projects and Creative Commons files) and had started to be supported by a significant minority of digital audio players. Also supporting the Ogg format were many popular video game engines, including Doom 3, Unreal Tournament 2004, Halo: Combat Evolved, Jets'n'Guns, Mafia: The City of Lost Heaven, Myst IV: Revelation, StepMania, Serious Sam: The Second Encounter, Lineage 2, Vendetta Online, Battlefield 2, and the Grand Theft Auto engines, as well as the audio files of the Java-based game, Minecraft. The more popular Vorbis codec had built-in support on many software players, and extensions were available for nearly all the rest. 2007 On May 16, 2007, the Free Software Foundation started a campaign to increase the use of Vorbis "as an ethically, legally and technically superior audio alternative to the proprietary MP3 format". People were also encouraged to support the campaign by adding a web button to their website or blog. For those who did not want to download and use the FSF's suggested Ogg player (VLC), the Xiph.Org Foundation had an official codec for QuickTime-based applications in Windows and Mac OS X, such as iTunes players and iMovie applications; and Windows users could install a Windows Media Player Ogg codec. 2009 By June 30, 2009, the Ogg container, through the use of the Theora and Vorbis, was the only container format included in Firefox 3.5 web browser's implementation of the HTML5 <video> and <audio> elements. This was in accordance with the original recommendation outlined in, but later removed from, the HTML5 draft specification (see Ogg controversy). 2010 On March 3, 2010, a technical analysis by an FFmpeg developer was critical about the general purpose abilities of Ogg as a multimedia container format. The author of Ogg later responded to these claims in an article of his own. Ogg codecs Ogg is only a container format. The actual audio or video encoded by a codec is stored inside an Ogg container. Ogg containers may contain streams encoded with multiple codecs; for example, a video file with sound contains data encoded by both an audio codec and a video codec. Being a container format, Ogg can embed audio and video in various formats (such as Dirac, MNG, CELT, MPEG-4, MP3 and others) but Ogg was intended to be, and usually is, used with the following Xiph.org free codecs: Audio Lossy Speex: handles voice data at low bitrates (~2.1–32 kbit/s/channel) Vorbis: handles general audio data at mid to high-level variable bitrates (≈16–500 kbit/s per channel) Opus: handles voice, music and generic audio at low and high variable bitrates (≈6–510 kbit/s per channel) Lossless FLAC handles archival and high fidelity audio data. OggPCM allows storing standard uncompressed PCM audio in an Ogg container Video Lossy Theora: based upon On2's VP3, it is targeted at competing with MPEG-4 video (for example, encoded with DivX or Xvid), RealVideo, or Windows Media Video. Daala: a video coding format under development. Tarkin: an experimental and now obsolete video codec developed in 2000, 2001 and 2002 utilizing discrete wavelet transforms in the three dimensions of width, height, and time. It has been put on hold after Theora became the main focus for video encoding (in August 2002). Dirac: a free and open video format developed by the BBC. Uses wavelet encoding. Lossless Dirac: a part of the specification of dirac covers lossless compression. Daala: a video coding format under development. Text Continuous Media Markup Language: a text/application codec for timed metadata, captioning, and formatting. Annodex: A free and open source set of standards developed by CSIRO to annotate and index networked media. OggKate: An overlay codec, originally designed for karaoke and text, that can be multiplexed in Ogg. Media types Ogg audio media is registered as IANA media type audio/ogg with file extensions .oga, .ogg, and .spx. It is a proper subset of the Ogg video media type video/ogg with file extension .ogv. Other Ogg applications use media type application/ogg with file extension .ogx, this is a superset of video/ogg. The Opus media type audio/opus with file extension .opus was registered later in RFC and . See also Audio data compression Comparison of audio coding formats Comparison of container formats Commons:file types Use of Ogg formats in HTML5 Wikimedia Commons' Theora | called an "Ogg page". Each page begins with the characters "OggS" to identify the file as Ogg format. A "serial number" and "page number" in the page header identifies each page as part of a series of pages making up a bitstream. Multiple bitstreams may be multiplexed in the file where pages from each bitstream are ordered by the seek time of the contained data. Bitstreams may also be appended to existing files, a process known as "chaining", to cause the bitstreams to be decoded in sequence. A BSD-licensed library, called "libvorbis", is available to encode and decode data from "Vorbis" streams. Independent Ogg implementations are used in several projects such as RealPlayer and a set of DirectShow filters. Mogg, the "Multi-Track-Single-Logical-Stream Ogg-Vorbis", is the multi-channel or multi-track Ogg file format. Page structure The following is the field layout of an Ogg page header: Capture pattern – 32 bits The capture pattern or sync code is a magic number used to ensure synchronization when parsing Ogg files. Every page starts with the four ASCII character sequence, "OggS". This assists in resynchronizing a parser in cases where data has been lost or is corrupted, and is a sanity check before commencing parsing of the page structure. Version – 8 bits This field indicates the version of the Ogg bitstream format, to allow for future expansion. It is currently mandated to be 0. Header type – 8 bits This is an 8 bit field of flags, which indicates the type of page that follows. {| class="wikitable" ! style="width:5%;"|Bit ! style="width:10%;"|Value ! style="width:10%;"|Flag ! style="width:75%;"|Page type |- |0 |0x01 |Continuation |The first packet on this page is a continuation of the previous packet in the logical bitstream. |- |1 |0x02 |BOS |Beginning Of Stream. This page is the first page in the logical bitstream. The BOS flag must be set on the first page of every logical bitstream, and must not be set on any other page. |- |2 |0x04 |EOS |End Of Stream. This page is the last page in the logical bitstream. The EOS flag must be set on the final page of every logical bitstream, and must not be set on any other page. |} Granule position – 64 bits A granule position is the time marker in Ogg files. It is an abstract value, whose meaning is determined by the codec. It may, for example, be a count of the number of samples, the number of frames or a more complex scheme. Bitstream serial number – 32 bits This field is a serial number that identifies a page as belonging to a particular logical bitstream. Each logical bitstream in a file has a unique value, and this field allows implementations to deliver the pages to the appropriate decoder. In a typical Vorbis and Theora file, one stream is the audio (Vorbis), and the other is the video (Theora) Page sequence number – 32 bits This field is a monotonically increasing field for each logical bitstream. The first page is 0, the second 1, etc. This allows implementations to detect when data has been lost. Checksum – 32 bits This field provides a CRC32 checksum of the data in the entire page (including the page header, calculated with the checksum field set to 0). This allows verification that the data has not been corrupted since it was authored. Pages that fail the checksum should be discarded. The checksum is generated using a polynomial value of 0x04C11DB7. Page segments – 8 bits This field indicates the number of segments that exist in this page. It also indicates how many bytes are in the segment table that follows this field. There can be a maximum of 255 segments in any one page. Segment table The segment table is an array of 8-bit values, each indicating the length of the corresponding segment within the page body. The number of segments is determined from the preceding page segments field. Each segment is between 0 and 255 bytes in length. The segments provide a way to group segments into packets, which are meaningful units of data for the decoder. When the segment's length is indicated to be 255, this indicates that the following segment is to be concatenated to this one and is part of the same packet. When the segment's length is 0–254, this indicates that this segment is the final segment in this packet. Where a packet's length is a multiple of 255, the final segment is length 0. Where the final packet continues on the next page, the final segment value is 255, and the continuation flag is set on the following page to indicate that the start of the new page is a continuation of last page. Metadata VorbisComment is a base-level Metadata format initially authored for use with Ogg Vorbis. It has since been adopted in the specifications of Ogg encapsulations for other Xiph.Org codecs including Theora, Speex, FLAC and Opus. VorbisComment is the simplest and most widely-supported mechanism for storing metadata with Xiph.Org codecs. Notably, one or more METADATA_BLOCK_PICTURE=… in a VorbisComment for thumbnails and cover art have Base64-encoded values of the corresponding FLAC METADATA_BLOCK_PICTURE. In other words, FLAC stores thumbnails and cover art in binary blocks—outside of the FLAC tags in a little-endian METADATA_BLOCK_VORBIS_COMMENT. Other existing and proposed mechanisms are: FLAC metadata blocks Ogg Skeleton Continuous Media Markup Language (deprecated) History The Ogg project began with a simple audio compression package |
refer to him as "that fat one", and often shows total confusion over which fat person people are referring to. When he does understand the allusions are made on his behalf, he flies into a rage and starts beating up the person who said it. Sometimes, when he is in a bad mood, just hearing the word "fat"—even if it is not in reference to him—can quickly enrage him. Being called fat, or being hinted as being fat, is one of the main causes of conflicts between Asterix and Obelix which leads to more developing conflicts in which they must work together, once escalating to the point that Obelix actually gave Asterix amnesia when he hit him too hard during an argument (Asterix and the Actress). Although they usually simply insult each other verbally they inevitably make up swiftly. Sometimes, Obelix can be so paranoid over the allusion of the word "fat" that he can even break the fourth wall with the mere mention of this. Visibly in Asterix and the Black Gold, when the narrator points out that their (Asterix and Obelix's) vessel is pulled like a "big and fat fish", Obelix, clearly offended, yells "WHO IS FAT!?" (The official English translation was "the enemy's fat is in the fire", prompting Obelix to yell "WHAT DO YOU MEAN, THE ENEMY'S FAT?"). Character Obelix is Asterix's closest friend (they even have the same birthday—although this is inconsistent with the comic Obelix and Co., where only Obelix's birthday is celebrated). He generally works as a menhir delivery man. His passions in life are hanging around with Asterix, fighting, hunting and eating wild boar, making and carrying his menhirs, and beating up Roman legionaries (and occasionally collecting their helmets). Obelix has a little dog named Dogmatix (Fr. Idéfix), whom he adores. His parents live now in Condate (as seen in Asterix and the Actress) and his distant cousin Metallurgix, a golden sickle maker, lives in Lutetia (as seen in Asterix and the Golden Sickle). Obelix's favourite food is roast wild boar which he usually hunts with Asterix, but he has a voracious appetite, and will try eating nearly anything with few exceptions; in Asterix and Obelix All at Sea and Asterix in Britain he seems to not like boiled boar. In fact, he eats nuts and oysters in the shell, and is completely oblivious to drugs, spicy food and poison, possibly due to the permanent effects of the magic potion. However, when he consumes alcohol, he gets very drunk very quickly, as seen for example in Asterix in Britain where he enjoys sampling different barrels of wine trying to find a barrel containing magic potion, or in Asterix and the Laurel Wreath, where both he and chief Vitalstatistix get drunk during a banquet, much to shame of the latter's wife Impedimenta. Although he has his own house, Obelix is occasionally shown staying overnight at Asterix's. Obelix owns the quarry where he chisels the menhirs himself. It is never directly stated what the menhirs are used for, though it is hinted that they are just oversized knick-knacks; however they are probably a running-gag regarding the origins of the mystery surrounding Menhirs in ancient Europe, with the joke being that Obelix delivered them. Obelix usually trades the stones away for whatever he needs, resulting in the village having a literal field of menhirs. Obelix is kind-hearted, but socially inept—possibly because his strength means that others have had to adapt to him instead of vice versa. He is still not completely aware of his own strength and almost invariably breaks any door he gently knocks on. He is frequently used as a human battering ram for opening locked doors or breaking through walls. Similarly, he is unaware that others do not share his superhuman strength, and shows great surprise when others are crushed by what he calls "a little menhir", or when Asterix attempts to explain to him that a small dog like Dogmatix cannot lift a menhir. He also has little interest in subjects of formal education or intellectual pursuits, since sheer strength usually solves his problems; he generally leaves any decisions to Asterix. However, Obelix is not completely stupid. In Asterix and the Normans he deduces from various clues that Cacofonix the bard has gone to Lutetia to pursue a career in popular music: this unusual display of intelligence on Obelix's part surprises Getafix. He also surprises Asterix in Asterix and the Black Gold by reeling off a dictionary definition of wild boar in conversation (including the Latin taxonomical classification). He can also be quite dangerous when angered. While cheerfully violent and enjoying a good fight, Obelix is far from | village who is in a permanent state of superhuman strength. Because of this already enormous strength, Obelix is not allowed to drink the magic potion ever again, a ban he regards as being tremendously unfair. Other characteristics are his simplemindedness, his love and care for his dog Idefix, his anger when someone refers to him as being "fat", his enthusiasm for hunting and eating wild boars, and beating up Romans. His catchphrase is: "Ils sont fous ces romains", which translates into "These Romans are crazy!", although he considers nearly every other nationality even other Gauls to be just as strange. The character was portrayed by actor Gérard Depardieu in every Asterix live-action film. Fatness inspection He is a large man who does not see himself as fat, preferring to call himself "well covered" or having a chest that has "slipped a bit". From Asterix and the Banquet onwards—previously he had simply expressed ignorance of being fat, such as when he merely commented that he wished he had known he was too fat to pose as a lion in Asterix the Gladiator—Obelix is so in denial over this matter that he usually does not even notice when other people refer to him as "that fat one", and often shows total confusion over which fat person people are referring to. When he does understand the allusions are made on his behalf, he flies into a rage and starts beating up the person who said it. Sometimes, when he is in a bad mood, just hearing the word "fat"—even if it is not in reference to him—can quickly enrage him. Being called fat, or being hinted as being fat, is one of the main causes of conflicts between Asterix and Obelix which leads to more developing conflicts in which they must work together, once escalating to the point that Obelix actually gave Asterix amnesia when he hit him too hard during an argument (Asterix and the Actress). Although they usually simply insult each other verbally they inevitably make up swiftly. Sometimes, Obelix can be so paranoid over the allusion of the word "fat" that he can even break the fourth wall with the mere mention of this. Visibly in Asterix and the Black Gold, when the narrator points out that their (Asterix and Obelix's) vessel is pulled like a "big and fat fish", Obelix, clearly offended, yells "WHO IS FAT!?" (The official English translation was "the enemy's fat is in the fire", prompting Obelix to yell "WHAT DO YOU MEAN, THE ENEMY'S FAT?"). Character Obelix is Asterix's closest friend (they even have the same birthday—although this is inconsistent with the comic Obelix and Co., where only Obelix's birthday is celebrated). He generally works as a menhir delivery man. His passions in life are hanging around with Asterix, fighting, hunting and eating wild boar, making and carrying his menhirs, and beating up Roman legionaries (and occasionally collecting their helmets). Obelix has a little dog named Dogmatix (Fr. Idéfix), whom he adores. His parents live now in Condate (as seen in Asterix and the Actress) and his distant cousin Metallurgix, a golden sickle maker, lives in Lutetia (as seen in Asterix and the Golden Sickle). Obelix's favourite food is roast wild boar which he usually hunts with Asterix, but he has a voracious appetite, and will try eating nearly anything with few exceptions; in Asterix and Obelix All at Sea and Asterix in Britain he seems to not like boiled boar. In fact, he eats nuts and oysters in the shell, and is completely oblivious to drugs, spicy food and poison, possibly due to the permanent effects of the magic potion. However, when he consumes alcohol, he gets very drunk very quickly, as seen for example in Asterix in Britain where he enjoys sampling different barrels of wine trying to find a barrel containing magic potion, or in Asterix and the Laurel Wreath, where both he and chief Vitalstatistix get drunk during a banquet, much to shame of the latter's wife Impedimenta. Although he has his own house, Obelix is occasionally shown staying overnight at Asterix's. Obelix owns the quarry where he chisels the menhirs himself. It is never directly stated what the menhirs are used for, though it is hinted that they are just oversized knick-knacks; however they are probably a running-gag regarding the origins of the mystery surrounding Menhirs in ancient Europe, with the joke being that Obelix delivered them. Obelix usually trades the stones away for whatever he needs, resulting in the village having a literal field of menhirs. Obelix is kind-hearted, but socially inept—possibly because his strength means that others have had to adapt to him instead of vice versa. He is still not completely aware of his own strength and almost invariably breaks any door he gently knocks on. He is frequently used as a human battering ram for opening locked doors or breaking through walls. Similarly, he is unaware that others do not share his superhuman strength, and shows great surprise when others are crushed by what he calls "a little menhir", or when Asterix attempts to explain to him that a small dog like Dogmatix cannot lift a menhir. He also has little interest in subjects of |
noted, While respectful of tradition, most English-born Jews were not orthodox in terms of personal practice. Nonetheless they were content to remain within an orthodox congregational framework – and introduced considerable synagogue reforms. Eastern Europe The much belated pace of modernization in Russia, Congress Poland and the Romanian principalities, where harsh discrimination and active persecution of the Jews continued until 1917, delayed the crisis of traditional society for decades. Old-style education in the heder and yeshiva remained the norm, retaining Hebrew as the language of the elite and Yiddish as the vernacular. The defining fault-line of Eastern European Jews was between the Hasidim and the Misnagdic reaction against them. Reform attempts by the Czar's government, like the school modernization under Max Lilienthal or the foundation of rabbinical seminaries and the mandating of communities to appoint clerks known as "official rabbis", all had little influence. Communal autonomy and the rabbinic courts' jurisdiction were abolished in 1844, but economic and social seclusion remained, ensuring the authority of Jewish institutions and traditions de facto. In 1880, there were only 21,308 Jewish pupils in government schools, out of some 5 million Jews in total; In 1897, 97% of the 5.2 million Jews in the Pale of Settlement and Congress Poland declared Yiddish their mother tongue, and only 26% possessed any literacy in Russian. Though the Eastern European Haskalah challenged the traditional establishment – unlike its western counterpart, no acculturation process turned it irrelevant; it flourished from the 1820s until the 1890s – the latter's hegemony over the vast majority was self-evident. The leading rabbis maintained the old conception of communal unity: In 1882, when an Orthodox party in Galicia appealed for the right of secession, the Netziv and other Russian rabbis declared it forbidden and contradicting the idea of Israel's oneness. While slow, change was by no means absent. In the 1860s and 1870s, anticipating a communal disintegration like the one in the west, moderate maskilic rabbis like Yitzchak Yaacov Reines and Yechiel Michel Pines called for inclusion of secular studies in the heders and yeshivas, a careful modernization, and an ecumenical attempt to form a consensus on necessary adaptation of halakha to novel times. Their initiative was thwarted by a combination of strong anti-traditional invective on behalf of the radical, secularist maskilim and conservative intransigence from the leading rabbis, especially during the bitter polemic which erupted after Moshe Leib Lilienblum's 1868 call for a reconsideration of Talmudic strictures. Reines, Pines and their associates would gradually form the nucleus of Religious Zionism, while their conservative opponents would eventually adopt the epithet Haredim (then, and also much later, still a generic term for the observant and the pious). The attitude toward Jewish nationalism, particularly Zionism, and its nonobservant if not staunchly secularist leaders and partisans, was the key question facing the traditionalists of Eastern Europe. Closely intertwined were issues of modernization in general: As noted by Joseph Salmon, the future religious Zionists (organized in the Mizrahi since 1902) were not only supportive of the national agenda per se, but deeply motivated by criticism of the prevalent Jewish society, a positive reaction to modernity and a willingness to tolerate nonobservance while affirming traditional faith and practice. Their proto-Haredi opponents sharply rejected all of the former positions and espoused staunch conservatism, which idealized existing norms. Any illusion that differences could be blanded and a united observant pro-Zionist front would be formed, were dashed between 1897 and 1899, as both the Eastern European nationalist intellectuals and Theodor Herzl himself revealed an uncompromising secularist agenda, forcing traditionalist leaders to pick sides. In 1900, the anti-Zionist pamphlet Or la-Yesharim, endorsed by many Russian and Polish rabbis, largely demarcated the lines between the proto-Haredi majority and the Mizrahi minority, and terminated dialogue; in 1911, when the 10th World Zionist Congress voted in favour of propagating non-religious cultural work and education, a large segment of the Mizrahi seceded and joined the anti-Zionists. In 1907, Eastern European proto-Haredi elements formed the Knesseth Israel party, a modern framework created in recognition of the deficiencies of existing institutions. It dissipated within a year. German Neo-Orthodoxy, in the meantime, developed a keen interest in the traditional Jewish masses of Russian and Poland; if at the past they were considered primitive, a disillusionment with emancipation and enlightenment made many young assimilated German Orthodox youth embark on journeys to East European yeshivot, in search of authenticity. The German secessionists already possessed a platform of their own, the Freie Vereinigung für die Interessen des Orthodoxen Judentums, founded by Samson Raphael Hirsch in 1885. In 1912, two German FVIOJ leaders, Isaac Breuer and Jacob Rosenheim, managed to organize a meeting of 300 seceding Mizrahi, proto-Haredi and secessionist Neo-Orthodox delegate in Katowice, creating the Agudath Israel party. While the Germans were a tiny minority in comparison to the Eastern Europeans, their modern education made them a prominent elite in the new organization, which strove to provide a comprehensive response to world Jewry's challenges in a strictly observant spirit. The Agudah immediately formed its Council of Torah Sages as supreme rabbinic leadership body. Many ultra-traditionalist elements in Eastern Europe, like the Belz and Lubavitch Hasidim, refused to join, viewing the movement as a dangerous innovation; and the organized Orthodox in Hungary rejected it as well, especially after it did not affirm a commitment to communal secession in 1923. In the Interwar period, sweeping secularization and acculturation deracinated old Jewish society in Eastern Europe. The October Revolution granted civil equality and imposed anti-religious persecutions, radically transforming Russian Jewry within a decade; the lifting of formal discrimination also strongly affected the Jews of independent Poland, Lithuania and other states. In the 1930s, it was estimated that no more than 20%–33% of Poland's Jews, the last stronghold of traditionalism where many were still living in rural and culturally-secluded communities, could be considered strictly observant. Only upon having become an embattled (though still quite large) minority, did the local traditionalists complete their transformation into Orthodox, albeit never as starkly as in Hungary or Germany. Eastern European Orthodoxy, whether Agudah or Mizrahi, always preferred cultural and educational independence to communal secession, and maintained strong ties and self-identification with the general Jewish public. Within its ranks, the 150-years-long struggle between Hasidim and Misnagdim was largely subsided; the latter were even dubbed henceforth as "Litvaks", as the anti-Hasidic component in their identity was marginalized. In the interwar period, Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan emerged as the popular leader of the Eastern European Orthodox, particularly the Agudah-leaning. United States American Jewry of the 19th century, small and lacking traditional institutions or strong rabbinic presence due to its immigrant-based nature, was a hotbed of religious innovation. Voluntary congregations, rather than corporate communities, were the norm; separation of church and state, and dynamic religiosity of the independent Protestant model, shaped synagogue life. In the mid-19th century, Reform Judaism spread rapidly, advocating a formal relinquishment of traditions very few in the secularized, open environment observed anyhow; the United States would be derisively named the Treife Medina, or "Profane Country", in Yiddish. Conservative elements, concerned mainly with public standards of observance in critical fields like marriage, rallied around Isaac Leeser. Lacking a rabbinic ordination and little knowledgeable by European standards, Leeser was an ultra-traditionalist in his American milieu. In 1845 he introduced the words "Orthodox" and "Orthodoxy" into the American Jewish discourse, in the sense of opposing Reform; while admiring Samson Raphael Hirsch, Leeser was an even stauncher proponent of Zecharias Frankel, whom he considered the "leader of the Orthodox party" at a time when Positive-Historical and Orthodox positions were barely discernible from each other to most observers (in 1861, Leeser defended Frankel in the polemic instigated by Hirsch). Indeed, a broad non-Reform, relatively traditional camp slowly coalesced as the minority within American Jewry; while strict in relation to their progressive opponents, they served a nonobservant public and instituted thorough synagogue reforms – omission of piyyutim from the liturgy, English-language sermons and secular education for the clergy were the norm in most, and many Orthodox synagogues in America did not partition men and women. In 1885, the antinomian Pittsburgh Platform moved a broad coalition of conservative religious leaders to found the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. They variously termed their ideology, which was never consistent and mainly motivated by a rejection of Reform, as "Enlightened Orthodoxy" or "Conservative Judaism". The latter term would only gradually assume a clearly distinct meaning. To their right, strictly traditionalist Eastern European immigrants formed the Union of Orthodox Rabbis in 1902, in direct opposition to the Americanized character of the OU and JTS. The UOR frowned upon English-language sermons, secular education and acculturation in general. Even before that, in 1897, an old-style yeshiva, RIETS, was founded in New York. Eventually, its students rebelled in 1908, demanding a modern rabbinic training much like that of their peers in JTS. In 1915, RIETS was reorganized as a decidedly Modern Orthodox institution, and a merger with the JTS was also discussed. In 1923, the Rabbinical Council of America was established as the clerical association of the OU. Only in the postwar era, did the vague traditional coalition come to a definite end. During and after the Holocaust, a new wave of strictly observant refugees arrived from Eastern and Central Europe. They often regarded even the UOR as too lenient and Americanized. Typical of these was Rabbi Aaron Kotler, who established Lakewood Yeshiva in New Jersey during 1943. Alarmed by the enticing American environment, Kotler turned his institution into an enclave, around which an entire community slowly evolved. It was very different from his prewar yeshiva at Kletsk, Poland, the students of which were but a segment of the general Jewish population and mingled with the rest of the population. Lakewood pioneered the homogeneous, voluntary and enclavist model of postwar Haredi communities, which were independent entities with their own developing subculture. The new arrivals soon dominated the traditionalist wing of American Jewry, forcing the locals to adopt more rigorous positions. Concurrently, the younger generation in the JTS and the Rabbinical Assembly demanded greater clarity, theological unambiguity and halakhic independence from the Orthodox veto on serious innovations — in 1935, for example, the RA yielded to such pressures and shelved its proposal for a solution to the agunah predicament. "Conservative Judaism", now adopted as an exclusive label by most JTS graduates and RA members, became a truly distinct movement. In 1950, the Conservatives signaled their break with Orthodox halakhic authorities, with the acceptance of a far-reaching legal decision, which allowed one to drive to the synagogue and to use electricity on Sabbath. Between the ultra-Orthodox and Conservatives, Modern Orthodoxy in America also coalesced, becoming less a generic term and more a distinct movement. Its leader in the postwar era, Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik, left Agudas Israel to adopt both pro-Zionist positions and a positive, if reserved, attitude toward Western culture. As dean of RIETS and honorary chair of RCA's halakha committee, Soloveitchik shaped Modern Orthodoxy for decades. While ideological differences with the Conservatives were clear, as the RCA stressed the divinely revealed status of the Torah and a strict observance of halakha, sociological boundaries were less so. Many members of the Modern Orthodox public were barely observant, and a considerable number of communities did not install a gender partition in their synagogues – physically separate seating became the distinguishing mark of Orthodox/Conservative affiliation in the 1950s, and was strongly promulgated by the RCA – for many years. As late as 1997, seven OU congregations still lacked a partition. Theology Orthodox attitudes A definite and conclusive credo was never formulated in Judaism; the very question whether it contains any equivalent of dogma is a matter of intense scholarly controversy. Some researchers attempted to argue that the importance of daily practice and punctilious adherence to halakha (Jewish law) relegated theoretical issues to an ancillary status. Others dismissed this view entirely, citing the debates in ancient rabbinic sources which castigated various heresies with little reference to observance. However, while lacking a uniform doctrine, Orthodox Judaism is basically united in affirming several core beliefs, disavowal of which is considered major blasphemy. As in other aspects, Orthodox positions reflect the mainstream of traditional Rabbinic Judaism through the ages. Attempts to codify these beliefs were undertaken by several medieval authorities, including Saadia Gaon and Joseph Albo. Each composed his own creed. Yet the 13 principles expounded by Maimonides in his Commentary on the Mishna, authored in the 1160s, eventually proved the most widely accepted. Various points – for example, Albo listed merely three fundamentals, and did not regard the Messiah as a key tenet – the exact formulation, and the status of disbelievers (whether mere errants or heretics who can no longer be considered part of the People Israel) were contested by many of Maimonides' contemporaries and later sages. Many of their detractors did so from a maximalist position, arguing that the entire corpus of the Torah and the sayings of ancient sages were of canonical stature, not just certain selected beliefs. But in recent centuries, the 13 Principles became standard, and are considered binding and cardinal by Orthodox authorities in a virtually universal manner. During the Middle Ages, two systems of thought competed for theological primacy, their advocates promoting them as explanatory foundations for the observance of the Law. One was the rationalist-philosophic school, which endeavored to present all commandments as serving higher moral and ethical purposes, while the other was the mystical tradition, exemplified in Kabbalah, which assigned each rite with a role in the hidden dimensions of reality. Sheer obedience, without much thought and derived from faithfulness to one's community and ancestry, was believed fit only for the common people, while the educated classes chose either of the two schools. In the modern era, the prestige of both suffered severe blows, and "naive faith" became popular. At a time when excessive contemplation in matters of belief was associated with secularization, luminaries such as Yisrael Meir Kagan stressed the importance of simple, unsophisticated commitment to the precepts passed down from the Beatified Sages. This is still the standard in the ultra-Orthodox world. God The basic tenets of Orthodoxy, drawn from ancient sources like the Talmud as well as later sages, prominently and chiefly include the attributes of God in Judaism: one and indivisible, preceding all creation which he alone brought into being, eternal, omniscient, omnipotent, absolutely incorporeal, and beyond human reason. This basis is evoked in many foundational texts, and is repeated often in the daily prayers, such as in Judaism's creed-like Shema Yisrael: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One." Maimonides delineated this understanding of a monotheistic, personal God in the opening six articles of his thirteen. The six concern God's status as the sole creator, his oneness, his impalpability, that he is first and last, that God alone, and no other being, may be worshipped, and that he is omniscient. The supremacy of God of Israel is even applied on non-Jews, who, according to most rabbinic opinions, are banned from the worship of other deities, though they are allowed to "associate" lower divine beings in their faith in God (this notion was mainly used to allow contact with Christians, proving they were not idolaters with whom any business dealings and the like are forbidden.) The utter imperceptibility of God, considered as beyond human reason and only reachable through what he chose to reveal, was emphasized among others in the ancient ban on making any image of him. Maimonides and virtually all sages in his time and since then also stressed that the creator is incorporeal, lacking "any semblance of a body"; while almost taken for granted since the Middle Ages, Maimonides and his contemporaries noted that anthropomorphic conceptions of God were quite common in their time. The medieval tension between God's transcendence and equanimity, on the one hand, and his contact and interest in his creation, on the other, found its most popular resolution in the esoteric Kabbalah. The Kabbalists asserted that while God himself is beyond the universe, he progressively unfolds into the created realm via a series of inferior emanations, or sefirot, each a refraction of the perfect godhead. While widely received, this system also proved contentious and some authorities lambasted it as a threat to God's unity. In modern times it is upheld, at least tacitly, in many traditionalist Orthodox circles, while Modern Orthodoxy mostly ignores it without confronting the notion directly. Revelation The defining doctrine of Orthodox Judaism is the belief that the Torah ("Teaching" or "Law"), both the written scripture of the Pentateuch and the oral tradition explicating it, was revealed by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, and that it was transmitted faithfully from Sinai in an unbroken chain ever since. One of the foundational texts of rabbinic literature is the list opening the Ethics of the Fathers, enumerating the sages who received and passed on the Torah, from Moses through Joshua, the Elders, and Prophets, and then onward until Hillel the Elder and Shammai. This core belief is referred to in classical sources as "The Law/Teaching is from the Heavens" (Torah min HaShamayim). The basic philosophy of Orthodoxy is that the body of revelation is total and complete; its interpretation and application under new circumstances, required of scholars in every generation, is conceived as an act of inferring and elaborating based on already prescribed methods, not of innovation or addition. One clause in the Jerusalem Talmud asserts that anything which a veteran disciple shall teach was already given at Sinai; and a story in the Babylonian Talmud claims that upon seeing the immensely intricate deduction of future Rabbi Akiva in a vision, Moses himself was at loss, until Akiva proclaimed that everything he teaches was handed over to Moses. The Written and Oral Torah are believed to be intertwined and mutually reliant, for the latter is a source to many of the divine commandments, and the text of the Pentateuch is seen as incomprehensible in itself. God's will may only be surmised by appealing to the Oral Torah revealing the text's allegorical, anagogical, or tropological meaning, not by literalist reading. Lacunae in received tradition or disagreements between early sages are attributed to disruptions, especially persecutions which caused to that "the Torah was forgotten in Israel" — according to rabbinic lore, these eventually compelled the legists to write down the Oral Law in the Mishna and Talmud. Yet, the wholeness of the original divine message, and the reliability of those who transmitted it through the ages, are axiomatic. One of the primary intellectual exercises of Torah scholars is to locate discrepancies between Talmudic or other passages and then demonstrate by complex | two systems of thought competed for theological primacy, their advocates promoting them as explanatory foundations for the observance of the Law. One was the rationalist-philosophic school, which endeavored to present all commandments as serving higher moral and ethical purposes, while the other was the mystical tradition, exemplified in Kabbalah, which assigned each rite with a role in the hidden dimensions of reality. Sheer obedience, without much thought and derived from faithfulness to one's community and ancestry, was believed fit only for the common people, while the educated classes chose either of the two schools. In the modern era, the prestige of both suffered severe blows, and "naive faith" became popular. At a time when excessive contemplation in matters of belief was associated with secularization, luminaries such as Yisrael Meir Kagan stressed the importance of simple, unsophisticated commitment to the precepts passed down from the Beatified Sages. This is still the standard in the ultra-Orthodox world. God The basic tenets of Orthodoxy, drawn from ancient sources like the Talmud as well as later sages, prominently and chiefly include the attributes of God in Judaism: one and indivisible, preceding all creation which he alone brought into being, eternal, omniscient, omnipotent, absolutely incorporeal, and beyond human reason. This basis is evoked in many foundational texts, and is repeated often in the daily prayers, such as in Judaism's creed-like Shema Yisrael: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One." Maimonides delineated this understanding of a monotheistic, personal God in the opening six articles of his thirteen. The six concern God's status as the sole creator, his oneness, his impalpability, that he is first and last, that God alone, and no other being, may be worshipped, and that he is omniscient. The supremacy of God of Israel is even applied on non-Jews, who, according to most rabbinic opinions, are banned from the worship of other deities, though they are allowed to "associate" lower divine beings in their faith in God (this notion was mainly used to allow contact with Christians, proving they were not idolaters with whom any business dealings and the like are forbidden.) The utter imperceptibility of God, considered as beyond human reason and only reachable through what he chose to reveal, was emphasized among others in the ancient ban on making any image of him. Maimonides and virtually all sages in his time and since then also stressed that the creator is incorporeal, lacking "any semblance of a body"; while almost taken for granted since the Middle Ages, Maimonides and his contemporaries noted that anthropomorphic conceptions of God were quite common in their time. The medieval tension between God's transcendence and equanimity, on the one hand, and his contact and interest in his creation, on the other, found its most popular resolution in the esoteric Kabbalah. The Kabbalists asserted that while God himself is beyond the universe, he progressively unfolds into the created realm via a series of inferior emanations, or sefirot, each a refraction of the perfect godhead. While widely received, this system also proved contentious and some authorities lambasted it as a threat to God's unity. In modern times it is upheld, at least tacitly, in many traditionalist Orthodox circles, while Modern Orthodoxy mostly ignores it without confronting the notion directly. Revelation The defining doctrine of Orthodox Judaism is the belief that the Torah ("Teaching" or "Law"), both the written scripture of the Pentateuch and the oral tradition explicating it, was revealed by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, and that it was transmitted faithfully from Sinai in an unbroken chain ever since. One of the foundational texts of rabbinic literature is the list opening the Ethics of the Fathers, enumerating the sages who received and passed on the Torah, from Moses through Joshua, the Elders, and Prophets, and then onward until Hillel the Elder and Shammai. This core belief is referred to in classical sources as "The Law/Teaching is from the Heavens" (Torah min HaShamayim). The basic philosophy of Orthodoxy is that the body of revelation is total and complete; its interpretation and application under new circumstances, required of scholars in every generation, is conceived as an act of inferring and elaborating based on already prescribed methods, not of innovation or addition. One clause in the Jerusalem Talmud asserts that anything which a veteran disciple shall teach was already given at Sinai; and a story in the Babylonian Talmud claims that upon seeing the immensely intricate deduction of future Rabbi Akiva in a vision, Moses himself was at loss, until Akiva proclaimed that everything he teaches was handed over to Moses. The Written and Oral Torah are believed to be intertwined and mutually reliant, for the latter is a source to many of the divine commandments, and the text of the Pentateuch is seen as incomprehensible in itself. God's will may only be surmised by appealing to the Oral Torah revealing the text's allegorical, anagogical, or tropological meaning, not by literalist reading. Lacunae in received tradition or disagreements between early sages are attributed to disruptions, especially persecutions which caused to that "the Torah was forgotten in Israel" — according to rabbinic lore, these eventually compelled the legists to write down the Oral Law in the Mishna and Talmud. Yet, the wholeness of the original divine message, and the reliability of those who transmitted it through the ages, are axiomatic. One of the primary intellectual exercises of Torah scholars is to locate discrepancies between Talmudic or other passages and then demonstrate by complex logical steps (presumably proving each passage referred to a slightly different situation etc.) that there is actually no contradiction. Like other traditional, non-liberal religions, Orthodox Judaism considers revelation as propositional, explicit, verbal and unambiguous, that may serve as a firm source of authority for a set of religious commandments. Modernist understandings of revelation as a subjective, humanly-conditioned experience are rejected by the Orthodox mainstream, though some thinkers at the end of the liberal wing did try to promote such views, finding virtually no acceptance from the establishment. An important ramification of Torah min HaShamayim in modern times is the reserved, and often totally rejectionist, attitude of Orthodoxy toward the historical-critical method, particularly higher criticism of the Bible. A refusal by rabbis to significantly employ such tools in determining halakhic decisions, and insistence on traditional methods and the need for consensus and continuity with past authorities, is a demarcation line separating the most liberal-leaning Orthodox rabbinic circles from the most right-wing non-Orthodox ones. While the Sinaitic event is perceived as the supreme and binding act of revelation, it is not the only one. Rabbinic tradition acknowledges matter handed down from the Prophets, as well as announcements from God later on. Secret lore or Kabbalah, allegedly revealed to illustrious figures in the past and passed on through elitist circles, is widely (albeit not universally) esteemed. While not a few prominent rabbis deplored Kabbalah, and considered it a late forgery, most generally accepted it as legitimate. However, its status in determining normative halakhic decision-making, which is binding for the entire community and not just intended for spiritualists who voluntarily adopt kabbalistic strictures, was always highly controversial. Leading decisors openly applied criteria from Kabbalah in their rulings, while others did so only inadvertently, and many denied it any role in normative halakha. A closely related mystical phenomenon is the belief in Magidim, supposed dreamlike apparitions or visions, that may inform those who experience them with certain divine knowledge. Eschatology Belief in a future Messiah is central to Orthodox Judaism. According to this doctrine, a king will arise from King David's lineage, and will bring with him signs such as the restoration of the Temple, peace, and universal acceptance of God. The Messiah will embark on a quest to gather all Jews to the Holy Land, will proclaim prophethood, and will restore the Davidic Monarchy. Classical Judaism did incorporate a tradition of belief in the resurrection of the dead. There is scriptural basis for this doctrine, quoted by the Mishnah: "All Israelites have a share in the World-to-Come, as it is written: And your people, all of them righteous, Shall possess the land for all time; They are the shoot that I planted, My handiwork in which I glory (Isa 60:21)." The Mishnah also brands as heretics any Jew who rejects the doctrine of resurrection or its origin from the Torah. Those who deny the doctrine are deemed to receive no share in the World-to-Come. The Pharisees believed in both a bodily resurrection and the immortality of the soul. They also believed that acts in this world would affect the state of life in the next world. The Mishnah Sahendrin 10 clarifies that only those who follow the correct theology will have a place in the World to Come. There are other passing references to the afterlife in Mishnaic tractates. A particularly important one in the Berakhot informs that the Jewish belief in the afterlife was established long before the compilation of the Mishnah. Biblical tradition categorically mentions Sheol sixty-five times. It is described as an underworld containing the gathering of the dead with their families. Numbers 16:30 states that Korah went into Sheol alive, to describe his death in divine retribution. The deceased who reside in Sheol have a "nebulous" existence and there is no reward or punishment in Sheol, which is represented as a dark and gloomy place. But a distinction is made for kings who are said to be greeted by other kings when entering Sheol. Biblical poetry suggests that resurrection from Sheol is possible. Prophetic narratives of resurrection in the Bible have been labelled as an external cultural influence by some scholars. The Talmudic discourse expanded on the details of the World to Come. This was to motivate Jewish compliance with their religious codes. In brief, the righteous will be rewarded with a place in Gan Eden, the wicked will be punished in Gehinnom, and the resurrection will take place in the Messianic age. The sequence of these events is unclear. Rabbis have supported the concept of resurrection with plenteous Biblical citations, and have shown it as a sign of God's omnipotence. Practice Intensity A relatively thorough observance of halakha – rather than any theological and doctrinal matters, which are often subject to diverse opinions – is the concrete demarcation line separating Orthodox Jews from other Jewish movements. As noted both by researchers and communal leaders, the Orthodox subgroups have a sense of commitment towards the Law, perceiving it as seriously binding, which is rarely manifest outside the movement. Law, custom, and tradition The halakha, like any jurisprudence, is not a definitive set of rules, but rather an ever-expanding discourse: Its authority is derived from the belief in divine revelation, but interpretation and application are done by the rabbis, who base their mandate on biblical verses such as and thou shalt observe to do according to all that they inform thee. From ancient to modern times, the rabbinic discourse was wrought with controversy (machloket) and sages disagreeing upon various points of the law. The Talmud itself is mainly a record of such disputes. The traditional belief, maintained by the Orthodox today, regards such disagreement as flowing naturally from the divinity of Jewish Law, which is presumed to potentially contain a solution for any possible predicament. As long as both contesting parties base their arguments according to received hermeneutics and precedents and are driven by sincere faith, both these and those are the words of the Living God (this Talmudic statement is originally attributed to a divine proclamation during a dispute between the House of Hillel and House of Shammai). Majority opinions were accepted and canonized, though many old disagreements remain and new ones appear ceaselessly. This plurality of opinion allows decisors, rabbis tasked with determining the legal stance in subjects without precedent, to weigh between a range of options, based on methods derived from earlier authorities. The most basic form of halakhic discourse is the responsa literature, in which rabbis answered questions directed from commoners or other rabbis, thus setting precedent for the next generations. The system's oldest and most basic sources are the Mishna and the two Talmuds, to which were added the later commentaries and novellae of the Geonim. Those were followed by the great codes which sought to assemble and standardize the laws, including Rabbi Isaac Alfasi's Hilchot HaRif, Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, and Rabbi Asher ben Jehiel's work (colloquially called the Rosh). These three works in particular were the main basis of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher's Arba'ah Turim, which in turn became the basis of one of the latest and most authoritative codifications - the 1565 Shulchan Aruch, or "Set Table," by Rabbi Joseph Karo. This work gained a canonical status and became almost synonymous, in popular parlance, with the halakhic system itself – though no later authority accepted it in its entirety (for example, all Orthodox Jews don phylacteries in a manner different from the one advocated there), and it was immediately contested or re-interpreted by various commentaries, most prominently the gloss written by Rabbi Moses Isserles named HaMapah ("The Tablecloth"). Halakhic literature continued to expand and evolve, with new authoritative guides being compiled and canonized, until the popular works of the 20th century like the Mishnah Berurah. The most important distinction within halakha is between all laws derived from God's revelation (d'Oraita); and those enacted by human authorities (d'Rabanan), who is believed traditionally to have been empowered by God to legislate when necessary. The former are either directly understood, derived in various hermeneutical means or attributed to commandments orally handed down to Moses. The authority to pass measures d'Rabanan is itself subject to debate – for one, Maimonides stated that absolute obedience to rabbinic decrees is stipulated by the verse and thou shalt observe, while Nachmanides argued that such severeness is unfounded – though such enactments are accepted as binding, albeit less than the divine commandments. A Talmudic maxim states that when in doubt regarding a matter d'Oraita, one must rule strenuously, and leniently when it concerns d'Rabanan. Many arguments in halakhic literature revolve over whether any certain detail is derived from the former or the latter source, and under which circumstances. Commandments or prohibitions d'Rabanan, though less stringent than d'Oraita ones, are an equally important facet of Jewish law. They range from the 2nd century BCE establishment of Hanukkah, to the bypassing on the Biblical ban on charging interest via the Prozbul, and up to the 1950 standardization of marital rules by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel which forbade polygamy and levirate marriage even in communities which still practiced those. Apart from these, a third major component buttressing Orthodox practice (and Jewish in general) is local or familial custom, Minhag. The development and acceptance of customs as binding, more than disagreements between decisors, is the main factor accounting for the great diversity in matters of practice across geographic or ethnic lines. While the reverence accorded to Minhag across rabbinic literature is far from uniform – ranging from positions like "a custom may uproot halakha" to wholly dismissive attitudes – it was generally accepted as binding by the scholars, and more importantly, drew its power from popular adherence and routine. The most important aspect of Minhag is in the disparities between various Jewish ethnic or communal groups, which also each possess a distinctive tradition of halakhic rulings, stemming from the opinions of local rabbis. Ashkenazim, Sephardim, Teimanim, and others have different prayer rites, somewhat different kosher emphases (for example, since the 12th century at least, it became an Ashkenazi custom not to consume legumes in Passover), and numerous other points of distinction. So do, for example, Hasidic Jews and non-Hasidic ("Yeshivish" or "Litvish") ones, though both originate from Eastern Europe. Eating in the Sukkah on Shemini Atzeret is an area where Minhag varies; likewise, how to accommodate the idea of eating some dairy on Shavuos. The influence of custom even elicited the complaint of scholars who noted that the common masses observe Minhag, yet ignore important divine decrees. Rabbinic authority Rabbinic leadership, assigned with implementing and interpreting the already accumulated tradition, changed considerably in recent centuries, marking a major difference between Orthodox and pre-modern Judaism. Since the demise of the Geonim, who led the Jewish world up to 1038, halakha was adjudicated locally, and the final arbiter was mostly the communal rabbi, the Mara d'Athra (Master of the Area). He was responsible to judicially instruct all members of his community. The emancipation and modern means of transport and communication all jointly made this model untenable. While Orthodox communities, especially the more conservative ones, have rabbis who technically fill this capacity, the public generally follows well-known luminaries whose authority is not limited by geography, and based on reverence and peer pressure more than the now-defunct legal coercion of the old community. These may be either popular chairs of Talmudic academies, renowned decisors, and, in the Hasidic world, hereditary rebbes. Their influence varies considerably: In conservative Orthodox circles, mainly ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) ones, rabbis possess strong authority, and exercise their leadership often. Bodies such as the Council of Torah Sages, Council of Torah Luminaries, the Central Rabbinical Congress, and the Orthodox Council of Jerusalem are all considered, at least in theory, as the supreme arbiters in their respective communities. In the more liberal Orthodox sectors, rabbis are revered and consulted, but rarely exert such direct control. Daily life Orthodox Judaism emphasizes practicing rules of kashrut, Shabbat, family purity, and tefilah (daily prayer). Many Orthodox Jews can be identified by their manner of dress and family lifestyle. Orthodox men and women dress modestly by keeping most of their skin covered. Married women cover their hair, with either scarves (tichel), snoods, hats, berets, or wigs. Orthodox men are expected to wear a ritual fringe called Tzitzit, and the donning of a head-covering for males at all times is a well-known attribute distinguishing Orthodox Jews. Many men grow beards, and Haredi men wear black hats with a skullcap underneath and suits. Modern Orthodox Jews are sometimes indistinguishable in their dress from general society, although they, too, wear kippahs and tzitzit; additionally, on Shabbat, Modern Orthodox men wear suits (or at least a dress shirt) and dress pants, while women wear fancier dresses or blouses. Orthodox Jews also follow the laws of negiah, which means touch. Orthodox men and women do not engage in physical contact with those of the opposite sex outside of their spouse, or immediate family members (such as parents, grandparents, siblings, children, and grandchildren). Kol Isha is the prohibition of a woman's (singing) voice to a man (except as per negiah). Doorposts have a mezuzah; separate sinks for meat and dairy have become increasingly common. Diversity and demographics Diversity Orthodox Judaism lacks any central framework or a common, authoritative leadership. It is not a "denomination" in the structural sense, but a variegated spectrum of groups, united in broadly affirming several matters of belief and practice, which also share a consciousness and a common discourse. Individual rabbis may, and often do, gain respect across boundaries, especially recognized decisors, but each community eventually obeys or reveres its own immediate leaders (for example, the ultra-Orthodox world shares a sense of common identity, yet constitutes several large distinct sub-sections, each including hundreds of independent communities with their own rabbis). Apart from this inherent plurality, the limits and boundaries of Orthodoxy are also a matter of great controversy. Indeed, the attempt to offer a definition that would encompass all communities and subgroups challenges scholars. Even the moderately conservative subgroups hotly criticize the more liberal ones for deviation from what they consider as inviolable principles, while strict hard-liners merely dismiss the latter as non-Orthodox. Contentious topics range from the abstract and theoretical, like the attitude to the historical-critical study of scripture, to the mundane and pressing, such as modesty rules for women and girls. As in any other broad religious movement, there is an intrinsic tension between the ideological and the sociological dimensions of Orthodox Judaism – while the leading elites and intellectuals define adherence in theoretical terms, the masses are inducted via societal, familial, and institutional affiliation. Rank-and-file members may often neither be strictly observant nor fully accept the tenets of faith.For an online source: Zev Eleff, The Vanishing Non-Observant Orthodox Jew. Lehrhaus, 8 June 2017. Demographics Professors Daniel Elazar and Rela Mintz Geffen, according to calculations in 1990, assumed there to be at least 2,000,000 observant Orthodox Jews worldwide in 2012, and at least 2,000,000 additional nominal members and supporters who identified as such. These figures made Orthodoxy the largest Jewish religious group. Originally, Elazar produced an even higher estimate when he considered association by default and assumed higher affiliation rates, reaching a maximum of 5,500,000 that may be considered involved with Orthodoxy. In the State of Israel, where the total Jewish population is about 6.5 million, 22% of all Jewish respondents to a 2016 PEW survey declared themselves as observant Orthodox (9% Haredim, or "ultra-Orthodox", 13% Datiim, "religious"). 29% described themselves as "traditional", a label largely implying little observance, but identification with Orthodoxy. The second largest Orthodox concentration is in the United States, mainly in the Northeast and specifically in New York and New Jersey. A 2013 PEW survey found that 10% of respondents identify as Orthodox, in a total Jewish population of at least 5.5 million. 3% were Modern Orthodox, 6% were ultra-Orthodox, and 1% were "other" (Sephardic, liberal Orthodox, etc.) In Britain, of 79,597 households with at least one Jewish member that held synagogue membership in 2016, 66% affiliated with Orthodox synagogues: 53% in "centrist Orthodox", and 13% in "strictly Orthodox" (further 3% were Sephardi, which technically eschews the title "Orthodox"). High birth rates are an important aspect of Orthodox demographics: They are the most reproductive of all Jews, and ultra-Orthodox communities have some of the highest rates in the world, with 6 children per an average household. Non-existent levels of intermarriage (unlike some liberal Jewish denominations, Orthodoxy vehemently opposes the phenomenon) also contribute to their growing share in the world's Jewish population. While American Orthodox are but 10% of all Jews, among children, their share rises immensely: An estimated 61% of Jewish children in New York belong to Orthodox households, 49% to ultra-Orthodox. Similar patterns are observed in Britain and other countries. With present trends sustained, Orthodox Jews are projected to numerically dominate British Jewry by 2031, and American Jewry by 2058.Orthodox To Dominate American Jewry In Coming Decades As Population Booms, The Forward, 12 June 2018; Haredi: Half of Britain's Jews will soon be strictly Orthodox, The Independent, 15 October 2015. See also: Haredi Demography – The United States and the United Kingdom, JPPI. However, their growth is balanced by large numbers of members leaving their communities and observant lifestyle. Among the 2013 PEW respondents, 17% of those under 30 who were raised Orthodox disaffiliated (in earlier generations, this trend was far more prevalent, and 77% of those over 65 left). Groups Haredim Orthodox Judaism may be categorized according to varying criteria. The most recognizable sub-group is the Haredim (literally, "trembling" or "fervent"), also known as "strictly Orthodox", and the like. They form the most traditional part of the Orthodox spectrum. Haredim are characterized by a minimal engagement with modern society and culture if not their wholesale rejection, by avowed precedence given to religious values, and by a high degree of rabbinic authority and involvement in daily life. In spite of many differences, Haredi rabbis and communities generally recognize each other as such, and therefore accord respect and legitimacy between them. They are organized in large political structures, mainly Agudath Israel of America and the Israeli United Torah Judaism party. Other organized groups include the Anti-Zionist Central Rabbinical Congress and the Edah HaChareidis. Some Haredim also hold a lukewarm or negative assessment of the more modernist Orthodox. They are easily discerned by their mode of dress, often all black for men and very modest, by religious standards, for women (including hair covering, long skirts, etc.). Apart from that, the ultra-Orthodox consists of a large spectrum of communities. They may be roughly classified into three different sub-groups. Hasidic Jews The first of the three Haredi sub-groups are the Hasidic Jews. The Hasidim originated in 18th-century Eastern Europe, where they formed as a spiritual revival movement that defied the rabbinical establishment. The threat of modernity turned the movement into a bastion of conservatism and reconciled it with other traditionalist elements. Hasidim espouses a mystical interpretation of religion, with each Hasidic community aligned with a hereditary leader known as rebbe (who is almost always, though not necessarily, an ordained rabbi). While the spiritualist element of Hasidism declined somewhat through the centuries, the authority of rebbes is derived from the mystical belief that the holiness of their ancestors is inborn. They exercise tight control over the lives of their followers. Every single one of the several hundreds of independent Hasidic groups/sects (also called "courts" or "dynasties"), from large ones with thousands of member households to very small, has its own line of rebbes. "Courts" often possess unique customs, religious emphases, philosophies, and styles of dress. Hasidic men, especially on the Sabbath, don long garments and fur hats, which were once the staple of all Eastern European Jews, but are now associated almost exclusively with them. As of 2016, there were 130,000 Hasidic households worldwide. Litvaks The second Haredi |
22, 1978, Peterson performed in the interval act for the Eurovision Song Contest 1978 that was broadcast live from the Palais des congrès de Paris. In 1974 he added British drummer Martin Drew. This quartet toured and recorded extensively worldwide. Pass said in a 1976 interview, "The only guys I've heard who come close to total mastery of their instruments are Art Tatum and Peterson". Peterson was open to experimental collaborations with jazz musicians such as saxophonist Ben Webster, trumpeter Clark Terry, and vibraphonist Milt Jackson. In 1961, the Peterson trio with Jackson recorded the album Very Tall. His solo recordings were rare until Exclusively for My Friends (MPS), a series of albums that were his response to pianists such as Bill Evans and McCoy Tyner. He recorded for Pablo, led by Norman Granz, after the label was founded in 1973, including the soundtrack for the 1978 thriller The Silent Partner. In the 1980s he played in a duo with pianist Herbie Hancock. In the late 1980s and 1990s, after a stroke, he made performances and recordings with his protégé Benny Green. In the 1990s and 2000s he recorded several albums accompanied by a combo for Telarc. Ill health and later years Peterson had arthritis from his youth, and in later years he had trouble buttoning his shirt. Never slender, his weight increased to , hindering his mobility. He had hip replacement surgery in the early 1990s. Although the surgery was successful, his mobility was still hampered. In 1993 a stroke weakened his left side and removed him from work for two years. During the same year incoming prime minister Jean Chrétien, his friend and fan, offered him the position of Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario. According to Chrétien, Peterson declined the job due to ill health related to the stroke. Although he recovered some dexterity in his left hand, his piano playing was diminished, and his style relied principally on his right hand. In 1995 he returned to occasional public performances and recorded for Telarc. In 1997 he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and an International Jazz Hall of Fame Award. His friend, Canadian politician and amateur pianist Bob Rae, said, "a one-handed Oscar was better than just about anyone with two hands." In 2003, Peterson recorded the DVD A Night in Vienna for Verve with Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Ulf Wakenius, and Martin Drew. He continued to tour the U.S. and Europe, though at most one month a year, with rest between concerts. In 2007 his health declined. He canceled his plans to perform at the Toronto Jazz Festival and a Carnegie Hall all-star concert that was to be given in his honour. Peterson died on December 23, 2007, of kidney failure at his home in Mississauga, Ontario. In 2021, Barry Avrich produced a documentary on Peterson's life titled Oscar Peterson: Black + White that had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival. Personal life Peterson was married four times. He has seven children with three of his wives. He smoked cigarettes and a pipe and often tried to break the habit, but gained weight every time he stopped. He loved to cook and remained large throughout his life. Composer and teacher Peterson taught piano and improvisation in Canada, mainly in Toronto. With associates, he started and headed the Advanced School of Contemporary Music in Toronto for five years during the 1960s, but it closed because touring called him and his associates away, and it did not have government funding. Later, he mentored the York University jazz program and was the Chancellor of the university for several years in the early 1990s. He published jazz piano etudes for practice. He asked his students to study the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, especially The Well-Tempered Clavier, the Goldberg Variations, and The Art of Fugue, considering these piano pieces essential for every serious pianist. Among his students were pianists Benny Green and Oliver Jones. Influences Peterson was influenced by Teddy Wilson, Nat King Cole, James P. Johnson, and Art Tatum, to whom many compared Peterson in later years. After his father played a record of Tatum's "Tiger Rag", he was intimidated and disillusioned, quitting the piano for several weeks. "Tatum scared me to death," said Peterson, adding that he was "never cocky again" about his ability at the piano. Tatum was a model for Peterson's musicianship during the 1940s and 1950s. Tatum and Peterson became good friends, although Peterson was always shy about being compared to Tatum and rarely played the piano in Tatum's presence. Peterson also credited his sister—a piano teacher in Montreal who also taught several other Canadian jazz musicians—with being an important teacher and influence on his career. Under his sister's tutelage, Peterson expanded into classical piano training and broadened his range while mastering the core classical pianism from scales to preludes and fugues by Johann Sebastian Bach. Building on Tatum's pianism and aesthetics, Peterson also absorbed Tatum's musical influences, notably from piano concertos by Sergei Rachmaninoff. Rachmaninoff's harmonizations, as well as direct quotations from his 2nd Piano Concerto, are scattered throughout many recordings by Peterson, including his work with the most familiar formulation of the Oscar Peterson Trio, with bassist Ray Brown and guitarist Herb Ellis. During the 1960s and 1970s Peterson made numerous trio recordings highlighting his piano performances; they reveal more of his eclectic style, absorbing influences from various genres of jazz, popular, and classical music. According to pianist and educator Mark Eisenman, some of Peterson's best playing was as an understated accompanist to singer Ella Fitzgerald and trumpeter Roy Eldridge. Peterson is | Music in the Key of Oscar, Peterson tells how Granz stood up to a gun-toting Southern policeman who wanted to stop the trio from using "whites-only" taxis. In 1950, Peterson worked in a duo with double bassist Ray Brown. Two years later they added guitarist Barney Kessel. Then Herb Ellis stepped in after Kessel grew weary of touring. The trio remained together from 1953 to 1958, often touring with Jazz at the Philharmonic. Peterson also worked in duos with Sam Jones, Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Joe Pass, Irving Ashby, Count Basie, and Herbie Hancock. He considered the trio with Brown and Ellis "the most stimulating" and productive setting for public performances and studio recordings. In the early 1950s, he began performing with Brown and drummer Charlie Smith as the Oscar Peterson Trio. Shortly afterward Smith was replaced by guitarist Irving Ashby, who had been a member of the Nat King Cole Trio. Ashby, who was a swing guitarist, was soon replaced by Kessel. Their last recording, On the Town with the Oscar Peterson Trio, recorded live at the Town Tavern in Toronto, captured a remarkable degree of emotional as well as musical understanding between three players. When Ellis departed in 1958, they hired drummer Ed Thigpen because they felt no guitarist could compare to Ellis. Brown and Thigpen worked with Peterson on his albums Night Train and Canadiana Suite. Both left in 1965 and were replaced by bassist Sam Jones and drummer Louis Hayes (and later, drummer Bobby Durham). The trio performed together until 1970. In 1969 Peterson recorded Motions and Emotions with orchestral arrangements of "Yesterday" and "Eleanor Rigby" by The Beatles. In the fall of 1970, Peterson's trio released the album Tristeza on Piano. Jones and Durham left in 1970. In the 1970s Peterson formed a trio with guitarist Joe Pass and bassist Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen. This trio emulated the success of the 1950s trio with Brown and Ellis and gave acclaimed performances at festivals. Their album The Trio won the 1974 Grammy Award for Best Jazz Performance by a Group. On April 22, 1978, Peterson performed in the interval act for the Eurovision Song Contest 1978 that was broadcast live from the Palais des congrès de Paris. In 1974 he added British drummer Martin Drew. This quartet toured and recorded extensively worldwide. Pass said in a 1976 interview, "The only guys I've heard who come close to total mastery of their instruments are Art Tatum and Peterson". Peterson was open to experimental collaborations with jazz musicians such as saxophonist Ben Webster, trumpeter Clark Terry, and vibraphonist Milt Jackson. In 1961, the Peterson trio with Jackson recorded the album Very Tall. His solo recordings were rare until Exclusively for My Friends (MPS), a series of albums that were his response to pianists such as Bill Evans and McCoy Tyner. He recorded for Pablo, led by Norman Granz, after the label was founded in 1973, including the soundtrack for the 1978 thriller The Silent Partner. In the 1980s he played in a duo with pianist Herbie Hancock. In the late 1980s and 1990s, after a stroke, he made performances and recordings with his protégé Benny Green. In the 1990s and 2000s he recorded several albums accompanied by a combo for Telarc. Ill health and later years Peterson had arthritis from his youth, and in later years he had trouble buttoning his shirt. Never slender, his weight increased to , hindering his mobility. He had hip replacement surgery in the early 1990s. Although the surgery was successful, his mobility was still hampered. In 1993 a stroke weakened his left side and removed him from work for two years. During the same year incoming prime minister Jean Chrétien, his friend and fan, offered him the position of Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario. According to Chrétien, Peterson declined the job due to ill health related to the stroke. Although he recovered some dexterity in his left hand, his piano playing was diminished, and his style relied principally on his right hand. In 1995 he returned to occasional public performances and recorded for Telarc. In 1997 he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and an International Jazz Hall of Fame Award. His friend, Canadian politician and amateur pianist Bob Rae, said, "a one-handed Oscar was better than just about anyone with two hands." In 2003, Peterson recorded the DVD A Night in Vienna for Verve with Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Ulf Wakenius, and Martin Drew. He continued to tour the U.S. and Europe, though at most one month a year, with rest between concerts. In 2007 his health declined. He canceled his plans to perform at the Toronto Jazz Festival and a Carnegie Hall all-star concert that was to be given in his honour. Peterson died on December 23, 2007, of kidney failure at his home in Mississauga, Ontario. In 2021, Barry Avrich produced a documentary on Peterson's life titled Oscar Peterson: Black + White that had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival. Personal life Peterson was married four times. He has seven children with three of his wives. He smoked cigarettes and a pipe and often tried to break the habit, but gained weight every time he stopped. He loved to cook and remained large throughout his life. Composer and teacher Peterson taught piano and improvisation in Canada, mainly in Toronto. With associates, he started and headed the Advanced School of Contemporary Music in Toronto for five years during the 1960s, but it closed because touring called him and his associates away, and it did not have government funding. Later, he mentored the York University jazz program and was the Chancellor of the university for several years in the early 1990s. He published jazz piano etudes for practice. He asked his students to study the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, especially The Well-Tempered Clavier, the Goldberg Variations, and The Art of Fugue, considering these piano pieces essential for every serious pianist. Among his students were pianists Benny Green and Oliver Jones. Influences Peterson was influenced by Teddy Wilson, Nat King Cole, James P. Johnson, and Art Tatum, to whom many compared Peterson in later years. After his father played a record of Tatum's "Tiger Rag", he was intimidated and disillusioned, quitting the piano for several weeks. "Tatum scared me to death," said Peterson, adding that he was "never cocky again" about his ability at the piano. Tatum was a model for Peterson's musicianship during the 1940s and 1950s. Tatum and Peterson became good friends, although Peterson was always shy about being compared to Tatum and rarely played the piano in Tatum's presence. Peterson also credited his sister—a piano teacher in Montreal who also taught several other Canadian jazz musicians—with being an important teacher and influence on his career. Under his sister's tutelage, Peterson expanded into classical piano training and broadened his range while mastering the core classical pianism from scales to preludes and fugues by Johann Sebastian Bach. Building on Tatum's pianism and aesthetics, Peterson also absorbed Tatum's musical influences, notably from piano concertos by Sergei Rachmaninoff. Rachmaninoff's harmonizations, as well as direct quotations from his 2nd Piano Concerto, are scattered throughout many recordings by Peterson, including his work with the most familiar formulation of the Oscar Peterson Trio, with bassist Ray Brown and guitarist Herb Ellis. During the 1960s and 1970s Peterson made numerous trio recordings highlighting his piano performances; they reveal more of his eclectic style, absorbing influences from various genres of jazz, popular, and classical music. According to pianist and educator Mark Eisenman, some of Peterson's best playing was as an understated accompanist to singer Ella Fitzgerald and trumpeter Roy Eldridge. Peterson is considered one of history's great jazz pianistsHe was called the "Maharaja of the keyboard" by Duke Ellington, |
clothing that they are most comfortable in (full leg cover is not required), unless specifically stated in the meet announcement. In Australia, under the 2021 rules, 2.1.21, the choice of clothing is also left up to the competitor, and full leg cover is not required. In Canada, no specific clothing is required, but participants are encouraged to wear clothing suitable for the weather, and hiking or running shoes. Similarly in New Zealand, there are no rules in force limiting orienteers to running only in full leg cover. The early competitors used standard athletic clothing, i.e., shorts and an athletic vest, which provided little protection for racing through undergrowth. Purpose-made lightweight nylon full-body suits were later adopted. The early O-suits were made in muted colours but modern suits are generally multi-coloured. Clubs often organise the bulk purchase of clothing, which are then made in the club colours with the club's name prominently displayed. Some competitors prefer lycra tights or leggings. Gaiters are also often worn. Lightweight studded (and often cleated) orienteering shoes are commonly used. Personal equipment The basic equipment required for orienteering is usually listed as a compass and appropriate outdoor clothing. Most national bodies recommend that a whistle be carried for safety. Competitive orienteers usually use specialized equipment: A thumb compass, or protractor compass on a short wrist cord. A clear map case to protect the map. May be provided by organizers in competitions. A clear plastic sleeve, worn on the forearm, to hold control descriptions. A map board, fixed to the handlebars or worn on the arm or strapped to the torso (MTB-O, Ski-o and ARDF only). IOF rules forbid the use of artificial aids that competitors can refer to during a race, so GPS and other electronic navigation devices are not used. (ARDF may allow them at some events). GPS logging devices that track and record position, without allowing competitors to refer to the data during the race, are permitted, and are increasingly being used for post-race route-choice analysis and live tracking for event spectators. Competition types Orienteering events can be classified in many different aspects: By method of travel: FootO, SkiO, MTBO, etc. By the length: sprint, middle, long By the time the competition was held: day, night By the number of competitors: individual, team, relay By the visiting order of controls: cross-country (in a specific order), score (free to decide order) Long Classic orienteering involves a race between controls in a preset order. The winner is the person who completes the course in the shortest time. This is called a "cross-country" course as distinct from a score course (see below). Courses are normally designed so that the fastest route is not straightforward to find on the map, or to follow on the ground. The classic race has a typical winning time of 75–90 minutes. As of 2007, the IOF have dictated that the "classic" course should be redesignated the "long". Middle The middle distance is a shorter cross-country race than the classic (or long), with a winning time in the region of 30 minutes and with an emphasis more on fine navigation than route-choice. When races of this distance were run in the mid-late 1990s, they were called "short" races, or "sprint-O". The short distance was introduced as a world championship discipline in 1991. More recently, though the IOF have renamed this distance as "middle". Relay A relay race is run by a team of competitors each running a course, and the result is based on the team's total time. Relays usually employ a mass start instead of a staggered start. Relays are part of World Orienteering Championships both as sprint relays and as cross-country relays. Additionally, there are popular mass club races out of which Jukola relay has the highest number of participating clubs 1,787 (in 2015), while 25-manna has the highest number of legs 25. To reduce competitors following each other, various spreading methods might be used. This is called "gaffling", which is a Swedish word meaning "forking". The key principle is that every team must run every leg (between each pair of two controls), but not necessarily in the same order. The IOF have introduced the nomenclature to try to clarify the usage of the word "leg". In orienteering usage, leg normally refers to the part of a race between two control points. In relay (non-orienteering) usage, leg refers to the part of a race run by a single team member. The IOF prefer "lap" for this latter term, but despite this, in common parlance, "leg" is used for both terms. Score Competitors visit as many controls as possible within a time limit. There is usually a mass start (rather than staggered), with a time limit. Controls may have different point values depending on difficulty, and there is a point penalty for each minute late. The competitor with the most points is the winner. The large-scale, endurance-style version of a Score-O is known as a rogaine, competed by teams in events lasting (often) 24 hours. A very large area is used for competition, and the map scale is smaller. The format originated in Australia. The term ROGAINE is often said to stand for Rugged Outdoor Group Activity Involving Navigation and Endurance; this is essentially a backronym, as the name actually originates from the names of Rod, Gail and Neil Phillips, who were among Australian Rogaining's first participants. Sprint Very short races, with winning times in the region of 12–15 minutes, often held in city parks and other more urban settings. Map scales are usually 1:5,000 or 1:4,000. Control sites can include benches, litterbins, sculptures, and other objects common to urban parks. The sprint distance may also be held in the forest, when it would be called a "forest sprint" as opposed to an "urban sprint". This distance was pioneered in the late 1990s as an elite event by the Park World Tour organisation who organised an independent "world cup" in park sprint orienteering. In 2001 in Tampere, the IOF included a sprint distance in the orienteering world championships. Ultrasprint Ultrasprint events are held in a specially constructed labyrinth. Due to the limited area of the labyrinth, ultrasprint is a more spectator-friendly form of orienteering. Also, as the course is artificial, identical courses can be set in different geographical locations for simultaneous local competitions as parts of a larger tournament. Night Competitors use a headlamp to navigate in the dark. Reflective markers often are used on control point flags, which shifts the tactics from precision navigation to searching. Competitors can travel at high speed to the vicinity of the control point, then sweep the area with the light to catch a reflection off the control flag. If a night event starts before dark, a mass start must be used so all competitors have equal time in the light and dark. The two classic club relays, Tiomila and Jukola, both include night legs. Full length (24-hour) rogaines and many adventure races run through the night, without a light period, and competitors may choose not to rest. String Competitors follow a string around a short course, noting down things that they find on the way. This is generally used by young children and people new to the sport who want to find out what it is like. Precision Precision orienteering generally is not a speed event, but rather a test of the competitors' ability to precisely match map and terrain. Examples include trail-O (untimed), TREC style mounted orienteering, and Radio Orienteering in a Compact Area (ROCA). Both trail-O and ROCA use decoys in the vicinity of the control point. The Olympics Efforts begun in 1996 to promote the inclusion of orienteering in the Olympic Games have so far been unsuccessful, although orienteering became a sport in the World Games in 2001, and is a sport in the Summer Deaflympics. Supporters recognize that the sport is neither television- nor spectator-friendly, the venue of competition is often necessarily remote from major cities, and the duration of the event is longer than most other individual competitions. Efforts to develop a format suitable for Olympic competitions have focused on park orienteering, micro-orienteering, and short-distance relays. Sprint Orienteering on foot as a format of the sport is most likely to be included in Olympic Games, as this discipline is becoming more and more popular worldwide and can have a significant spectator interest. According to the website of a Chicago Orienteering club, "the International Orienteering Federation is committed to entering the Olympic World." Although not an official demonstration sport, an international ski-orienteering event was held in Sugadaira Kōgen, Japan, as part of the International Cultural Festival held in conjunction with the XVIII Winter Olympic Games in Nagano in 1998. The International Orienteering Federation petitioned the International Olympic Committee in 2002 to include ski orienteering in the 2006 Winter Olympic Games, noting that it could share the venue with the biathlon competitions. In its formal recommendation that ski orienteering not be included in those games, the Olympic Programme Commission focused on a lack of participation in the sport outside Nordic countries, "the challenges for broadcasters and spectators to easily follow the competition", and the costs associated with new technology and a new results system. In 2005, the International Olympic Committee confirmed that ski orienteering was under consideration for inclusion in the review process of the Olympic sport program for the 2014 Winter Olympic Games. On 28 November 2006, the Executive Board of the IOC decided not to include any new sports in this review process. World Orienteering Championships The World Orienteering Championships (WOC) is an annual event organised by the International Orienteering Federation. The first World Championships was held in Fiskars, Finland in 1966. They were held biennially up to 2003 (with the exception of 1978 and 1979). Since 2003, competitions have been held | orienteering, ski orienteering, and trail orienteering. It is based in Finland and it claims on its website to aim to "spread the sport of orienteering, to promote its development and to create and maintain an attractive world event programme." Since 1977 the IOF has been recognised by the IOC National There are governing bodies for most of the individual nations that are represented in the sport of orienteering. These national bodies are the rule-making body for that nation. For example, the British Orienteering Federation is the national governing body for the United Kingdom. The federation was founded in 1967 and it is made up of 13 constituent associations. For the United States, the national governing body is Orienteering USA. Regional Most nations have some form of regional governing bodies. These are not rule-making bodies but are there to assist in coordinating clubs within that region, e.g., they may allocate dates so that clubs do not clash with their events. Local Clubs are usually formed at a local level and affiliated to their national governing body. It is clubs who put on events usually open to all-comers. Clubs may also put on practice, training, and social events. Open clubs are open to anyone and there is usually no restriction on joining them. Closed clubs restrict their membership to specific groups. For example, BAOC (British Army Orienteering Club) has restrictions on who may join, principally British Army personnel. Related sports The International Rogaining Federation governs rogaining. Separate organizations govern competitive mounted orienteering in the United States and Europe (and the two sports are dissimilar). The International Amateur Radio Union governs amateur radio direction finding. Competition and results Basics The competition, or race, is intended to test the navigational skill, concentration, and running ability of the competitors. High levels of fitness and running speed are required to compete successfully at an international or elite level. To ensure fairness between competitors the map is not usually provided until the start, and starts are normally staggered with competitors starting at not less than one-minute intervals. The objective on each leg is to follow the fastest route between controls. The fastest is not always the shortest route, and can depend heavily on route choice. Map Orienteering competitions use specially prepared orienteering maps. They are topographic maps although much more detailed than general-purpose maps. The ISOM map scales are 1:15,000, 1:10,000, or 1:7,500, with grids aligned to magnetic north. Map symbols are standardized by the IOF, and designed to be readable by any competitor regardless of background or native tongue. Courses Orienteering events offer a range of courses, of varying physical and technical difficulty, to meet the needs of competitors. The orienteering course is marked in purple or red on a map. A triangle is used to indicate the start and a double circle indicates the finish. Circles are used to show the control points. Age-related classes At international, national, and the larger events, courses are classified by age, e.g., M35 for men 35 years of age and older. Classes requiring similar distances and difficulties are usually combined into a smaller number of courses, e.g., M60 will normally share a course with W50, and often with M65 and W55. The results are normally arranged by class. Ability-based courses In the smaller events courses are provided by ability. The United States and the United Kingdom use colour coding to define the difficulty of the courses. Short, easy courses are provided for beginners and younger competitors, with technically and physically demanding courses being provided for experienced orienteers. Ranging from easy and short to long and technical, there are; White, Yellow, Orange, Light Green, Green, Blue and Brown. Permanent courses and other events Some orienteering clubs have set up permanent courses, which can be used for personal, or club, training. Non-standard permanent markers are used as control kites, and maps of the courses are usually available publicly for a fee. The courses are usually set up in public areas and there may be some restrictions on access, e.g., daylight hours only. Clubs also organise informal events for practice and training. Controls and control description sheet Control points are placed on features on the map that can be clearly identified on the ground. Control points are marked in the terrain by white and orange "flags". Competitors receive a "control description sheet" or "clue sheet" which gives a precise description of the feature and the location of the kite, e.g., boulder, 5m, north side. For experienced orienteers the descriptions use symbols (pictorial), in accordance with the IOF Control descriptions. Control card and punching Each competitor is required to carry an electronic or paper control card, and to present it at the Start and hand it in at the Finish. The control card is marked by some means at each control point to show that the competitor has completed the course correctly. Most events now use electronic punching, although cards and needle punches are still widely used. Results The winner is normally the competitor with the fastest time, but other scoring systems can be used, e.g., score events and Trail-O. Most events produce provisional results 'on the day', with draft results on the Internet that night; the final results being confirmed a few days later. With electronic punching the results can include split times for competitors. These show the times between controls and aggregate times to each control. With suitable computer software these times can be displayed in a graphical form (Progressograph). Safety Each competitor is responsible for his or her own safety. There are no rules, but there are guidelines, which should be followed. The basic safety check was the stub check. The competitor hands in his stub at the start and his control card at the finish. Event officials match the two and any unmatched stubs represent a missing competitor. This has been superseded with electronic punching in that event officials can now request a ‘still to finish’ report listing all those competitors who punched at the start but have not yet downloaded their electronic card. All competitors must report to the finish whether they have completed the course or not. Personal clothing IOF rule 21.1 is that the specification for clothing is delegated to the national organising body, and no specific clothing is required. Unique among English speaking countries, Ireland and the UK require legs to be covered. Rule 7.1.1 requires full body cover: the torso and legs must be covered, while organizer may allow shorts (e.g., in park or street orienteering). In the United States, rule A.34.1 states that competitors are free to choose clothing that they are most comfortable in (full leg cover is not required), unless specifically stated in the meet announcement. In Australia, under the 2021 rules, 2.1.21, the choice of clothing is also left up to the competitor, and full leg cover is not required. In Canada, no specific clothing is required, but participants are encouraged to wear clothing |
force such as gravity is added to the system, the point of equilibrium is shifted. The time taken for an oscillation to occur is often referred to as the oscillatory period. The systems where the restoring force on a body is directly proportional to its displacement, such as the dynamics of the spring-mass system, are described mathematically by the simple harmonic oscillator and the regular periodic motion is known as simple harmonic motion. In the spring-mass system, oscillations occur because, at the static equilibrium displacement, the mass has kinetic energy which is converted into potential energy stored in the spring at the extremes of its path. The spring-mass system illustrates some common features of oscillation, namely the existence of an equilibrium and the presence of a restoring force which grows stronger the further the system deviates from equilibrium. Damped and driven oscillations All real-world oscillator systems are thermodynamically irreversible. This means there are dissipative processes such as friction or electrical resistance which continually convert some of the energy stored in the oscillator into heat in the environment. This is called damping. Thus, oscillations tend to decay with time unless there is some net source of energy into the system. The simplest description of this decay process can be illustrated by oscillation decay of the harmonic oscillator. In addition, an oscillating system may be subject to some external force, as when an AC circuit is connected to an outside power source. In this case the oscillation is said to be driven. Some systems can be excited by energy transfer from the environment. This transfer typically occurs where systems are embedded in some fluid flow. For example, the phenomenon of flutter in aerodynamics occurs when an arbitrarily small displacement of an aircraft wing (from its equilibrium) results in an increase in the angle of attack of the wing on the air flow and a consequential increase in lift coefficient, leading to a still greater displacement. At sufficiently large displacements, the stiffness of the wing dominates to provide the restoring force that enables an oscillation. Coupled oscillations The harmonic oscillator and the systems it models have a single degree of freedom. More complicated systems have more degrees of freedom, for example, two masses and three springs (each mass being attached to fixed points and to each other). In such cases, the behavior of each variable influences that of the others. This leads to a coupling of the oscillations of the individual degrees of freedom. For example, two pendulum clocks (of identical frequency) mounted on a common wall will tend to synchronise. This phenomenon was first observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1665. The apparent motions of the compound oscillations typically appears very complicated but a more economic, computationally simpler and conceptually deeper description is given by resolving the motion into normal modes. More special cases are the coupled oscillators where energy alternates between two forms of oscillation. Well-known is the Wilberforce pendulum, where the oscillation alternates between the elongation of a vertical spring and the rotation of an object at the end of that spring. Coupled oscillators are a common description of two related, but different phenomena. One | a single degree of freedom. More complicated systems have more degrees of freedom, for example, two masses and three springs (each mass being attached to fixed points and to each other). In such cases, the behavior of each variable influences that of the others. This leads to a coupling of the oscillations of the individual degrees of freedom. For example, two pendulum clocks (of identical frequency) mounted on a common wall will tend to synchronise. This phenomenon was first observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1665. The apparent motions of the compound oscillations typically appears very complicated but a more economic, computationally simpler and conceptually deeper description is given by resolving the motion into normal modes. More special cases are the coupled oscillators where energy alternates between two forms of oscillation. Well-known is the Wilberforce pendulum, where the oscillation alternates between the elongation of a vertical spring and the rotation of an object at the end of that spring. Coupled oscillators are a common description of two related, but different phenomena. One case is where both oscillations affect each other mutually, which usually leads to the occurrence of a single, entrained oscillation state, where both oscillate with a compromise frequency. Another case is where one external oscillation affects an internal oscillation, but is not affected by this. In this case the regions of synchronization, known as Arnold Tongues, can lead to highly complex phenomena as for instance chaotic dynamics. Continuous systems – waves As the number of degrees of freedom becomes arbitrarily large, a system approaches continuity; examples include a string or the surface of a body of water. Such systems have (in the classical limit) an infinite number of normal modes and their oscillations occur in the form of waves that can characteristically propagate. Mathematics The mathematics of oscillation deals with the quantification of the amount that a sequence or function tends to move between extremes. There are several related notions: oscillation of a sequence of real numbers, oscillation of a real-valued function at a point, and oscillation of a function |
Davis. Because construction was not finished by the start of the 1996 season, the Athletics were forced to play their first six-game homestand at 9,300-seat Cashman Field in Las Vegas. Although official capacity was stated to be 43,662 for baseball, seats were sometimes sold in Mount Davis as well, pushing "real" capacity to the area of 60,000. The ready availability of tickets on game day made season tickets a tough sell, while crowds as high as 30,000 often seemed sparse in such a venue. On December 21, 2005, the Athletics announced that seats in the Coliseum's third deck would not be sold for the 2006 season, but would instead be covered with a tarp, and that tickets would no longer be sold in Mount Davis under any circumstances. That effectively reduced capacity to 34,077, making the Coliseum the smallest stadium in Major League Baseball. Beginning in 2008, sections 316–318 (immediately behind home plate) were the only third-deck sections open for A's games, which brought the total capacity to 35,067 until 2017 when new team president Dave Kaval took the tarps off of the upper deck, increasing capacity to 47,170. The Athletics were the last remaining MLB team to share a stadium with an NFL team on a full-time basis, a situation that ended at the end of 2019 when the Raiders relocated to Las Vegas in 2020 making the Coliseum a baseball-only facility once again. The Athletics' spring training facility is Hohokam Stadium, located in Mesa, Arizona. From 1982 to 2014, their spring training facility was Phoenix Municipal Stadium, located in Phoenix, Arizona, and they also spent time playing in Scottsdale, Arizona. Improvements to the Coliseum In recent years, attempts have been made by management to make upgrades to the Oakland Coliseum, specifically with team president Dave Kaval. As such, a number of club and premium seating areas, a renovation of Shibe Park Tavern and various fan areas have been created. New areas In 2017, the team created an outdoor plaza in the space between the Coliseum and Oracle Arena. The grassy area is open to all ticketed fans, and it features food trucks, seating and games like corn hole for every Athletics home game. The following year, the team introduced The Treehouse, a area open to all fans with two full-service bars, standing-room and lounge seating, numerous televisions with pre-game and postgame entertainment. The A's Stomping Ground transformed part of the Eastside Club and the area near the right-field flag poles into a fun and interactive space for kids and families. The inside section features a stage and video wall for interactive events, a digital experience that lets youngsters race their favorite Athletics players, replica team dugouts, a simulated hitting and pitching machine, foosball, and a photo booth. The outside area includes play areas, a grassy seating area, drink rails for parents, and picnic tables. The Athletics additionally added a miniature baseball field and spiderweb play area. Premium spaces The team added three new premium spaces, including The Terrace, Lounge Seats, and the Coppola Theater Boxes, to the Coliseum for the 2019 season. The new premium seating options offer fans a high-end game day experience with luxury amenities. The team also added two new group spaces - the Budweiser Hero Deck and Golden Road Landing - to the Coliseum. Other additions In addition, the tarps on the upper deck were removed; a modern version of the beloved mechanical Harvey the Rabbit to deliver the first pitch ball was re-introduced, while the playing surface at the Coliseum was re-named "Rickey Henderson Field." The team hosted the first free game in MLB history for 46,028 fans on April 17, 2018, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Athletics first game in Oakland. The team tried a new concept within season ticketing in the A's Access plan that involved "general admission access to every home game with a set number of reserved-seat upgrades allotted", which was meant to replace previous attempts at subscription-based services that they tried with Ballpark Pass and Treehouse Pass. On July 21, 2018, the Athletics set a Coliseum record for the largest attendance with a crowd of 56,310 when the team played host to the San Francisco Giants. New ballpark 2000s proposals Since the early-2000s, the A's have been in talks with Oakland and other Northern California cities about building a new baseball-only stadium. The team has said it wants to remain in Oakland. On November 28, 2018, the Athletics announced that the team had chosen to build its new 34,000-seat ballpark at the Howard Terminal site at the Port of Oakland. In 2018 the team announced its intent to purchase the Coliseum site and renovate it into a tech and housing hub, preserving Oakland Arena and reducing the Coliseum to a low-rise sports park as San Francisco did with Kezar Stadium. Prior proposals Fremont After the city of Oakland failed to make any progress toward a stadium, the A's began contemplating a move to the Warm Springs district of suburban Fremont. Fremont is about south of Oakland; many nearby residents are already a part of the current Athletics fanbase. On November 7, 2006, many media sources announced the Athletics would be leaving Oakland as early as 2010 for a new stadium in Fremont, confirmed the next day by the Fremont City Council. The plan was strongly supported by Fremont Mayor Bob Wasserman. The team would have played in what was planned to be called Cisco Field, a 32,000-seat, baseball-only facility. The proposed ballpark would have been part of a larger "ballpark village" which would have included retail and residential development. On February 24, 2009, however, Lew Wolff released an open letter regarding the end of his efforts to relocate the A's to Fremont, citing "real and threatened" delays to the project. The project faced opposition from some in the community who thought the relocation of the A's to Fremont would increase traffic problems in the city and decrease property values near the ballpark site. San Jose In 2009, the City of San Jose attempted to open negotiations with the team regarding a move to the city. Although parcels of land south of Diridon Station would be acquired by the city as a stadium site, the San Francisco Giants' claim on Santa Clara County as part of their home territory would have to be settled before any agreement could be made. By 2010, San Jose was "aggressively wooing" A's owner Lew Wolff. Wolff referred to San Jose as the team's "best option", but Major League Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig said he would wait on a report on whether the team could move to the area because of the Giants conflict. In September 2010, 75 Silicon Valley CEOs drafted and signed a letter to Bud Selig urging a timely approval of the move to San Jose. In May 2011, San Jose Mayor Chuck Reed sent a letter to Bud Selig asking the commissioner for a timetable of when he might decide whether the A's can pursue this new ballpark, but Selig did not respond. Selig addressed the San Jose issue via an online town hall forum held in July 2011, saying, "Well, the latest is, I have a small committee who has really assessed that whole situation, Oakland, San Francisco, and it is complex. You talk about complex situations; they have done a terrific job. I know there are some people who think it's taken too long and I understand that. I'm willing to accept that. But you make decisions like this; I've always said, you'd better be careful. Better to get it done right than to get it done fast. But we'll make a decision that's based on logic and reason at the proper time." On June 18, 2013, the City of San Jose filed suit against Selig, seeking the court's ruling that Major League Baseball may not prevent the Oakland A's from moving to San Jose. Wolff criticized the lawsuit, stating he did not believe business disputes should be settled through legal action. Most of the city's claims were dismissed in October 2013, but a U.S. District Judge ruled that San Jose could move forward with its count that MLB illegally interfered with an option agreement between the city and the A's for land. On January 15, 2015, a three-judge panel of the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled unanimously that the claims were barred by baseball's antitrust exemption, established by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1922 and upheld in 1953 and 1972. San Jose Mayor Sam Liccardo commented that the city would seek a ruling from the U.S. Supreme Court. On October 5, 2015, the United States Supreme Court rejected San Jose's bid on the Athletics. Peralta A 2017 plan would have placed a new 35,000 seat A's stadium near Laney College and the Eastlake neighborhood on the current site of the Peralta Community College District's administration buildings. The plan was announced by team president Dave Kaval in September 2017. However, just three months later, college officials abruptly ended the negotiations. Rivals San Francisco Giants The Bay Bridge Series is the name of a series of games played between (and the rivalry of) the A's and San Francisco Giants of the National League. The series takes its name from the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge which links the cities of Oakland and San Francisco. Although competitive, the regional rivalry between the A's and Giants is considered a friendly one with mostly mutual companionship between the fans, as opposed to White Sox–Cubs, or Yankees–Mets games where animosity runs high. Hats displaying both teams on the cap are sold from vendors at the games, and once in a while the teams both dress in original team uniforms from the early era of baseball. The series is also occasionally referred to as the "BART Series" for the Bay Area Rapid Transit system that links Oakland to San Francisco. However, the name "BART Series" has never been popular beyond a small selection of history books and national broadcasters and has fallen out of favor. Bay Area locals almost exclusively refer to the rivalry as the "Battle of the Bay". Originally, the term described a series of exhibition games played between the two clubs after the conclusion of spring training, immediately prior to the start of the regular season. It was first used to refer to the 1989 World Series in which the Athletics won their most recent championship and the first time the teams had met since they moved to the San Francisco Bay Area (and the first time they had met since the A's also defeated the Giants in the 1913 | January 15, 2015, a three-judge panel of the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled unanimously that the claims were barred by baseball's antitrust exemption, established by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1922 and upheld in 1953 and 1972. San Jose Mayor Sam Liccardo commented that the city would seek a ruling from the U.S. Supreme Court. On October 5, 2015, the United States Supreme Court rejected San Jose's bid on the Athletics. Peralta A 2017 plan would have placed a new 35,000 seat A's stadium near Laney College and the Eastlake neighborhood on the current site of the Peralta Community College District's administration buildings. The plan was announced by team president Dave Kaval in September 2017. However, just three months later, college officials abruptly ended the negotiations. Rivals San Francisco Giants The Bay Bridge Series is the name of a series of games played between (and the rivalry of) the A's and San Francisco Giants of the National League. The series takes its name from the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge which links the cities of Oakland and San Francisco. Although competitive, the regional rivalry between the A's and Giants is considered a friendly one with mostly mutual companionship between the fans, as opposed to White Sox–Cubs, or Yankees–Mets games where animosity runs high. Hats displaying both teams on the cap are sold from vendors at the games, and once in a while the teams both dress in original team uniforms from the early era of baseball. The series is also occasionally referred to as the "BART Series" for the Bay Area Rapid Transit system that links Oakland to San Francisco. However, the name "BART Series" has never been popular beyond a small selection of history books and national broadcasters and has fallen out of favor. Bay Area locals almost exclusively refer to the rivalry as the "Battle of the Bay". Originally, the term described a series of exhibition games played between the two clubs after the conclusion of spring training, immediately prior to the start of the regular season. It was first used to refer to the 1989 World Series in which the Athletics won their most recent championship and the first time the teams had met since they moved to the San Francisco Bay Area (and the first time they had met since the A's also defeated the Giants in the 1913 World Series). Today, it also refers to games played between the teams during the regular season since the commencement of interleague play in 1997. Through the 2018 regular season, the Athletics have won 63 games, and the Giants have won 57 contests. The A's also have edges on the Giants in terms of overall postseason appearances (18-12), division titles (16-8) and World Series titles (4-3) since both teams moved to the Bay Area, even though the Giants franchise moved there a decade earlier than the A's did. On March 24, 2018, the Oakland A's announced that for the Sunday, March 25, 2018 exhibition game against the San Francisco Giants, A's fans would be charged $30 for parking and Giants fans would be charged $50. However, the A's stated that Giants fans could receive $20 off if they shout "Go A's" at the parking gates. In 2018, the Athletics and Giants started battling for a "Bay Bridge" Trophy made from steel taken from the old Bay Bridge, which was taken down after a new bridge was opened in 2013. The A's won the inaugural season with the trophy, allowing them to place their logo atop its Bay Bridge stand. Historic rivalries Philadelphia Phillies The City Series was the name of a series of baseball games played between the Athletics and the Philadelphia Phillies of the National League that ran from 1903 through 1955. After the A's move to Kansas City in 1955, the City Series rivalry came to an end. Since the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the teams have since faced each other during the regular season (with the first games taking place in 2003) but the rivalry has effectively died in the intervening years since the A's left Philadelphia. In 2014, when the A's faced the Phillies in inter-league play at the Oakland Coliseum, the Athletics didn't bother to mark the historical connection, going so far as to have a Connie Mack promotion the day before the series while the Texas Rangers were in Oakland. The first City Series was held in 1883 between the Phillies and the American Association Philadelphia Athletics. When the Athletics first joined the American League, the two teams played each other in a spring and fall series. No City Series was held in 1901 and 1902 due to legal warring between the National League and American League. Achievements Awards Catfish Hunter Award (2004–present) Hall of Famers Ford C. Frick Award recipients Retired numbers The Athletics have retired six numbers, and honored one additional individual with the letter "A". Walter A. Haas, Jr., owner of the team from 1980 until his death in 1995, was honored by the retirement of the letter "A". Of the six players with retired numbers, five were retired for their play with the Athletics and one, 42, was universally retired by Major League Baseball when they honored the 50th anniversary of Jackie Robinson's breaking the color barrier. No A's player from the Philadelphia era has his number retired by the organization. Though Jackson and Hunter played small portions of their careers in Kansas City, no player that played the majority of his years in the Kansas City era has his number retired either. The A's have retired only the numbers of Hall-of-Famers who played large portions of their careers in Oakland. The Athletics have all of the numbers of the Hall-of-Fame players from the Philadelphia Athletics displayed at their stadium, as well as all of the years that the Philadelphia Athletics won World Championships (1910, 1911, 1913, 1929, and 1930). Athletics Hall of Fame On September 5, 2018, the Athletics held a ceremony to induct seven members into the inaugural class of the team's Hall of Fame. Each member was honored with an unveiling of a painting in their likeness and a bright green jacket. Hunter, who died in 1999, was represented by his widow, while Finley, who died in 1996, was represented by his son. If the team ever gets a new stadium, a physical site will be designated for the Hall of Fame, as the Coliseum does not have enough space for a full-fledged exhibit. Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame 17 members of the Athletics organization have been honored with induction into the Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame. Philadelphia Baseball Wall of Fame The Athletics have all of the numbers of the Hall-of-Fame players from the Philadelphia Athletics displayed at their stadium, as well as all of the years that the Philadelphia Athletics won World Championships (1910, 1911, 1913, 1929, and 1930). Also, from 1978 to 2003 (except 1983), the Philadelphia Phillies inducted one former Athletic (and one former Phillie) each year into the Philadelphia Baseball Wall of Fame at the then-existing Veterans Stadium. 25 Athletics have been honored. In March 2004, after Veterans Stadium was replaced by the new Citizens Bank Park, the Athletics' plaques were relocated to the Philadelphia Athletics Historical Society in Hatboro, Pennsylvania, and a single plaque listing all of the A's inductees was attached to a statue of Connie Mack that is located across the street from Citizens Bank Park. Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Team captains 6 Sal Bando, 3B, 1969–1976 Season-by-season records The records of the Athletics' last ten seasons in Major League Baseball are listed below. Individuals Khris Davis (outfielder/hitter) has been called “the most consistent hitter in baseball history” with his 2014 to 2018 season averages of .244, .247, .247, .247, and .247. Roster Minor league affiliations The Oakland Athletics farm system consists of six minor league affiliates. Radio and television As of the 2020 season, the Oakland Athletics have had 14 radio homes. The Athletics' flagship radio station is KNEW and the team has a free live 24/7 exclusive A's station branded as A's Cast to stream the radio broadcast within the Athletics market and other A's programming via iHeartRadio. Going into the 2020 season, the Athletics had a deal with TuneIn for A's Cast and no flagship radio station in the Bay Area but changed their plans after the COVID-19 epidemic. The announcing team features Ken Korach and Vince Cotroneo. Television coverage is exclusively on NBC Sports California. Some A's games air on an alternate feed of NBCS, called NBCS Plus, if the main channel shows a Sacramento Kings or San Jose Sharks game at the same time. On TV, Glen Kuiper covers play-by-play, and Ray Fosse typically provides color commentary. Kuiper and Fosse are frequently joined by |
the bullet still within it, Roosevelt delivers his scheduled speech. 1913 – Senghenydd colliery disaster, the United Kingdom's worst coal mining accident, claims the lives of 439 miners. 1915 – World War I: Bulgaria joins the Central Powers. 1920 – Finland and Soviet Russia sign the Treaty of Tartu, exchanging some territories. 1930 – The former and first President of Finland, K. J. Ståhlberg, and his wife, Ester Ståhlberg, were kidnapped from their home by members of the far-right Lapua Movement. 1933 – Germany withdraws from the League of Nations and World Disarmament Conference. 1939 – World War II: The sinks the British battleship within her harbour at Scapa Flow, Scotland. 1940 – World War II: The Balham underground station disaster kills sixty-six people during the London Blitz. 1943 – World War II: Prisoners at Sobibor extermination camp covertly assassinate most of the on-duty SS officers and then stage a mass breakout. 1943 – World War II: The United States Eighth Air Force loses 60 of 291 B-17 Flying Fortresses during the Second Raid on Schweinfurt. 1943 – World War II: The Second Philippine Republic, a puppet state of Japan, is inaugurated with José P. Laurel as its president. 1947 – Chuck Yeager becomes the first person to exceed the speed of sound. 1949 – The Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders in the United States convicts eleven defendants of conspiring to advocate the violent overthrow of the federal government. 1952 – Korean War: The Battle of Triangle Hill is the biggest and bloodiest battle of 1952. 1956 – Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, leader of India's Untouchable caste, converts to Buddhism along with 385,000 of his followers (see Neo-Buddhism). 1957 – The 23rd Canadian Parliament becomes the only one to be personally opened by the Queen of Canada. 1957 – At least 81 people are killed in the most devastating flood in the history of the Spanish city of Valencia. 1962 – The Cuban Missile Crisis begins when an American reconnaissance aircraft takes photographs of Soviet ballistic missiles being installed in Cuba. 1964 – Martin Luther King Jr. receives the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence. 1964 – The Soviet Presidium and the Communist Party Central Committee each vote to accept Nikita Khrushchev's "voluntary" request to retire from his offices. 1966 – The city of Montreal begins the operation of its underground Montreal Metro rapid transit system. 1968 – Apollo program: The first live television broadcast by American astronauts in orbit is performed by the Apollo 7 crew. 1968 – The 6.5 Meckering earthquake shakes the southwest portion of Western Australia with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), causing $2.2 million in damage and leaving 20–28 people injured. 1968 – Jim Hines becomes the first man ever to break the so-called "ten-second barrier" in the 100-meter sprint with a time of 9.95 seconds. 1973 – In the Thammasat student uprising, over 100,000 people protest in Thailand against the military government. Seventy-seven are killed and 857 are injured by soldiers. 1975 – An RAF Avro Vulcan bomber explodes and crashes over Żabbar, Malta after an aborted landing, killing five crew members and one person on the ground. 1979 – The first National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights draws approximately 100,000 people. 1981 – Vice President Hosni Mubarak is elected as the President of Egypt, one week after the assassination of Anwar Sadat. 1982 – U.S. President Ronald Reagan proclaims a War on Drugs. 1991 – Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 1994 – Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres receive the Nobel Peace Prize for their role in the establishment of the Oslo Accords and the framing of future Palestinian self government. 1998 – Eric Rudolph is charged with six bombings, including the 1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta, Georgia. 2003 – The Steve Bartman Incident takes place at Wrigley Field in Chicago, Illinois. 2004 – MK Airlines Flight 1602 crashes during takeoff from Halifax Stanfield International Airport, killing all seven people on board. 2004 – Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701 crashes in Jefferson City, Missouri. The two pilots (the aircraft's only occupants) are killed. 2012 – Felix Baumgartner successfully jumps to Earth from a balloon in the stratosphere. 2014 – A snowstorm and avalanche in the Nepalese Himalayas triggered by the remnants of Cyclone Hudhud kills 43 people. 2014 – The Serbia vs. Albania UEFA qualifying match is canceled after 42 minutes due to several incidents on and off the pitch. Albania is eventually awarded a win. 2015 – A suicide bomb attack in Pakistan kills at least seven people and injures 13 others. 2017 – A massive truck bombing in Somalia kills 358 people and injures more than 400 others. 2021 – About 10,000 American employees of John Deere go on strike. Births Pre-1600 1257 – Przemysł II of Poland (d. 1296) 1404 – Marie of Anjou (d. 1463) 1425 – Alesso Baldovinetti, Italian painter (d. 1499) 1465 – Konrad Peutinger, German humanist and antiquarian (d. 1547) 1493 – Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese daimyō (d. 1568) 1542 – Philip IV, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1602) 1563 – Jodocus Hondius, Flemish engraver and cartographer (d. 1611) 1569 – Giambattista Marino, Italian poet (d. 1625) 1601–1900 1609 – Ernest Günther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (d. 1689) 1630 – Sophia of Hanover (d. 1714) 1633 – James II of England (d. 1701) 1639 – Simon van der Stel, Dutch commander and politician, 1st Governor of the Dutch Cape Colony (d. 1712) 1643 – Bahadur Shah I, Mughal emperor (d. 1712) 1644 – William Penn, English businessman who founded Pennsylvania (d. 1718) 1687 – Robert Simson, Scottish mathematician and academic (d. 1768) 1712 – George Grenville, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1770) 1726 – Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham, Scottish-English admiral and politician (d. 1813) 1733 – François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt, Austrian field marshal (d. 1798) 1784 – Ferdinand VII of Spain (d. 1833) 1791 – Friedrich Parrot, Baltic German naturalist (d. 1841) 1801 – Joseph Plateau, Belgian physicist and academic, created the Phenakistoscope (d. 1883) 1806 – Preston King, American lawyer and politician (d. 1865) 1824 – Adolphe Monticelli, French painter (d. 1886) 1840 – Dmitry Pisarev, Russian author and critic (d. 1868) 1842 – Joe Start, American baseball player and manager (d. 1927) 1844 – John See, English-Australian politician, 14th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1907) 1845 – Laura Askew Haygood (d. 1900) 1848 – Byron Edmund Walker, Canadian banker and philanthropist (d. 1924) 1853 – John William Kendrick, American engineer and businessman (d. 1924) 1861 – Julia A. Ames, American journalist, editor, and reformer (d. 1891) 1867 – Masaoka Shiki, Japanese poet, author, and critic (d. 1902) 1869 – Joseph Duveen, 1st Baron Duveen, English art dealer (d. 1939) 1871 – Alexander von Zemlinsky, Austrian composer, conductor, and teacher (d. 1942) 1872 – Reginald Doherty, English tennis player (d. 1910) 1882 – Éamon de Valera, American-Irish rebel and politician, 3rd President of Ireland (d. 1975) 1882 – Charlie Parker, English cricketer, coach, and umpire (d. 1959) 1888 – Katherine Mansfield, New Zealand novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 1923) 1888 – Yukio Sakurauchi, Japanese businessman and politician, 27th Japanese Minister of Finance (d. 1947) 1890 – Dwight D. Eisenhower, American general and politician, 34th President of the United States (d. 1969) 1892 – Sumner Welles, American politician and diplomat, 11th Under Secretary of State (d. 1961) 1893 – Lois Lenski, American author and illustrator (d. 1974) 1893 – Lillian Gish, American actress (d. 1993) 1894 – E. E. Cummings, American poet and playwright (d. 1962) 1894 – Victoria Drummond, British marine engineer (d. 1978) 1897 – Alicja Dorabialska, Polish chemist (d. 1975) 1898 – Thomas William Holmes, Canadian sergeant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1950) 1900 – W. Edwards Deming, American statistician, author, and academic (d. 1993) 1901–present 1902 – Learco Guerra, Italian cyclist and manager (d. 1963) 1904 – Christian Pineau, French politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1995) 1904 – Mikhail Pervukhin, Soviet politician, First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1978) 1906 – Hassan al-Banna, Egyptian religious leader, founded the Muslim Brotherhood (d. 1949) 1906 – Hannah Arendt, German-American philosopher and theorist (d. 1975) 1907 – Allan Jones, American actor and singer (d. 1992) 1909 – Mochitsura Hashimoto, Japanese commander (d. 2000) 1909 – Dorothy Kingsley, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1997) 1909 – Bernd Rosemeyer, German racing driver (d. 1938) 1910 – John Wooden, American basketball player and coach (d. 2010) 1911 – Lê Đức Thọ, Vietnamese general and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990) 1914 – Harry Brecheen, American baseball player and coach (d. 2004) 1914 – Raymond Davis Jr., American chemist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2006) 1914 – Alexis Rannit, Estonian poet and critic (d. 1985) 1915 – Loris Francesco Capovilla, Italian cardinal (d. 2016) 1916 – C. Everett Koop, American admiral and surgeon, 13th United States Surgeon General (d. 2013) 1918 – Marcel Chaput, Canadian biochemist, journalist, and politician (d. 1991) 1918 – Thelma Coyne Long, Australian tennis player and captain (d. 2015) 1918 – Doug Ring, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2003) 1921 – José Arraño Acevedo, Chilean journalist and historian (d. 2009) 1923 – Joel Barnett, English accountant and politician, Chief Secretary to the Treasury (d. 2014) 1926 – Willy Alberti, Dutch singer and actor (d. 1985) 1927 – Roger Moore, English actor and producer (d. 2017) 1928 – Joyce Bryant, American actress and singer 1928 – Frank E. Resnik, American chemist and businessman (d. 1995) 1929 – Yvon Durelle, Canadian boxer and wrestler (d. 2007) 1930 – Robert Parker, American singer and saxophonist (d. 2020) 1930 – Mobutu Sese Seko, Congolese soldier and politician, President of Zaire (d. 1997) 1930 – Alan Williams, Welsh journalist and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Wales (d. 2014) 1932 – Enrico Di Giuseppe, American tenor and actor (d. 2005) 1932 – Anatoly Larkin, Russian-American physicist and academic (d. 2005) 1936 – Hans Kraay Sr., Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2017) 1936 – Jürg Schubiger, Swiss psychotherapist and author (d. 2014) 1938 – Farah Pahlavi, Empress of Iran 1938 – John Dean, American lawyer and author, 13th White House Counsel 1938 – Elizabeth Esteve-Coll, English curator and academic 1938 – Ron Lancaster, American-Canadian football player and coach (d. 2008) 1938 – Shula Marks, South African historian and academic 1938 – Melba Montgomery, American country music singer 1939 – Ralph Lauren, American fashion designer, founded the Ralph Lauren Corporation 1939 – Rocky Thompson, American golfer and politician 1940 – Perrie Mans, South African snooker player 1940 – Cliff Richard, Indian-English singer-songwriter and actor 1940 – J. C. Snead, American golfer 1940 – Christopher Timothy, Welsh actor, director, and screenwriter 1941 – Jerry Glanville, American football player and coach 1941 – Eddie Keher, Irish sportsman 1941 – Laurie Lawrence, Australian rugby player and coach 1941 – Art Shamsky, American baseball player | under the command of A. P. Hill fail to drive the Union Army completely out of Virginia. 1884 – George Eastman receives a U.S. Government patent on his new paper-strip photographic film. 1888 – Louis Le Prince films the first motion picture, Roundhay Garden Scene. 1898 – The steam ship sinks near the Lizard peninsula, Cornwall, killing 106. 1901–present 1908 – The Chicago Cubs defeat the Detroit Tigers, 2–0, clinching the 1908 World Series; this would be their last until winning the 2016 World Series. 1910 – English aviator Claude Grahame-White lands his aircraft on Executive Avenue near the White House in Washington, D.C. 1912 – Former president Theodore Roosevelt is shot and mildly wounded by John Flammang Schrank. With the fresh wound in his chest, and the bullet still within it, Roosevelt delivers his scheduled speech. 1913 – Senghenydd colliery disaster, the United Kingdom's worst coal mining accident, claims the lives of 439 miners. 1915 – World War I: Bulgaria joins the Central Powers. 1920 – Finland and Soviet Russia sign the Treaty of Tartu, exchanging some territories. 1930 – The former and first President of Finland, K. J. Ståhlberg, and his wife, Ester Ståhlberg, were kidnapped from their home by members of the far-right Lapua Movement. 1933 – Germany withdraws from the League of Nations and World Disarmament Conference. 1939 – World War II: The sinks the British battleship within her harbour at Scapa Flow, Scotland. 1940 – World War II: The Balham underground station disaster kills sixty-six people during the London Blitz. 1943 – World War II: Prisoners at Sobibor extermination camp covertly assassinate most of the on-duty SS officers and then stage a mass breakout. 1943 – World War II: The United States Eighth Air Force loses 60 of 291 B-17 Flying Fortresses during the Second Raid on Schweinfurt. 1943 – World War II: The Second Philippine Republic, a puppet state of Japan, is inaugurated with José P. Laurel as its president. 1947 – Chuck Yeager becomes the first person to exceed the speed of sound. 1949 – The Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders in the United States convicts eleven defendants of conspiring to advocate the violent overthrow of the federal government. 1952 – Korean War: The Battle of Triangle Hill is the biggest and bloodiest battle of 1952. 1956 – Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, leader of India's Untouchable caste, converts to Buddhism along with 385,000 of his followers (see Neo-Buddhism). 1957 – The 23rd Canadian Parliament becomes the only one to be personally opened by the Queen of Canada. 1957 – At least 81 people are killed in the most devastating flood in the history of the Spanish city of Valencia. 1962 – The Cuban Missile Crisis begins when an American reconnaissance aircraft takes photographs of Soviet ballistic missiles being installed in Cuba. 1964 – Martin Luther King Jr. receives the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence. 1964 – The Soviet Presidium and the Communist Party Central Committee each vote to accept Nikita Khrushchev's "voluntary" request to retire from his offices. 1966 – The city of Montreal begins the operation of its underground Montreal Metro rapid transit system. 1968 – Apollo program: The first live television broadcast by American astronauts in orbit is performed by the Apollo 7 crew. 1968 – The 6.5 Meckering earthquake shakes the southwest portion of Western Australia with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), causing $2.2 million in damage and leaving 20–28 people injured. 1968 – Jim Hines becomes the first man ever to break the so-called "ten-second barrier" in the 100-meter sprint with a time of 9.95 seconds. 1973 – In the Thammasat student uprising, over 100,000 people protest in Thailand against the military government. Seventy-seven are killed and 857 are injured by soldiers. 1975 – An RAF Avro Vulcan bomber explodes and crashes over Żabbar, Malta after an aborted landing, killing five crew members and one person on the ground. 1979 – The first National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights draws approximately 100,000 people. 1981 – Vice President Hosni Mubarak is elected as the President of Egypt, one week after the assassination of Anwar Sadat. 1982 – U.S. President Ronald Reagan proclaims a War on Drugs. 1991 – Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 1994 – Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres receive the Nobel Peace Prize for their role in the establishment of the Oslo Accords and the framing of future Palestinian self government. 1998 – Eric Rudolph is charged with six bombings, including the 1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta, Georgia. 2003 – The Steve Bartman Incident takes place at Wrigley Field in Chicago, Illinois. 2004 – MK Airlines Flight 1602 crashes during takeoff from Halifax Stanfield International Airport, killing all seven people on board. 2004 – Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701 crashes in Jefferson City, Missouri. The two pilots (the aircraft's only occupants) are killed. 2012 – Felix Baumgartner successfully jumps to Earth from a balloon in the stratosphere. 2014 – A snowstorm and avalanche in the Nepalese Himalayas triggered by the remnants of Cyclone Hudhud kills 43 people. 2014 – The Serbia vs. Albania UEFA qualifying match is canceled after 42 minutes due to several incidents on and off the pitch. Albania is eventually awarded a win. 2015 – A suicide bomb attack in Pakistan kills at least seven people and injures 13 others. 2017 – A massive truck bombing in Somalia kills 358 people and injures more than 400 others. 2021 – About 10,000 American employees of John Deere go on strike. Births Pre-1600 1257 – Przemysł II of Poland (d. 1296) 1404 – Marie of Anjou (d. 1463) 1425 – Alesso Baldovinetti, Italian painter (d. 1499) 1465 – Konrad Peutinger, German humanist and antiquarian (d. 1547) 1493 – Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese daimyō (d. 1568) 1542 – Philip IV, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1602) 1563 – Jodocus Hondius, Flemish engraver and cartographer (d. 1611) 1569 – Giambattista Marino, Italian poet (d. 1625) 1601–1900 1609 – Ernest Günther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (d. 1689) 1630 – Sophia of Hanover (d. 1714) 1633 – James II of England (d. 1701) 1639 – Simon van der Stel, Dutch commander and politician, 1st Governor of the Dutch Cape Colony (d. 1712) 1643 – Bahadur Shah I, Mughal emperor (d. 1712) 1644 – William Penn, English businessman who founded Pennsylvania (d. 1718) 1687 – Robert Simson, Scottish mathematician and academic (d. 1768) 1712 – George Grenville, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1770) 1726 – Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham, Scottish-English admiral and politician (d. 1813) 1733 – François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt, Austrian field marshal (d. 1798) 1784 – Ferdinand VII of Spain (d. 1833) 1791 – Friedrich Parrot, Baltic German naturalist (d. 1841) 1801 – Joseph Plateau, Belgian physicist and academic, created the Phenakistoscope (d. 1883) 1806 – Preston King, American lawyer and politician (d. 1865) 1824 – Adolphe Monticelli, French painter (d. 1886) 1840 – Dmitry Pisarev, Russian author and critic (d. 1868) 1842 – Joe Start, American baseball player and manager (d. 1927) 1844 – |
Metal β-diketonates, alkoxides, dialkylamides, and metal phosphine complexes are representative members of this class. The field of organometallic chemistry combines aspects of traditional inorganic and organic chemistry. Organometallic compounds are widely used both stoichiometrically in research and industrial chemical reactions, as well as in the role of catalysts to increase the rates of such reactions (e.g., as in uses of homogeneous catalysis), where target molecules include polymers, pharmaceuticals, and many other types of practical products. Organometallic compounds Organometallic compounds are distinguished by the prefix "organo-" (e.g., organopalladium compounds), and include all compounds which contain a bond between a metal atom and a carbon atom of an organyl group. In addition to the traditional metals (alkali metals, alkali earth metals, transition metals, and post transition metals), lanthanides, actinides, semimetals, and the elements boron, silicon, arsenic, and selenium are considered to form organometallic compounds. Examples of organometallic compounds include Gilman reagents, which contain lithium and copper, and Grignard reagents, which contain magnesium. Tetracarbonyl nickel and ferrocene are examples of organometallic compounds containing transition metals. Other examples of organometallic compounds include organolithium compounds such as n-butyllithium (n-BuLi), organozinc compounds such as diethylzinc (Et2Zn), organotin compounds such as tributyltin hydride (Bu3SnH), organoborane compounds such as triethylborane (Et3B), and organoaluminium compounds such as trimethylaluminium (Me3Al). A naturally occurring organometallic complex is methylcobalamin (a form of Vitamin B12), which contains a cobalt-methyl bond. This complex, along with other biologically relevant complexes are often discussed within the subfield of bioorganometallic chemistry. Distinction from coordination compounds with organic ligands Many complexes feature coordination bonds between a metal and organic ligands. Complexes where the organic ligands bind the metal through a heteroatom such as oxygen or nitrogen are considered coordination compounds (e.g., heme A and Fe(acac)3). However, if any of the ligands form a direct metal-carbon (M-C) bond, then the complex is considered to be organometallic. Although the IUPAC has not formally defined the term, some chemists use the term "metalorganic" to describe any coordination compound containing an organic ligand regardless of the presence of a direct M-C bond. The status of compounds in which the canonical anion has a negative charge that is shared between (delocalized) a carbon atom and an atom more electronegative than carbon (e.g. enolates) may vary with the nature of the anionic moiety, the metal ion, and possibly the medium. In the absence of direct structural evidence for a carbon–metal bond, such compounds are not considered to be organometallic. For instance, lithium enolates often contain only Li-O bonds and are not organometallic, while zinc enolates (Reformatsky reagents) contain both Zn-O and Zn-C bonds, and are organometallic in nature. Structure and properties The metal-carbon bond in organometallic compounds is generally highly covalent. For highly electropositive elements, such as lithium and sodium, the carbon ligand exhibits carbanionic character, but free carbon-based anions are extremely rare, an example being cyanide. Most organometallic compounds are solids at room temperature, however some are liquids such as methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl, or even volatile liquids such as nickel tetracarbonyl. Many organometallic compounds are air sensitive (reactive towards oxygen and moisture), and thus they must be handled under an inert atmosphere. Some organometallic compounds such as triethylaluminium are pyrophoric and will ignite on contact with air. Concepts and techniques As in other areas of chemistry, electron counting is useful for organizing organometallic chemistry. The 18-electron rule is helpful in predicting the stabilities of organometallic complexes, for example metal carbonyls and metal hydrides. However, many organometallic compounds do not follow the 18e rule. The metal atoms in organometallic compounds are frequently described by their d electron count and oxidation state. These concepts can be used to help predict their reactivity and preferred geometry. Chemical bonding and reactivity in organometallic compounds is often discussed from the perspective of the isolobal principle. A wide variety of physical techniques are used to determine the structure, composition, and properties of organometallic compounds. X-ray diffraction is a particularly important technique that can locate the positions of atoms within a solid compound, providing a detailed description of its structure. Other techniques like infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy are also frequently used to obtain information on the structure and bonding of organometallic compounds. Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is a common technique used to obtain information on the electronic structure of organometallic compounds. It is also used monitor the progress of organometallic reactions, as well as determine their kinetics. The dynamics of organometallic compounds can be studied using dynamic NMR spectroscopy. Other notable techniques include X-ray absorption spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, and elemental analysis. Due to their high reactivity towards oxygen and moisture, organometallic compounds often must be handled using air-free techniques. Air-free handling of organometallic compounds typically requires the use of laboratory apparatuses such as a glovebox or Schlenk line. History Early developments in organometallic chemistry include Louis Claude Cadet's synthesis of methyl arsenic compounds related to cacodyl, William Christopher Zeise's | are not considered to be organometallic. For instance, lithium enolates often contain only Li-O bonds and are not organometallic, while zinc enolates (Reformatsky reagents) contain both Zn-O and Zn-C bonds, and are organometallic in nature. Structure and properties The metal-carbon bond in organometallic compounds is generally highly covalent. For highly electropositive elements, such as lithium and sodium, the carbon ligand exhibits carbanionic character, but free carbon-based anions are extremely rare, an example being cyanide. Most organometallic compounds are solids at room temperature, however some are liquids such as methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl, or even volatile liquids such as nickel tetracarbonyl. Many organometallic compounds are air sensitive (reactive towards oxygen and moisture), and thus they must be handled under an inert atmosphere. Some organometallic compounds such as triethylaluminium are pyrophoric and will ignite on contact with air. Concepts and techniques As in other areas of chemistry, electron counting is useful for organizing organometallic chemistry. The 18-electron rule is helpful in predicting the stabilities of organometallic complexes, for example metal carbonyls and metal hydrides. However, many organometallic compounds do not follow the 18e rule. The metal atoms in organometallic compounds are frequently described by their d electron count and oxidation state. These concepts can be used to help predict their reactivity and preferred geometry. Chemical bonding and reactivity in organometallic compounds is often discussed from the perspective of the isolobal principle. A wide variety of physical techniques are used to determine the structure, composition, and properties of organometallic compounds. X-ray diffraction is a particularly important technique that can locate the positions of atoms within a solid compound, providing a detailed description of its structure. Other techniques like infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy are also frequently used to obtain information on the structure and bonding of organometallic compounds. Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is a common technique used to obtain information on the electronic structure of organometallic compounds. It is also used monitor the progress of organometallic reactions, as well as determine their kinetics. The dynamics of organometallic compounds can be studied using dynamic NMR spectroscopy. Other notable techniques include X-ray absorption spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, and elemental analysis. Due to their high reactivity towards oxygen and moisture, organometallic compounds often must be handled using air-free techniques. Air-free handling of organometallic compounds typically requires the use of laboratory apparatuses such as a glovebox or Schlenk line. History Early developments in organometallic chemistry include Louis Claude Cadet's synthesis of methyl arsenic compounds related to cacodyl, William Christopher Zeise's platinum-ethylene complex, Edward Frankland's discovery of diethyl- and dimethylzinc, Ludwig Mond's discovery of Ni(CO)4, and Victor Grignard's organomagnesium compounds. (Though not always acknowledged as an organometallic compound, Prussian blue, a mixed-valence iron-cyanide complex, was first prepared in 1706 by paint maker Johann Jacob Diesbach as the first coordination polymer and synthetic material containing a metal-carbon bond.) The abundant and diverse products from coal and petroleum led to Ziegler–Natta, Fischer–Tropsch, hydroformylation catalysis which employ CO, H2, and alkenes as feedstocks and ligands. Recognition of organometallic chemistry as a distinct subfield culminated in the Nobel Prizes to Ernst Fischer and Geoffrey Wilkinson for work on metallocenes. In 2005, Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock shared the Nobel Prize for metal-catalyzed olefin metathesis. Organometallic chemistry timeline 1760 Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt investigates inks based on cobalt salts and isolates cacodyl from cobalt mineral containing arsenic 1827 William Christopher Zeise produces Zeise's salt; the first platinum / olefin complex 1848 Edward Frankland discovers diethylzinc 1863 Charles Friedel and James Crafts prepare organochlorosilanes 1890 Ludwig Mond discovers nickel carbonyl 1899 Introduction of Grignard reaction 1899 John Ulric Nef discovers alkynylation using sodium acetylides. 1900 Paul Sabatier works on hydrogenation organic compounds with metal catalysts. Hydrogenation of fats kicks off advances in food industry, see margarine 1909 Paul Ehrlich introduces Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis, an early arsenic based organometallic compound 1912 Nobel Prize Victor Grignard and Paul Sabatier 1930 Henry Gilman works on lithium cuprates, see Gilman reagent 1951 Walter Hieber was awarded the Alfred Stock prize for his work with metal carbonyl chemistry. 1951 Ferrocene is discovered 1956 Dorothy Crawfoot Hodgkin determines the structure of vitamin B12, the first biomolecule found to contain a metal-carbon bond, see bioorganometallic chemistry 1963 Nobel prize for Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta on Ziegler–Natta catalyst 1965 Discovery of cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl 1968 Heck reaction is developed 1973 Nobel prize Geoffrey Wilkinson and Ernst Otto Fischer on sandwich compounds 1981 Nobel prize Roald Hoffmann and Kenichi Fukui for creation of the Woodward-Hoffman Rules 2001 Nobel prize W. S. Knowles, R. Noyori and Karl Barry Sharpless for asymmetric hydrogenation 2005 Nobel prize Yves Chauvin, Robert |
Ethiopian protests break out during a festival in the Oromia region, killing dozens of people. 2018 – The Washington Post journalist Jamal Khashoggi is assassinated in the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, Turkey. Births Pre-1600 1452 – Richard III of England (d. 1485) 1470 – Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, Daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1498) 1527 – William Drury, English politician (d. 1579) 1538 – Charles Borromeo, Italian cardinal and saint (d. 1584) 1601–1900 1718 – Elizabeth Montagu, English author and critic (d. 1800) 1768 – William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, English general and politician (d. 1854) 1798 – Charles Albert, King of Sardinia (1831–49) (d. 1849) 1800 – Nat Turner, American slave and uprising leader (d. 1831) 1815 – James Agnew, Irish-Australian politician, Premier of Tasmania (d. 1901) 1821 – Alexander P. Stewart, American general (d. 1908) 1828 – Charles Floquet, French lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1896) 1832 – Edward Burnett Tylor, English anthropologist (d. 1917) 1847 – Paul von Hindenburg, German field marshal and politician, 2nd President of Germany (d. 1934) 1851 – Ferdinand Foch, French field marshal (d. 1929) 1852 – William Ramsay, Scottish chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1916) 1854 – Patrick Geddes, Scottish biologist, sociologist, geographer, and philanthropist (d. 1932) 1866 – Swami Abhedananda, Indian mystic and philosopher (d. 1939) 1869 – Mahatma Gandhi, Indian freedom fighter, activist and philosopher (d. 1948) 1871 – Cordell Hull, American politician, United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955) 1871 – Martha Brookes Hutcheson, American landscaper and author (d. 1959) 1873 – Stephen Warfield Gambrill, American lawyer and politician (d. 1924) 1873 – Pelham Warner, English cricketer and manager (d. 1963) 1875 – Pattie Ruffner Jacobs, American suffragist (d. 1935) 1879 – Wallace Stevens, American poet (d. 1955) 1882 – Boris Shaposhnikov, Russian colonel (d. 1945) 1883 – Karl von Terzaghi, Austrian geologist and engineer (d. 1963) 1890 – Groucho Marx, American comedian and actor (d. 1977) 1893 – Leroy Shield, American composer and conductor (d. 1962) 1895 – Ruth Cheney Streeter, American colonel (d. 1990) 1900 – Leela Roy Nag, Indian freedom fighter, social reformer and politician (d. 1970) 1901–present 1902 – Leopold Figl, Austrian politician, Chancellor of Austria (d. 1965) 1904 – Graham Greene, English novelist, playwright, and critic (d. 1991) 1904 – Lal Bahadur Shastri, Indian and politician, Prime Minister of India (d. 1966) 1905 – Franjo Šeper, Croatian cardinal (d. 1981) 1906 – Thomas Hollway, Australian politician, Premier of Victoria (d. 1971) 1907 – Víctor Paz Estenssoro, Bolivian politician, President of Bolivia (d. 2001) 1907 – Alexander R. Todd, Scottish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997) 1909 – Alex Raymond, American cartoonist, creator of Flash Gordon (d. 1956) 1912 – Frank Malina, American engineer and painter (d. 1981) 1914 – Jack Parsons, American chemist, occultist, and engineer (d. 1952) 1914 – Bernarr Rainbow, English organist, conductor, and historian (d. 1998) 1915 – Chuck Williams, American author and businessman, founded Williams Sonoma (d. 2015) 1917 – Christian de Duve, Belgian cytologist and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) 1917 – Charles Drake, American actor (d. 1994) 1919 – John W. Duarte, English guitarist and composer (d. 2004) 1921 – Edmund Crispin, English writer and composer (d. 1978) 1921 – Albert Scott Crossfield, American pilot and engineer (d. 2006) 1921 – Robert Runcie, English archbishop (d. 2000) 1925 – Wren Blair, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2013) 1926 – Jan Morris, Welsh historian and author (d. 2020) 1928 – George McFarland, American actor (d. 1993) 1928 – Wolfhart Pannenberg, Polish-German theologian and academic (d. 2014) 1929 – Peter Bronfman, Canadian businessman (d. 1996) 1929 – Moses Gunn, American actor (d. 1993) 1930 – Dave Barrett, Canadian social worker and politician, 26th Premier of British Columbia (d. 2018) 1932 – Maury Wills, American baseball player and manager 1933 – John Gurdon, English biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1933 – Dave Somerville, Canadian singer (d. 2015) 1934 – Richard Scott, Baron Scott of Foscote, English lawyer and judge 1934 – Earl Wilson, American baseball player (d. 2005) 1935 – Omar Sívori, Italian-Argentine footballer and manager (d. 2005) 1936 – Dick Barnett, American basketball player 1936 – Connie Dierking, American basketball player (d. 2013) 1937 – Johnnie Cochran, American lawyer (d. 2005) 1938 – Waheed Murad, Pakistani actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1983) 1938 – Rex Reed, American film critic 1939 – Budhi Kunderan, Indian cricketer (d. 2006) 1941 – Diana Hendry, English poet and author 1941 – Ron Meagher, American rock bass player 1942 – Steve Sabol, American director and producer, co-founded NFL Films (d. 2012) 1943 – Anna Ford, English journalist 1943 – Henri Szeps, Australian actor 1944 – Vernor Vinge, American author 1945 – Martin Hellman, American cryptographer and academic 1945 – Don McLean, American singer-songwriter 1946 – Sonthi Boonyaratglin, Thai general and politician 1947 – Ward Churchill, American author and activist 1948 – Trevor Brooking, English footballer and manager 1948 – Avery Brooks, American actor 1948 – Donna Karan, American fashion designer, founded DKNY 1948 – Siim Kallas, Estonian politician, Prime Minister of Estonia 1948 – Persis Khambatta, Indian model and actress, (d. 1998) 1949 – Richard Hell, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1949 – Annie Leibovitz, American photographer 1950 – Mike Rutherford, English guitarist 1951 – Sting, English singer-songwriter and actor 1953 – Vanessa Bell Armstrong, American singer 1955 – Philip Oakey, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer 1956 – Freddie Jackson, American soul singer 1957 – John Cook, American golfer 1957 – Wade Dooley, English rugby player 1960 – Glenn Anderson, Canadian ice hockey player 1960 – Django Bates, English musician and composer 1960 – Joe Sacco, Maltese-American journalist and cartoonist 1960 – Dereck | baseball player 1970 – Patricia O'Callaghan, Canadian soprano 1970 – Kelly Ripa, American actress and talk show host 1970 – Maribel Verdú, Spanish actress 1971 – Tiffany Darwish, American singer-songwriter 1971 – Jim Root, American guitarist and songwriter 1972 – Aaron McKie, American basketball player 1973 – Melissa Harris-Perry, American journalist, author, and educator 1973 – Scott Schoeneweis, American baseball player 1974 – Bjarke Ingels, Danish architect 1974 – Brian Knight, American baseball player 1974 – Matthew Nicholson, Australian cricketer 1974 – Sam Roberts, Canadian singer-songwriter and musician 1974 – Paul Teutul Jr., American motorcycle designer, co-founded Orange County Choppers 1976 – Mark Chilton, English cricketer 1977 – Didier Défago, Swiss skier 1978 – Ayumi Hamasaki, Japanese singer, songwriter, actress 1981 – Santi Kolk, Dutch footballer 1981 – Luke Wilkshire, Australian footballer 1982 – Esra Gümüş, Turkish volleyball player 1984 – Marion Bartoli, French tennis player 1985 – Çağlar Birinci, Turkish footballer 1985 – Brandon Jackson, American football player 1987 – Bojana Bobusic, Australian tennis player 1987 – Joe Ingles, Australian basketball player 1987 – Phil Kessel, American ice hockey player 1987 – Joel Reinders, American football player 1987 – Ricky Stenhouse Jr., American race car driver 1988 – Brittany Howard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1989 – Aaron Hicks, American baseball player 1989 – George Nash, English rower 1991 – Roberto Firmino, Brazilian footballer 1994 – Joana Eidukonytė, Lithuanian tennis player 1995 – Tepai Moeroa, Cook Islands rugby league player 1996 – Tom Trbojevic, Australian rugby league player Deaths Pre-1600 534 – Athalaric, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy 829 – Michael II, Byzantine emperor 939 – Eberhard of Franconia 939 – Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine 1264 – Pope Urban IV 1559 – Jacquet of Mantua, French-Italian composer (b. 1483) 1601–1900 1626 – Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, 1st Count of Gondomar, Spanish academic and diplomat (b. 1567) 1629 – Antonio Cifra, Italian composer (b. 1584) 1629 – Pierre de Bérulle, French cardinal and theologian (b. 1575) 1678 – Wu Sangui, Qing Chinese general (b. 1612) 1708 – Anne Jules de Noailles, French general (b. 1650) 1709 – Ivan Mazepa, Ukrainian diplomat (b. 1639) 1724 – François-Timoléon de Choisy, French historian and author (b. 1644) 1746 – Josiah Burchett, English admiral and politician (b. 1666) 1764 – William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1720) 1780 – John André, English soldier (b. 1750) 1782 – Charles Lee, English-born American general (b. 1732) 1786 – Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel, English admiral and politician (b. 1725) 1803 – Samuel Adams, American politician, Governor of Massachusetts (b. 1722) 1804 – Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, French engineer (b. 1725) 1850 – Sarah Biffen, English painter (b. 1784) 1853 – François Arago, French mathematician, physicist, astronomer, and politician (b. 1786) 1901–present 1920 – Max Bruch, German composer and conductor (b. 1838) 1927 – Svante Arrhenius, Swedish physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1859) 1938 – Alexandru Averescu, Romanian military leader and politician, 24th Prime Minister of Romania (b. 1859) 1943 – John Evans, English-Australian politician, 21st Premier of Tasmania (b. 1855) 1953 – John Marin, American painter (b. 1870) 1955 – William R. Orthwein, American swimmer and water polo player (b. 1881) 1968 – Marcel Duchamp, French painter and sculptor (b. 1887) 1971 – Jessie Arms Botke, American painter (b. 1883) 1973 – Paul Hartman, American actor and dancer (b. 1904) 1973 – Paavo Nurmi, Finnish runner (b. 1897) 1974 – Vasily Shukshin, Russian actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1929) 1975 – K. Kamaraj, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1903) 1981 – Harry Golden, American journalist and author (b. 1902) 1981 – Hazel Scott, Trinidadian-American activist, actress, and musician (b. 1920) 1985 – Rock Hudson, American actor (b. 1925) 1987 – Madeleine Carroll, English actress (b. 1906) 1987 – Peter Medawar, Brazilian-English biologist and zoologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1915) 1988 – Alec Issigonis, English car designer, designed the Mini (b. 1906) 1988 – Hamengkubuwono IX, Indonesian politician, Vice President of Indonesia (b. 1912) 1991 – Hazen Argue, Canadian politician (b. 1921) 1991 – Demetrios I of Constantinople (b. 1914) 1996 – Robert Bourassa, Canadian lawyer and politician, Premier of Quebec (b. 1933) 1996 – Andrey Lukanov, Bulgarian politician, 40th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (b. 1938) 1998 – Gene Autry, American actor, singer, and guitarist (b. 1907) 1999 – Heinz G. Konsalik, German journalist and author (b. 1921) 2000 – David Tonkin, Australian politician, Premier of South Australia (b. 1929) 2001 – Franz Biebl, German composer and academic (b. 1906) 2002 – Heinz von Foerster, Austrian-American physicist and philosopher (b. 1911) 2003 – John Thomas Dunlop, American scholar and politician, United States Secretary of Labor (b. 1914) 2005 – Nipsey Russell, American comedian and actor (b. 1918) 2005 – August Wilson, American author and playwright (b. 1945) 2006 – Helen Chenoweth-Hage, American politician (b. 1938) 2006 – Paul Halmos, Hungarian-American mathematician (b. 1916) 2007 – Tex Coulter, American football player (b. 1924) 2007 – George Grizzard, American actor (b. 1928) |
projecting an alternately hip, entertaining, liberating lifestyle, while negatively portraying Microsoft Windows, IBM, or other competitors as anything from awkward and dated to totalitarian and sinister Big Brother figure. Microsoft Windows Neowin.net wrote editorials opposing Windows-bashing in the media. Microsoft has attempted to boost popularity of Windows 7 with a launch party program. NetBSD Like FreeBSD, the NetBSD Foundation hosts a mailing list especially for advocacy. This mailing list is automatically archived and made accessible online. They also provide some official advocacy material, such as posters and flyers and an official "powered by" logo with a license permitting use on any product running NetBSD. OpenBSD Like FreeBSD and NetBSD, the OpenBSD project provides a mailing list specifically intended for advocacy, advocacy@openbsd.org. It was created on July 21, 1998 for discussion of user groups, stickers, shirts and the promotion of OpenBSD's image and also to host all flame-worthy discussions. As a part of its advocacy, the project also maintains a list of consulting firms and individual consultants around the world on its website and has produced a number of slogans, including "Free, Functional & Secure", "Secure by default", and "Power. Security. Flexibility." Each OpenBSD release features an original song and a variety of artwork. OS/2 Team OS/2 was a grassroots organization conceived by an IBM employee and initially joined by other IBMers which quickly spread outside IBM. Whether IBM employees or not, Team OS/2 members initially volunteered their time and passion without official sanction from or connection to IBM. Members would promote OS/2 at trade shows, conferences, fairs, and in stores, participate in operating system discussions on CompuServe, Prodigy, Fidonet and Usenet, throw parties, help users install OS/2, contact media figures to explain | Advocacy Guidelines and the Guidelines for Effective OS/2 Advocacy. Advocacy and specific operating systems FreeBSD FreeBSD is served by a mailing list specifically for advocacy discussion. Advocacy-related materials and links are provided on the FreeBSD website, including a page of logos. Linux As there are a large number of Linux distributions, there are many organizations involved in Linux advocacy, including companies directly involved in the development of distributions as well as purely advocacy-based groups, such as SEUL. Promotion takes on a wide variety of forms from Tux plush toys to t-shirts and posters, and even more unorthodox forms such as body painting and video games. macOS From the 1984 Super Bowl advertisement and "Test Drive a Macintosh" to the Apple Switch and Get a Mac advertising campaigns, Apple Computer has a long history of advocating its platform through traditional media. This also covers advocacy of the Macintosh hardware, peripherals and even lifestyle choices, with both fans and the company projecting an alternately hip, entertaining, liberating lifestyle, while negatively portraying Microsoft Windows, IBM, or other competitors as anything from awkward and dated to totalitarian and sinister Big Brother figure. Microsoft Windows Neowin.net wrote editorials opposing Windows-bashing in the media. Microsoft has attempted to boost popularity of Windows 7 with a launch party program. NetBSD Like FreeBSD, the NetBSD Foundation hosts a mailing list especially for advocacy. This mailing list is automatically archived and made accessible online. They also provide some official advocacy material, such as posters and flyers and an official "powered by" logo with a license permitting use on any product running NetBSD. OpenBSD Like FreeBSD and NetBSD, the OpenBSD project provides a mailing list specifically intended for advocacy, advocacy@openbsd.org. It was created on July 21, 1998 for discussion of user groups, stickers, shirts and the promotion of OpenBSD's image and also to host all flame-worthy discussions. As a part of its advocacy, the project also maintains a list of consulting firms and individual consultants around the world on its website and has produced a number of slogans, including "Free, Functional & Secure", "Secure by default", and "Power. Security. Flexibility." Each OpenBSD release features an original song and a variety of artwork. OS/2 Team OS/2 was a grassroots organization conceived by an IBM employee and initially joined by other IBMers which quickly spread outside IBM. Whether IBM employees or not, Team OS/2 members initially volunteered their time and passion without official sanction from or connection to IBM. Members would promote OS/2 at trade shows, conferences, fairs, and in stores, participate in operating system discussions on CompuServe, Prodigy, Fidonet and Usenet, throw parties, help users install OS/2, contact media figures to explain OS/2 and generate interest, and in general exercise creativity and initiative in helping popularize OS/2. The industry dynamics that gave rise to such passionate advocacy were multi-faceted. Perhaps the leading cause was antipathy for the idea that Microsoft could and would establish a monopoly for Windows and DOS, widely deemed as far inferior to OS/2. Additionally, many users feared that IBM, who had proven eminently capable of developing a superior PC operating system, knew very little about consumer marketing in the high-tech marketplace or establishing even a superior product |
For example, the snip of a pair of scissors is in Italian, in Spanish, or in Portuguese, in modern Greek, in Albanian, and in Hindi. Similarly, the "honk" of a car's horn is (Han: ) in Mandarin, in French, in Japanese, in Korean, in Norwegian, in Portuguese and in Vietnamese. Onomatopoeic effect without onomatopoeic words An onomatopoeic effect can also be produced in a phrase or word string with the help of alliteration and consonance alone, without using any onomatopoeic words. The most famous example is the phrase "furrow followed free" in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. The words "followed" and "free" are not onomatopoeic in themselves, but in conjunction with "furrow" they reproduce the sound of ripples following in the wake of a speeding ship. Similarly, alliteration has been used in the line "as the surf surged up the sun swept shore..." to recreate the sound of breaking waves in the poem "I, She and the Sea". Comics and advertising Comic strips and comic books make extensive use of onomatopoeia. Popular culture historian Tim DeForest noted the impact of writer-artist Roy Crane (1901–1977), the creator of Captain Easy and Buz Sawyer: It was Crane who pioneered the use of onomatopoeic sound effects in comics, adding "bam," "pow" and "wham" to what had previously been an almost entirely visual vocabulary. Crane had fun with this, tossing in an occasional "ker-splash" or "lickety-wop" along with what would become the more standard effects. Words as well as images became vehicles for carrying along his increasingly fast-paced storylines. In 2002, DC Comics introduced a villain named Onomatopoeia, an athlete, martial artist, and weapons expert, who often speaks pure sounds. Advertising uses onomatopoeia for mnemonic purposes, so that consumers will remember their products, as in Alka-Seltzer's "Plop, plop, fizz, fizz. Oh, what a relief it is!" jingle, recorded in two different versions (big band and rock) by Sammy Davis, Jr. Rice Krispies (US and UK) and Rice Bubbles (AU) make a "snap, crackle, pop" when one pours on milk. During the 1930s, the illustrator Vernon Grant developed Snap, Crackle and Pop as gnome-like mascots for the Kellogg Company. Sounds appear in road safety advertisements: "clunk click, every trip" (click the seatbelt on after clunking the car door closed; UK campaign) or "click, clack, front and back" (click, clack of connecting the seat belts; AU campaign) or "click it or ticket" (click of the connecting seat belt, with the implied penalty of a traffic ticket for not using a seat belt; US DOT (Department of Transportation) campaign). The sound of the container opening and closing gives Tic Tac its name. Manner imitation In many of the world's languages, onomatopoeic-like words are used to describe phenomena beyond the purely auditive. Japanese often uses such words to describe feelings or figurative expressions about objects or concepts. For instance, Japanese is used to reflect an object's state of disarray or separation, and is the onomatopoetic form of absolute silence (used at the time an English speaker might expect to hear the sound of crickets chirping or a pin dropping in a silent room, or someone coughing). In Albanian, is used to describe someone who is hasty. It is used in English as well with terms like bling, which describes the glinting of light on things like gold, chrome or precious stones. In Japanese, is used for glittery things. Examples in media James Joyce in Ulysses (1922) coined the onomatopoeic for a knock on the door. It is listed as the longest palindromic word in The Oxford English Dictionary. Whaam! (1963) by Roy Lichtenstein is an early example of pop art, featuring a reproduction of comic book art that depicts a fighter aircraft striking another with rockets with dazzling red and yellow explosions. In the 1960s TV series Batman, comic book style onomatopoeic words such as wham!, pow!, biff!, crunch! and zounds! appear onscreen during fight scenes. Ubisoft's XIII employed the use of comic book onomatopoeic words such as bam!, boom! and ! during gameplay for gunshots, explosions and kills, respectively. The comic-book style is apparent throughout the game and is a core theme, and the game is an adaptation of a comic book of the same name. The chorus of American popular songwriter John Prine's song "Onomatopoeia" incorporates onomatopoeic words: "Bang! went the pistol", "Crash! went the window", "Ouch! went the son of a gun". The marble game KerPlunk has an onomatopoeic word for a title, from the sound of marbles dropping when one too many sticks has been removed. The Nickelodeon cartoon's title KaBlam! is implied to be onomatopoeic to a crash. Each episode of the TV series Harper's Island is given an onomatopoeic name which imitates the sound made in that episode when a character dies. For example, in the episode titled "Bang" a character is shot and fatally wounded, with the "Bang" mimicking the sound of the gunshot. Mad Magazine cartoonist Don Martin, already popular for his exaggerated artwork, often employed creative comic-book style onomatopoeic sound effects in his drawings (for example, is the sound of a sheet of paper being yanked from a typewriter). Fans have compiled The Don Martin Dictionary, cataloging each sound and its | closed; UK campaign) or "click, clack, front and back" (click, clack of connecting the seat belts; AU campaign) or "click it or ticket" (click of the connecting seat belt, with the implied penalty of a traffic ticket for not using a seat belt; US DOT (Department of Transportation) campaign). The sound of the container opening and closing gives Tic Tac its name. Manner imitation In many of the world's languages, onomatopoeic-like words are used to describe phenomena beyond the purely auditive. Japanese often uses such words to describe feelings or figurative expressions about objects or concepts. For instance, Japanese is used to reflect an object's state of disarray or separation, and is the onomatopoetic form of absolute silence (used at the time an English speaker might expect to hear the sound of crickets chirping or a pin dropping in a silent room, or someone coughing). In Albanian, is used to describe someone who is hasty. It is used in English as well with terms like bling, which describes the glinting of light on things like gold, chrome or precious stones. In Japanese, is used for glittery things. Examples in media James Joyce in Ulysses (1922) coined the onomatopoeic for a knock on the door. It is listed as the longest palindromic word in The Oxford English Dictionary. Whaam! (1963) by Roy Lichtenstein is an early example of pop art, featuring a reproduction of comic book art that depicts a fighter aircraft striking another with rockets with dazzling red and yellow explosions. In the 1960s TV series Batman, comic book style onomatopoeic words such as wham!, pow!, biff!, crunch! and zounds! appear onscreen during fight scenes. Ubisoft's XIII employed the use of comic book onomatopoeic words such as bam!, boom! and ! during gameplay for gunshots, explosions and kills, respectively. The comic-book style is apparent throughout the game and is a core theme, and the game is an adaptation of a comic book of the same name. The chorus of American popular songwriter John Prine's song "Onomatopoeia" incorporates onomatopoeic words: "Bang! went the pistol", "Crash! went the window", "Ouch! went the son of a gun". The marble game KerPlunk has an onomatopoeic word for a title, from the sound of marbles dropping when one too many sticks has been removed. The Nickelodeon cartoon's title KaBlam! is implied to be onomatopoeic to a crash. Each episode of the TV series Harper's Island is given an onomatopoeic name which imitates the sound made in that episode when a character dies. For example, in the episode titled "Bang" a character is shot and fatally wounded, with the "Bang" mimicking the sound of the gunshot. Mad Magazine cartoonist Don Martin, already popular for his exaggerated artwork, often employed creative comic-book style onomatopoeic sound effects in his drawings (for example, is the sound of a sheet of paper being yanked from a typewriter). Fans have compiled The Don Martin Dictionary, cataloging each sound and its meaning. Cross-linguistic examples In linguistics A key component of language is its arbitrariness and what a word can represent, as a word is a sound created by humans with attached meaning to said sound. No one can determine the meaning of a word purely by how it sounds. However, in onomatopoeic words, these sounds are much less arbitrary; they are connected in their imitation of other objects or sounds in nature. Vocal sounds in the imitation of natural sounds doesn't necessarily gain meaning, but can gain symbolic meaning. An example of this sound symbolism in the English language is the use of words starting with sn-. Some of these words symbolize concepts related to the nose (sneeze, snot, snore). This does not mean that all words with that sound relate to the nose, but at some level we recognize a sort of symbolism associated with the sound itself. Onomatopoeia, while a facet of language, is also in a sense outside of the confines of language. In linguistics, onomatopoeia is described as the connection, or symbolism, of a sound that is interpreted and reproduced within the context of a language, usually out of mimicry of a sound. It is a figure of speech, in a sense. Considered a vague term on its own, there are a few varying defining factors in classifying onomatopoeia. In one manner, it is defined simply as the imitation of some kind of non-vocal sound using the vocal sounds of a language, like the hum of a bee being imitated with a "buzz" sound. In another sense, it is described as the phenomena of making a new word entirely. Onomatopoeia works in the sense of symbolizing an idea in a phonological context, not necessarily constituting a direct meaningful word in the process. The symbolic properties of a sound in a word, or a phoneme, is related to a sound in an environment, and are restricted in part by a language's own phonetic inventory, hence why many languages can have distinct onomatopoeia for the same natural sound. Depending on a language's connection to a sound's meaning, that language's onomatopoeia inventory can differ proportionally. For example, a language like English generally holds little symbolic representation when it comes to sounds, which is the reason English tends to have a smaller representation of sound mimicry then a language like Japanese that overall has a much higher amount of symbolism related to the sounds of the language. Evolution of language In ancient Greek philosophy, onomatopoeia was used as evidence for how natural a language was: it was theorized that language itself was derived from natural sounds in the world around us. Symbolism in sounds was seen as deriving from this. Some linguists hold that onomatopoeia may have been the first form of human language. Role in early language acquisition When first exposed to sound and communication, humans are biologically inclined to mimic the sounds they hear, whether they are actual pieces of language or other natural sounds. Early on in development, an infant will vary his/her utterances between sounds that are well established within the phonetic range of the language(s) most heavily spoken in their environment, which may be called "tame" onomatopoeia, and the full range of sounds that the vocal tract can produce, or "wild" onomatopoeia. As one begins to acquire one's first language, the proportion of "wild" onomatopoeia reduces in favor of sounds which are congruent with those of the language they are acquiring. During the native language acquisition period, it has been documented that infants may react strongly to the more wild-speech features to which they are exposed, compared to more tame and familiar speech features. But the results of such |
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Bradley, Anguillian politician and member of the House of Assembly of Anguilla 1954 – Massimo Ghini, Italian actor 1954 – Michael Roe, American singer, songwriter, and record producer 1954 – Linval Thompson, Jamaican singer and producer 1955 – Einar Jan Aas, Norwegian footballer 1955 – Pat DiNizio, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017) 1955 – Ante Gotovina, Croatian general 1955 – Jane Siberry, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer 1956 – Rafael Ábalos, Spanish author 1956 – Allan Evans, Scottish footballer 1956 – Lutz Haueisen, German cyclist 1956 – Catherine Holmes, Australian judge 1956 – Gerti Schanderl, German figure skater 1956 – David Vanian, English singer-songwriter 1957 – Clémentine Célarié, French actress, singer, and director 1957 – Serge Clerc, French comic book artist and illustrator 1957 – Mike Dowler, Welsh football goalkeeper 1957 – Annik Honoré, Belgian journalist and music promoter (d. 2014) 1957 – William F. 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J. Daigneault, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1965 – Scott O'Grady, American captain and pilot 1966 – Jonathan Crombie, Canadian actor and voice over artist (d. 2015) 1966 – Wim Jonk, Dutch footballer 1966 – Brian Kennedy, Northern Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Brenda Romero, American game designer 1967 – Becky Iverson, American golfer 1968 – Bill Auberlen, American race car driver 1968 – Paul Harragon, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1968 – Hugh Jackman, Australian actor, singer, and producer 1968 – Leon Lett, American football player 1969 – Martie Maguire, American singer-songwriter, violinist, and producer 1969 – Željko Milinovič, Slovenian footballer 1969 – Dwayne Roloson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1969 – José Valentín, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1970 – Kirk Cameron, American actor, screenwriter, and Christian evangelical/anti-evolution activist 1970 – Patrick Musimu, Belgian diver and physiotherapist (d. 2011) 1970 – 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– Jordan Pundik, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1980 – Ledley King, English footballer 1981 – Tom Guiry, American actor 1981 – Brian Kerr, Scottish footballer and manager 1981 – Giuseppe Lanzone, American rower 1981 – Conrad Smith, New Zealand rugby player 1981 – Sun Tiantian, Chinese tennis player 1983 – Alex Brosque, Australian footballer 1983 – Carlton Cole, English footballer 1983 – Katie Piper, English philanthropist, broadcaster, and acid violence survivor 1983 – Mariko Yamamoto, Japanese cricketer 1985 – Michelle Carter, American shot putter 1985 – Mike Green, Canadian hockey player 1985 – Anna Iljuštšenko, Estonian high jumper 1985 – Greig Laidlaw, Scottish rugby player 1986 – Ioannis Maniatis, Greek footballer 1986 – Sergio Peter, German footballer 1986 – Tyler Blackburn, American actor 1987 – Marvin Ogunjimi, Belgian footballer 1988 – Sam Whitelock, New Zealand rugby player 1988 – Calum Scott, British singer 1989 – Anna Ohmiya, Japanese curler 1990 – Henri Lansbury, English footballer 1991 – Nicolao Dumitru, Italian footballer 1992 – Josh Hutcherson, American actor and producer 1994 – Alex Katz, American baseball player 1994 – Sean Monahan, Canadian ice hockey player 1994 – Olivia Smoliga, American swimmer 1995 – Jessica Hogg, Welsh artistic gymnast 1996 – James Graham, British singer 1996 – Owen Watkin, Welsh rugby player 1997 – Curtis Scott, Australian rugby league player 2004 – Darci Lynne, American ventriloquist Deaths Pre-1600 322 BC – Demosthenes, Athenian statesman, (b. 384 BC) 638 – Honorius I, pope of the Catholic Church 642 – John IV, pope of the Catholic Church 884 – Tsunesada, Japanese prince (b. 825) 974 – Al-Muti, Abbasid caliph (b. 913/14) 1095 – Leopold II, margrave of Austria (b. 1050) 1152 – Adolf III of Berg, German nobleman (b. 1080) 1176 – William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of | manager (d. 2015) 1935 – Tony Kubek, American baseball player and sportscaster 1935 – Sam Moore, American soul singer-songwriter 1935 – Shivraj Patil, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Defence 1935 – Luciano Pavarotti, Italian tenor and actor (d. 2007) 1937 – Paul Hawkins, Australian race car driver (d. 1969) 1937 – Robert Mangold, American painter 1941 – Michael Mansfield, English lawyer, academic, and republican 1942 – Melvin Franklin, American soul bass singer (d. 1995) 1943 – Kostas Tsakonas, Greek actor (d. 2015) 1944 – Angela Rippon, English journalist and author 1945 – Aurore Clément, French actress 1946 – Drew Edmondson, American politician 1946 – Ashok Mankad, Indian cricketer (d. 2008) 1946 – Daryl Runswick, English bassist and composer 1947 – Chris Wallace, American journalist 1948 – John Engler, American businessman and politician, 46th Governor of Michigan 1948 – Rick Parfitt, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016) 1949 – Dave Lloyd, English cyclist and coach 1949 – Carlos the Jackal, Venezuelan convicted of terrorism and murderer 1949 – Paul Went, English footballer and manager (d. 2017) 1950 – Susan Anton, American actress and model 1950 – Dave Freudenthal, American economist and politician, 31st Governor of Wyoming 1951 – Sally Little, South African-American golfer 1951 – Ed Royce, American businessman and politician 1951 – Norio Suzuki, Japanese golfer 1952 – Trevor Chappell, Australian cricketer and coach 1952 – Béla Csécsei, Hungarian educator and politician (d. 2012) 1952 – Roger Heath-Brown, English mathematician and theorist 1953 – Les Dennis, English comedian and actor 1953 – David Threlfall, English actor and director 1954 – Evalie A. Bradley, Anguillian politician and member of the House of Assembly of Anguilla 1954 – Massimo Ghini, Italian actor 1954 – Michael Roe, American singer, songwriter, and record producer 1954 – Linval Thompson, Jamaican singer and producer 1955 – Einar Jan Aas, Norwegian footballer 1955 – Pat DiNizio, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017) 1955 – Ante Gotovina, Croatian general 1955 – Jane Siberry, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer 1956 – Rafael Ábalos, Spanish author 1956 – Allan Evans, Scottish footballer 1956 – Lutz Haueisen, German cyclist 1956 – Catherine Holmes, Australian judge 1956 – Gerti Schanderl, German figure skater 1956 – David Vanian, English singer-songwriter 1957 – Clémentine Célarié, French actress, singer, and director 1957 – Serge Clerc, French comic book artist and illustrator 1957 – Mike Dowler, Welsh football goalkeeper 1957 – Annik Honoré, Belgian journalist and music promoter (d. 2014) 1957 – William F. Laurance, Australian biologist 1958 – Steve Austria, American lawyer and politician 1958 – Maria de Fátima Silva de Sequeira Dias, Portuguese historian, author, and academic (d. 2013) 1958 – Jeff Keith, American rock singer-songwriter 1958 – Bryn Merrick, Welsh bass player (d. 2015) 1959 – Anna Escobedo Cabral, American lawyer and politician, 42nd Treasurer of the United States 1960 – Steve Lowery, American golfer 1960 – Carlo Perrone, Italian footballer and manager 1960 – Dorothee Vieth, German Paralympic cyclist 1961 – Chendo, Spanish footballer 1962 – Carlos Bernard, American actor and director 1962 – Chris Botti, American trumpet player and composer 1962 – John Coleman, English footballer and manager 1962 – Branko Crvenkovski, Macedonian engineer and politician, 3rd President of the Republic of Macedonia 1962 – Deborah Foreman, American actress and photographer 1962 – Mads Eriksen, Norwegian guitarist and composer 1963 – Raimond Aumann, German footballer 1963 – Hideki Fujisawa, Japanese composer 1963 – Satoshi Kon, Japanese animator and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1963 – Dave Legeno, English actor and mixed martial artist (d. 2014) 1963 – Alan McDonald, Irish footballer and manager (d. 2012) 1963 – Luis Polonia, Dominican baseball player 1965 – Dan Abnett, English author 1965 – J. J. Daigneault, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1965 – Scott O'Grady, American captain and pilot 1966 – Jonathan Crombie, Canadian actor and voice over artist (d. 2015) 1966 – Wim Jonk, Dutch footballer 1966 – Brian Kennedy, Northern Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Brenda Romero, American game designer 1967 – Becky Iverson, American golfer 1968 – Bill Auberlen, American race car driver 1968 – Paul Harragon, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1968 – Hugh Jackman, Australian actor, singer, and producer 1968 – Leon Lett, American football player 1969 – Martie Maguire, American singer-songwriter, violinist, and producer 1969 – Željko Milinovič, Slovenian footballer 1969 – Dwayne Roloson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1969 – José Valentín, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1970 – Kirk Cameron, American actor, screenwriter, and Christian evangelical/anti-evolution activist 1970 – Patrick Musimu, Belgian diver and physiotherapist (d. 2011) 1970 – Tanyon Sturtze, American baseball player 1970 – Charlie Ward, American basketball player and coach 1971 – Tony Fiore, American baseball player 1971 – Steve Johnston, Australian motorcycle racer 1971 – Bronzell Miller, American football player and actor (d. 2013) 1972 – Neriah Davis, American model and actress 1972 – Juan Manuel Silva, Argentinian race car driver 1972 – Tom Van Mol, Belgian footballer 1973 – Lesli Brea, Dominican baseball player 1973 – Martin Corry, English rugby player 1974 – Stephen Lee, English snooker player 1975 – Susana Félix, Portuguese singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1975 – Marion Jones, American basketball player and runner 1976 – Simon Bridges, New Zealand politician 1977 – Cristie Kerr, American golfer 1977 – Bode Miller, American skier 1977 – Javier Toyo, Venezuelan footballer 1978 – Stefan Binder, German footballer 1978 – Baden Cooke, Australian cyclist 1979 – Steven Agnew, Northern Irish politician 1979 – Steve Borthwick, English rugby player 1979 – Jordan Pundik, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1980 – Ledley King, English footballer 1981 – Tom Guiry, American actor 1981 – Brian Kerr, Scottish footballer and manager 1981 – Giuseppe Lanzone, American rower 1981 – Conrad Smith, New Zealand rugby player 1981 – Sun Tiantian, Chinese tennis player 1983 – Alex Brosque, Australian footballer 1983 – Carlton Cole, English footballer 1983 – Katie Piper, English philanthropist, broadcaster, and acid violence survivor 1983 – Mariko Yamamoto, Japanese cricketer 1985 – Michelle Carter, American shot putter 1985 – Mike Green, Canadian hockey player 1985 – Anna Iljuštšenko, Estonian high jumper 1985 – Greig Laidlaw, Scottish rugby player 1986 – Ioannis Maniatis, Greek footballer 1986 – Sergio Peter, German footballer 1986 – Tyler Blackburn, American actor 1987 – Marvin Ogunjimi, Belgian footballer 1988 – Sam Whitelock, New Zealand rugby player 1988 – Calum Scott, British singer 1989 – Anna Ohmiya, Japanese curler 1990 – Henri Lansbury, English footballer 1991 – Nicolao Dumitru, Italian footballer 1992 – Josh Hutcherson, American actor and producer 1994 – Alex Katz, American baseball player 1994 – Sean Monahan, Canadian ice hockey player 1994 – Olivia Smoliga, American swimmer 1995 – Jessica Hogg, Welsh artistic gymnast 1996 – James Graham, British singer 1996 – Owen Watkin, Welsh rugby player 1997 – Curtis Scott, Australian rugby league player 2004 – Darci Lynne, American ventriloquist Deaths Pre-1600 322 BC – Demosthenes, Athenian statesman, (b. 384 BC) 638 – Honorius I, pope of the Catholic Church 642 – John IV, pope of the Catholic Church 884 – Tsunesada, Japanese prince (b. 825) 974 – Al-Muti, Abbasid caliph (b. 913/14) 1095 – Leopold II, margrave of Austria (b. 1050) 1152 – Adolf III of Berg, German nobleman (b. 1080) 1176 – William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel, English politician (b. 1109) 1320 – Michael IX Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1277) 1328 – Clementia of Hungary, queen consort of France and Navarre (b. 1293) 1448 – Zhu Quan, Chinese prince, historian and playwright (b. 1378) 1491 – Fritz Herlen, German painter (b. 1449) 1492 – Piero della Francesca, Italian mathematician and painter (b. 1415) 1565 – Jean Ribault, French-American lieutenant and navigator (b. 1520) 1576 – Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1527) 1590 – Kanō Eitoku, Japanese painter and educator (b. 1543) 1600 – Luis de Molina, Spanish priest and philosopher (b. 1535) 1601–1900 1601 – Nicholas Brend, English landowner (b. 1560) 1632 – Kutsuki Mototsuna, Japanese commander (b. 1549) 1646 – François de Bassompierre, French general and courtier (b. 1579) 1654 – Carel Fabritius, Dutch painter (b. 1622) 1678 – Edmund Berry Godfrey, English lawyer and judge (b. 1621) 1679 – William Gurnall, English minister, theologian, and author (b. 1617) 1685 – Christoph Ignaz Abele, Austrian lawyer and jurist (b. 1628) 1730 – Frederick IV, king of Denmark and Norway (b. 1671) 1758 – Richard Molesworth, 3rd Viscount 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Delores Tucker, American activist and politician (b. 1927) 2006 – Angelika Machinek, German glider pilot (b. 1956) 2006. – Eugène Martin, French race car driver (b. |
now Germany House of Orange-Nassau, a royal family in multiple European states | Orange-Nassau may refer to: Principality of Orange-Nassau, a former state in what |
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and knows that one of its legs is a living olive tree. Penelope finally accepts that he truly is her husband, a moment that highlights their homophrosýnē (“like-mindedness”). The next day Odysseus and Telemachus visit the country farm of his old father Laërtes. The citizens of Ithaca follow Odysseus on the road, planning to avenge the killing of the Suitors, their sons. The goddess Athena intervenes and persuades both sides to make peace. Other stories Odysseus is one of the most recurrent characters in Western culture. Classical According to some late sources, most of them purely genealogical, Odysseus had many other children besides Telemachus. Most such genealogies aimed to link Odysseus with the foundation of many Italic cities. The most famous being: with Penelope: Poliporthes (born after Odysseus' return from Troy) with Circe: Telegonus, Ardeas, Latinus, also Ausonus and Casiphone. Xenagoras writes that Odysseus with Circe had three sons, Romos (), Anteias () and Ardeias (), who built three cities and called them after their own names. The city that Romos founded was Rome. with Calypso: Nausithous, Nausinous with Callidice: Polypoetes with Euippe: Euryalus with daughter of Thoas: Leontophonus He figures in the end of the story of King Telephus of Mysia. The supposed last poem in the Epic Cycle is called the Telegony and is thought to tell the story of Odysseus' last voyage, and of his death at the hands of Telegonus, his son with Circe. The poem, like the others of the cycle, is "lost" in that no authentic version has been discovered. In 5th century BC Athens, tales of the Trojan War were popular subjects for tragedies. Odysseus figures centrally or indirectly in a number of the extant plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles (Ajax, Philoctetes) and Euripides (Hecuba, Rhesus, Cyclops) and figured in still more that have not survived. In his Ajax, Sophocles portrays Odysseus as a modern voice of reasoning compared to the title character's rigid antiquity. Plato in his dialogue Hippias Minor examines a literary question about whom Homer intended to portray as the better man, Achilles or Odysseus. Pausanias at the Description of Greece writes that at Pheneus there was a bronze statue of Poseidon, surnamed Hippios (), meaning of horse, which according to the legends was dedicated by Odysseus and also a sanctuary of Artemis which was called Heurippa (), meaning horse finder, and was founded by Odysseus. According to the legends Odysseus lost his mares and traversed the Greece in search of them. He found them on that site in Pheneus. Pausanias adds that according to the people of Pheneus, when Odysseus found his mares he decided to keep horses in the land of Pheneus, just as he reared his cows. The people of Pheneus also pointed out to him writing, purporting to be instructions of Odysseus to those tending his mares. As Ulysses, he is mentioned regularly in Virgil's Aeneid written between 29 and 19 BC, and the poem's hero, Aeneas, rescues one of Ulysses' crew members who was left behind on the island of the Cyclopes. He in turn offers a first-person account of some of the same events Homer relates, in which Ulysses appears directly. Virgil's Ulysses typifies his view of the Greeks: he is cunning but impious, and ultimately malicious and hedonistic. Ovid retells parts of Ulysses' journeys, focusing on his romantic involvements with Circe and Calypso, and recasts him as, in Harold Bloom's phrase, "one of the great wandering womanizers". Ovid also gives a detailed account of the contest between Ulysses and Ajax for the armour of Achilles. Greek legend tells of Ulysses as the founder of Lisbon, Portugal, calling it Ulisipo or Ulisseya, during his twenty-year errand on the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Olisipo was Lisbon's name in the Roman Empire. This folk etymology is recounted by Strabo based on Asclepiades of Myrleia's words, by Pomponius Mela, by Gaius Julius Solinus (3rd century AD), and will be resumed by Camões in his epic poem Os Lusíadas (first printed in 1572). Middle Ages and Renaissance Dante Alighieri, in the Canto XXVI of the Inferno segment of his Divine Comedy (1308–1320), encounters Odysseus ("Ulisse" in Italian) near the very bottom of Hell: with Diomedes, he walks wrapped in flame in the eighth ring (Counselors of Fraud) of the Eighth Circle (Sins of Malice), as punishment for his schemes and conspiracies that won the Trojan War. In a famous passage, Dante has Odysseus relate a different version of his voyage and death from the one told by Homer. He tells how he set out with his men from Circe's island for a journey of exploration to sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules and into the Western sea to find what adventures awaited them. Men, says Ulisse, are not made to live like brutes, but to follow virtue and knowledge. After travelling west and south for five months, they see in the distance a great mountain rising from the sea (this is Purgatory, in Dante's cosmology) before a storm sinks them. Dante did not have access to the original Greek texts of the Homeric epics, so his knowledge of their subject-matter was based only on information from later sources, chiefly Virgil's Aeneid but also Ovid; hence the discrepancy between Dante and Homer. He appears in Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (1602), set during the Trojan War. Modern literature In her poem (published in 1836), Letitia Elizabeth Landon gives her version of The Song of the Sirens with an explanation of its purpose, structure and meaning. Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" (published in 1842) presents an aging king who has seen too much of the world to be happy sitting on a throne idling his days away. Leaving the task of civilizing his people to his son, he gathers together a band of old comrades "to sail beyond the sunset". Frederick Rolfe's The Weird of the Wanderer (1912) has the hero Nicholas Crabbe (based on the author) travelling back in time, discovering that he is the reincarnation of Odysseus, marrying Helen, being deified and ending up as one of the three Magi. James Joyce's novel Ulysses (first published 1918–1920) uses modern literary devices to narrate a single day in the life of a Dublin businessman named Leopold Bloom. Bloom's day turns out to bear many elaborate parallels to Odysseus' ten years of wandering. In Virginia Woolf's response novel Mrs Dalloway (1925) the comparable character is Clarisse Dalloway, who also appears in The Voyage Out (1915) and several short stories. Nikos Kazantzakis' The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938), a 33,333-line epic poem, begins with Odysseus cleansing his body of the blood of Penelope's suitors. Odysseus soon leaves Ithaca in search of new adventures. Before his death he abducts Helen, incites revolutions in Crete and Egypt, communes with God, and meets representatives of such famous historical and literary figures as Vladimir Lenin, Don Quixote and Jesus. Return to Ithaca (1946) by Eyvind Johnson is a more realistic retelling of the events that adds a deeper psychological study of the characters of Odysseus, Penelope, and Telemachus. Thematically, it uses Odysseus' backstory and struggle as a metaphor for dealing with the aftermath of war (the novel being written immediately after the end of the Second World War). In the eleventh chapter of Primo Levi's 1947 memoir If This Is a Man, "The Canto of Ulysses", the author describes the last voyage of Ulysses as told by Dante in The Inferno to a fellow-prisoner during forced labour in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz. Odysseus is the hero of The Luck of Troy (1961) by Roger Lancelyn Green, whose title refers to the theft of the Palladium. In 1986, Irish poet Eilean Ni Chuilleanain published "The Second Voyage", a poem in which she makes use of the story of Odysseus. In S. M. Stirling's Island in the Sea of Time (1998), first part to his Nantucket series of alternate history novels, Odikweos ("Odysseus" in Mycenaean Greek) is a "historical" figure who is every bit as cunning as his legendary self and is one of the few Bronze Age inhabitants who discerns the time-travellers' real background. Odikweos first aids William Walker's rise to power in Achaea and later helps bring Walker down after seeing his homeland turn into a police state. The Penelopiad (2005) by Margaret Atwood retells his story from the point of view of his wife Penelope. The literary theorist Núria Perpinyà conceived twenty different interpretations of the Odyssey in a 2008 study. Odysseus is also | Homer relates it to various forms of this verb in references and puns. In Book 19 of the Odyssey, where Odysseus' early childhood is recounted, Euryclea asks the boy's grandfather Autolycus to name him. Euryclea seems to suggest a name like Polyaretos, "for he has much been prayed for" (πολυάρητος) but Autolycus "apparently in a sardonic mood" decided to give the child another name commemorative of "his own experience in life": "Since I have been angered (ὀδυσσάμενος odyssamenos) with many, both men and women, let the name of the child be Odysseus". Odysseus often receives the patronymic epithet Laertiades (), "son of Laërtes". In the Iliad and Odyssey there are several further epithets used to describe Odysseus. It has also been suggested that the name is of non-Greek origin, possibly not even Indo-European, with an unknown etymology. Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin. In Etruscan religion the name (and stories) of Odysseus were adopted under the name (Uθuze), which has been interpreted as a parallel borrowing from a preceding Minoan form of the name (possibly *Oduze, pronounced /'ot͡θut͡se/); this theory is supposed to explain also the insecurity of the phonologies (d or l), since the affricate /t͡θ/, unknown to the Greek of that time, gave rise to different counterparts (i. e. δ or λ in Greek, θ in Etruscan). Genealogy Relatively little is given of Odysseus' background other than that according to Pseudo-Apollodorus, his paternal grandfather or step-grandfather is Arcesius, son of Cephalus and grandson of Aeolus, while his maternal grandfather is the thief Autolycus, son of Hermes and Chione. Hence, Odysseus was the great-grandson of the Olympian god Hermes. According to the Iliad and Odyssey, his father is Laertes and his mother Anticlea, although there was a non-Homeric tradition that Sisyphus was his true father. The rumour went that Laërtes bought Odysseus from the conniving king. Odysseus is said to have a younger sister, Ctimene, who went to Same to be married and is mentioned by the swineherd Eumaeus, whom she grew up alongside, in book 15 of the Odyssey. Before the Trojan War The majority of sources for Odysseus' pre-war exploits—principally the mythographers Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus—postdate Homer by many centuries. Two stories in particular are well known: When Helen of Troy is abducted, Menelaus calls upon the other suitors to honour their oaths and help him to retrieve her, an attempt that leads to the Trojan War. Odysseus tries to avoid it by feigning lunacy, as an oracle had prophesied a long-delayed return home for him if he went. He hooks a donkey and an ox to his plow (as they have different stride lengths, hindering the efficiency of the plow) and (some modern sources add) starts sowing his fields with salt. Palamedes, at the behest of Menelaus' brother Agamemnon, seeks to disprove Odysseus' madness and places Telemachus, Odysseus' infant son, in front of the plow. Odysseus veers the plow away from his son, thus exposing his stratagem. Odysseus holds a grudge against Palamedes during the war for dragging him away from his home. Odysseus and other envoys of Agamemnon travel to Scyros to recruit Achilles because of a prophecy that Troy could not be taken without him. By most accounts, Thetis, Achilles' mother, disguises the youth as a woman to hide him from the recruiters because an oracle had predicted that Achilles would either live a long uneventful life or achieve everlasting glory while dying young. Odysseus cleverly discovers which among the women before him is Achilles when the youth is the only one of them to show interest in examining the weapons hidden among an array of adornment gifts for the daughters of their host. Odysseus arranges further for the sounding of a battle horn, which prompts Achilles to clutch a weapon and show his trained disposition. With his disguise foiled, he is exposed and joins Agamemnon's call to arms among the Hellenes. During the Trojan War The Iliad Odysseus is one of the most influential Greek champions during the Trojan War. Along with Nestor and Idomeneus he is one of the most trusted counsellors and advisors. He always champions the Achaean cause, especially when others question Agamemnon's command, as in one instance when Thersites speaks against him. When Agamemnon, to test the morale of the Achaeans, announces his intentions to depart Troy, Odysseus restores order to the Greek camp. Later on, after many of the heroes leave the battlefield due to injuries (including Odysseus and Agamemnon), Odysseus once again persuades Agamemnon not to withdraw. Along with two other envoys, he is chosen in the failed embassy to try to persuade Achilles to return to combat. When Hector proposes a single combat duel, Odysseus is one of the Danaans who reluctantly volunteered to battle him. Telamonian Ajax ("The Greater"), however, is the volunteer who eventually fights Hector. Odysseus aids Diomedes during the night operations to kill Rhesus, because it had been foretold that if his horses drank from the Scamander River, Troy could not be taken. After Patroclus is slain, it is Odysseus who counsels Achilles to let the Achaean men eat and rest rather than follow his rage-driven desire to go back on the offensive—and kill Trojans—immediately. Eventually (and reluctantly), he consents. During the funeral games for Patroclus, Odysseus becomes involved in a wrestling match with Ajax "The Greater" and foot race with Ajax "The Lesser," son of Oileus and Nestor's son Antilochus. He draws the wrestling match, and with the help of the goddess Athena, he wins the race. Odysseus has traditionally been viewed as Achilles' antithesis in the Iliad: while Achilles' anger is all-consuming and of a self-destructive nature, Odysseus is frequently viewed as a man of the mean, a voice of reason, renowned for his self-restraint and diplomatic skills. He is also in some respects antithetical to Telamonian Ajax (Shakespeare's "beef-witted" Ajax): while the latter has only brawn to recommend him, Odysseus is not only ingenious (as evidenced by his idea for the Trojan Horse), but an eloquent speaker, a skill perhaps best demonstrated in the embassy to Achilles in book 9 of the Iliad. The two are not only foils in the abstract but often opposed in practice since they have many duels and run-ins. Other stories from the Trojan War Since a prophecy suggested that the Trojan War would not be won without Achilles, Odysseus and several other Achaean leaders went to Skyros to find him. Odysseus discovered Achilles by offering gifts, adornments and musical instruments as well as weapons, to the king's daughters, and then having his companions imitate the noises of an enemy's attack on the island (most notably, making a blast of a trumpet heard), which prompted Achilles to reveal himself by picking a weapon to fight back, and together they departed for the Trojan War. The story of the death of Palamedes has many versions. According to some, Odysseus never forgives Palamedes for unmasking his feigned madness and plays a part in his downfall. One tradition says Odysseus convinces a Trojan captive to write a letter pretending to be from Palamedes. A sum of gold is mentioned to have been sent as a reward for Palamedes' treachery. Odysseus then kills the prisoner and hides the gold in Palamedes' tent. He ensures that the letter is found and acquired by Agamemnon, and also gives hints directing the Argives to the gold. This is evidence enough for the Greeks, and they have Palamedes stoned to death. Other sources say that Odysseus and Diomedes goad Palamedes into descending a well with the prospect of treasure being at the bottom. When Palamedes reaches the bottom, the two proceed to bury him with stones, killing him. When Achilles is slain in battle by Paris, it is Odysseus and Ajax who retrieve the fallen warrior's body and armour in the thick of heavy fighting. During the funeral games for Achilles, Odysseus competes once again with Ajax. Thetis says that the arms of Achilles will go to the bravest of the Greeks, but only these two warriors dare lay claim to that title. The two Argives became embroiled in a heavy dispute about one another's merits to receive the reward. The Greeks dither out of fear in deciding a winner, because they did not want to insult one and have him abandon the war effort. Nestor suggests that they allow the captive Trojans decide the winner. The accounts of the Odyssey disagree, suggesting that the Greeks themselves hold a secret vote. In any case, Odysseus is the winner. Enraged and humiliated, Ajax is driven mad by Athena. When he returns to his senses, in shame at how he has slaughtered livestock in his madness, Ajax kills himself by the sword that Hector had given him after their duel. Together with Diomedes, Odysseus fetches Achilles' son, Pyrrhus, to come to the aid of the Achaeans, because an oracle had stated that Troy could not be taken without him. A great warrior, Pyrrhus is also called Neoptolemus (Greek for "new warrior"). Upon the success of the mission, Odysseus gives Achilles' armour to him. It is learned that the war can not be won without the poisonous arrows of Heracles, which are owned by the abandoned Philoctetes. Odysseus and Diomedes (or, according to some accounts, Odysseus and Neoptolemus) leave to retrieve them. Upon their arrival, Philoctetes (still suffering from the wound) is seen still to be enraged at the Danaans, especially at Odysseus, for abandoning him. Although his first instinct is to shoot Odysseus, his anger is eventually diffused by Odysseus' persuasive powers and the influence of the gods. Odysseus returns to the Argive camp with Philoctetes and his arrows. Perhaps Odysseus' most famous contribution to the Greek war effort is devising the strategem of the Trojan Horse, which allows the Greek army to sneak into Troy under cover of darkness. It is built by Epeius and filled with Greek warriors, led by Odysseus. Odysseus and Diomedes steal the Palladium that lay within Troy's walls, for the Greeks were told they could not sack the city without it. Some late Roman sources indicate that Odysseus schemed to kill his partner on the way back, but Diomedes thwarts this attempt. "Cruel, deceitful Ulixes" of the Romans Homer's Iliad and Odyssey portray Odysseus as a culture hero, but the Romans, who believed themselves the heirs of Prince Aeneas of Troy, considered him a villainous falsifier. In Virgil's Aeneid, written between 29 and 19 BC, he is constantly referred to as "cruel Odysseus" (Latin dirus Ulixes) or "deceitful Odysseus" (pellacis, fandi fictor). Turnus, in Aeneid, book 9, reproaches the Trojan Ascanius with images of rugged, forthright Latin virtues, declaring (in John Dryden's translation), "You shall not find the sons of Atreus here, nor need the frauds of sly Ulysses fear." While the Greeks admired his cunning and deceit, these qualities did not recommend themselves to the Romans, who possessed a rigid sense of honour. In Euripides' tragedy Iphigenia at Aulis, having convinced Agamemnon to consent to the sacrifice of his daughter, Iphigenia, to appease the goddess Artemis, Odysseus facilitates the immolation by telling Iphigenia's mother, Clytemnestra, that the girl is to be wed to Achilles. Odysseus' attempts to avoid his sacred oath to defend Menelaus and Helen offended Roman notions of duty, and the many stratagems and tricks that he employed to get his way offended Roman notions of honour. Journey home |
Israel promised that it would not violate the right of the House to continue to operate freely. During his first tenure as Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu "tried and failed to have Orient House shut down, amid warning from the international community that such a step would be regarded very negatively." When Ehud Olmert was serving in his post as Mayor of Jerusalem, he led efforts to protest against the way Orient House was functioning, refusing to meet with Husseini and demanding that Orient House pay US$300,000 in municipal taxes. Husseini refused the request, stating that Orient House, as a diplomatic institution, was exempt. Husseini died a few years later in May 2001. During the Second Intifada in August 2001, the then Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon determined that with the expectation of a massive Israeli response, the conditions were as favorable as they would ever be for Israel to undertake the forcible closure of Orient House. Two days after the Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing, the Israeli cabinet voted to close the Orient House, and the building was raided by Israeli security forces. Documents proving that Palestinian security services had been illegally operating in Jerusalem were found, including a list of Arab residents of Jerusalem that had been detained by Palestinian security agents. A stolen Uzi submachine gun was also found. Items confiscated by Israeli authorities included personal belongings, confidential information relating to the Jerusalem issue, documents referring to the Madrid Conference of 1991 and the Arab Studies Society photography collection. The personal books and documents of Faisal Husseini were summarily impounded. Other Palestinian institutions in Jerusalem, such as the Governor's House and the headquarters of Force 17 were shut down and raided in the same operation. In January 2010, at a meeting of the Quartet on the Middle East, representatives from the European Union and Russia suggested reopening Orient House and | House and banned PLO activity in it. It was renewed four years later in 1992. It was then rented and renovated by Husseini. In an exchange of letters preceding the 1993 Oslo Accords, Israel promised that it would not violate the right of the House to continue to operate freely. During his first tenure as Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu "tried and failed to have Orient House shut down, amid warning from the international community that such a step would be regarded very negatively." When Ehud Olmert was serving in his post as Mayor of Jerusalem, he led efforts to protest against the way Orient House was functioning, refusing to meet with Husseini and demanding that Orient House pay US$300,000 in municipal taxes. Husseini refused the request, stating that Orient House, as a diplomatic institution, was exempt. Husseini died a few years later in May 2001. During the Second Intifada in August 2001, the then Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon determined that with the expectation of a massive Israeli response, the conditions were as favorable as they would ever be for Israel to undertake the forcible closure of Orient House. Two days after the Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing, the Israeli cabinet voted to close the Orient House, and the building was raided by Israeli security forces. Documents proving that Palestinian security services had been illegally operating in Jerusalem were found, including a list of Arab residents of Jerusalem that had been detained by Palestinian security agents. A stolen Uzi submachine gun was also found. Items confiscated by Israeli authorities included personal belongings, confidential information relating |
– Stefan Postma, Dutch footballer and coach 1977 – Daniel Brière, Canadian ice hockey player 1977 – Melinda Doolittle, American singer-songwriter 1977 – Shimon Gershon, Israeli footballer and singer 1977 – Jamie Laurie, American singer-songwriter 1977 – Vladimir Manchev, Bulgarian footballer and manager 1978 – Carolina Gynning, Swedish model, actress, and singer 1978 – Ricky Hatton, English boxer and promoter 1978 – Liu Yang, Chinese astronaut 1979 – David Di Tommaso, French footballer (d. 2005) 1979 – Mohamed Kallon, Sierra Leonean footballer and manager 1979 – Richard Seymour, American football player 1979 – Pascal van Assendelft, Dutch sprinter 1980 – Arnaud Coyot, French cyclist (d. 2013) 1980 – Wes Durston, English cricketer 1980 – Abdoulaye Méïté, French footballer 1981 – Zurab Khizanishvili, Georgian footballer 1981 – José Luis Perlaza, Ecuadorian footballer 1982 – Levon Aronian, Armenian chess player 1982 – Latonia Blackman, Barbadian netball player 1982 – William Butler, 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Shaver, American author and illustrator (d. 1975) 1908 – Ezekias Papaioannou, Greek-Cypriot politician (d. 1988) 1910 – Kirk Alyn, American actor (d. 1999) 1910 – Paulette Dubost, French actress (d. 2011) 1910 – Gus Hall, American soldier and politician (d. 2000) 1910 – Helmut Kallmeyer, German chemist and soldier (d. 2006) 1910 – Ray Lewis, Canadian runner (d. 2003) 1913 – Robert R. Gilruth, American pilot and engineer (d. 2000) 1913 – Marios Makrionitis, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Athens (d. 1959) 1917 – Billy Conn, American boxer (d. 1993) 1917 – Walter Lord, American historian and author (d. 2002) 1917 – Danny Murtaugh, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1976) 1917 – Rodney Robert Porter, English biochemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985) 1918 – Halfdan Hegtun, Norwegian radio host and politician (d. 2012) 1918 – Jens Christian Skou, Danish chemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018) 1919 – Jack McGrath, American race car driver (d. 1955) 1919 – Kiichi Miyazawa, Japanese politician, 78th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 2007) 1920 – Frank Herbert, American journalist, photographer, and author (d. 1986) 1921 – Abraham Sarmiento, Filipino lawyer and jurist (d. 2010) 1922 – Nils Liedholm, Swedish footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2007) 1922 – Herbert B. Leonard, American production manager and producer (d. 2006) 1924 – Alphons Egli, Swiss lawyer and politician, 77th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2016) 1924 – Aloísio Lorscheider, Brazilian cardinal (d. 2007) 1924 – Thirunalloor Karunakaran, Indian poet and scholar (d. 2006) 1924 – John Nelder, English mathematician and statistician (d. 2010) 1925 – Álvaro Magaña, Salvadoran economist and politician, President of El Salvador (d. 2001) 1926 – Raaj Kumar, Indian police officer and actor (d. 1996) 1927 – Jim Elliot, American missionary and translator (d. 1956) 1927 – César Milstein, Argentinian-English biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002) 1928 – Didi, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2001) 1928 – M. Russell Ballard, American lieutenant and religious leader 1928 – Neil Harvey, Australian cricketer 1928 – Bill Maynard, English actor (d. 2018) 1929 – Betty Boothroyd, English academic and politician, British Speaker of the House of Commons 1930 – Pepper Adams, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1986) 1930 – Alasdair Milne, Indian-English director and producer (d. 2013) 1930 – Faith Ringgold, American painter and activist 1930 – Toru Takemitsu, Japanese composer and theorist (d. 1996) 1931 – Bill Brown, Scottish-Canadian footballer (d. 2004) 1932 – Ray Reardon, Welsh snooker player and police officer 1934 – Kader Asmal, South African academic and politician (d. 2011) 1934 – Gerry Hitchens, English footballer and manager (d. 1983) 1934 – James Holshouser, American lawyer and politician, 68th Governor of North Carolina (d. 2013) 1935 – Albert Roux, French-English chef (d. 2021) 1936 – Rona Barrett, American journalist and businesswoman 1937 – Merle Park, British ballerina and educator 1937 – Paul Schell, American lawyer and politician, 50th Mayor of Seattle (d. 2014) 1938 – William Corlett, English author and playwright (d. 2005) 1938 – Walter Gretzky, Canadian ice hockey coach and author (d. 2021) 1938 – Fred Stolle, Australian-American tennis player and sportscaster 1938 – Bronislovas Lubys, Lithuanian businessman and politician, Prime Minister of Lithuania (d. 2011) 1939 – Paul Hogan, Australian actor, producer, and screenwriter 1939 – Elvīra Ozoliņa, Latvian javelin thrower 1939 – Harvey Pekar, American author and critic (d. 2010) 1939 – Lynne Stewart, American lawyer and criminal (d. 2017) 1940 – Fred Cash, American soul singer 1941 – Jesse Jackson, American minister and activist 1941 – Shane Stevens, American author (d. 2007) 1941 – George Bellamy, English singer, guitarist, and producer 1942 – Stanley Bates, English actor and screenwriter 1943 – Chevy Chase, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1943 – R. L. Stine, American author, screenwriter, and producer 1944 – Ed Kirkpatrick, American baseball player (d. 2010) 1944 – Susan Raye, American country music singer 1946 – Hanan Ashrawi, Palestinian scholar, activist, and politician 1946 – Jean-Jacques Beineix, French director and producer (d. 2022) 1946 – Dennis Kucinich, American journalist and politician, 53rd Mayor of Cleveland 1946 – Bel Mooney, English journalist and author 1946 – Jon Ekerold, South African motorcycle racer 1947 – Richard Morris, English archaeologist, historian, and author 1947 – Emiel Puttemans, Belgian runner 1947 – Stephen Shore, American photographer and educator 1947 – Bill Zorn, folk musician 1948 – Benjamin Cheever, American journalist and author 1948 – Claude Jade, French actress (d. 2006) 1948 – Johnny Ramone, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2004) 1949 – Hamish Stuart, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1949 – Sigourney Weaver, American actress and producer 1950 – Robert "Kool" Bell, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1950 – Blake Morrison, English poet, author, and academic 1951 – Jack O'Connell, American educator and politician 1951 – Timo Salonen, Finnish race car driver 1951 – Shannon C. Stimson, American philosopher, historian, and theorist 1952 – Takis Koroneos, Greek basketball player and coach 1952 – Jan Marijnissen, Dutch journalist and politician 1952 – Edward Zwick, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – Robert Saxton, English composer and educator 1954 – Huub Rothengatter, Dutch race car driver and manager 1955 – Bill Elliott, American race car driver 1955 – Alain Ferté, French race car driver 1955 – Darrell Hammond, American comedian and actor 1955 – Paul Lennon, Australian politician, 42nd Premier of Tasmania 1955 – Lonnie Pitchford, American singer and guitarist (d. 1998) 1956 – Jeff Lahti, American baseball player 1956 – Janice E. Voss, American engineer and astronaut (d. 2012) 1957 – Antonio Cabrini, Italian footballer and manager 1958 – Steve Coll, American journalist and author 1958 – Bret Lott, American journalist, author, and academic 1958 – Ursula von der Leyen, Belgian-German physician and politician, Defense Minister of Germany 1958 – Ruffin McNeill, American football player and coach 1959 – Tommy Armour III, American golfer 1959 – Nick Bakay, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – Gavin Friday, Irish singer-songwriter, actor, and producer 1959 – Erik Gundersen, Danish motorcycle racer 1959 – Peter Horrocks, English journalist and producer 1959 – Mike Morgan, American baseball player and coach 1959 – Carlos I. Noriega, Peruvian-American colonel and astronaut 1960 – Andrea Anastasi, Italian volleyball player and coach 1960 – Reed Hastings, American businessman, co-founded Netflix 1960 – Rano Karno, Indonesian actor and politician 1960 – Ralf Minge, German footballer and manager 1960 – François Pérusse, Canadian singer-songwriter and comedian 1960 – Mike Teague, English rugby player 1961 – Steven Bernstein, American trumpet player and composer 1961 – Jon Stevens, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter 1961 – Simon Burke, Australian actor and producer 1961 – Ted Kooshian, American pianist and composer 1962 – Richard Lintern, British actor 1962 – Bruno Thiry, Belgian race car driver 1962 – Chen Xiaoxia, Chinese diver 1963 – Steve Perry, American ska singer-songwriter and guitarist 1964 – Jakob Arjouni, German author (d. 2013) 1964 – Ian Hart, English actor 1964 – CeCe Winans, American singer-songwriter 1965 – Matt Biondi, American swimmer and coach 1965 – Ardal O'Hanlon, Irish comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1965 – Harri Koskela, Finnish wrestler 1965 – C. J. Ramone, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1966 – Art Barr, American wrestler (d. 1994) 1966 – Karyn Parsons, American actress and producer 1967 – Yvonne Reyes, Venezuelan television host and actress 1967 – Teddy Riley, American singer-songwriter and producer 1968 – Ali Benarbia, Algerian footballer 1968 – Zvonimir Boban, Croatian footballer and sportscaster 1968 – Emily Procter, American actress 1968 – CL Smooth, American rapper and producer 1968 – Leeroy Thornhill, English keyboard player and DJ 1969 – Jeremy Davies, American actor 1969 – Dylan Neal, Canadian-American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1970 – Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Congolese colonel 1970 – Matt Damon, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1970 – Anne-Marie Duff, English actress 1970 – Sadiq Khan, English lawyer and politician, Minister of State for Transport, Mayor of London 1970 – Sisaundra Lewis, American singer-songwriter and producer 1970 – Tetsuya Nomura, Japanese video game designer and director 1971 – Marc Ellis, New Zealand rugby player and television host 1971 – David Gauke, English lawyer and politician 1971 – Pınar Selek, Turkish sociologist, author, and academic 1971 – Monty Williams, American basketball player and coach 1972 – Terry Balsamo, American guitarist and songwriter 1972 – Stanislav Varga, Slovak footballer and manager 1973 – Jim Fairchild, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Kari Korhonen, Finnish cartoonist 1974 – Kevyn Adams, American ice hockey player and coach 1974 – Fredrik Modin, Swedish ice hockey player 1974 – Koji Murofushi, Japanese hammer thrower 1976 – Karina Bacchi, Brazilian model and actress 1976 – Galo Blanco, Spanish tennis player and coach 1976 – Renate Groenewold, Dutch speed skater and cyclist 1977 – Anne-Caroline Chausson, French cyclist 1977 – Jamie Marchi, American voice actress, director, and screenwriter 1977 – Erna Siikavirta, Finnish singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1978 – Antonino D'Agostino, Italian footballer 1978 – Mick O'Driscoll, Irish rugby player and coach 1979 – Paul Burchill, English wrestler 1979 – Gregori Chad Petree, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1980 – Nick Cannon, American actor, rapper, and producer 1981 – Vladimir Kisenkov, Russian footballer 1981 – Raffi Torres, Canadian ice hockey player 1982 – Phil Mustard, English cricketer 1982 – Miloš Pavlović, Serbian race car driver 1982 – Annemiek van Vleuten, Dutch cyclist 1983 – Mario Cassano, Italian footballer 1983 – Michael Fraser, Scottish footballer 1983 – Mihkel Kukk, Estonian javelin thrower 1983 – Abhishek Nayar, Indian cricketer 1983 – Travis Pastrana, American motorcycle racer 1984 – Domenik Hixon, American football player 1985 – Bruno Mars, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1985 – Eiji Wentz, Japanese singer-songwriter 1985 – Elliphant, Swedish singer-songwriter and rapper 1986 – Louis Dodds, English footballer 1986 – Michele Sepe, Italian rugby player 1987 – Frankie Brown, Scottish footballer 1987 – Aya Hirano, Japanese voice actress and singer 1987 – Hassan Maatouk, Lebanese footballer 1987 – Taylor Price, American football player 1989 – Sione Lousi, New Zealand rugby league player 1989 – Mahmut Temür, Turkish footballer 1989 – Armand Traoré, French footballer 1990 – Rachel Klamer, Zimbabwean-Dutch triathlete 1991 – Jordan McLean, Australian rugby league player 1992 – Maria João Koehler, Portuguese tennis player 1992 – Lidziya Marozava, Belarusian tennis player 1993 – Garbiñe Muguruza, Spanish tennis player 1993 – Barbara Palvin, Hungarian model and actress 1993 – Molly Quinn, American actress and producer 1993 – Darrell Wallace, Jr., American race car driver 1996 – Sara Sorribes Tormo, Spanish tennis player 1996 – Sara Takanashi, Japanese ski jumper 1997 – Bella Thorne, American actress 1999 – Putthipong Assaratanakul, Thai actor and singer 1999 – Camila Rossi, Brazilian rhythmic gymnast Deaths Pre-1600 705 – Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Muslim caliph (b. 646) 923 – Pilgrim I, archbishop of Salzburg 951 – Xiao Sagezhi, Chinese Khitan empress 976 – Helen of Zadar, queen consort of the Kingdom of Croatia 1281 – Princess Constance of Greater Poland (b. c.1245) 1286 – John I, Duke of Brittany (b. 1217) 1317 – Emperor Fushimi of Japan (b. 1265) 1354 – Cola di Rienzo, Roman tribune (b. c.1313) 1361 – John Beauchamp, 3rd Baron Beauchamp 1436 – Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut (b. 1401) 1469 – Filippo Lippi, artist (b. 1406) 1594 – Ishikawa Goemon, ninja and thief of Japan (b. 1558) 1601–1900 1621 – Antoine de Montchrestien, French soldier, playwright, and economist (b. 1575) 1647 – Christen Sørensen Longomontanus, Danish astronomer and mathematician (b. 1562) 1652 – John Greaves, English mathematician and astronomer (b. 1602) 1656 – John George I, Elector of Saxony (b. 1585) 1659 – Jean de Quen, French missionary, priest, and historian (b. 1603) 1735 – Yongzheng Emperor of China (b. 1678) 1754 – Henry Fielding, English novelist and playwright (b. 1707) 1772 – Jean-Joseph de Mondonville, French violinist and composer (b. 1711) 1793 – John Hancock, American merchant and politician, 1st Governor of Massachusetts (b. 1737) 1795 – Andrew Kippis, English minister and author (b. 1725) 1802 – Emmanuele Vitale, Maltese general and politician (b. 1758) 1804 – Thomas Cochran, | (d. 1973) 1890 – Philippe Thys, Belgian cyclist (d. 1971) 1892 – Marina Tsvetaeva, Russian poet and author (d. 1941) 1893 – Clarence Williams, American pianist and composer (d. 1965) 1895 – Zog I of Albania (d. 1961) 1895 – Juan Perón, Argentinian general and politician, 29th President of Argentina (d. 1974) 1896 – Julien Duvivier, French director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1967) 1897 – Rouben Mamoulian, Georgian-American director and screenwriter (d. 1987) 1897 – Marcel Herrand, French actor (d. 1953) 1901–present 1901 – Eivind Groven, Norwegian composer and theorist (d. 1977) 1901 – Mark Oliphant, Australian physicist, humanitarian and politician, Governor of South Australia (d. 2000) 1903 – Georgy Geshev, Bulgarian chess player (d. 1937) 1904 – Yves Giraud-Cabantous, French race car driver (d. 1973) 1907 – Richard Sharpe Shaver, American author and illustrator (d. 1975) 1908 – Ezekias Papaioannou, Greek-Cypriot politician (d. 1988) 1910 – Kirk Alyn, American actor (d. 1999) 1910 – Paulette Dubost, French actress (d. 2011) 1910 – Gus Hall, American soldier and politician (d. 2000) 1910 – Helmut Kallmeyer, German chemist and soldier (d. 2006) 1910 – Ray Lewis, Canadian runner (d. 2003) 1913 – Robert R. Gilruth, American pilot and engineer (d. 2000) 1913 – Marios Makrionitis, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Athens (d. 1959) 1917 – Billy Conn, American boxer (d. 1993) 1917 – Walter Lord, American historian and author (d. 2002) 1917 – Danny Murtaugh, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1976) 1917 – Rodney Robert Porter, English biochemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985) 1918 – Halfdan Hegtun, Norwegian radio host and politician (d. 2012) 1918 – Jens Christian Skou, Danish chemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018) 1919 – Jack McGrath, American race car driver (d. 1955) 1919 – Kiichi Miyazawa, Japanese politician, 78th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 2007) 1920 – Frank Herbert, American journalist, photographer, and author (d. 1986) 1921 – Abraham Sarmiento, Filipino lawyer and jurist (d. 2010) 1922 – Nils Liedholm, Swedish footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2007) 1922 – Herbert B. Leonard, American production manager and producer (d. 2006) 1924 – Alphons Egli, Swiss lawyer and politician, 77th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2016) 1924 – Aloísio Lorscheider, Brazilian cardinal (d. 2007) 1924 – Thirunalloor Karunakaran, Indian poet and scholar (d. 2006) 1924 – John Nelder, English mathematician and statistician (d. 2010) 1925 – Álvaro Magaña, Salvadoran economist and politician, President of El Salvador (d. 2001) 1926 – Raaj Kumar, Indian police officer and actor (d. 1996) 1927 – Jim Elliot, American missionary and translator (d. 1956) 1927 – César Milstein, Argentinian-English biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002) 1928 – Didi, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2001) 1928 – M. Russell Ballard, American lieutenant and religious leader 1928 – Neil Harvey, Australian cricketer 1928 – Bill Maynard, English actor (d. 2018) 1929 – Betty Boothroyd, English academic and politician, British Speaker of the House of Commons 1930 – Pepper Adams, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1986) 1930 – Alasdair Milne, Indian-English director and producer (d. 2013) 1930 – Faith Ringgold, American painter and activist 1930 – Toru Takemitsu, Japanese composer and theorist (d. 1996) 1931 – Bill Brown, Scottish-Canadian footballer (d. 2004) 1932 – Ray Reardon, Welsh snooker player and police officer 1934 – Kader Asmal, South African academic and politician (d. 2011) 1934 – Gerry Hitchens, English footballer and manager (d. 1983) 1934 – James Holshouser, American lawyer and politician, 68th Governor of North Carolina (d. 2013) 1935 – Albert Roux, French-English chef (d. 2021) 1936 – Rona Barrett, American journalist and businesswoman 1937 – Merle Park, British ballerina and educator 1937 – Paul Schell, American lawyer and politician, 50th Mayor of Seattle (d. 2014) 1938 – William Corlett, English author and playwright (d. 2005) 1938 – Walter Gretzky, Canadian ice hockey coach and author (d. 2021) 1938 – Fred Stolle, Australian-American tennis player and sportscaster 1938 – Bronislovas Lubys, Lithuanian businessman and politician, Prime Minister of Lithuania (d. 2011) 1939 – Paul Hogan, Australian actor, producer, and screenwriter 1939 – Elvīra Ozoliņa, Latvian javelin thrower 1939 – Harvey Pekar, American author and critic (d. 2010) 1939 – Lynne Stewart, American lawyer and criminal (d. 2017) 1940 – Fred Cash, American soul singer 1941 – Jesse Jackson, American minister and activist 1941 – Shane Stevens, American author (d. 2007) 1941 – George Bellamy, English singer, guitarist, and producer 1942 – Stanley Bates, English actor and screenwriter 1943 – Chevy Chase, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1943 – R. L. Stine, American author, screenwriter, and producer 1944 – Ed Kirkpatrick, American baseball player (d. 2010) 1944 – Susan Raye, American country music singer 1946 – Hanan Ashrawi, Palestinian scholar, activist, and politician 1946 – Jean-Jacques Beineix, French director and producer (d. 2022) 1946 – Dennis Kucinich, American journalist and politician, 53rd Mayor of Cleveland 1946 – Bel Mooney, English journalist and author 1946 – Jon Ekerold, South African motorcycle racer 1947 – Richard Morris, English archaeologist, historian, and author 1947 – Emiel Puttemans, Belgian runner 1947 – Stephen Shore, American photographer and educator 1947 – Bill Zorn, folk musician 1948 – Benjamin Cheever, American journalist and author 1948 – Claude Jade, French actress (d. 2006) 1948 – Johnny Ramone, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2004) 1949 – Hamish Stuart, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1949 – Sigourney Weaver, American actress and producer 1950 – Robert "Kool" Bell, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1950 – Blake Morrison, English poet, author, and academic 1951 – Jack O'Connell, American educator and politician 1951 – Timo Salonen, Finnish race car driver 1951 – Shannon C. Stimson, American philosopher, historian, and theorist 1952 – Takis Koroneos, Greek basketball player and coach 1952 – Jan Marijnissen, Dutch journalist and politician 1952 – Edward Zwick, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – Robert Saxton, English composer and educator 1954 – Huub Rothengatter, Dutch race car driver and manager 1955 – Bill Elliott, American race car driver 1955 – Alain Ferté, French race car driver 1955 – Darrell Hammond, American comedian and actor 1955 – Paul Lennon, Australian politician, 42nd Premier of Tasmania 1955 – Lonnie Pitchford, American singer and guitarist (d. 1998) 1956 – Jeff Lahti, American baseball player 1956 – Janice E. Voss, American engineer and astronaut (d. 2012) 1957 – Antonio Cabrini, Italian footballer and manager 1958 – Steve Coll, American journalist and author 1958 – Bret Lott, American journalist, author, and academic 1958 – Ursula von der Leyen, Belgian-German physician and politician, Defense Minister of Germany 1958 – Ruffin McNeill, American football player and coach 1959 – Tommy Armour III, American golfer 1959 – Nick Bakay, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – Gavin Friday, Irish singer-songwriter, actor, and producer 1959 – Erik Gundersen, Danish motorcycle racer 1959 – Peter Horrocks, English journalist and producer 1959 – Mike Morgan, American baseball player and coach 1959 – Carlos I. Noriega, Peruvian-American colonel and astronaut 1960 – Andrea Anastasi, Italian volleyball player and coach 1960 – Reed Hastings, American businessman, co-founded Netflix 1960 – Rano Karno, Indonesian actor and politician 1960 – Ralf Minge, German footballer and manager 1960 – François Pérusse, Canadian singer-songwriter and comedian 1960 – Mike Teague, English rugby player 1961 – Steven Bernstein, American trumpet player and composer 1961 – Jon Stevens, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter 1961 – Simon Burke, Australian actor and producer 1961 – Ted Kooshian, American pianist and composer 1962 – Richard Lintern, British actor 1962 – Bruno Thiry, Belgian race car driver 1962 – Chen Xiaoxia, Chinese diver 1963 – Steve Perry, American ska singer-songwriter and guitarist 1964 – Jakob Arjouni, German author (d. 2013) 1964 – Ian Hart, English actor 1964 – CeCe Winans, American singer-songwriter 1965 – Matt Biondi, American swimmer and coach 1965 – Ardal O'Hanlon, Irish comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1965 – Harri Koskela, Finnish wrestler 1965 – C. J. Ramone, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1966 – Art Barr, American wrestler (d. 1994) 1966 – Karyn Parsons, American actress and producer 1967 – Yvonne Reyes, Venezuelan television host and actress 1967 – Teddy Riley, American singer-songwriter and producer 1968 – Ali Benarbia, Algerian footballer 1968 – Zvonimir Boban, Croatian footballer and sportscaster 1968 – Emily Procter, American actress 1968 – CL Smooth, American rapper and producer 1968 – Leeroy Thornhill, English keyboard player and DJ 1969 – Jeremy Davies, American actor 1969 – Dylan Neal, Canadian-American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1970 – Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Congolese colonel 1970 – Matt Damon, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1970 – Anne-Marie Duff, English actress 1970 – Sadiq Khan, English lawyer and politician, Minister of State for Transport, Mayor of London 1970 – Sisaundra Lewis, American singer-songwriter and producer 1970 – Tetsuya Nomura, Japanese video game designer and director 1971 – Marc Ellis, New Zealand rugby player and television host 1971 – David Gauke, English lawyer and politician 1971 – Pınar Selek, Turkish sociologist, author, and academic 1971 – Monty Williams, American basketball player and coach 1972 – Terry Balsamo, American guitarist and songwriter 1972 – Stanislav Varga, Slovak footballer and manager 1973 – Jim Fairchild, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Kari Korhonen, Finnish cartoonist 1974 – Kevyn Adams, American ice hockey player and coach 1974 – Fredrik Modin, Swedish ice hockey player 1974 – Koji Murofushi, Japanese hammer thrower 1976 – Karina Bacchi, Brazilian model and actress 1976 – Galo Blanco, Spanish tennis player and coach 1976 – Renate Groenewold, |
gaseous exchange. In combination with separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, it helps to reduce stress on the BGB. Circulation Heart anatomy The common ostrich heart is a closed system, contractile chamber. It is composed of myogenic muscular tissue associated with heart contraction features. There is a double circulatory plan in place possessing both a pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit. The common ostrich's heart has similar features to other avian species, like having a conically shaped heart and being enclosed by a pericardium layer. Moreover, similarities also include a larger right atrium volume and a thicker left ventricle to fulfil the systemic circuit. The ostrich heart has three features that are absent in related birds: The right atrioventricular valve is fixed to the interventricular septum, by a thick muscular stock, which prevents back-flow of blood into the atrium when ventricular systole is occurring. In the fowl this valve is only connected by a short septal attachment. Pulmonary veins attach to the left atrium separately, and also the opening to the pulmonary veins are separated by a septum. Moderator bands, full of Purkinje fibers, are found in different locations in the left and right ventricles. These bands are associated with contractions of the heart and suggests this difference causes the left ventricle to contract harder to create more pressure for a completed circulation of blood around the body. The atrioventricular node position differs from other fowl. It is located in the endocardium of the atrial surface of the right atrioventricular valve. It is not covered by connective tissue, which is characteristic of vertebrate heart anatomy. It also contains fewer myofibrils than usual myocardial cells. The AV node connects the atrial and ventricular chambers. It functions to carry the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricle. Upon view, the myocardial cells are observed to have large densely packed chromosomes within the nucleus. The coronary arteries start in the right and left aortic sinus and provide blood to the heart muscle in a similar fashion to most other vertebrates. Other domestic birds capable of flight have three or more coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. The blood supply by the coronary arteries are fashioned starting as a large branch over the surface of the heart. It then moves along the coronary groove and continues on into the tissue as interventricular branches toward the apex of the heart. The atria, ventricles, and septum are supplied of blood by this modality. The deep branches of the coronary arteries found within the heart tissue are small and supply the interventricular and right atrioventricular valve with blood nutrients for which to carry out their processes. The interatrial artery of the ostrich is small in size and exclusively supplies blood to only part of the left auricle and interatrial septum. These Purkinje fibers (p-fibers) found in the hearts moderator bands are a specialized cardiac muscle fiber that causes the heart to contract. The Purkinje cells are mostly found within both the endocardium and the sub-endocardium. The sinoatrial node shows a small concentration of Purkinje fibers, however, continuing through the conducting pathway of the heart the bundle of his shows the highest amount of these Purkinje fibers. Blood composition The red blood cell count per unit volume in the ostrich is about 40% of that of a human; however, the red blood cells of the ostrich are about three times larger than the red blood cells of a human. The blood oxygen affinity, known as P50, is higher than that of both humans and similar avian species. The reason for this decreased oxygen affinity is due to the hemoglobin configuration found in common ostrich blood. The common ostrich's tetramer is composed of hemoglobin type A and D, compared to typical mammalian tetramers composed of hemoglobin type A and B; hemoglobin D configuration causes a decreased oxygen affinity at the site of the respiratory surface. During the embryonic stage, Hemoglobin E is present. This subtype increases oxygen affinity in order to transport oxygen across the allantoic membrane of the embryo. This can be attributed to the high metabolic need of the developing embryo, thus high oxygen affinity serves to satisfy this demand. When the chick hatches hemoglobin E diminishes while hemoglobin A and D increase in concentration. This shift in hemoglobin concentration results in both decreased oxygen affinity and increased P50 value. Furthermore, the P50 value is influenced by differing organic modulators. In the typical mammalian RBC 2,3 – DPG causes a lower affinity for oxygen. 2,3- DPG constitutes approximately 42–47%, of the cells phosphate of the embryonic ostrich. However, the adult ostrich have no traceable 2,3- DPG.In place of 2,3-DPG the ostrich uses inositol polyphosphates (IPP), which vary from 1–6 phosphates per molecule. In relation to the IPP, the ostrich also uses ATP to lower oxygen affinity. ATP has a consistent concentration of phosphate in the cell around 31% at incubation periods and dropping to 16–20% in 36-day-old chicks. However, IPP has low concentrations, around 4%, of total phosphate concentration in embryonic stages, but the IPP concentration jumps to 60% of total phosphate of the cell. The majority of phosphate concentration switches from 2,3- DPG to IPP, suggesting the result of the overall low oxygen affinity is due to these varying polyphosphates. Concerning immunological adaptation, it was discovered that wild common ostriches have a pronounced non-specific immunity defense, with blood content reflecting high values of lysosome and phagocyte cells in medium. This is in contrast to domesticated ostriches, who in captivity develop high concentration of immunoglobulin antibodies in their circulation, indicating an acquired immunological response. It is suggested that this immunological adaptability may allow this species to have a high success rate of survival in variable environmental settings. Osmoregulation Physiological challenges The common ostrich is a xeric animal, due to the fact that it lives in habitats that are both dry and hot. Water is scarce in dry and hot environments, and this poses a challenge to the ostrich's water consumption. Also the ostrich is a ground bird and cannot fly to find water sources, which poses a further challenge. Because of their size, common ostriches cannot easily escape the heat of their environment; however, they dehydrate less than their small bird counterparts because of their small surface area to volume ratio. Hot, arid habitats pose osmotic stress, such as dehydration, which triggers the common ostrich's homeostatic response to osmoregulate. System overview The common ostrich is well-adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of excretory organs. The common ostrich has an extremely long and developed colon a length of approximately between the coprodeum and the paired caeca, which are around long. A well-developed caeca is also found and, in combination with the rectum, forms the microbial fermentation chambers used for carbohydrate breakdown. The catabolism of carbohydrates produces around of water that can be used internally. The majority of their urine is stored in the coprodeum, and the feces are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the ureters open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in fecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma aldosterone, which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of hyperosmotic urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800 mosmol/L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the common ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the epithelium is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick mucosal layering of the coprodeum. Common ostriches have two kidneys, which are chocolate brown in color, are granular in texture, and lie in a depression in the pelvic cavity of the dorsal wall. They are covered by peritoneum and a layer of fat. Each kidney is about long, wide, and divided into a cranial, middle, and caudal sections by large veins. The caudal section is the largest, extending into the middle of the pelvis. The ureters leave the ventral caudomedial surface and continue caudally, near the midline into the opening of the urodeum of the cloaca. Although there is no bladder, a dilated pouch of ureter stores the urine until it is secreted continuously down from the ureters to the urodeum until discharged. Kidney function Common ostrich kidneys are fairly large and so are able to hold significant amounts of solutes. Hence, common ostriches drink relatively large volumes of water daily and excrete generous quantities of highly concentrated urine. It is when drinking water is unavailable or withdrawn that the urine becomes highly concentrated with uric acid and urates. It seems that common ostriches who normally drink relatively large amounts of water tend to rely on renal conservation of water within the kidney system when drinking water is scarce. Though there have been no official detailed renal studies conducted on the flow rate (Poiseuille's Law) and composition of the ureteral urine in the ostrich, knowledge of renal function has been based on samples of cloacal urine, and samples or quantitative collections of voided urine. Studies have shown that the amount of water intake and dehydration impacts the plasma osmolality and urine osmolality within various sized ostriches. During a normal hydration state of the kidneys, young ostriches tend to have a measured plasma osmolality of 284 mOsm and urine osmolality of 62 mOsm. Adults have higher rates with a plasma osmolality of 330 mOsm and urine osmolality of 163 mOsm. The osmolality of both plasma and urine can alter in regards to whether there is an excess or depleted amount of water present within the kidneys. An interesting fact of common ostriches is that when water is freely available, the urine osmolality can reduce to 60–70 mOsm, not losing any necessary solutes from the kidneys when excess water is excreted. Dehydrated or salt-loaded ostriches can reach a maximal urine osmolality of approximately 800 mOsm. When the plasma osmolality has been measured simultaneously with the maximal osmotic urine, it is seen that the urine:plasma ratio is 2.6:1, the highest encountered among avian species. Along with dehydration, there is also a reduction in flow rate from 20 L·d−1 to only 0.3–0.5 L·d−1. In mammals and common ostriches, the increase of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine flow rate (UFR) is due to a high protein diets. As seen in various studies, scientists have measured clearance of creatinine, a fairly reliable marker of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It has been seen that during normal hydration within the kidneys, the glomerular filtration rate is approximately 92 ml/min. However, when an ostrich experiences dehydration for at least 48 hours (2 days), this value diminishes to only 25% of the hydrated GFR rate. Thus in response to the dehydration, ostrich kidneys secrete small amounts of very viscous glomerular filtrates that have not been broken down and return them to the circulatory system through blood vessels. The reduction of GFR during dehydration is extremely high and so the fractional excretion of water (urine flow rate as a percentage of GFR) drops down from 15% at normal hydration to 1% during dehydration. Water intake and turnover Common ostriches employ adaptive features to manage the dry heat and solar radiation in their habitat. Ostriches will drink available water; however, they are limited in accessing water by being flightless. They are also able to harvest water through dietary means, consuming plants such as the Euphorbia heterochroma that hold up to 87% water. Water mass accounts for 68% of body mass in adult common ostriches; this is down from 84% water mass in 35-day-old chicks. The differing degrees of water retention are thought to be a result of varying body fat mass. In comparison to smaller birds ostriches have a lower evaporative water loss resulting from their small body surface area per unit weight. When heat stress is at its maximum, common ostriches are able to recover evaporative loss by using a metabolic water mechanism to counter the loss by urine, feces, and respiratory evaporation. An experiment to determine the primary source of water intake in the ostrich indicated that while the ostrich does employ a metabolic water production mechanism as a source of hydration, the most important source of water is food. When ostriches were restricted to the no food or water condition, the metabolic water production was only 0.5 L·d−1, while total water lost to urine, feces, and evaporation was 2.3 L·d−1. When the birds were given both water and food, total water gain was 8.5 L·d−1. In the food only condition total water gain was 10.1 L·d−1. These results show that the metabolic water mechanism is not able to sustain water loss independently and that food intake, specifically of plants with a high water content such as Euphorbia heterochroma, is necessary to overcome water loss challenges in the common ostrich's arid habitat. In times of water deprivation, urine electrolyte and osmotic concentration increases while urination rate decreases. Under these conditions urine solute:plasma ratio is approximately 2.5, or hyperosmotic; that is to say that the ratio of solutes to water in the plasma is shifted down whereby reducing osmotic pressure in the plasma. Water is then able to be held back from excretion, keeping the ostrich hydrated, while the passed urine contains higher concentrations of solute. This mechanism exemplifies how renal function facilitates water retention during periods of dehydration stress. Nasal glands A number of avian species use nasal salt glands, alongside their kidneys, to control hypertonicity in their blood plasma. However, the common ostrich shows no nasal glandular function in regard to this homeostatic process. Even in a state of dehydration, which increases the osmolality of the blood, nasal salt glands show no sizeable contribution of salt elimination. Also, the overall mass of the glands was less than that of the duck's nasal gland. The common ostrich, having a heavier body weight, should have larger, heavier nasal glands to more effectively excrete salt from a larger volume of blood, but this is not the case. These unequal proportions contribute to the assumption that the common ostrich's nasal glands do not play any role in salt excretion. The nasal glands may be the result of an ancestral trait, which is no longer needed by the common ostrich, but has not been bred out of their gene pool. Biochemistry The majority of the common ostrich's internal solutes are made up of sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+), chloride ions (Cl-), total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), and acetate. The caecum contains a high water concentration with reduced levels nearing the terminal colon and exhibits a rapid fall in Na+ concentrations and small changes in K+ and Cl-. | The male common ostrich territory is between . With their acute eyesight and hearing, common ostriches can sense predators such as lions from far away. When being pursued by a predator, they have been known to reach speeds in excess of , or possibly and can maintain a steady speed of , which makes the common ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal. When lying down and hiding from predators, the birds lay their heads and necks flat on the ground, making them appear like a mound of earth from a distance, aided by the heat haze in their hot, dry habitat. When threatened, common ostriches run away, but they can cause serious injury and death with kicks from their powerful legs. Their legs can only kick forward. Feeding They mainly feed on seeds, shrubs, grass, fruit, and flowers; occasionally they also eat insects such as locusts and small reptiles such as lizards. Lacking teeth, they swallow pebbles that act as gastroliths to grind food in the gizzard. When eating, they will fill their gullet with food, which is in turn passed down their esophagus in the form of a ball called a bolus. The bolus may be as much as . After passing through the neck (there is no crop) the food enters the gizzard and is worked on by the aforementioned pebbles. The gizzard can hold as much as , of which up to 45% may be sand and pebbles. Common ostriches can go without drinking for several days, using metabolic water and moisture in ingested plants, but they enjoy liquid water and frequently take baths where it is available. They can survive losing up to 25% of their body weight through dehydration. Mating Common ostriches become sexually mature when they are 2 to 4 years old; females mature about six months earlier than males. As with other birds, an individual may reproduce several times over its lifetime. The mating season begins in March or April and ends sometime before September. The mating process differs in different geographical regions. Territorial males typically boom (by inflating their neck) in defense of their territory and harem of two to seven hens; the successful male may then mate with several females in the area, but will only form a pair bond with a 'major' female. The cock performs with his wings, alternating wing beats, until he attracts a mate. They will go to the mating area and he will maintain privacy by driving away all intruders. They graze until their behavior is synchronized, then the feeding becomes secondary and the process takes on a ritualistic appearance. The cock will then excitedly flap alternate wings again and start poking on the ground with his bill. He will then violently flap his wings to symbolically clear out a nest in the soil. Then, while the hen runs a circle around him with lowered wings, he will wind his head in a spiral motion. She will drop to the ground and he will mount for copulation. Common ostriches raised entirely by humans may direct their courtship behavior not at other ostriches, but toward their human keepers. The female common ostrich lays her fertilized eggs in a single communal nest, a simple pit, deep and wide, scraped in the ground by the male. The dominant female lays her eggs first; when it is time to cover them for incubation, she discards extra eggs from the weaker females, leaving about 20 in most cases. A female common ostrich can distinguish her own eggs from the others in a communal nest. Ostrich eggs are the largest of all eggs, though they are actually the smallest eggs relative to the size of the adult bird – on average they are long, wide, and weigh , over 20 times the weight of a chicken's egg and only 1 to 4% the size of the female. They are glossy cream-colored, with thick shells marked by small pits. The eggs are incubated by the females by day and by the males by night. This uses the coloration of the two sexes to escape detection of the nest, as the drab female blends in with the sand, while the black male is nearly undetectable in the night. The incubation period is 35 to 45 days, which is rather short compared to other ratites. This is believed to be the case due to the high rate of predation. Typically, the male defends the hatchlings and teaches them to feed, although males and females cooperate in rearing chicks. Fewer than 10% of nests survive the 9-week period of laying and incubation, and of the surviving chicks, only 15% of those survive to 1 year of age. However, among those common ostriches who survive to adulthood, the species is one of the longest-living bird species. Common ostriches in captivity have lived to 62 years and 7 months. Predators As a flightless species in the rich biozone of the African savanna, the common ostrich must face a variety of formidable predators throughout its life cycle. Animals that prey on ostriches of all ages may include cheetahs, lions, leopards, African hunting dogs, spotted hyenas, and Nile crocodiles. Common ostriches can often outrun most of their predators in a pursuit, so most predators will try to ambush an unsuspecting bird using obstructing vegetation or other objects. A notable exception is the cheetah, which is the most prolific predator of adult common ostriches due to its own great running speeds. Usually, ostrich hunt is done by male cheetah's coalitions in the Kalahari region during the night, when ostrich's vigilance is less effective. Cheetahs in other regions rarely hunt ostrich, but the exceptional coalition, which is composed of three East African cheetahs has been reported in Kenya. Similarly, lions hunt ostriches mainly in the Kalahari region and not in other regions, or make up a very low percentage of their prey. Overall, due to their speed, vigilance, and possibly dangerous kick, ostriches are significantly avoided by most predators, including lions, leopards, wild dogs, and cheetahs. Predators of nests and young common ostriches include jackals, various birds of prey, warthogs, mongoose, and Egyptian vultures. Egyptian vultures have been known to hurl stones at ostrich eggs to crack them open so they can eat their contents. If the nest or young are threatened, either or both of the parents may create a distraction, feigning injury. However, they may sometimes fiercely fight predators, especially when chicks are being defended, and have been capable of killing humans, hyenas, and even lions in such confrontations. Physiology Respiration Anatomy Morphology of the common ostrich lung indicates that the structure conforms to that of the other avian species, but still retains parts of its primitive avian species, ratite, structure. The opening to the respiratory pathway begins with the laryngeal cavity lying posterior to the choanae within the buccal cavity. The tip of the tongue then lies anterior to the choanae, excluding the nasal respiratory pathway from the buccal cavity. The trachea lies ventrally to the cervical vertebrae extending from the larynx to the syrinx, where the trachea enters the thorax, dividing into two primary bronchi, one to each lung, in which they continue directly through to become mesobronchi. Ten different air sacs attach to the lungs to form areas for respiration. The most posterior air sacs (abdominal and post-thoracic) differ in that the right abdominal air sac is relatively small, lying to the right of the mesentery, and dorsally to the liver. While the left abdominal air sac is large and lies to the left of the mesentery. The connection from the main mesobronchi to the more anterior air sacs including the interclavicular, lateral clavicular, and pre-thoracic sacs known as the ventrobronchi region. While the caudal end of the mesobronchus branches into several dorsobronchi. Together, the ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi are connected by intra-pulmonary airways, the parabronchi, which form an arcade structure within the lung called the paleopulmo. It is the only structure found in primitive birds such as ratites. The largest air sacs found within the respiratory system are those of the post-thoracic region, while the others decrease in size respectively, the interclavicular (unpaired), abdominal, pre-thoracic, and lateral clavicular sacs. The adult common ostrich lung lacks connective tissue known as interparabronchial septa, which render strength to the non-compliant avian lung in other bird species. Due to this the lack of connective tissue surrounding the parabronchi and adjacent parabronchial lumen, they exchange blood capillaries or avascular epithelial plates. Like mammals, ostrich lungs contain an abundance of type II cells at gas exchange sites; an adaptation for preventing lung collapse during slight volume changes. Function The common ostrich is an endotherm and maintains a body temperature of in its extreme living temperature conditions, such as the heat of the savanna and desert regions of Africa. The ostrich utilizes its respiratory system via a costal pump for ventilation rather than a diaphragmatic pump as seen in most mammals. Thus, they are able to use a series of air sacs connected to the lungs. The use of air sacs forms the basis for the three main avian respiratory characteristics: Air is able to flow continuously in one direction through the lung, making it more efficient than the mammalian lung. It provides birds with a large residual volume, allowing them to breathe much more slowly and deeply than a mammal of the same body mass. It provides a large source of air that is used not only for gaseous exchange, but also for the transfer of heat by evaporation. Inhalation begins at the mouth and the nostrils located at the front of the beak. The air then flows through the anatomical dead space of a highly vascular trachea ( ) and expansive bronchial system, where it is further conducted to the posterior air sacs. Air flow through the parabronchi of the paleopulmo is in the same direction to the dorsobronchi during inspiration and expiration. Inspired air moves into the respiratory system as a result of the expansion of thoraco abdominal cavity; controlled by inspiratory muscles. During expiration, oxygen poor air flows to the anterior air sacs and is expelled by the action of the expiratory muscles. The common ostrich air sacs play a key role in respiration, since they are capacious, and increase surface area (as described by the Fick Principle). The oxygen rich air flows unidirectionally across the respiratory surface of the lungs; providing the blood that has a crosscurrent flow with a high concentration of oxygen. To compensate for the large "dead" space, the common ostrich trachea lacks valves to allow faster inspiratory air flow. In addition, the total lung capacity of the respiratory system, (including the lungs and ten air sacs) of a ostrich is about , with a tidal volume ranging from . The tidal volume is seen to double resulting in a 16-fold increase in ventilation. Overall, ostrich respiration can be thought of as a high velocity-low pressure system. At rest, there is a small pressure difference between the ostrich air sacs and the atmosphere, suggesting simultaneous filling and emptying of the air sacs. The increase in respiration rate from the low range to the high range is sudden and occurs in response to hyperthermia. Birds lack sweat glands, so when placed under stress due to heat, they heavily rely upon increased evaporation from the respiratory system for heat transfer. This rise in respiration rate however is not necessarily associated with a greater rate of oxygen consumption. Therefore, unlike most other birds, the common ostrich is able to dissipate heat through panting without experiencing respiratory alkalosis by modifying ventilation of the respiratory medium. During hyperpnea ostriches pant at a respiratory rate of 40–60 cycles per minute, versus their resting rate of 6–12 cycles per minute. Hot, dry, and moisture lacking properties of the common ostrich respiratory medium affect oxygen's diffusion rate (Henry's Law). Common ostriches develop via Intussusceptive angiogenesis, a mechanism of blood vessel formation, characterizing many organs. It is not only involved in vasculature expansion, but also in angioadaptation of vessels to meet physiological requirements. The use of such mechanisms demonstrates an increase in the later stages of lung development, along with elaborate parabronchial vasculature, and reorientation of the gas exchange blood capillaries to establish the crosscurrent system at the blood-gas barrier. The blood–gas barrier (BGB) of their lung tissue is thick. The advantage of this thick barrier may be protection from damage by large volumes of blood flow in times of activity, such as running, since air is pumped by the air sacs rather than the lung itself. As a result, the capillaries in the parabronchi have thinner walls, permitting more efficient gaseous exchange. In combination with separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, it helps to reduce stress on the BGB. Circulation Heart anatomy The common ostrich heart is a closed system, contractile chamber. It is composed of myogenic muscular tissue associated with heart contraction features. There is a double circulatory plan in place possessing both a pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit. The common ostrich's heart has similar features to other avian species, like having a conically shaped heart and being enclosed by a pericardium layer. Moreover, similarities also include a larger right atrium volume and a thicker left ventricle to fulfil the systemic circuit. The ostrich heart has three features that are absent in related birds: The right atrioventricular valve is fixed to the interventricular septum, by a thick muscular stock, which prevents back-flow of blood into the atrium when ventricular systole is occurring. In the fowl this valve is only connected by a short septal attachment. Pulmonary veins attach to the left atrium separately, and also the opening to the pulmonary veins are separated by a septum. Moderator bands, full of Purkinje fibers, are found in different locations in the left and right ventricles. These bands are associated with contractions of the heart and suggests this difference causes the left ventricle to contract harder to create more pressure for a completed circulation of blood around the body. The atrioventricular node position differs from other fowl. It is located in the endocardium of the atrial surface of the right atrioventricular valve. It is not covered by connective tissue, which is characteristic of vertebrate heart anatomy. It also contains fewer myofibrils than usual myocardial cells. The AV node connects the atrial and ventricular chambers. It functions to carry the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricle. Upon view, the myocardial cells are observed to have large densely packed chromosomes within the nucleus. The coronary arteries start in the right and left aortic sinus and provide blood to the heart muscle in a similar fashion to most other vertebrates. Other domestic birds capable of flight have three or more coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. The blood supply by the coronary arteries are fashioned starting as a large branch over the surface of the heart. It then moves along the coronary groove and continues on into the tissue as interventricular branches toward the apex of the heart. The atria, ventricles, and septum are supplied of blood by this modality. The deep branches of the coronary arteries found within the heart tissue are small and supply the interventricular and right atrioventricular valve with blood nutrients for which to carry out their processes. The interatrial artery of the ostrich is small in size and exclusively supplies blood to only part of the left auricle and interatrial septum. These Purkinje fibers (p-fibers) found in the hearts moderator bands are a specialized cardiac muscle fiber that causes the heart to contract. The Purkinje cells are mostly found within both the endocardium and the sub-endocardium. The sinoatrial node shows a small concentration of Purkinje fibers, however, continuing through the conducting pathway of the heart the bundle of his shows the highest amount of these Purkinje fibers. Blood composition The red blood cell count per unit volume in the ostrich is about 40% of that of a human; however, the red blood cells of the ostrich are about three times larger than the red blood cells of a human. The blood oxygen affinity, known as P50, is higher than that of both humans and similar avian species. The reason for this decreased oxygen affinity is due to the hemoglobin configuration found in common ostrich blood. The common ostrich's tetramer is composed of hemoglobin type A and D, compared to typical mammalian tetramers composed of hemoglobin type A and B; hemoglobin D configuration causes a decreased oxygen affinity at the site of the respiratory surface. During the embryonic stage, Hemoglobin E is present. This subtype increases oxygen affinity in order to transport oxygen across the allantoic membrane of the embryo. This can be attributed to the high metabolic need of the developing embryo, thus high oxygen affinity serves to satisfy this demand. When the chick hatches hemoglobin E diminishes while hemoglobin A and D increase in concentration. This shift in hemoglobin concentration results in both decreased oxygen affinity and increased P50 value. Furthermore, the P50 value is influenced by differing organic modulators. In the typical mammalian RBC 2,3 – DPG causes a lower affinity for oxygen. 2,3- DPG constitutes approximately 42–47%, of the cells phosphate of the embryonic ostrich. However, the adult ostrich have no traceable 2,3- DPG.In place of 2,3-DPG the ostrich uses inositol polyphosphates (IPP), which vary from 1–6 phosphates per molecule. In relation to the IPP, the ostrich also uses ATP to lower oxygen affinity. ATP has a consistent concentration of phosphate in the cell around 31% at incubation periods and dropping to 16–20% in 36-day-old chicks. However, IPP has low concentrations, around 4%, of total phosphate concentration in embryonic stages, but the IPP concentration jumps to 60% of total phosphate of the cell. The majority of phosphate concentration switches from 2,3- DPG to IPP, suggesting the result of the overall low oxygen affinity is due to these varying polyphosphates. Concerning immunological adaptation, it was discovered that wild common ostriches have a pronounced non-specific immunity defense, with blood content reflecting high values of lysosome and phagocyte cells in medium. This is in contrast to domesticated ostriches, who in captivity develop high concentration of immunoglobulin antibodies in their circulation, indicating an acquired immunological response. It is suggested that this immunological adaptability may allow this species to have a high success rate of survival in variable environmental settings. Osmoregulation Physiological challenges The common ostrich is a xeric animal, due to the fact that it lives in habitats that are both dry and hot. Water is scarce in dry and hot environments, and this poses a challenge to the ostrich's water consumption. Also the ostrich is a ground bird and cannot fly to find water sources, which poses a further challenge. Because of their size, common ostriches cannot easily escape the heat of their environment; however, they dehydrate less than their small bird counterparts because of their small surface area to volume ratio. Hot, arid habitats pose osmotic stress, such as dehydration, which triggers the common ostrich's homeostatic response to osmoregulate. System overview The common ostrich is well-adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of excretory organs. The common ostrich has an extremely long and developed colon a length of approximately between the coprodeum and the paired caeca, which are around long. A well-developed caeca is also found and, in combination with the rectum, forms the microbial fermentation chambers used for carbohydrate breakdown. The catabolism of carbohydrates produces around of water that can be used internally. The majority of their urine is stored in the coprodeum, and the feces are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the ureters open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in fecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma aldosterone, which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of hyperosmotic urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800 mosmol/L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the common ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the epithelium is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick mucosal layering of the coprodeum. Common ostriches have two kidneys, which are chocolate brown in color, are granular in texture, and lie in a depression in the pelvic cavity of the dorsal wall. They are covered by peritoneum and a layer of fat. Each kidney is about long, wide, and divided into a cranial, middle, and caudal sections by large veins. The caudal section is the largest, extending into the middle of the pelvis. The ureters leave the ventral caudomedial surface and continue caudally, near the midline into the opening of the urodeum of the cloaca. Although there is no bladder, a dilated pouch of ureter stores the urine until it is secreted continuously down from the ureters to the urodeum until discharged. Kidney function Common ostrich kidneys are fairly large and so are able to hold significant amounts of solutes. Hence, common ostriches drink relatively large volumes of water daily and excrete generous quantities of highly concentrated urine. It is when drinking water is unavailable or withdrawn that the urine becomes highly concentrated with uric acid and urates. It seems that common ostriches who normally drink relatively large amounts of water tend to rely on renal conservation of water within the kidney system when drinking water is scarce. Though there have been no official detailed renal studies conducted on the flow rate (Poiseuille's Law) and composition of the ureteral urine in the ostrich, knowledge of renal function has been based on samples of cloacal urine, and samples or quantitative collections of voided urine. Studies have shown that the amount of water intake and dehydration impacts the plasma osmolality and urine osmolality within various sized ostriches. During a normal hydration state of the kidneys, young ostriches tend to have a measured plasma osmolality of 284 mOsm and urine osmolality of 62 mOsm. Adults have higher rates with a plasma osmolality of 330 mOsm and urine osmolality of 163 mOsm. The osmolality of both plasma and urine can alter in regards to whether there is an excess or depleted amount of water present within the kidneys. An interesting fact of common ostriches is that when water is freely available, the urine osmolality can reduce to 60–70 mOsm, not losing any necessary solutes from the kidneys when excess water is excreted. Dehydrated or salt-loaded ostriches can reach a maximal urine osmolality of approximately 800 mOsm. When the plasma osmolality has been measured simultaneously with the maximal osmotic urine, it is seen that the urine:plasma ratio is 2.6:1, the highest encountered among avian species. Along with dehydration, there is also a reduction in flow rate from 20 L·d−1 to only 0.3–0.5 L·d−1. In mammals and common ostriches, the increase of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine flow rate (UFR) is due to a high protein diets. As seen in various studies, scientists have measured clearance of creatinine, a fairly reliable marker of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It has been seen that during normal hydration within the kidneys, the glomerular filtration rate is approximately 92 ml/min. However, when an ostrich experiences dehydration for at least 48 hours (2 days), this value diminishes to only 25% of the hydrated GFR rate. Thus in response to the dehydration, ostrich kidneys secrete small amounts of very viscous glomerular filtrates that have not been broken down and return them to the circulatory system through blood vessels. The reduction of GFR during dehydration is extremely high and so the fractional excretion of water (urine flow rate as a percentage of GFR) drops down from 15% at normal hydration to 1% during dehydration. Water intake and turnover Common ostriches employ adaptive features to manage the dry heat and solar radiation in their habitat. Ostriches will drink available water; however, they are limited in accessing water by being flightless. They are also able to harvest water through dietary means, consuming plants such as the Euphorbia heterochroma that hold up to 87% water. Water mass accounts for 68% of body mass in adult common ostriches; this is down from 84% water mass in 35-day-old chicks. The differing degrees of water retention are thought to be a result of varying body fat mass. In comparison to smaller birds ostriches have a lower evaporative water loss resulting from their small body surface area per unit weight. When heat stress is at its maximum, common ostriches are able to recover evaporative loss by using a metabolic water mechanism to counter the loss by urine, feces, and respiratory evaporation. An experiment to determine the primary source of water intake in the ostrich indicated that while the ostrich does employ a metabolic water production mechanism as a source of hydration, the most important source of water is food. When ostriches were restricted to the no food or water condition, the metabolic water production was only 0.5 L·d−1, while total water lost to urine, feces, and evaporation was 2.3 L·d−1. When the birds were given both water and food, total water gain was 8.5 L·d−1. In the food only condition total water gain was 10.1 L·d−1. These results show that the metabolic water mechanism is not able to sustain water loss independently and that food intake, specifically of plants with a high water content such as Euphorbia heterochroma, is necessary to overcome water loss challenges in the common ostrich's arid habitat. In times of water deprivation, urine electrolyte and osmotic concentration increases while urination rate decreases. Under these conditions urine solute:plasma ratio is approximately 2.5, or hyperosmotic; that is to say that the ratio of solutes to water in the plasma is shifted down whereby reducing osmotic pressure in the plasma. Water is then able to be held back from excretion, keeping the ostrich hydrated, while the passed urine contains higher concentrations of solute. This mechanism exemplifies how renal function facilitates water retention during periods of dehydration stress. Nasal glands A number of avian species use nasal salt glands, alongside their kidneys, to control hypertonicity in their blood plasma. However, the common ostrich shows no nasal glandular function in regard to this homeostatic process. Even in a state of dehydration, which increases the osmolality of |
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player, composer, and educator 1961 – Rick Moody, American author and composer 1961 – Gladstone Small, Barbadian-English cricketer 1962 – Min Ko Naing, Burmese activist 1962 – Vincent Spano, American actor, director, and producer 1963 – Sigvart Dagsland, Norwegian singer, pianist and composer 1964 – Dan Lilker, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1964 – Charles Stross, English journalist, author, and programmer 1965 – Curtis Stigers, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – Zakir Naik, an Indian Islamic preacher; founder and president of the Islamic Research Foundation (IRF) 1966 – Dave Price, American journalist and game show host 1967 – Eric Stuart, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and voice actor 1968 – Rhod Gilbert, Welsh comedian 1968 – Stuart Law, Australian cricketer and coach 1968 – Michael Stich, German tennis player and sportscaster 1969 – Volker Neumüller, German talent manager 1969 – Nelson Vivas, Argentinian footballer, coach, and manager 1970 – Doug 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1978 – Mike Tindall, English rugby player 1978 – Kenji Wu, Taiwanese singer-songwriter and actor 1979 – Damon Scott, British entertainer 1979 – Jaroslav Drobný, Czech footballer 1979 – Ne-Yo, American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer, and actor 1980 – Birsen Yavuz, Turkish sprinter and hurdler 1981 – Nathan Hauritz, Australian cricketer 1981 – Tina Hergold, Slovenian tennis player 1981 – Greg Warren, American football player 1982 – Thierry Amiel, French singer-songwriter 1982 – Michael Dingsdag, Dutch footballer 1982 – Mark Sampson, Welsh footballer and manager 1982 – Simon Gotch, American wrestler 1983 – Dante, Brazilian footballer 1984 – Robert Harting, German discus thrower 1984 – Freida Pinto, Indian actress and model 1984 – Esperanza Spalding, American singer-songwriter and bassist 1984 – Lindsey Vonn, American skier 1984 – Milo Yiannopoulos, British journalist and public speaker 1985 – Yoenis Céspedes, Cuban baseball player 1985 – Andrew Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1986 – Wilma Elles, German actress and fashion designer 1987 – Zac Efron, American actor and singer 1987 – Freja Beha Erichsen, Danish model 1988 – Tessa Schram, Dutch director and actress 1989 – Laci Green, American YouTube personality, video blogger, sex educator, and activist 1989 – Riisa Naka, Japanese model and actress 1990 – Bristol Palin, American public speaker and reality television personality 1990 – Brittney Griner, American professional basketball player 1990 – Drew Crawford, American basketball player 1991 – Roly Bonevacia, Dutch footballer 1992 – John John Florence, American professional surfer 1993 – Ivan Cavaleiro, Portuguese professional footballer 1994 – Pascal Wehrlein, German-Mauritian Formula One driver 1994 – Enhō Akira, Japanese sumo wrestler Deaths Pre-1600 AD 31 – Lucius Aelius Sejanus, Roman politician (b. 20 BC) 325 – Emperor Ming of Jin (b. 299) AD 707 – Pope John VII (b. 650) 815 – Abu'l-Saraya, Zaydi rebel leader 1035 – Sancho III of Pamplona (b. 992) 1081 – Nikephoros Palaiologos, Byzantine general 1101 – Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (b. 1053) 1141 – Leopold, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1108) 1214 – John de Gray, bishop of Norwich 1366 – Petrus Torkilsson, Archbishop of Uppsala 1382 – James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond, Irish politician, Lord Justice of Ireland (b. 1331) 1417 – Pope Gregory XII (b. 1326) 1442 – Infante João of Portugal (b. 1400) 1480 – Uhwudong, Korean dancer and poet (b. 1440) 1503 – Pope Pius III (b. 1439) 1508 – Patrick Hepburn, 1st Earl of Bothwell, Lord High Admiral of Scotland 1511 – Philippe de Commines, French-speaking Fleming in the courts of Burgundy and France (b. 1447) 1526 – Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Spanish explorer (b. 1475) 1541 – Margaret Tudor, queen of James IV of Scotland (born 1489) 1545 – John Taverner, English organist and composer (b. 1490) 1558 – Mary of Hungary (b. 1505) 1561 – Yamamoto Kansuke, Japanese samurai (b. 1501) 1564 – Johannes Acronius Frisius, Dutch physician and mathematician (b. 1520) 1570 – Manuel da Nóbrega, Portuguese-Brazilian priest and missionary (b. 1517) 1601–1900 1604 – Igram van Achelen, Dutch lawyer and politician (b. 1528) 1646 – Isaac Jogues, French priest, missionary, and martyr (b. 1607) 1667 – Fasilides, Ethiopian emperor (b. 1603) 1678 – Jacob Jordaens, Belgian painter illustrator (b. 1593) 1739 – António José da Silva, Brazilian-Portuguese playwright (b. 1705) 1744 – Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough (b. 1660) 1770 – John Manners, Marquess of Granby, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire (b. 1721) 1775 – Christian August Crusius, German philosopher and theologian (b. 1715) 1817 – Etienne Nicolas Méhul, French pianist and composer (b. 1763) 1865 – Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, English soldier and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1784) 1871 – Charles Babbage, English mathematician and engineer, invented the mechanical computer (b. 1791) 1876 – Francis Preston Blair, American journalist (b. 1791) 1886 – Philipp Franz von Siebold, German physician and botanist (b. 1796) 1889 – Antonio Meucci, Italian-American engineer (b. 1808) 1892 – William W. Chapman, American lawyer and politician (b. 1808) 1893 – Charles Gounod, French composer and educator (b. 1818) 1901–present 1908 – Nozu Michitsura, Japanese field marshal (b. 1840) 1911 – Alfred Binet, French psychologist and author (b. 1857) 1921 – Ludwig III of Bavaria (b. 1845) 1931 – Thomas Edison, American engineer and businessman, invented the light bulb and phonograph (b. 1847) 1934 – Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spanish pathologist, histologist, and neuroscientist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852) 1935 – Gaston Lachaise, French-American sculptor (b. 1882) 1941 – Manuel Teixeira Gomes, Portuguese lawyer and politician, 7th President of Portugal (b. 1860) 1942 – Mikhail Nesterov, Russian painter (b. 1862) 1947 – Michiaki Kamada, Japanese admiral (b. 1890) 1948 – Walther von Brauchitsch, German field marshal (b. 1881) 1956 – Yoshio Markino, Japanese painter and author (b. 1869) 1959 – Boughera El Ouafi, Algerian-French runner (b. 1898) 1961 – Tsuru Aoki, Japanese-American actress (b. 1892) 1962 – Iván Petrovich, Serbian-German actor and singer (b. 1894) 1965 – Henry Travers, Irish-American actor (b. 1874) 1966 – Elizabeth Arden, Canadian-American businesswoman, founded Elizabeth Arden, Inc. (b. 1878) 1966 – S. S. Kresge, American businessman, founded Kmart (b. 1867) 1969 – Gyula Mándi, Hungarian footballer and manager (b. 1899) 1973 – Margaret Caroline Anderson, American publisher, founded The Little Review (b. 1886) 1973 – Walt Kelly, American illustrator and animator (b. 1913) 1973 – Leo Strauss, German-American political scientist, philosopher, and academic (b. 1899) 1975 – K. C. Douglas, American rural blues singer (b. 1913) 1975 – Al Lettieri, American actor (b. 1928) 1975 – Graham Haberfield, English actor (b. 1941) 1976 – Viswanatha Satyanarayana, Indian poet and author (b. 1895) 1977 – Andreas Baader, German militant (b. 1943) 1977 – Gudrun Ensslin, German militant leader, founded the Red Army Faction (b. 1940) 1978 – Ramón Mercader, Spanish journalist, assassin of Leon Trotsky (b. 1914) 1980 – Edwin Way Teale, American photographer and author (b. 1899) 1982 – Dwain Esper, American director and producer (b. 1892) 1982 – Pierre Mendès France, French lawyer and politician, 143rd Prime Minister of France (b. 1907) 1982 – John Robarts, Canadian lawyer and politician, 17th Premier of Ontario (b. 1917) 1982 – Bess Truman, American wife of Harry S. Truman, 40th First Lady of the United States (b. 1885) 1983 – Diego Abad de Santillán, Spanish economist and author (b. 1897) 1983 – Willie Jones, American baseball player (b. 1925) 1984 – Henri Michaux, French painter and poet (b. 1899) 1987 – Adriaan Ditvoorst, Dutch director and screenwriter (b. 1940) 2000 – Julie London, American singer and actress (b. 1926) 2000 – Gwen Verdon, American actress and dancer (b. 1925) 2003 – Preston Smith, American businessman and politician, 40th Governor of Texas (b. 1912) 2003 – Manuel Vázquez Montalbán, Spanish journalist, author, and critic (b. 1939) 2005 – Johnny Haynes, English-Scottish footballer (b. 1934) 2005 – Bill King, American sportscaster (b. 1927) 2006 – Mario Francesco Pompedda, Italian cardinal (b. 1929) 2006 – Anna Russell, English-Canadian singer and actress (b. 1911) 2006 – Laurie Taitt, Guyanese-English hurdler (b. 1934) 2007 – Alan Coren, English journalist and author (b. 1938) 2007 – William J. Crowe, American admiral and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (b. 1925) 2007 – Vincent DeDomenico, American businessman, founded the Napa Valley Wine Train (b. 1915) 2007 – Lucky Dube, South African singer-songwriter and keyboard player (b. 1964) 2008 – Dee Dee Warwick, American singer (b. 1945) 2009 – Adriaan Kortlandt, Dutch ethologist and biologist (b. 1918) 2009 – Nancy Spero, American painter and academic (b. 1926) 2010 – Marion Brown, American saxophonist and musicologist (b. 1931) 2010 – Billy Raimondi, American baseball player (b. 1912) 2012 – Brain Damage, American wrestler (b. 1977) 2012 – Sylvia Kristel, Dutch model and actress (b. 1952) 2012 – Slater Martin, American basketball player and coach (b. 1925) 2012 – George Mattos, American pole vaulter (b. 1929) 2012 – Albert Lee Ueltschi, American pilot and businessman, founded FlightSafety International (b. 1917) 2012 – David S. Ware, American saxophonist and composer (b. 1949) 2013 – Tom Foley, American lawyer and politician, 57th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b. 1929) 2013 – Bum Phillips, American football player and coach (b. 1923) 2013 – Allan Stanley, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1926) 2013 – Bill Young, American sergeant and politician (b. 1930) 2014 – Mariano Lebrón Saviñón, Dominican author and academic (b. 1922) 2014 – Edward Regan, American academic and politician (b. 1930) 2014 – Sidney Shapiro, American-Chinese author and translator (b. 1915) 2015 – Robert Dickerson, Australian painter (b. 1924) 2015 – Gamal El-Ghitani, Egyptian journalist and author (b. 1945) 2015 – Robert W. Farquhar, American engineer (b. 1932) 2015 – Frank Watkins, American bass player (b. 1968) 2015 – Paul West, English-American author, poet, and academic (b. 1930) 2017 – Marino Perani, Italian football player and manager (b. 1939) 2018 – Lisbeth Palme, Swedish child psychologist, former chairwoman of UNICEF (b. 1931) 2018 – Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab, 5th President of the Sudan (b. 1934) 2019 – Rui Jordão, Angolan-born Portuguese footballer (b. 1952) 2020 – René Felber, 81st President | 1905 – Jan Gies, Dutch activist (d. 1993) 1905 – Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Ivorian union leader and politician, 1st President of Côte d'Ivoire (d. 1993) 1906 – James Brooks, American painter and educator (d. 1992) 1909 – Norberto Bobbio, Italian philosopher and theorist (d. 2004) 1914 – Raymond Lambert, Swiss mountaineer (d. 1997) 1915 – Victor Sen Yung, American actor (d. 1980) 1918 – Molly Geertsema, Dutch lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1991) 1918 – Konstantinos Mitsotakis, Greek lawyer and politician, 178th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2017) 1918 – Bobby Troup, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (d. 1999) 1919 – Ric Nordman, Canadian captain and politician (d. 1996) 1919 – Anita O'Day, American singer (d. 2006) 1919 – Pierre Trudeau, Canadian lawyer, academic, and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 2000) 1919 – Camilla Williams, American soprano and educator (d. 2012) 1920 – Melina Mercouri, Greek actress, singer, and politician, 9th Greek Minister of Culture (d. 1994) 1921 – Jerry Cooke, Ukrainian-American photographer and journalist (d. 2005) 1921 – Jesse Helms, American journalist and politician (d. 2008) 1921 – Beatrice Helen Worsley, Mexican-Canadian computer scientist and academic (d. 1972) 1923 – Jessie Mae Hemphill, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2008) 1924 – Buddy MacMaster, Canadian singer-songwriter and fiddler (d. 2014) 1925 – Ramiz Alia, Albanian politician, 1st President of Albania (d. 2011) 1926 – Chuck Berry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017) 1926 – Klaus Kinski, German-American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1991) 1927 – Marv Rotblatt, American baseball player (d. 2013) 1927 – George C. Scott, American actor and director (d. 1999) 1928 – Keith Jackson, American sportscaster and actor (d. 2018) 1928 – Maurice El Mediouni, Algerian pianist and composer 1928 – Dick Taverne, English lawyer and politician 1929 – Violeta Chamorro, Nicaraguan publisher and politician, President of Nicaragua 1929 – Hillard Elkins, American producer and manager (d. 2010) 1929 – Kees Fens, Dutch author and critic (d. 2008) 1930 – Flora Fraser, 21st Lady Saltoun, Scottish politician 1930 – Esther Hautzig, Lithuanian-American author (d. 2009) 1931 – Chris Albertson, Icelandic-American historian, journalist, and producer (d. 2019) 1931 – Roger Climpson, English-Australian journalist 1931 – Ien Dales, Dutch civil servant and politician, Dutch Minister of the Interior (d. 1994) 1932 – Vytautas Landsbergis, Lithuanian musicologist and politician 1933 – Forrest Gregg, American football player and coach (d. 2019) 1933 – Irwin M. Jacobs, American electrical engineer, businessman, and entrepreneur 1933 – Ludovico Scarfiotti, Italian race car driver (d. 1968) 1934 – Inger Stevens, Swedish-American actress (d. 1970) 1935 – Peter Boyle, American actor (d. 2006) 1936 – Jaime Lucas Ortega y Alamino, Cuban cardinal (d. 2019) 1938 – Robert Dove, American lawyer and politician (d. 2021) 1938 – Dawn Wells, American model and actress, Miss Nevada 1959 (d. 2020) 1939 – Flavio Cotti, Swiss lawyer and politician, 82nd President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2020) 1939 – Mike Ditka, American football player, coach, and sportscaster 1939 – Lee Harvey Oswald, American assassin of John F. Kennedy (d. 1963) 1939 – Paddy Reilly, Irish folk singer and guitarist 1939 – Jan Erik Vold, Norwegian poet, author, and translator 1940 – Cynthia Weil, American songwriter 1940 – Talitha Getty, actress and model of Dutch extraction (d. 1971) 1941 – Timothy Bell, Baron Bell, English businessman (d. 2019) 1941 – Martha Burk, American psychologist and author 1942 – Gianfranco Ravasi, Italian cardinal and scholar 1943 – Christine Charbonneau, Canadian singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1943 – Birthe Rønn Hornbech, Danish police officer and politician, Danish Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs 1945 – Huell Howser, American television host and actor (d. 2013) 1945 – Chris Shays, American politician 1946 – James Robert Baker, American author and screenwriter (d. 1997) 1946 – Frank Beamer, American football player and coach 1946 – Dafydd Elis-Thomas, Welsh academic and politician 1946 – Howard Shore, Canadian composer, conductor, and producer 1947 – Paul Chuckle, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1947 – Job Cohen, Dutch scholar and politician, Mayor of Amsterdam 1947 – Laura Nyro, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1997) 1947 – Gary Sullivan, Australian rugby league player 1948 – Hans Köchler, Austrian philosopher, author, and academic 1948 – Ntozake Shange, American author, poet, and playwright (d. 2018) 1949 – Joe Egan, Scottish singer-songwriter 1949 – George Hendrick, American baseball player and coach 1949 – Gary Richrath, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2015) 1950 – Wendy Wasserstein, American playwright and author (d. 2006) 1951 – Mike Antonovich, American ice hockey player and coach 1951 – Pam Dawber, American actress and producer 1951 – Terry McMillan, American author and screenwriter 1951 – David Normington, English civil servant and politician 1951 – Nic Potter, English bass player and songwriter (d. 2013) 1952 – Roy Dias, Sri Lankan cricketer and coach 1952 – Paul Geroski, American-English economist and academic (d. 2005) 1952 – Chuck Lorre, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1952 – Patrick Morrow, Canadian mountaineer and photographer 1952 – Bảo Ninh, Vietnamese soldier and author 1952 – Allen Ripley, American baseball player (d. 2014) 1952 – Jerry Royster, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1954 – Nick Houghton, English general 1954 – Arliss Howard, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1954 – Bob Weinstein, American film executive 1955 – Jean-Pierre Hautier, Belgian journalist and television host (d. 2012) 1955 – Vanessa Briscoe Hay, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1955 – Timmy Mallett, English radio and television host 1955 – Stu Mead, American painter and illustrator 1955 – David Twohy, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1955 – Rita Verdonk, Dutch journalist and politician, Dutch Minister of Justice 1955 – Denis Watson, Zimbabwean golfer 1955 – Mark Welland, English physicist and academic 1956 – Craig Bartlett, American animator, producer, screenwriter, and voice actor 1956 – Martina Navratilova, Czech-American tennis player and coach 1956 – Jim Talent, American lawyer and politician 1957 – Jon Lindstrom, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1957 – Catherine Ringer, French singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress 1958 – Thomas Hearns, American boxer 1958 – Megumi Ishii, Japanese actress and politician 1958 – Letitia James, American lawyer, activist and politician 1958 – Kjell Samuelsson, Swedish ice hockey player and coach 1959 – Kirby Chambliss, American pilot 1959 – Mauricio Funes, Salvadoran politician, former President of El Salvador 1959 – Milcho Manchevski, Macedonian-American director and screenwriter 1959 – John Nord, American wrestler 1960 – Erin Moran, American actress (d. 2017) 1960 – Jean-Claude Van Damme, Belgian martial artist, actor, and producer, and screenwriter 1961 – Wynton Marsalis, American trumpet player, composer, and educator 1961 – Rick Moody, American author and composer 1961 – Gladstone Small, Barbadian-English cricketer 1962 – Min Ko Naing, Burmese activist 1962 – Vincent Spano, American actor, director, and producer 1963 – Sigvart Dagsland, Norwegian singer, pianist and composer 1964 – Dan Lilker, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1964 – Charles Stross, English journalist, author, and programmer 1965 – Curtis Stigers, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – Zakir Naik, an Indian Islamic preacher; founder and president of the Islamic Research Foundation (IRF) 1966 – Dave Price, American journalist and game show host 1967 – Eric Stuart, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and voice actor 1968 – Rhod Gilbert, Welsh comedian 1968 – Stuart Law, Australian cricketer and coach 1968 – Michael Stich, German tennis player and sportscaster 1969 – Volker Neumüller, German talent manager 1969 – Nelson Vivas, Argentinian footballer, coach, and manager 1970 – Doug Mirabelli, American baseball player and coach 1970 – Mike Starink, Dutch television host and actor 1971 – Nick O'Hern, Australian golfer 1972 – Mika Ninagawa, Japanese photographer and director 1972 – Alex Tagliani, Canadian race car driver 1973 – Stephen Allan, Australian golfer 1973 – James Foley, American photographer and journalist (d. 2014) 1973 – Michalis Kapsis, Greek footballer 1973 – Rachel Nichols, American journalist and sportscaster 1973 – Sarah Winckless, English rower 1974 – Robbie Savage, Welsh footballer and sportscaster 1974 – Peter Svensson, Swedish guitarist and songwriter 1974 – Zhou Xun, Chinese actress and singer 1974 – Amish Tripathi, Indian author 1975 – Alex Cora, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and sportscaster 1975 – Josh Sawyer, American video game designer 1977 – Flavia Colgan, Brazilian-American journalist 1977 – Kunal Kapoor, Indian actor 1977 – Ryan Nelsen, New Zealand-American soccer player and coach 1977 – David Vuillemin, French motorcycle racer 1978 – Mike Tindall, English rugby player 1978 – Kenji Wu, Taiwanese singer-songwriter and actor 1979 – Damon Scott, British entertainer 1979 – Jaroslav Drobný, Czech footballer 1979 – Ne-Yo, American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer, and actor 1980 – Birsen Yavuz, Turkish sprinter and hurdler 1981 – Nathan Hauritz, Australian cricketer 1981 – Tina Hergold, Slovenian tennis player 1981 – Greg Warren, American football player 1982 – Thierry Amiel, French singer-songwriter 1982 – Michael Dingsdag, Dutch footballer 1982 – Mark Sampson, Welsh footballer and manager 1982 – Simon Gotch, American wrestler 1983 – Dante, Brazilian footballer 1984 – Robert Harting, German discus thrower 1984 – Freida Pinto, Indian actress and model 1984 – Esperanza Spalding, American singer-songwriter and bassist 1984 – Lindsey Vonn, American skier 1984 – Milo Yiannopoulos, British journalist and public speaker 1985 – Yoenis Céspedes, Cuban baseball player 1985 – Andrew Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1986 – Wilma Elles, German actress and fashion designer 1987 – Zac Efron, American actor and singer 1987 – Freja Beha Erichsen, Danish model 1988 – Tessa Schram, Dutch director and actress 1989 – Laci Green, American YouTube personality, video blogger, sex educator, and activist 1989 – Riisa Naka, Japanese model and actress 1990 – Bristol Palin, American public speaker and reality television personality 1990 – Brittney Griner, American professional basketball player 1990 – Drew Crawford, American basketball player 1991 – Roly Bonevacia, Dutch footballer 1992 – John John Florence, American professional surfer 1993 – Ivan Cavaleiro, Portuguese professional footballer 1994 – Pascal Wehrlein, German-Mauritian Formula One driver 1994 – Enhō Akira, Japanese sumo wrestler Deaths Pre-1600 AD 31 – Lucius Aelius Sejanus, Roman politician (b. 20 BC) 325 – Emperor Ming of Jin (b. 299) AD 707 – Pope John VII (b. 650) 815 – Abu'l-Saraya, Zaydi rebel leader 1035 – Sancho III of Pamplona (b. 992) 1081 – Nikephoros Palaiologos, Byzantine general 1101 – Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (b. 1053) 1141 – Leopold, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1108) 1214 – John de Gray, bishop of Norwich 1366 – Petrus Torkilsson, Archbishop of Uppsala 1382 – James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond, Irish politician, Lord Justice of Ireland (b. 1331) 1417 – Pope Gregory XII (b. 1326) 1442 – Infante João of Portugal (b. 1400) 1480 – Uhwudong, Korean dancer and poet (b. 1440) 1503 – Pope Pius III (b. 1439) 1508 – Patrick Hepburn, 1st Earl of Bothwell, Lord High Admiral of Scotland 1511 – Philippe de Commines, French-speaking Fleming in the courts of Burgundy and France (b. 1447) 1526 – Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Spanish explorer (b. 1475) 1541 – Margaret Tudor, queen of James IV of Scotland (born 1489) 1545 – John Taverner, English organist and composer (b. 1490) 1558 – Mary of Hungary (b. 1505) 1561 – Yamamoto Kansuke, Japanese samurai (b. 1501) 1564 – Johannes Acronius Frisius, Dutch physician and mathematician (b. 1520) 1570 – Manuel da Nóbrega, Portuguese-Brazilian priest and missionary (b. 1517) 1601–1900 1604 – Igram van Achelen, Dutch lawyer and politician (b. 1528) 1646 – Isaac Jogues, French priest, missionary, and martyr (b. 1607) 1667 – Fasilides, Ethiopian emperor (b. 1603) 1678 – Jacob Jordaens, Belgian painter illustrator (b. 1593) 1739 – António José da |
initially painful. Masters and Johnson argued that all women are potentially multiply orgasmic, but that multiply orgasmic men are rare, and stated that "the female is capable of rapid return to orgasm immediately following an orgasmic experience, if restimulated before tensions have dropped below plateau phase response levels". Though generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms, soon after the first one, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement. After the initial orgasm, subsequent orgasms for women may be stronger or more pleasurable as the stimulation accumulates. Clitoral and vaginal categories Discussions of female orgasm are complicated by orgasms in women typically being divided into two categories: clitoral orgasm and vaginal (or G-spot) orgasm. In 1973, Irving Singer theorized that there are three types of female orgasms; he categorized these as vulval, uterine, and blended, but because he was a philosopher, "these categories were generated from descriptions of orgasm in literature rather than laboratory studies". In 1982, Ladas, Whipple and Perry also proposed three categories: the tenting type (derived from clitoral stimulation), the A-frame type (derived from G-spot stimulation), and the blended type (derived from clitoral and G-spot stimulation). In 1999, Whipple and Komisaruk proposed cervix stimulation as being able to cause a fourth type of female orgasm. Female orgasms by means other than clitoral or vaginal/G-spot stimulation are less prevalent in scientific literature and most scientists contend that no distinction should be made between "types" of female orgasm. This distinction began with Sigmund Freud, who postulated the concept of "vaginal orgasm" as separate from clitoral orgasm. In 1905, Freud stated that clitoral orgasms are purely an adolescent phenomenon and that upon reaching puberty, the proper response of mature women is a change-over to vaginal orgasms, meaning orgasms without any clitoral stimulation. While Freud provided no evidence for this basic assumption, the consequences of this theory were considerable. Many women felt inadequate when they could not achieve orgasm via vaginal intercourse alone, involving little or no clitoral stimulation, as Freud's theory made penile-vaginal intercourse the central component to women's sexual satisfaction. The first major national surveys of sexual behavior were the Kinsey Reports. Alfred Kinsey was the first researcher to harshly criticize Freud's ideas about female sexuality and orgasm when, through his interviews with thousands of women, Kinsey found that most of the women he surveyed could not have vaginal orgasms. He "criticized Freud and other theorists for projecting male constructs of sexuality onto women" and "viewed the clitoris as the main center of sexual response" and the vagina as "relatively unimportant" for sexual satisfaction, relaying that "few women inserted fingers or objects into their vaginas when they masturbated". He "concluded that satisfaction from penile penetration [is] mainly psychological or perhaps the result of referred sensation". Masters and Johnson's research into the female sexual response cycle, as well as Shere Hite's, generally supported Kinsey's findings about female orgasm. Masters and Johnson's research on the topic came at the time of the second-wave feminist movement, and inspired feminists such as Anne Koedt, author of The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm, to speak about the "false distinction" made between clitoral and vaginal orgasms and women's biology not being properly analyzed. Clitoral and vaginal relationships Accounts that the vagina is capable of producing orgasms continue to be subject to debate because, in addition to the vagina's low concentration of nerve endings, reports of the G-spot's location are inconsistent—it appears to be nonexistent in some women and may be an extension of another structure, such as the Skene's gland or the clitoris, which is a part of the Skene's gland. In a January 2012 The Journal of Sexual Medicine review examining years of research into the existence of the G-spot, scholars stated that "[r]eports in the public media would lead one to believe the G-spot is a well-characterized entity capable of providing extreme sexual stimulation, yet this is far from the truth". Possible explanations for the G-spot were examined by Masters and Johnson, who were the first researchers to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia. In addition to observing that the majority of their female subjects could only have clitoral orgasms, they found that both clitoral and vaginal orgasms had the same stages of physical response. On this basis, they argued that clitoral stimulation is the source of both kinds of orgasms, reasoning that the clitoris is stimulated during penetration by friction against its hood; their notion that this provides the clitoris with sufficient sexual stimulation has been criticized by researchers such as Elisabeth Lloyd. Australian urologist Helen O'Connell's 2005 research additionally indicates a connection between orgasms experienced vaginally and the clitoris, suggesting that clitoral tissue extends into the anterior wall of the vagina and that therefore clitoral and vaginal orgasms are of the same origin. Some studies, using ultrasound, have found physiological evidence of the G-spot in women who report having orgasms during vaginal intercourse, but O'Connell suggests that the clitoris's interconnected relationship with the vagina is the physiological explanation for the conjectured G-spot. Having used MRI technology which enabled her to note a direct relationship between the legs or roots of the clitoris and the erectile tissue of the "clitoral bulbs" and corpora, and the distal urethra and vagina, she stated that the vaginal wall is the clitoris; that lifting the skin off the vagina on the side walls reveals the bulbs of the clitoris—triangular, crescental masses of erectile tissue. O'Connell et al., who performed dissections on the female genitals of cadavers and used photography to map the structure of nerves in the clitoris, were already aware that the clitoris is more than just its glans and asserted in 1998 that there is more erectile tissue associated with the clitoris than is generally described in anatomical textbooks. They concluded that some females have more extensive clitoral tissues and nerves than others, especially having observed this in young cadavers as compared to elderly ones, and therefore whereas the majority of females can only achieve orgasm by direct stimulation of the external parts of the clitoris, the stimulation of the more generalized tissues of the clitoris via intercourse may be sufficient for others. French researchers Odile Buisson and Pierre Foldès reported similar findings to that of O'Connell's. In 2008, they published the first complete 3D sonography of the stimulated clitoris, and republished it in 2009 with new research, demonstrating the ways in which erectile tissue of the clitoris engorges and surrounds the vagina, arguing that women may be able to achieve vaginal orgasm via stimulation of the G-spot because the highly innervated clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration. They assert that since the front wall of the vagina is inextricably linked with the internal parts of the clitoris, stimulating the vagina without activating the clitoris may be next to impossible. In their 2009 published study, the "coronal planes during perineal contraction and finger penetration demonstrated a close relationship between the root of the clitoris and the anterior vaginal wall". Buisson and Foldès suggested "that the special sensitivity of the lower anterior vaginal wall could be explained by pressure and movement of clitoris's root during a vaginal penetration and subsequent perineal contraction". Supporting a distinct G-spot is a study by Rutgers University, published 2011, which was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain; brain scans showed that the brain registered distinct feelings between stimulating the clitoris, the cervix and the vaginal wall – where the G-spot is reported to be – when several women stimulated themselves in a functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) machine. "I think that the bulk of the evidence shows that the G-spot is not a particular thing," stated Barry Komisaruk, head of the research findings. "It's not like saying, 'What is the thyroid gland?' The G-spot is more of a thing like New York City is a thing. It's a region, it's a convergence of many different structures." Commenting on Komisaruk's research and other findings, Emmanuele Jannini, a professor of endocrinology at the University of Aquila in Italy, acknowledged a series of essays published in March 2012 in The Journal of Sexual Medicine, which document evidence that vaginal and clitoral orgasms are separate phenomena that activate different areas of the brain and possibly suggest key psychological differences between women. Other factors and research Regular difficulty reaching orgasm after ample sexual stimulation, known as anorgasmia, is significantly more common in women than in men (see below). In addition to sexual dysfunction being a cause for women's inability to reach orgasm, or the amount of time for sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm being variable and longer in women than in men, other factors include a lack of communication between sexual partners about what is needed for the woman to reach orgasm, feelings of sexual inadequacy in either partner, a focus on only penetration (vaginal or otherwise), and men generalizing women's trigger for orgasm based on their own sexual experiences with other women. Scholars state "many couples are locked into the idea that orgasms should be achieved only through intercourse [vaginal sex]" and that "[e]ven the word foreplay suggests that any other form of sexual stimulation is merely preparation for the 'main event.'... ...Because women reach orgasm through intercourse less consistently than men, they are more likely than men to have faked an orgasm". Sex counselor Ian Kerner stated, "It's a myth that using the penis is the main way to pleasure a woman." He cites research concluding that women reach orgasm about 25% of the time with intercourse, compared with 81% of the time during oral sex (cunnilingus). In the first large-scale empirical study worldwide to link specific practices with orgasm, reported in the Journal of Sex Research in 2006, demographic and sexual history variables were comparatively weakly associated with orgasm. Data was analyzed from the Australian Study of Health and Relationships, a national telephone survey of sexual behavior and attitudes and sexual health knowledge carried out in 2001–2002, with a representative sample of 19,307 Australians aged 16 to 59. Practices included "vaginal intercourse alone (12%), vaginal + manual stimulation of the man's and/or woman's genitals (49%), and vaginal intercourse + manual + oral (32%)" and the "[e]ncounters may also have included other practices. Men had an orgasm in 95% of encounters and women in 69%. Generally, the more practices engaged in, the higher a woman's chance of having an orgasm. Women were more likely to reach orgasm in encounters including cunnilingus". Other studies suggest that women exposed to lower levels of prenatal androgens are more likely to experience orgasm during vaginal intercourse than other women. Exercise-induced Kinsey, in his 1953 book Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, stated that exercise could bring about sexual pleasure, including orgasm. A review in 1990 on the sexual response itself as exercise, reviewed the literature and stated that the field was poorly researched; it also said that studies had found that aerobic or isotonic exercise that resembles sexual activity or sexual positions can induce sexual pleasure, including orgasm. A 2007 review of the relationship between pelvic floor dysfunction and sexual problems in men and women found that they are commonly linked and suggested that physical therapy strengthening the pelvic floor could help address the sexual problems but that it was not well studied enough to recommend. Starting in at least 2007, the term, "coregasm" was used in popular media to refer to exercise-induced orgasm or in academic parlance termed exercise-induced sexual pleasure or EISP, and an extensive discussion of the "yogasm" occurred in a 2011 Daily Beast posting. A paper published in 2012 presented results of an online survey of women who had experienced an orgasm or other sexual pleasure during exercise. The paper was widely discussed in popular media when it was published. The authors of the paper said that research on the relationship between exercise and sexual response was still lacking. Anal and prostate stimulation In both sexes, pleasure can be derived from the nerve endings around the anus and the anus itself, such as during anal sex. It is possible for men to achieve orgasms through prostate stimulation alone. The prostate is the male homologue (variation) to the Skene's glands (which are believed to be connected to the female G-spot), and can be sexually stimulated through anal sex, perineum massage or via a vibrator. Much of the available information about prostate-induced orgasms comes from anecdotal reports by individuals, and the exact mechanisms by which such orgasms are produced are unclear; some sources suggest this occurs via stimulation of nerves in the prostatic plexus surrounding the organ, others suggest it is via nerves within the prostate itself, and others say changes in the brain (neuroplasticity) are required to derive pleasure from prostate stimulation. Regardless, prostate-induced orgasms are often reported to be intensely pleasurable. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, described by some men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The practice of pegging (consisting of a woman penetrating a man's anus with a strap-on dildo) stimulates the prostate. It is typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex. For women, penile-anal penetration may also indirectly stimulate the clitoris by the shared sensory nerves, especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris. The G-spot area, which is considered to be interconnected with the clitoris, may also be indirectly stimulated during anal sex. Although the anus has many nerve endings, their purpose is not specifically for inducing orgasm, and so a woman achieving orgasm solely by anal stimulation is rare. Direct stimulation of the clitoris, a G-spot area, or both, while engaging in anal sex can help some women enjoy the activity and reach orgasm during it. The aforementioned orgasms are sometimes referred to as anal orgasms, but sexologists and sex educators generally believe that orgasms derived from anal penetration are the result of the relationship between the nerves of the anus, rectum, clitoris or G-spot area in women, and the anus's proximity to the prostate and relationship between the anal and rectal nerves in men, rather than orgasms originating from the anus itself. Nipple stimulation For women, stimulation of the breast area during sexual intercourse or foreplay, or solely having the breasts fondled, can create mild to intense orgasms, sometimes referred to as a breast orgasm or nipple orgasm. Few women report experiencing orgasm from nipple stimulation. Before Komisaruk et al.'s functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) research on nipple stimulation in 2011, reports of women achieving orgasm from nipple stimulation relied solely on anecdotal evidence. Komisaruk's study was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain; it indicates that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix, and that these reported orgasms are genital orgasms caused by nipple stimulation, and may be directly linked to the genital sensory cortex ("the genital area of the brain"). An orgasm is believed to occur in part because of the hormone oxytocin, which is produced in the body during sexual excitement and arousal and labor. It has also been shown that oxytocin is produced when a man or woman's nipples are stimulated and become erect. Komisaruk also relayed, however, that preliminary data suggests that nipple nerves may directly link up with the relevant parts of the brain without uterine mediation, acknowledging the men in his study who showed the same pattern of nipple stimulation activating genital brain regions. Medical aspects Physiological responses Masters and Johnson were some of the first researchers to study the sexual response cycle in the early 1960s, based on the observation of 382 women and 312 men. They described a cycle that begins with excitement as blood rushes into the genitals, then reaches a plateau during which they are fully aroused, which leads to orgasm, and finally resolution, in which the blood leaves the genitals. In the 1970s, Helen Singer Kaplan added the category of desire to the cycle, which she argued precedes sexual excitation. She stated that emotions of anxiety, defensiveness and the failure of communication can interfere with desire and orgasm. In the late 1980s and after, Rosemary Basson proposed a more cyclical alternative to what had largely been viewed as linear progression. In her model, desire feeds arousal and orgasm, and is in turn fueled by the rest of the orgasmic cycle. Rather than orgasm being the peak of the sexual experience, she suggested that it is just one point in the circle and that people could feel sexually satisfied at any stage, reducing the focus on climax as an end-goal of all sexual activity. Males As a man nears orgasm during stimulation of the penis, he feels an intense and highly pleasurable pulsating sensation of neuromuscular euphoria. These pulses are a series of throbbing sensations of the bulbospongiosus muscles that begin in the anal sphincter and travel to the tip of the penis. They eventually increase in speed and intensity as the orgasm approaches, until a final "plateau" (the orgasmic) pleasure sustained for several seconds. During orgasm, a human male experiences rapid, rhythmic contractions of the anal sphincter, the prostate, and the muscles of the penis. The sperm are transmitted up the vas deferens from the testicles, into the prostate gland as well as through the seminal vesicles to produce what is known as semen. The prostate produces a secretion that forms one of the components of ejaculate. Except for in cases of a dry orgasm, contraction of the sphincter and prostate force stored semen to be expelled through the penis's urethral opening. The process takes from three to ten seconds, and produces a pleasurable feeling. Ejaculation may continue for a few seconds after the euphoric sensation gradually tapers off. It is believed that the exact feeling of "orgasm" varies from one man to another. After ejaculation, a refractory period usually occurs, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. This can last anywhere from less than a minute to several hours or days, depending on age and other individual factors. Females A woman's orgasm may, in some cases, last a little longer than a man's. Women's orgasms have been estimated to last, on average, approximately 20 seconds, and to consist of a series of muscular contractions in the pelvic area that includes the vagina, the uterus, and the anus. For some women, on some occasions, these contractions begin soon after the woman reports that the orgasm has started and continue at intervals of about one second with initially increasing, and then reducing, intensity. In some instances, the series of regular contractions is followed by a few additional contractions or shudders at irregular intervals. In other cases, the woman reports having an orgasm, but no pelvic contractions are measured at all. Women's orgasms are preceded by erection of the clitoris and moistening of the opening of the vagina. Some women exhibit a sex flush, a reddening of the skin over much of the body due to increased blood flow to the skin. As a woman nears orgasm, the clitoral glans retracts under the clitoral hood, and the labia minora (inner lips) become darker. As orgasm becomes imminent, the outer third of the vagina tightens and narrows, while overall the vagina lengthens and dilates and also becomes congested from engorged soft tissue. Elsewhere in the body, myofibroblasts of the nipple-areolar complex contract, causing erection of the nipples and contraction of the areolar diameter, reaching their maximum at the start of orgasm. A woman experiences full orgasm when her uterus, vagina, anus, and pelvic muscles undergo a series of rhythmic contractions. Most women find these contractions very pleasurable. Researchers from the University Medical Center of Groningen in the Netherlands correlated the sensation of orgasm with muscular contractions occurring at a frequency of 8–13 Hz centered in the pelvis and measured in the anus. They argue that the presence of this particular frequency of contractions can distinguish between voluntary contraction of these muscles and spontaneous involuntary contractions, and appears to more accurately correlate with orgasm as opposed to other metrics like heart rate that only measure excitation. They assert that they have identified "[t]he first objective and quantitative measure that has a strong correspondence with the subjective experience that orgasm ultimately is" and state that the measure of contractions that occur at a frequency of 8–13 Hz is specific to orgasm. They found that using this metric they could distinguish from rest, voluntary muscular contractions, and even unsuccessful orgasm attempts. Since ancient times in Western Europe, women could be medically diagnosed with a disorder called female hysteria, the symptoms of which included faintness, nervousness, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in abdomen, muscle spasm, shortness of breath, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, and "a tendency to cause trouble". Women considered suffering from the condition would sometimes undergo "pelvic massage" — stimulation of the genitals by the doctor until the woman experienced "hysterical paroxysm" (i.e., orgasm). Paroxysm was regarded as a medical treatment, and not a sexual release. The disorder has ceased to be recognized as a medical condition since the 1920s. Brain There have been very few studies correlating orgasm and brain activity in real time. One study examined 12 healthy women using a positron emission tomography (PET) scanner while they were being stimulated by their partners. Brain changes were observed and compared between states of rest, sexual stimulation, faked orgasm, and actual orgasm. Differences were reported in the brains of men and women during stimulation. However, changes in brain activity were observed in both sexes in which the brain regions associated with behavioral control, fear and anxiety shut down. Regarding these changes, Gert Holstege said in an interview with The Times, "What this means is that deactivation, letting go of all fear and anxiety, might be the most important thing, even necessary, to have an orgasm." While stroking the clitoris, the parts of the female brain responsible for processing fear, anxiety and behavioral control start to diminish in activity. This reaches a peak at orgasm when the female brain's emotion centers are effectively closed down to produce an almost trance-like state. Holstege is quoted as saying, at the 2005 meeting of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Development: "At the moment of orgasm, women do not have any emotional feelings." Initial reports indicated that it was difficult to observe the effects of orgasm on men using PET scans, because the duration of the male orgasm was shorter. However, a subsequent report by Rudie Kortekaas, et al. stated, "Gender commonalities were most evident during orgasm... From these results, we conclude that during the sexual act, differential brain responses across genders are principally related to the stimulatory (plateau) phase and not to the orgasmic phase itself." Research has shown that as in women, the emotional centers of a man's brain also become deactivated during orgasm but to a lesser extent than in women. Brain scans of both sexes have shown that the pleasure centers of a man's brain show more intense activity than in women during orgasm. Male and female brains demonstrate similar changes during orgasm, with brain activity scans showing a temporary decrease in the metabolic activity of large parts of the cerebral cortex with normal or increased metabolic activity in the limbic areas of the brain. EEG tracings from volunteers during orgasm were first obtained by Mosovich and Tallaferro in 1954. These research workers recorded EEG changes resembling petit mal or the clonic phase of a grand mal seizure. Further studies in this direction were carried out by Sem-Jacobsen (1968), Heath (1972), Cohen et al. (1976), and others. Sarrel et al. reported a similar observation in 1977. These reports continue to be cited. Unlike them, Craber et al. (1985) failed to find any distinctive EEG changes in four men during masturbation and ejaculation; the authors concluded that the case for the existence of EEG changes specifically related to sexual arousal and orgasm remained unproven. So disagreement arises as to whether the experiment conducted by Mosovich & Tallaferro casts a new light on | use of a sex toy, such as a sensual vibrator or an erotic electrostimulation. Achieving orgasm by stimulation of the nipples or other erogenous zones is rarer. Multiple orgasms are also possible, especially in women, but they are also uncommon. Multiple orgasms are orgasms that occur within a short period of one another. In addition to physical stimulation, orgasm can be achieved from psychological arousal alone, such as during dreaming (nocturnal emission for males or females) or by forced orgasm. Orgasm by psychological stimulation alone was first reported among people who had spinal cord injury. Although sexual function and sexuality after spinal cord injury is very often impacted, this injury does not deprive one of sexual feelings such as sexual arousal and erotic desires. Scientific literature focuses on the psychology of female orgasm significantly more than it does on the psychology of male orgasm, which "appears to reflect the assumption that female orgasm is psychologically more complex than male orgasm," but "the limited empirical evidence available suggests that male and female orgasm may bear more similarities than differences. In one controlled study by Vance and Wagner (1976), independent raters could not differentiate written descriptions of male versus female orgasm experiences". Males Variabilities In men, the most common way of achieving orgasm is by physical sexual stimulation of the penis. This is usually accompanied by ejaculation, but it is possible, though also rare, for men to orgasm without ejaculation (known as a "dry orgasm"). Prepubescent boys have dry orgasms. Dry orgasms can also occur as a result of retrograde ejaculation, or hypogonadism. Men may also ejaculate without reaching orgasm, which is known as anorgasmic ejaculation. They may also achieve orgasm by stimulation of the prostate (see below). Two-stage model The traditional view of male orgasm is that there are two stages: emission following orgasm, almost instantly followed by a refractory period. The refractory period is the recovery phase after orgasm during which it is physiologically impossible for a man to have additional orgasms. In 1966, Masters and Johnson published pivotal research about the phases of sexual stimulation. Their work included women and men, and, unlike Alfred Kinsey in 1948 and 1953, tried to determine the physiological stages before and after orgasm. Masters and Johnson argued that, in the first stage, "accessory organs contract and the male can feel the ejaculation coming; two to three seconds later the ejaculation occurs, which the man cannot constrain, delay, or in any way control" and that, in the second stage, "the male feels pleasurable contractions during ejaculation, reporting greater pleasure tied to a greater volume of ejaculate". They reported that, unlike females, "for the man the resolution phase includes a superimposed refractory period" and added that "many males below the age of 30, but relatively few thereafter, have the ability to ejaculate frequently and are subject to only very short refractory periods during the resolution phase". Masters and Johnson equated male orgasm and ejaculation and maintained the necessity for a refractory period between orgasms. Subsequent and multiple orgasms There has been little scientific study of multiple orgasm in men. Dunn and Trost defined male multiple orgasm as "two or more orgasms with or without ejaculation and without, or with only very limited, detumescence (loss of erection) during one and the same sexual encounter". Although, due to the refractory period, it is rare for men to achieve multiple orgasms, some men have reported having multiple, consecutive orgasms, particularly without ejaculation. There may not be an obvious refractory period, and the final orgasm may cause a refractory period. Multiple orgasms are more commonly reported in very young men than in older men. In younger men, the refractory period may only last a few minutes, but last more than an hour in older men. An increased infusion of the hormone oxytocin during ejaculation is believed to be chiefly responsible for the refractory period, and the amount by which oxytocin is increased may affect the length of each refractory period. A scientific study to successfully document natural, fully ejaculatory, multiple orgasms in an adult man was conducted at Rutgers University in 1995. During the study, six fully ejaculatory orgasms were experienced in 36 minutes, with no apparent refractory period. Females Orgasmic factors and variabilities In women, the most common way to achieve orgasm is by direct sexual stimulation of the clitoris (meaning consistent manual, oral, or other concentrated friction against the external parts of the clitoris). General statistics indicate that 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm, although indirect clitoral stimulation (for example, via vaginal penetration) may also be sufficient. The Mayo Clinic stated, "Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm." Clitoral orgasms are easier to achieve because the glans of the clitoris, or clitoris as a whole, has more than 8,000 sensory nerve endings, which is as many (or more in some cases) nerve endings as are present in the human penis or glans penis. As the clitoris is homologous to the penis, it is the equivalent in its capacity to receive sexual stimulation. One misconception, particularly in older research publications, is that the vagina is completely insensitive. However, there are areas in the anterior vaginal wall and between the top junction of the labia minora and the urethra that are especially sensitive. With regard to specific density of nerve endings, while the area commonly described as the G-spot may produce an orgasm, and the urethral sponge, an area in which the G-spot may be found, runs along the "roof" of the vagina and can create pleasurable sensations when stimulated, intense sexual pleasure (including orgasm) from vaginal stimulation is occasional or otherwise absent because the vagina has significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris. The greatest concentration of vaginal nerve endings are at the lower third (near the entrance) of the vagina. Sex educator Rebecca Chalker states that only one part of the clitoris, the urethral sponge, is in contact with the penis, fingers, or a dildo in the vagina. Hite and Chalker state that the tip of the clitoris and the inner lips, which are also very sensitive, are not receiving direct stimulation during penetrative intercourse. Because of this, some couples may engage in the woman on top position or the coital alignment technique to maximize clitoral stimulation. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful. Masters and Johnson argued that all women are potentially multiply orgasmic, but that multiply orgasmic men are rare, and stated that "the female is capable of rapid return to orgasm immediately following an orgasmic experience, if restimulated before tensions have dropped below plateau phase response levels". Though generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms, soon after the first one, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement. After the initial orgasm, subsequent orgasms for women may be stronger or more pleasurable as the stimulation accumulates. Clitoral and vaginal categories Discussions of female orgasm are complicated by orgasms in women typically being divided into two categories: clitoral orgasm and vaginal (or G-spot) orgasm. In 1973, Irving Singer theorized that there are three types of female orgasms; he categorized these as vulval, uterine, and blended, but because he was a philosopher, "these categories were generated from descriptions of orgasm in literature rather than laboratory studies". In 1982, Ladas, Whipple and Perry also proposed three categories: the tenting type (derived from clitoral stimulation), the A-frame type (derived from G-spot stimulation), and the blended type (derived from clitoral and G-spot stimulation). In 1999, Whipple and Komisaruk proposed cervix stimulation as being able to cause a fourth type of female orgasm. Female orgasms by means other than clitoral or vaginal/G-spot stimulation are less prevalent in scientific literature and most scientists contend that no distinction should be made between "types" of female orgasm. This distinction began with Sigmund Freud, who postulated the concept of "vaginal orgasm" as separate from clitoral orgasm. In 1905, Freud stated that clitoral orgasms are purely an adolescent phenomenon and that upon reaching puberty, the proper response of mature women is a change-over to vaginal orgasms, meaning orgasms without any clitoral stimulation. While Freud provided no evidence for this basic assumption, the consequences of this theory were considerable. Many women felt inadequate when they could not achieve orgasm via vaginal intercourse alone, involving little or no clitoral stimulation, as Freud's theory made penile-vaginal intercourse the central component to women's sexual satisfaction. The first major national surveys of sexual behavior were the Kinsey Reports. Alfred Kinsey was the first researcher to harshly criticize Freud's ideas about female sexuality and orgasm when, through his interviews with thousands of women, Kinsey found that most of the women he surveyed could not have vaginal orgasms. He "criticized Freud and other theorists for projecting male constructs of sexuality onto women" and "viewed the clitoris as the main center of sexual response" and the vagina as "relatively unimportant" for sexual satisfaction, relaying that "few women inserted fingers or objects into their vaginas when they masturbated". He "concluded that satisfaction from penile penetration [is] mainly psychological or perhaps the result of referred sensation". Masters and Johnson's research into the female sexual response cycle, as well as Shere Hite's, generally supported Kinsey's findings about female orgasm. Masters and Johnson's research on the topic came at the time of the second-wave feminist movement, and inspired feminists such as Anne Koedt, author of The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm, to speak about the "false distinction" made between clitoral and vaginal orgasms and women's biology not being properly analyzed. Clitoral and vaginal relationships Accounts that the vagina is capable of producing orgasms continue to be subject to debate because, in addition to the vagina's low concentration of nerve endings, reports of the G-spot's location are inconsistent—it appears to be nonexistent in some women and may be an extension of another structure, such as the Skene's gland or the clitoris, which is a part of the Skene's gland. In a January 2012 The Journal of Sexual Medicine review examining years of research into the existence of the G-spot, scholars stated that "[r]eports in the public media would lead one to believe the G-spot is a well-characterized entity capable of providing extreme sexual stimulation, yet this is far from the truth". Possible explanations for the G-spot were examined by Masters and Johnson, who were the first researchers to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia. In addition to observing that the majority of their female subjects could only have clitoral orgasms, they found that both clitoral and vaginal orgasms had the same stages of physical response. On this basis, they argued that clitoral stimulation is the source of both kinds of orgasms, reasoning that the clitoris is stimulated during penetration by friction against its hood; their notion that this provides the clitoris with sufficient sexual stimulation has been criticized by researchers such as Elisabeth Lloyd. Australian urologist Helen O'Connell's 2005 research additionally indicates a connection between orgasms experienced vaginally and the clitoris, suggesting that clitoral tissue extends into the anterior wall of the vagina and that therefore clitoral and vaginal orgasms are of the same origin. Some studies, using ultrasound, have found physiological evidence of the G-spot in women who report having orgasms during vaginal intercourse, but O'Connell suggests that the clitoris's interconnected relationship with the vagina is the physiological explanation for the conjectured G-spot. Having used MRI technology which enabled her to note a direct relationship between the legs or roots of the clitoris and the erectile tissue of the "clitoral bulbs" and corpora, and the distal urethra and vagina, she stated that the vaginal wall is the clitoris; that lifting the skin off the vagina on the side walls reveals the bulbs of the clitoris—triangular, crescental masses of erectile tissue. O'Connell et al., who performed dissections on the female genitals of cadavers and used photography to map the structure of nerves in the clitoris, were already aware that the clitoris is more than just its glans and asserted in 1998 that there is more erectile tissue associated with the clitoris than is generally described in anatomical textbooks. They concluded that some females have more extensive clitoral tissues and nerves than others, especially having observed this in young cadavers as compared to elderly ones, and therefore whereas the majority of females can only achieve orgasm by direct stimulation of the external parts of the clitoris, the stimulation of the more generalized tissues of the clitoris via intercourse may be sufficient for others. French researchers Odile Buisson and Pierre Foldès reported similar findings to that of O'Connell's. In 2008, they published the first complete 3D sonography of the stimulated clitoris, and republished it in 2009 with new research, demonstrating the ways in which erectile tissue of the clitoris engorges and surrounds the vagina, arguing that women may be able to achieve vaginal orgasm via stimulation of the G-spot because the highly innervated clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration. They assert that since the front wall of the vagina is inextricably linked with the internal parts of the clitoris, stimulating the vagina without activating the clitoris may be next to impossible. In their 2009 published study, the "coronal planes during perineal contraction and finger penetration demonstrated a close relationship between the root of the clitoris and the anterior vaginal wall". Buisson and Foldès suggested "that the special sensitivity of the lower anterior vaginal wall could be explained by pressure and movement of clitoris's root during a vaginal penetration and subsequent perineal contraction". Supporting a distinct G-spot is a study by Rutgers University, published 2011, which was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain; brain scans showed that the brain registered distinct feelings between stimulating the clitoris, the cervix and the vaginal wall – where the G-spot is reported to be – when several women stimulated themselves in a functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) machine. "I think that the bulk of the evidence shows that the G-spot is not a particular thing," stated Barry Komisaruk, head of the research findings. "It's not like saying, 'What is the thyroid gland?' The G-spot is more of a thing like New York City is a thing. It's a region, it's a convergence of many different structures." Commenting on Komisaruk's research and other findings, Emmanuele Jannini, a professor of endocrinology at the University of Aquila in Italy, acknowledged a series of essays published in March 2012 in The Journal of Sexual Medicine, which document evidence that vaginal and clitoral orgasms are separate phenomena that activate different areas of the brain and possibly suggest key psychological differences between women. Other factors and research Regular difficulty reaching orgasm after ample sexual stimulation, known as anorgasmia, is significantly more common in women than in men (see below). In addition to sexual dysfunction being a cause for women's inability to reach orgasm, or the amount of time for sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm being variable and longer in women than in men, other factors include a lack of communication between sexual partners about what is needed for the woman to reach orgasm, feelings of sexual inadequacy in either partner, a focus on only penetration (vaginal or otherwise), and men generalizing women's trigger for orgasm based on their own sexual experiences with other women. Scholars state "many couples are locked into the idea that orgasms should be achieved only through intercourse [vaginal sex]" and that "[e]ven the word foreplay suggests that any other form of sexual stimulation is merely preparation for the 'main event.'... ...Because women reach orgasm through intercourse less consistently than men, they are more likely than men to have faked an orgasm". Sex counselor Ian Kerner stated, "It's a myth that using the penis is the main way to pleasure a woman." He cites research concluding that women reach orgasm about 25% of the time with intercourse, compared with 81% of the time during oral sex (cunnilingus). In the first large-scale empirical study worldwide to link specific practices with orgasm, reported in the Journal of Sex Research in 2006, demographic and sexual history variables were comparatively weakly associated with orgasm. Data was analyzed from the Australian Study of Health and Relationships, a national telephone survey of sexual behavior and attitudes and sexual health knowledge carried out in 2001–2002, with a representative sample of 19,307 Australians aged 16 to 59. Practices included "vaginal intercourse alone (12%), vaginal + manual stimulation of the man's and/or woman's genitals (49%), and vaginal intercourse + manual + oral (32%)" and the "[e]ncounters may also have included other practices. Men had an orgasm in 95% of encounters and women in 69%. Generally, the more practices engaged in, the higher a woman's chance of having an orgasm. Women were more likely to reach orgasm in encounters including cunnilingus". Other studies suggest that women exposed to lower levels of prenatal androgens are more likely to experience orgasm during vaginal intercourse than other women. Exercise-induced Kinsey, in his 1953 book Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, stated that exercise could bring about sexual pleasure, including orgasm. A review in 1990 on the sexual response itself as exercise, reviewed the literature and stated that the field was poorly researched; it also said that studies had found that aerobic or isotonic exercise that resembles sexual activity or sexual positions can induce sexual pleasure, including orgasm. A 2007 review of the relationship between pelvic floor dysfunction and sexual problems in men and women found that they are commonly linked and suggested that physical therapy strengthening the pelvic floor could help address the sexual problems but that it was not well studied enough to recommend. Starting in at least 2007, the term, "coregasm" was used in popular media to refer to exercise-induced orgasm or in academic parlance termed exercise-induced sexual pleasure or EISP, and an extensive discussion of the "yogasm" occurred in a 2011 Daily Beast posting. A paper published in 2012 presented results of an online survey of women who had experienced an orgasm or other sexual pleasure during exercise. The paper was widely discussed in popular media when it was published. The authors of the paper said that research on the relationship between exercise and sexual response was still lacking. Anal and prostate stimulation In both sexes, pleasure can be derived from the nerve endings around the anus and the anus itself, such as during anal sex. It is possible for men to achieve orgasms through prostate stimulation alone. The prostate is the male homologue (variation) to the Skene's glands (which are believed to be connected to the female G-spot), and can be sexually stimulated through anal sex, perineum massage or via a vibrator. Much of the available information about prostate-induced orgasms comes from anecdotal reports by individuals, and the exact mechanisms by which such orgasms are produced are unclear; some sources suggest this occurs via stimulation of nerves in the prostatic plexus surrounding the organ, others suggest it is via nerves within the prostate itself, and others say changes in the brain (neuroplasticity) are required to derive pleasure from prostate stimulation. Regardless, prostate-induced orgasms are often reported to be intensely pleasurable. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, described by some men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The practice of pegging (consisting of a woman penetrating a man's anus with a strap-on dildo) stimulates the prostate. It is typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex. For women, penile-anal penetration may also indirectly stimulate the clitoris by the shared sensory nerves, especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris. The G-spot area, which is considered to be interconnected with the clitoris, may also be indirectly stimulated during anal sex. Although the anus has many nerve endings, their purpose is not specifically for inducing orgasm, and so a woman achieving orgasm solely by anal stimulation is rare. Direct stimulation of the clitoris, a G-spot area, or both, while engaging in anal sex can help some women enjoy the activity and reach orgasm during it. The aforementioned orgasms are sometimes referred to as anal orgasms, but sexologists and sex educators generally believe that orgasms derived from anal penetration are the result of the relationship between the nerves of the anus, rectum, clitoris or G-spot area in women, and the anus's proximity to the prostate and relationship between the anal and rectal nerves in men, rather than orgasms originating from the anus itself. Nipple stimulation For women, stimulation of the breast area during sexual intercourse or foreplay, or solely having the breasts fondled, can create mild to intense orgasms, sometimes referred to as a breast orgasm or nipple orgasm. Few women report experiencing orgasm from nipple stimulation. Before Komisaruk et al.'s functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) research on nipple stimulation in 2011, reports of women achieving orgasm from nipple stimulation relied solely on anecdotal evidence. Komisaruk's study was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain; it indicates that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix, and that these reported orgasms are genital orgasms caused by nipple stimulation, and may be directly linked to the genital sensory cortex ("the genital area of the brain"). An orgasm is believed to occur in part because of the hormone oxytocin, which is produced in the body during sexual excitement and arousal and labor. It has also been shown that oxytocin is produced when a man or woman's nipples are stimulated and become erect. Komisaruk also relayed, however, that preliminary data suggests that nipple nerves may directly link up with the relevant parts of the brain without uterine mediation, acknowledging the men in his study who showed the same pattern of nipple stimulation activating genital brain regions. Medical aspects Physiological responses Masters and Johnson were some of the first researchers to study the sexual response cycle in the early 1960s, based on the observation of 382 women and 312 men. They described a cycle that begins with excitement as blood rushes into the genitals, then reaches a plateau during which they are fully aroused, which leads to orgasm, and finally resolution, in which the blood leaves the genitals. In the 1970s, Helen Singer Kaplan added the category of desire to the cycle, which she argued precedes sexual excitation. She stated that emotions of anxiety, defensiveness and the failure of communication can interfere with desire and orgasm. In the late 1980s and after, Rosemary Basson proposed a more cyclical alternative to what had largely been viewed as linear progression. In her model, desire feeds arousal and orgasm, and is in turn fueled by the rest of the orgasmic cycle. Rather than orgasm being the peak of the sexual experience, she suggested that it is just one point in the circle and that people could feel sexually satisfied at any stage, reducing the focus on climax as an end-goal of all sexual activity. Males As a man nears orgasm during stimulation of the penis, he feels an intense and highly pleasurable pulsating sensation of neuromuscular euphoria. These pulses are a series of throbbing sensations of the bulbospongiosus muscles that begin in the anal sphincter and travel to the tip of the penis. They eventually increase in speed and intensity as the orgasm approaches, until a final "plateau" (the orgasmic) pleasure sustained for several seconds. During orgasm, a human male experiences rapid, rhythmic contractions of the anal sphincter, the prostate, and the muscles of the penis. The sperm are transmitted up the vas deferens from the testicles, into the prostate gland as well as through the seminal vesicles to produce what is known as semen. The prostate produces a secretion that forms one of the components of ejaculate. Except for in cases of a dry orgasm, contraction of the sphincter and prostate force stored semen to be expelled through the penis's urethral opening. The process takes from three to ten seconds, and produces a pleasurable feeling. Ejaculation may continue for a few seconds after the euphoric sensation gradually tapers off. It is believed that the exact feeling of "orgasm" varies from one man to another. After ejaculation, a refractory period usually occurs, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. This can last anywhere from less than a minute to several hours or days, depending on age and other individual factors. Females A woman's orgasm may, in some cases, last a little longer than a man's. Women's orgasms have been estimated to last, on average, approximately 20 seconds, and to consist of a series of muscular contractions in the pelvic area that includes the vagina, the uterus, and the anus. For some women, on some occasions, these contractions begin soon after the woman reports that the orgasm has started and continue at intervals of about one second with initially increasing, and then reducing, intensity. In some instances, the series of regular contractions is followed by a few additional contractions or shudders at irregular intervals. In other cases, the woman reports having an orgasm, but no pelvic contractions are measured at all. Women's orgasms are preceded by erection of the clitoris and moistening of the opening of the vagina. Some women exhibit a sex flush, a reddening of the skin over much of the body due to increased blood flow to the skin. As a woman nears orgasm, the clitoral glans retracts under the clitoral hood, and the labia minora (inner lips) become darker. As orgasm becomes imminent, the outer third of the vagina tightens and narrows, while overall the vagina lengthens and dilates and also becomes congested from engorged soft tissue. Elsewhere in the |
men and a cargo worth £1,200,000. 1804 – Hobart, capital of Tasmania, is founded. 1806 – Prussia begins the War of the Fourth Coalition against France. 1812 – War of 1812: In a naval engagement on Lake Erie, American forces capture two British ships: and . 1820 – Guayaquil declares independence from Spain. 1825 – Restauration arrives in New York Harbor from Norway, the first organized immigration from Norway to the United States. 1831 – Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first head of state of the Kingdom of Greece, is assassinated. 1834 – Opening of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, the first public railway on the island of Ireland. 1847 – Slavery is abolished in the Swedish colony of Saint Barthélemy. 1854 – Crimean War: The siege of Sevastopol begins. 1861 – American Civil War: Union troops repel a Confederate attempt to capture Fort Pickens. 1864 – American Civil War: Union cavalrymen defeat Confederate forces at Toms Brook, Virginia. 1873 – A meeting at the U.S. Naval Academy establishes the U.S. Naval Institute. 1874 – The Universal Postal Union is created by the Treaty of Bern. 1900 – The Cook Islands become a territory of the United Kingdom. 1901–present 1911 – An accidental bomb explosion triggers the Wuchang Uprising against the Qing dynasty, beginning the Xinhai Revolution. 1913 – The steamship catches fire in the mid-Atlantic. 1914 – World War I: The Siege of Antwerp comes to an end. 1918 – The Finnish Parliament offers to Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse the throne of a short-lived Kingdom of Finland. 1919 – The Cincinnati Reds win the World Series, resulting in the Black Sox Scandal. 1934 – An Ustashe assassin kills King Alexander I of Yugoslavia and Louis Barthou, Foreign Minister of France, in Marseille. 1936 – Boulder Dam (later Hoover Dam) begins to generate electricity and transmit it to Los Angeles. 1937 – Murder of 9 Catholic priests in Zhengding, China, who protected the local population from the advancing Japanese army. 1941 – A coup in Panama declares Ricardo Adolfo de la Guardia Arango the new president. 1942 – Australia's Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 receives royal assent. 1950 – The Goyang Geumjeong Cave massacre in Korea begins. 1962 – Uganda becomes an independent Commonwealth realm. 1963 – In Italy, a large landslide causes a giant wave to overtop the Vajont Dam, killing over 2,000. 1966 – Vietnam War: the Republic of Korea Army commits the Binh Tai Massacre. 1967 – A day after his capture, Ernesto "Che" Guevara is executed for attempting to incite a revolution in Bolivia. 1969 – In Chicago, the National Guard is called in as demonstrations continue over the trial of the "Chicago Eight". 1970 – The Khmer Republic is proclaimed in Cambodia. 1980 – Pope John Paul II greets the Dalai Lama during a private audience in Vatican City. 1981 – President François Mitterrand abolishes capital punishment in France. 1983 – South Korean President Chun Doo-hwan survives an assassination attempt in Rangoon, Burma (present-day Yangon, Myanmar), but the blast kills 21 and injures 17 others. 1984 – The popular railway-themed TV show Thomas The Tank Engine & Friends, based on The Railway Series by the Reverend Wilbert Awdry, is first premiered on ITV. 1986 – The Phantom of the Opera, eventually the second longest running musical in London, opens at Her Majesty's Theatre. 1986 – Fox Broadcasting Company (FBC) launches as the "fourth" US television network. 1992 – The Peekskill meteorite, a meteorite crashed into a parked car in Peekskill, New York 1995 – An Amtrak Sunset Limited train is derailed by saboteurs near Palo Verde, Arizona. 2006 – North Korea conducts its first nuclear test. 2007 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average reaches its all-time high of 14,164 points before rapidly declining due to the 2007-2008 financial crises. 2009 – First lunar impact of NASA's Lunar Precursor Robotic Program. 2012 – Pakistani Taliban attempt to assassinate outspoken schoolgirl Malala Yousafzai. 2016 – The Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army launches its first attack on Myanmar security forces along the Bangladesh–Myanmar border. 2019 – Turkey begins its military offensive in north-eastern Syria. Births Pre-1600 1201 – Robert de Sorbon, French minister and theologian, founded the Collège de Sorbonne (d. 1274) 1221 – Salimbene di Adam, Italian historian and scholar (d. 1290) 1261 – Denis of Portugal (d. 1325) 1328 – Peter I of Cyprus (d. 1369) 1581 – Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac, French mathematician, poet, and scholar (d. 1638) 1586 – Leopold V, Archduke of Austria (d. 1632) 1593 – Nicolaes Tulp, Dutch anatomist and politician (d. 1674) 1601–1900 1609 – Thomas Weston, 4th Earl of Portland, English noble (d. 1688) 1623 – Ferdinand Verbiest, Flemish Jesuit missionary in China (d. 1688) 1704 – Johann Andreas Segner, German mathematician, physicist, and physician (d. 1777) 1757 – Charles X of France (d. 1836) 1796 – Joseph Bonomi the Younger, British Egyptologist and sculptor (d. 1878) 1826 – Agathon Meurman, Finnish politician and journalist (d. 1909) 1835 – Camille Saint-Saëns, French composer and conductor (d. 1921) 1837 – Francis Wayland Parker, American theorist and academic (d. 1902) 1840 – Simeon Solomon, English painter (d. 1905) 1845 – Carl Gustav Thulin, Swedish shipowner (d. 1918) 1850 – Hermann von Ihering, German-Brazilian zoologist (d. 1930) 1852 – Hermann Emil Fischer, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1919) 1858 – Mihajlo Pupin, Serbian-American physicist and chemist (d. 1935) 1859 – Alfred Dreyfus, French colonel (d. 1935) 1863 – Edward Bok, Dutch-American journalist and author (d. 1930) 1864 – Reginald Dyer, British brigadier general (d. 1927) 1871 – Georges Gauthier, Canadian archbishop (d. 1940) 1873 – Carl Flesch, Hungarian violinist and educator (d. 1944) 1873 – Karl Schwarzschild, German physicist and astronomer (d. 1916) 1873 – Charles Rudolph Walgreen, American pharmacist and businessman, founded Walgreens (d. 1939) 1874 – Nicholas Roerich, Russian archaeologist and painter (d. 1947) 1877 – Gopabandhu Das, Indian journalist, poet, and activist (d. 1928) 1879 – Max von Laue, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1960) 1880 – Charlie Faust, American baseball player (d. 1915) 1883 – Maria Filotti, Greek-Romanian actress (d. 1956) 1886 – Rube Marquard, American baseball player and manager (d. 1980) 1888 – Nikolai Bukharin, Russian journalist and politician (d. 1938) 1888 – Irving Cummings, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1959) 1890 – Aimee Semple McPherson, Canadian-American evangelist, founded the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel (d. 1944) 1892 – Ivo Andrić, Yugoslav novelist, poet, and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975) 1893 – Mário de Andrade, Brazilian author, poet, and photographer (d. 1945) 1897 – M. Bhaktavatsalam, Indian lawyer and politician, 6th Chief Minister of Madras State (d. 1987) 1898 – Tawfiq al-Hakim, Egyptian author and playwright (d. 1987) 1898 – Joe Sewell, American baseball player (d. 1990) 1899 – Bruce Catton, American historian and author (d. 1978) 1900 – Joseph Friedman, American inventor (d. 1982) 1900 – Alastair Sim, Scottish-English actor and academic (d. 1976) 1900 – Joseph Zubin, Lithuanian-American psychologist and academic (d. 1990) 1901–present 1901 – Alice Lee Jemison, Seneca political activist and journalist (d. 1964) 1902 – Freddie Young, English cinematographer (d. 1998) 1903 – Walter O'Malley, American lawyer and businessman (d. 1979) 1906 – J. R. Eyerman, American photographer and journalist (d. 1985) 1906 – Léopold Sédar Senghor, Senegalese poet and politician, 1st President of Senegal (d. 2001) 1907 – Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone, English academic and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 2001) 1907 – Jacques Tati, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1982) 1907 – Horst Wessel, German SA officer (d. 1930) 1908 – Harry Hooton, Australian poet and critic (d. 1961) 1908 – Werner von Haeften, German lieutenant (d. 1944) 1908 – Lee Wiley, American singer (d. 1975) 1909 – Donald Coggan, English archbishop (d. 2000) 1911 – Joe Rosenthal, American photographer (d. 2006) 1914 – Edward Andrews, American actor (d. 1985) 1915 – Clifford M. Hardin, American academic and politician, 17th United States Secretary of Agriculture (d. 2010) 1915 – Belva Plain, American author (d. 2010) 1918 – E. Howard Hunt, American CIA officer and author (d. 2007) 1918 – Charles Read, Australian air marshal (d. 2014) 1918 – Bebo Valdés, Cuban-Swedish pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2013) 1920 – Jens Bjørneboe, Norwegian author and educator (d. 1976) 1920 – Yusef Lateef, American saxophonist, composer, and educator (d. 2013) 1920 – Jason Wingreen, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1921 – Michel Boisrond, French director and screenwriter (d. 2002) 1921 – Tadeusz Różewicz, Polish poet and playwright (d. 2014) 1922 – Léon Dion, Canadian political scientist and academic (d. 1997) 1922 – Philip "Fyvush" Finkel, American actor (d. 2016) 1922 – Olga Guillot, Cuban-American singer (d. 2010) 1923 – Donald Sinden, English actor (d. 2014) 1924 – Immanuvel Devendrar, Indian soldier (d. 1957) 1924 – Arnie Risen, American basketball player (d. 2012) 1926 – Danièle Delorme, French actress and producer (d. 2015) 1927 – John Margetson, English scholar and diplomat, British Ambassador to the Netherlands (d. 2020) 1928 – Einojuhani Rautavaara, Finnish composer and educator (d. 2016) 1930 – Hank Lauricella, American football player, lieutenant, and politician (d. 2014) 1931 – Tony Booth, English actor (d. 2017) 1931 – Homer Smith, American football player and coach (d. 2011) 1933 – Peter Mansfield, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017) 1933 – Bill Tidy, English soldier | poet, and scholar (d. 1638) 1586 – Leopold V, Archduke of Austria (d. 1632) 1593 – Nicolaes Tulp, Dutch anatomist and politician (d. 1674) 1601–1900 1609 – Thomas Weston, 4th Earl of Portland, English noble (d. 1688) 1623 – Ferdinand Verbiest, Flemish Jesuit missionary in China (d. 1688) 1704 – Johann Andreas Segner, German mathematician, physicist, and physician (d. 1777) 1757 – Charles X of France (d. 1836) 1796 – Joseph Bonomi the Younger, British Egyptologist and sculptor (d. 1878) 1826 – Agathon Meurman, Finnish politician and journalist (d. 1909) 1835 – Camille Saint-Saëns, French composer and conductor (d. 1921) 1837 – Francis Wayland Parker, American theorist and academic (d. 1902) 1840 – Simeon Solomon, English painter (d. 1905) 1845 – Carl Gustav Thulin, Swedish shipowner (d. 1918) 1850 – Hermann von Ihering, German-Brazilian zoologist (d. 1930) 1852 – Hermann Emil Fischer, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1919) 1858 – Mihajlo Pupin, Serbian-American physicist and chemist (d. 1935) 1859 – Alfred Dreyfus, French colonel (d. 1935) 1863 – Edward Bok, Dutch-American journalist and author (d. 1930) 1864 – Reginald Dyer, British brigadier general (d. 1927) 1871 – Georges Gauthier, Canadian archbishop (d. 1940) 1873 – Carl Flesch, Hungarian violinist and educator (d. 1944) 1873 – Karl Schwarzschild, German physicist and astronomer (d. 1916) 1873 – Charles Rudolph Walgreen, American pharmacist and businessman, founded Walgreens (d. 1939) 1874 – Nicholas Roerich, Russian archaeologist and painter (d. 1947) 1877 – Gopabandhu Das, Indian journalist, poet, and activist (d. 1928) 1879 – Max von Laue, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1960) 1880 – Charlie Faust, American baseball player (d. 1915) 1883 – Maria Filotti, Greek-Romanian actress (d. 1956) 1886 – Rube Marquard, American baseball player and manager (d. 1980) 1888 – Nikolai Bukharin, Russian journalist and politician (d. 1938) 1888 – Irving Cummings, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1959) 1890 – Aimee Semple McPherson, Canadian-American evangelist, founded the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel (d. 1944) 1892 – Ivo Andrić, Yugoslav novelist, poet, and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975) 1893 – Mário de Andrade, Brazilian author, poet, and photographer (d. 1945) 1897 – M. Bhaktavatsalam, Indian lawyer and politician, 6th Chief Minister of Madras State (d. 1987) 1898 – Tawfiq al-Hakim, Egyptian author and playwright (d. 1987) 1898 – Joe Sewell, American baseball player (d. 1990) 1899 – Bruce Catton, American historian and author (d. 1978) 1900 – Joseph Friedman, American inventor (d. 1982) 1900 – Alastair Sim, Scottish-English actor and academic (d. 1976) 1900 – Joseph Zubin, Lithuanian-American psychologist and academic (d. 1990) 1901–present 1901 – Alice Lee Jemison, Seneca political activist and journalist (d. 1964) 1902 – Freddie Young, English cinematographer (d. 1998) 1903 – Walter O'Malley, American lawyer and businessman (d. 1979) 1906 – J. R. Eyerman, American photographer and journalist (d. 1985) 1906 – Léopold Sédar Senghor, Senegalese poet and politician, 1st President of Senegal (d. 2001) 1907 – Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone, English academic and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 2001) 1907 – Jacques Tati, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1982) 1907 – Horst Wessel, German SA officer (d. 1930) 1908 – Harry Hooton, Australian poet and critic (d. 1961) 1908 – Werner von Haeften, German lieutenant (d. 1944) 1908 – Lee Wiley, American singer (d. 1975) 1909 – Donald Coggan, English archbishop (d. 2000) 1911 – Joe Rosenthal, American photographer (d. 2006) 1914 – Edward Andrews, American actor (d. 1985) 1915 – Clifford M. Hardin, American academic and politician, 17th United States Secretary of Agriculture (d. 2010) 1915 – Belva Plain, American author (d. 2010) 1918 – E. Howard Hunt, American CIA officer and author (d. 2007) 1918 – Charles Read, Australian air marshal (d. 2014) 1918 – Bebo Valdés, Cuban-Swedish pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2013) 1920 – Jens Bjørneboe, Norwegian author and educator (d. 1976) 1920 – Yusef Lateef, American saxophonist, composer, and educator (d. 2013) 1920 – Jason Wingreen, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1921 – Michel Boisrond, French director and screenwriter (d. 2002) 1921 – Tadeusz Różewicz, Polish poet and playwright (d. 2014) 1922 – Léon Dion, Canadian political scientist and academic (d. 1997) 1922 – Philip "Fyvush" Finkel, American actor (d. 2016) 1922 – Olga Guillot, Cuban-American singer (d. 2010) 1923 – Donald Sinden, English actor (d. 2014) 1924 – Immanuvel Devendrar, Indian soldier (d. 1957) 1924 – Arnie Risen, American basketball player (d. 2012) 1926 – Danièle Delorme, French actress and producer (d. 2015) 1927 – John Margetson, English scholar and diplomat, British Ambassador to the Netherlands (d. 2020) 1928 – Einojuhani Rautavaara, Finnish composer and educator (d. 2016) 1930 – Hank Lauricella, American football player, lieutenant, and politician (d. 2014) 1931 – Tony Booth, English actor (d. 2017) 1931 – Homer Smith, American football player and coach (d. 2011) 1933 – Peter Mansfield, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017) 1933 – Bill Tidy, English soldier and cartoonist 1934 – Jill Ker Conway, Australian historian and author (d. 2018) 1934 – Abdullah Ibrahim, South African pianist and composer 1935 – Prince Edward, Duke of Kent 1935 – Don McCullin, English photographer and journalist 1936 – Brian Blessed, English actor 1936 – Mick Young, Australian politician (d. 1996) 1938 – Heinz Fischer, Austrian academic and politician, 11th President of Austria 1938 – John Sutherland, English journalist, author, and academic 1939 – Nicholas Grimshaw, English architect and academic 1939 – John Pilger, Australian-English journalist, director, and producer 1939 – Stephen Sedley, English lawyer and judge 1939 – O. V. Wright, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1980) 1940 – Gordon J. Humphrey, American soldier, pilot, and politician 1940 – John Lennon, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1980) 1940 – Joe Pepitone, American baseball player and coach 1941 – Brian Lamb, American broadcaster, founded C-SPAN 1941 – Trent Lott, American lawyer and politician 1941 – Omali Yeshitela, political activist and founder of the Uhuru Movement 1942 – Michael Palmer, American physician and author (d. 2013) 1943 – Douglas Kirby, American psychologist and author (d. 2012) 1943 – Jimmy Montgomery, English footballer and coach 1943 – Mike Peters, American cartoonist 1944 – Rita Donaghy, Baroness Donaghy, English academic and politician 1944 – John Entwistle, English singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (d. 2002) 1944 – Nona Hendryx, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1945 – Taiguara, Uruguayan-Brazilian singer-songwriter (d. 1996) 1945 – Amjad Ali Khan, Indian classical Sarod player 1947 – John Doubleday, English sculptor and painter 1947 – France Gall, French singer (d. 2018) 1947 – William E. McAnulty Jr., American lawyer and judge (d. 2007) 1947 – Tony Zappone, American photographer and journalist 1948 – Jackson Browne, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1948 – John Gray, English cricketer and rugby player 1949 – Rod Temperton, English keyboard player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2016) 1949 – Mark Hopkinson, American mass murderer (d. 1992) 1950 – Brian Downing, American baseball player 1950 – Yoshiyuki Konishi, Japanese fashion designer 1950 – Reichi Nakaido, Japanese singer and guitarist 1950 – Jody Williams, American academic and activist, Nobel Prize laureate 1952 – Simon Drew, English illustrator 1952 – Sharon Osbourne, English television host and manager 1952 – John Rose, English businessman 1952 – Dennis Stratton, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1953 – Sally Burgess, South African-English soprano and educator 1953 – Hank Pfister, American tennis player 1953 – Tony Shalhoub, American actor and producer 1954 – Scott Bakula, American actor 1954 – James Fearnley, English musician 1954 – John O'Hurley, American actor and game show host 1954 – Rubén Magnano, Argentine-Italian professional basketball coach 1955 – Linwood Boomer, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter 1955 – Steve Ovett, English runner and sportscaster 1955 – Peter Saville, English graphic designer and art director 1957 – Don Garber, American businessman 1957 – Ini Kamoze, Jamaican singer-songwriter 1958 – Al Jourgensen, Cuban-American singer-songwriter and producer 1958 – Alan Nunnelee, American lawyer and politician (d. 2015) 1958 – Mike Singletary, American football player and coach 1959 – Boris Nemtsov, Russian academic and politician, First Deputy Prime Minister of Russia (d. 2015) 1960 – Kenny Garrett, American saxophonist and composer 1961 – Julian Bailey, English race car driver and sportscaster 1961 – Kurt Neumann, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1961 – Ellen Wheeler, American actress, director, and producer 1962 – Jorge Burruchaga, Argentinian footballer and manager 1962 – Paul Radisich, New Zealand race car driver 1962 – Hugh Robertson, English soldier and politician, Minister for Sport and the Olympics 1962 – Ōnokuni Yasushi, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 62nd Yokozuna 1963 – Andy Platt, English rugby league player 1964 – Guillermo del Toro, Mexican-American director, producer, and screenwriter 1964 – Martín Jaite, Argentine tennis player 1965 – Jimbo Fisher, American football player and coach 1966 – David Cameron, English politician, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1966 – Christopher Östlund, Swedish publisher, founded Plaza Magazine 1967 – Carling Bassett-Seguso, Canadian tennis player 1967 – Eddie Guerrero, American wrestler (d. 2005) 1967 – Gheorghe Popescu, Romanian footballer 1968 – Anbumani Ramadoss, Indian politician 1969 – Guto Bebb, Welsh businessman and politician 1969 – Darren Britt, Australian rugby league player 1969 – Simon Fairweather, Australian archer 1969 – PJ Harvey, English musician, singer-songwriter, writer, poet, and composer 1969 – Christine Hough, Canadian figure skater and coach 1969 – Giles Martin, English songwriter and producer 1969 – Steve McQueen, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1970 – Kenny Anderson, American basketball player and coach 1970 – Steve Jablonsky, American composer 1970 – Annika Sörenstam, Swedish golfer and architect 1971 – Wayne Bartrim, Australian rugby league player and coach 1973 – Fabio Lione, Italian singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1973 – Steve Burns, American actor, television host and musician 1974 – Shmuel Herzfeld, American rabbi 1975 – Haylie Ecker, Australian violinist 1975 – Sean Lennon, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor 1975 – Mark Viduka, Australian footballer 1976 – William Alexander, American author and educator 1976 – Lee Peacock, Scottish footballer and coach 1976 – Özlem Türköne, Turkish journalist and politician 1976 – Nick Swardson, American actor and comedian 1977 – Emanuele Belardi, Italian footballer 1977 – Brian Roberts, American baseball player 1978 – Nicky Byrne, Irish singer-songwriter 1978 – Juan Dixon, American basketball player and coach 1979 – Vernon Fox, American football player and coach 1979 – Alex Greenwald, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1979 – Todd Kelly, Australian race car driver 1979 – Chris O'Dowd, Irish actor, producer, and screenwriter 1979 – Brandon Routh, American model and actor 1979 – Gonzalo Sorondo, Uruguayan footballer 1980 – Lucy Akello, Ugandan social worker and politician 1980 – Filip Bobek, Polish actor 1980 – Sarah Lovell, Australian politician 1980 – Thami Tsolekile, South African cricketer 1980 – Henrik Zetterberg, Swedish ice hockey player 1983 – Stephen Gionta, American ice hockey player 1983 – Farhaan Behardien, South African cricketer 1983 |
Empire, Charlemagne, who had conquered much of its former territory, announced its restoration. Upon his death, he passed this realm to his son Louis the Pious, who would in turn pass it to his firstborn son Lothair I. However, the latter's brothers—Charles and Louis—refused to recognize him as their suzerain. When Lothair attempted to invade their lands, they allied against him and defeated him at the Battle of Fontenoy in June 841. Charles and Louis met in February 842 near modern Strasbourg to affirm their alliance by swearing a joint oath against Lothair. The following year the civil war would end with the Treaty of Verdun, in which the three claimants partitioned the Empire amongst themselves. The Oaths were not preserved in their original form; they were instead copied by the historian Nithard, another grandson of Charlemagne, in a work titled De Dissensionibus Filiorum Ludovici Pii "On the Quarrels of Louis the Pious' Sons". This was a firsthand account, as Nithard had campaigned alongside his cousin Charles the Bald. It was however biased, reflecting the perspective of the allies and casting Lothair as an aggressor and villain. Louis and Charles swore their oaths not as kings—a term which is never used—but rather as lords, with their respective entourages acting as witnesses. Ostensibly they were acceding to Lothair I's demands as his future 'subjects'. Although the Oaths are of little political importance, given that they were superseded by the more comprehensive Treaty of Verdun, they are of significant importance to the field of linguistics. As the scholar Philippe Walter wrote: Manuscript Nithard's text has been passed down to us via two manuscripts that are today kept at the National Library of France. The older manuscript was copied around the year 1000, probably for an abbey in Picardy (either that of Saint-Médard or Saint Riquier). In the fifteenth century it was in the possession of the Abbey of Saint Magloire in Paris. Around 1650 it was bought by the Swedish Queen Christina and transferred to Rome; after | of significant importance to the field of linguistics. As the scholar Philippe Walter wrote: Manuscript Nithard's text has been passed down to us via two manuscripts that are today kept at the National Library of France. The older manuscript was copied around the year 1000, probably for an abbey in Picardy (either that of Saint-Médard or Saint Riquier). In the fifteenth century it was in the possession of the Abbey of Saint Magloire in Paris. Around 1650 it was bought by the Swedish Queen Christina and transferred to Rome; after her death it was acquired by the Vatican Library. After Napoleon's forces captured Rome, it was transferred back to Paris along with various other historical manuscripts. Napoleon would later return most of the others, but kept this one. It is currently found in the National Library of France under the call number Latin 9768. The Oaths are found on folio #13. The other manuscript, which is kept in the same library under the call number Latin 14663, is a copy of the former that was made in the fifteen century. Romance portion Louis the German's oath is recorded as follows: The army of Charles the Bald swore that: Germanic portion The language reflects an early form of Ripuarian Frankish. Charles the Bald is recorded as saying:This is a close translation of Louis' oath, except that an equivalent to et in aiudha et in cadhuna cosa appears to be missing. The soldiers of Louis the German replied: This, in turn, was equivalent to the oath sworn by Charles' soldiers. Linguistic features Several scholars consider the Romance portion of the Oaths to have been translated from an unattested Latin original, while others maintain its originality. According to Hall, the text does not contain any particular features that would mark it as belonging to the future Oïl or Oc groups, with the possible exception of the form tanit 'keep' < *tɛ́ni̯at, |
– George Frazier, American baseball player and sportscaster 1954 – Claude Ribbe, French historian and academic 1955 – John Ferenzik, American keyboard player, guitarist, and composer 1956 – Joseph Toal, Scottish bishop 1956 – Sinan Sakić, Serbian singer (d. 2018) 1957 – Reggie Theus, American basketball player and coach 1958 – Maria Cantwell, American lawyer and politician 1958 – Jair-Rôhm Parker Wells, American bassist and composer 1959 – Marie Osmond, American singer, actress, and television spokesperson 1960 – Joey Belladonna, American singer-songwriter 1960 – Eric Joyce, Scottish soldier and politician 1961 – Rachel De Thame, English gardener and television presenter 1961 – Doc Rivers, American basketball player and coach 1962 – T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh, American actress and author 1962 – Kelly Preston, American actress (d. 2020) 1962 – Jerry Rice, American football player 1963 – Colin Channer, Jamaican-American author and academic 1963 – Chip Foose, American engineer and television host 1964 – Fanie de Villiers, South African cricketer 1964 – Nie Haisheng, Chinese general, pilot, and astronaut 1964 – Christopher Judge, American actor and producer 1964 – Marco Travaglio, Italian journalist and author 1965 – Johan Museeuw, Belgian cyclist 1966 – Larry Collmus, American sportscaster 1966 – John Regis, English sprinter 1966 – Baja Mali Knindža, Serbian singer 1967 – Scott Cooper, American baseball player 1967 – Trevor Hoffman, American baseball player 1967 – Javier Sotomayor, Cuban high jumper 1967 – Steve Vickers, English footballer 1967 – Kate Walsh, American actress and producer 1967 – Aleksander Čeferin, Slovenian lawyer and football administrator, 7th president of UEFA 1968 – Tisha Campbell-Martin, American actress and singer 1969 – Nancy Kerrigan, American figure skater and actress 1969 – Cady McClain, American actress and singer 1970 – Serena Altschul, American journalist 1970 – Rob Howley, Welsh rugby player and coach 1970 – Paul Potts, English tenor 1971 – Sacha Baron Cohen, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1971 – Billy Bush, American television journalist and radio host 1971 – Pyrros Dimas, Albanian-Greek weightlifter and politician 1972 – Summer Sanders, American swimmer and sportscaster 1973 – Brian Dawkins, American football player and coach 1973 – Matt Hughes, American wrestler and mixed martial artist 1977 – Gareth Batty, English cricketer 1977 – Benjamin Clapp, American drummer 1977 – Antonio Di Natale, Italian footballer 1977 – Justin Peroff, Canadian drummer and actor 1977 – Paul Pierce, American basketball player 1978 – Jermaine O'Neal, American basketball player 1979 – Wes Brown, English footballer 1979 – Mamadou Niang, Senegalese footballer 1980 – Ashanti, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1980 – David Haye, English boxer 1980 – Magne Hoseth, Norwegian footballer 1980 – Scott Parker, English footballer 1981 – Taylor Buchholz, American baseball player 1982 – Antonio Pavanello, Italian rugby player 1982 – Ian Thorpe, Australian swimmer 1986 – Gabriel Agbonlahor, English footballer 1986 – Sergio Pérez Moya, Mexican footballer 1987 – Adrian Poparadu, Romanian footballer 1988 – Scott Jamieson, Australian footballer 1989 – Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, American politician 1989 – Clive Rose, Australian cricketer 1990 – Andrej Rendla, Slovak footballer 1990 – Adrián Sardinero, Spanish footballer 1993 – Tiffany Trump, daughter of 45th U.S. President Donald Trump 1994 – Ryan Matterson, Australian rugby league player 1995 – Jimin, South Korean singer 1996 – Joshua Wong, Hong Kong pro-democracy activist 1999 – Andrew Capobianco. American Olympic diver 2001 – Caleb McLaughlin, American actor Deaths Pre-1600 54 – Claudius, Roman emperor (b. 10 BC) 807 – Simpert, bishop of Augsburg 982 – Jing Zong, emperor of the Liao Dynasty (b. 948) 1093 – Robert I, count of Flanders (b. 1035) 1100 – Guy I, count of Ponthieu 1195 – Gualdim Pais, Portuguese crusader (b. 1118) 1282 – Nichiren, Japanese Buddhist priest (b. 1222) 1382 – Peter II, king of Cyprus 1415 – Thomas FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel, English politician, Lord High Treasurer of England (b. 1381) 1435 – Hermann II, count of Croatia 1562 – Claudin de Sermisy, French composer (b. 1495) 1601–1900 1605 – Theodore Beza, French theologian and scholar (b. 1519) 1673 – Christoffer Gabel, German-Danish accountant and politician (b. 1617) 1687 – Geminiano Montanari, Italian astronomer and lens maker (b. 1633) 1694 – Samuel von Pufendorf, German historian, economist, and jurist (b. 1632) 1706 – Iyasu I, emperor of Ethiopia (b. 1654) 1715 – Nicolas Malebranche, French priest and philosopher (b. 1638) 1759 – John Henley, English clergyman and author (b. 1692) 1788 – Robert Nugent, 1st Earl Nugent, Irish poet and politician (b. 1702) 1812 – Isaac Brock, English general and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada (b. 1769) 1815 – Joachim Murat, French general (b. 1767) 1822 – Antonio Canova, Italian sculptor (b. 1757) 1825 – Maximilian I Joseph, king of Bavaria (b. 1756) 1841 – Patrick Campbell, Scottish admiral (b. 1773) 1869 – Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French poet, author, and critic (b. 1804) 1882 – Arthur de Gobineau, French philosopher and author (b. 1816) 1890 – Samuel Freeman Miller, American lawyer and jurist (b. 1816) 1901–present 1904 – Pavlos Melas, French-Greek captain (b. 1870) 1905 – Henry Irving, English actor and manager (b. 1838) 1909 – Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia, Spanish philosopher and academic (b. 1849) 1911 – Sister Nivedita, Irish-Indian social worker, author, and educator (b. 1867) 1917 – Florence La Badie, American actress (b. 1888) 1919 – Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Danish author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1857) 1926 – Hans E. Kinck, Norwegian philologist and author (b. 1865) 1930 – T. Alexander Harrison, American painter and educator (b. 1853) 1931 – Ernst Didring, Swedish author (b. 1868) 1938 – E. C. Segar, American cartoonist, created Popeye (b. 1894) 1945 – Milton S. Hershey, American businessman, founded The Hershey Company (b. 1857) 1950 – Ernest Haycox, American soldier and author (b. 1899) 1955 – Manuel Ávila Camacho, Mexican general and politician, 45th President of Mexico (b. 1897) 1956 – Cahit Sıtkı Tarancı, Turkish poet and author (b. 1910) 1961 – Prince Louis Rwagasore, Burundi politician, Prime Minister of Burundi (b. 1932) 1966 – Clifton Webb, American actor and dancer (b. 1889) 1968 – Bea Benaderet, American actress and voice artist (b. 1906) 1973 – Cevat Şakir Kabaağaçlı, Turkish ethnographer and author (b. 1886) 1973 – Albert Mandler, Austrian-Israeli general (b. 1929) 1974 – Otto Binder, American author (b. 1911) 1974 – Anatoli Kozhemyakin, Soviet footballer (b. 1953) 1974 – Ed Sullivan, American journalist and talk show host (b. 1901) 1979 – Antonio Berni, Argentinian painter, illustrator, and engraver (b. 1905) 1981 – Rebecca Clarke, English viola player and composer (b. 1886) 1985 – Tage Danielsson, Swedish author, actor, and director (b. 1928) 1987 – Walter Houser Brattain, American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1902) 1987 – Kishore Kumar, Indian singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and director (b. 1929) 1987 – Nilgün Marmara, Turkish poet and author (b. 1958) 1990 – Hans Namuth, German-American photographer (b. 1915) 1990 – Lê Đức Thọ, Vietnamese general and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911) 1992 – James Marshall, American author and illustrator (b. 1942) 1993 – Otmar Gutmann, German filmmaker (b. 1937) 1996 – Beryl Reid, English actress (b. 1919) 1998 – Dmitry Nikolayevich Filippov, Russian businessman and politician (b. 1944) 1999 – Michael Hartnett, Irish poet (b. 1941) 2000 – Jean Peters, American actress (b. 1926) 2001 – Peter Doyle, Australian singer-songwriter (b. 1949) 2002 – Stephen Ambrose, American historian and author (b. 1936) 2002 – Keene Curtis, American actor (b. 1923) 2003 – Bertram Brockhouse, Canadian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918) 2004 – Enrique Fernando, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 13th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (b. 1915) 2004 – Bernice Rubens, Welsh author (b. 1928) 2005 – Vivian Malone Jones, American activist (b. 1942) 2006 – Wang Guangmei, Chinese philanthropist and politician, 2nd Spouse of the President of the People's Republic of China (b. 1921) 2007 – Bob Denard, French soldier and academic (b. 1929) 2008 – Alexei Cherepanov, Russian ice hockey player (b. 1989) 2009 – Stephen Barnett, American scholar and academic (b. 1935) 2010 – Vernon Biever, American photographer (b. 1923) 2011 – Barbara Kent, Canadian-born American actress (b. 1907) 2012 – Stuart Bell, English lawyer and politician (b. 1938) 2012 – Gary Collins, American actor (b. 1938) 2012 – Tomonobu Imamichi, Japanese philosopher and academic (b. 1922) 2013 – Martin Drewes, | the Pyrenees and appear in Hispania. 1269 – The present church building at Westminster Abbey is consecrated. 1307 – Hundreds of the Knights Templar in France are arrested at dawn by King Philip the Fair, and later confess under torture to heresy. 1332 – Rinchinbal Khan becomes the Khagan of the Mongols and Emperor of the Yuan dynasty, reigning for only 53 days. 1399 – Coronation of Henry IV of England at Westminster Abbey. 1601–1900 1644 – A Swedish–Dutch fleet defeats the Danish fleet at Fehmarn and captures about 1,000 prisoners. 1710 – Port Royal, the capital of French Acadia, falls in a siege by British forces. 1775 – The Continental Congress establishes the Continental Navy (predecessor of the United States Navy). 1792 – In Washington, D.C., the cornerstone of the United States Executive Mansion (known as the White House since 1818) is laid. 1793 – French Revolutionary Wars: Austro-Prussian victory over Republican France at the First Battle of Wissembourg. 1812 – War of 1812: Sir Isaac Brock's British and native forces repel an invasion of Canada by General Rensselaer's United States forces. 1821 – The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire is publicly proclaimed. 1843 – In New York City, B'nai B'rith, the oldest Jewish service organization in the world, is founded. 1881 – First known conversation in modern Hebrew by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and friends. 1885 – The Georgia Institute of Technology is founded in Atlanta, Georgia. 1892 – Edward Emerson Barnard discovers first comet discovered by photographic means. 1901–present 1903 – The Boston Red Sox win the first modern World Series, defeating the Pittsburgh Pirates in the eighth game. 1908 – Margaret Travers Symons bursts into the UK parliament and becomes the first woman to speak there. 1911 – Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, becomes the first Governor General of Canada of royal descent. 1915 – First World War: The Battle of the Hohenzollern Redoubt marks the end of the Battle of Loos. 1917 – The "Miracle of the Sun" is witnessed by an estimated 70,000 people in the Cova da Iria in Portugal. 1921 – Soviet republics sign the Treaty of Kars to formalize the borders between Turkey and the South Caucasus states. 1923 – Ankara becomes the capital of Turkey. 1943 – World War II: Marshal Pietro Badoglio announces that Italy has officially declared war on Germany. 1944 – World War II: The Soviet Riga Offensive captures the city. 1946 – France adopts the constitution of the Fourth Republic. 1962 – The Pacific Northwest experiences a cyclone the equal of a Category 3 hurricane, with winds above 150 mph. Forty-six people die. 1972 – Aeroflot Flight 217 crashes outside Moscow, killing 174. 1972 – Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crashes in the Andes mountains. Twenty-eight survive the crash. All but 16 succumb before rescue on December 23. 1976 – The first electron micrograph of an Ebola virus is taken at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention by Dr. F. A. Murphy. 1977 – Hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 181 by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. 1983 – Ameritech Mobile Communications launches the first US cellular network in Chicago. 1990 – Syrian forces attack free areas of Lebanon, removing General Michel Aoun from the presidential palace. 1993 – At least 60 people die in eastern Papua New Guinea when a series of earthquakes rock the Finisterre Range, triggering massive landslides. 2010 – The mining accident in Copiapó, Chile ends as all 33 trapped miners arrive at the surface after a record 69 days underground. 2013 – A stampede occurs in India during the Hindu festival Navratri, killing 115 and injuring more than 110. 2016 – The Maldives announces its decision to withdraw from the Commonwealth of Nations. 2019 – Kenyan Brigid Kosgei sets a new world record for a woman runner with a time of 2:14:04 at the 2019 Chicago Marathon. Births Pre-1600 467 – Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei, emperor of Northern Wei (d. 499) 1381 – Thomas FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel, English politician, Lord High Treasurer of England (d. 1415) 1453 – Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, son and heir of Henry VI of England (d. 1471) 1474 – Mariotto Albertinelli, Italian painter and educator (d. 1515) 1499 – Claude of France (d. 1524) 1563 – Francis Caracciolo, Italian Catholic priest (d. 1608) 1566 – Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, Irish politician, Lord High Treasurer of Ireland (d. 1643) 1601–1900 1613 – Luisa de Guzmán, Spanish-Portuguese wife of John IV of Portugal (d. 1666) 1696 – John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey, English courtier and politician, Lord Privy Seal (d. 1743) 1703 – Andrea Belli, Maltese architect and businessman (d. 1772) 1713 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish-English painter (d. 1784) 1756 – James Gambier, 1st Baron Gambier, English admiral and politician, 36th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1833) 1768 – Jacques Félix Emmanuel Hamelin, French admiral and explorer (d. 1839) 1820 – John William Dawson, Canadian geologist and academic (d. 1899) 1821 – Rudolf Virchow, German physician, biologist, and politician (d. 1902) 1825 – Charles Frederick Worth, English fashion designer, founded House of Worth (d. 1895) 1844 – Ernest Myers, English poet and author (d. 1921) 1853 – Lillie Langtry, English actress and singer (d. 1929) 1862 – Mary Kingsley, English explorer and author (d. 1900) 1870 – Albert Jay Nock, American theorist, author, and critic (d. 1945) 1872 – Leon Leonwood Bean, American hunter, businessman, and author, founded L.L.Bean (d. 1967) 1873 – Georgios Kafantaris, Greek politician and Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1946) 1874 – József Klekl, Slovene-Hungarian priest and politician (d. 1948) 1876 – Rube Waddell, American baseball player (d. 1914) 1878 – Patrick Joseph Hartigan, Australian priest and author (d. 1952) 1879 – Edward Hennig, American gymnast (d. 1960) 1880 – Sasha Chorny, Russian poet and author (d. 1932) 1887 – Jozef Tiso, Slovak priest and politician, President of Slovakia (d. 1947) 1890 – Conrad Richter, American journalist and novelist (d. 1968) 1891 – Irene Rich, American actress (d. 1988) 1893 – Kurt Reidemeister, German mathematician connected to the Vienna Circle (d. 1971) 1895 – Mike Gazella, American baseball player and manager (d. 1978) 1899 – Piero Dusio, Italian footballer, businessman and racing driver (d. 1975) 1900 – Gerald Marks, American composer (d. 1997) 1901–present 1902 – Arna Bontemps, American librarian, author, and poet (d. 1973) 1902 – Karl Leichter, Estonian musicologist and academic (d. 1987) 1904 – Wilfred Pickles, English actor and radio host (d. 1978) 1905 – Yves Allégret, French director and screenwriter (d. 1987) 1905 – Coloman Braun-Bogdan, Romanian footballer and manager (d. 1983) 1909 – Herblock, American author and illustrator (d. 2001) 1909 – Art Tatum, American jazz pianist (d. 1956) 1911 – Ashok Kumar, Indian film actor (d. 2001) 1911 – Millosh Gjergj Nikolla, Albanian poet and author (d. 1938) 1912 – Cornel Wilde, Slovak-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1989) 1913 – Igor Torkar, Slovenian poet and playwright (d. 2004) 1915 – Terry Frost, English painter and academic (d. 2003) 1917 – George Osmond, American talent manager (d. 2007) 1918 – Robert Walker, American actor (d. 1951) 1920 – Laraine Day, American actress (d. 2007) 1921 – Yves Montand, Italian-French actor and singer (d. 1991) 1922 – Nathaniel Clifton, American athlete (d. 1990) 1923 – John C. Champion, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1994) 1923 – Rosemary Anne Sisson, English author and playwright (d. 2017) 1923 – Faas Wilkes, Dutch footballer (d. 2006) 1924 – Terry Gibbs, American vibraphone player and bandleader 1924 – Moturu Udayam, Indian activist and politician (d. 2002) 1924 – Roberto Eduardo Viola, Argentinian general and politician, 44th President of Argentina (d. 1994) 1925 – Lenny Bruce, American comedian and actor (d. 1966) 1925 – Armand Mouyal, Algerian-French fencer and police officer (d. 1988) 1925 – Margaret Thatcher, English chemist and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2013) 1925 – Gustav Winckler, Danish singer-songwriter (d. 1979) 1926 – Ray Brown, American bassist and cellist (d. 2002) 1926 – Tommy Whittle, Scottish-English saxophonist (d. 2013) 1926 – Killer Kowalski, American wrestler (d. 2008) 1926 – Eddie Yost, American baseball player and coach (d. 2012) 1927 – Lee Konitz, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2020) 1927 – Turgut Özal, Turkish engineer and politician, 8th President of Turkey (d. 1993) 1929 – Richard Howard, American poet, critic, and translator 1929 – Walasse Ting, Chinese-American painter and poet (d. 2010) 1930 – Bruce Geller, American |
physicist and mathematician (d. 1647) 1622 – Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, Swedish statesman and military man (d. 1686) 1686 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet and playwright (d. 1758) 1701 – Marie-Marguerite d'Youville, Canadian nun and saint, founded Grey Nuns (d. 1771) 1711 – Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine (d. 1741) 1762 – Samuel Adams Holyoke, American composer and educator (d. 1820) 1767 – Gabriel Richard, French-born American Roman Catholic priest, missionary, educator, and politician (d. 1832) 1784 – Thomas Robert Bugeaud, French general and politician, Governor-General of Algeria (d. 1849) 1785 – José Miguel Carrera, Chilean general and politician (d. 1821) 1789 – William Christopher Zeise, Danish chemist who prepared Zeise's salt, one of the first organometallic compounds (d. 1847) 1795 – Frederick William IV of Prussia, Prussian king from 1840 to 1861 (d. 1861) 1802 – Louis-Eugène Cavaignac, French general and politician, head of state of France in 1848 (d. 1857) 1814 – Mikhail Lermontov, Russian author, poet, and painter (d. 1841) 1816 – John Robertson, English-Australian politician, 5th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1891) 1818 – Alexander Dreyschock, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1869) 1825 – Marie of Prussia (d. 1889) 1829 – Asaph Hall, American astronomer and academic (d. 1907) 1833 – John Alexander MacPherson, Australian politician, 7th Premier of Victoria (d. 1894) 1836 – James Tissot, French painter and illustrator (d. 1902) 1840 – Honoré Mercier, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 9th Premier of Quebec (d. 1894) 1844 – Friedrich Nietzsche, German composer, poet, and philosopher (d. 1900) 1858 – John L. Sullivan, American boxer, actor, and journalist (d. 1918) 1865 – Charles W. Clark, American singer and educator (d. 1925) 1872 – Wilhelm Miklas, Austrian educator and politician, 3rd President of Austria (d. 1956) 1872 – August Nilsson, Swedish pole vaulter, shot putter, and tug of war competitor (d. 1921) 1874 – Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1899) 1878 – Paul Reynaud, French lawyer and politician, 118th Prime Minister of France (d. 1966) 1879 – Jane Darwell, American actress (d. 1967) 1881 – P. G. Wodehouse, English novelist and playwright (d. 1975) 1882 – Charley O'Leary, American baseball player and coach (d. 1941) 1884 – Archibald Hoxsey, American pilot (d. 1910) 1887 – Frederick Fleet, English sailor (d. 1965) 1888 – S. S. Van Dine, American author and critic (d. 1939) 1890 – Álvaro de Campos, Portuguese poet and engineer (d. 1935) 1893 – Carol II of Romania (d. 1953) 1894 – Moshe Sharett, Ukrainian-Israeli lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1965) 1897 – Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (d. 1960) 1899 – Adolf Brudes, Polish-German racing driver (d. 1986) 1900 – Mervyn LeRoy, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1987) 1901–present 1901 – Enrique Jardiel Poncela, Spanish playwright and novelist (d. 1952) 1905 – C. P. Snow, English chemist and author (d. 1980) 1906 – Hiram Fong, American soldier and politician (d. 2004) 1906 – Alicia Patterson, American journalist and publisher, co-founded Newsday (d. 1963) 1906 – Victoria Spivey, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1976) 1907 – Varian Fry, American journalist and author (d. 1967) 1908 – Herman Chittison, American pianist (d. 1967) 1908 – John Kenneth Galbraith, Canadian-American economist and diplomat, 7th United States Ambassador to India (d. 2006) 1909 – Jesse L. Greenstein, American astronomer and academic (d. 2002) 1909 – Robert Trout, American journalist (d. 2000) 1910 – Edwin O. Reischauer, Japanese-American scholar and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Japan (d. 1990) 1912 – Nellie Lutcher, American singer and pianist (d. 2007) 1913 – Wolfgang Lüth, German commander (d. 1945) 1914 – Mohammed Zahir Shah, Afghan king (d. 2007) 1916 – Al Killian, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 2007) 1916 – George Turner, Australian author and critic (d. 1997) 1917 – Jan Miner, American actress (d. 2004) 1917 – Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., American historian and critic (d. 2007) 1917 – Paul Tanner, American trombonist and educator (d. 2013) 1919 – Malcolm Ross, American captain, balloonist, and physicist (d. 1985) 1919 – Chuck Stevenson, American race car driver (d. 1995) 1920 – Chris Economaki, American sportscaster and actor (d. 2012) 1920 – Patricia Jessel, Hong Kong-English actress (d. 1968) 1920 – Mario Puzo, American author and screenwriter (d. 1999) 1920 – Henri Verneuil, Turkish-French director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2002) 1921 – Angelica Rozeanu, Romanian-Israeli table tennis player (d. 2006) 1922 – Agustina Bessa-Luís, Portuguese author (d. 2019) 1922 – Preben Munthe, Norwegian economist and politician, State Conciliator of Norway (d. 2013) 1923 – Italo Calvino, Italian novelist, short story writer, and journalist (d. 1985) 1923 – Antonio Fontán, Spanish journalist and politician (d. 2010) 1923 – Eugene Patterson, American journalist and activist (d. 2013) 1923 – Lindsay Thompson, Australian politician, 40th Premier of Victoria (d. 2008) 1924 – Marguerite Andersen, German-Canadian author and educator 1924 – Lee Iacocca, American businessman and author (d. 2019) 1924 – Warren Miller, American director and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1925 – Mickey Baker, American-French guitarist (d. 2012) 1925 – Aurora Bautista, Spanish actress (d. 2012) 1925 – Tony Hart, English painter and television host (d. 2009) 1926 – James E. Akins, American soldier and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Saudi Arabia (d. 2010) 1926 – Agustín García Calvo, Spanish philosopher and poet (d. 2012) 1926 – Michel Foucault, French historian and philosopher (d. 1984) 1926 – Ed McBain, American author and screenwriter (d. 2005) 1926 – Jean Peters, American actress (d. 2000) 1926 – Karl Richter, German organist and conductor (d. 1981) 1927 – B. S. Abdur Rahman, Indian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2015) 1929 – Will Insley, American painter and architect (d. 2011) 1930 – FM-2030, Belgian-Iranian basketball player, philosopher and diplomat (d. 2000) 1931 – A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, Indian engineer, academic, and politician, 11th President of India (d. 2015) 1931 – Pauline Perry, Baroness Perry of Southwark, English academic and politician 1932 – Jaan Rääts, Estonian guitarist and composer 1933 – Nicky Barnes, American drug lord (d. 2012) 1934 – Alan Elsdon, English trumpet player (d. 2016) 1934 – N. Ramani, Indian flute player (d. 2015) 1935 – Barry McGuire, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1935 – Dick McTaggart, Scottish boxer 1935 – Bobby Morrow, American sprinter 1935 – Willie O'Ree, Canadian ice hockey player 1936 – Michel Aumont, French actor 1936 – Robert Baden-Powell, 3rd Baron Baden-Powell, South African-English businessman (d. 2019) 1937 – Linda Lavin, American actress and singer 1938 – Marv Johnson, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1993) 1938 – Brice Marden, American painter 1938 – Robert Ward, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2008) 1938 – Fela Kuti, Nigerian musician and activist (d. 1997) 1940 – Tommy Bishop, English rugby league player and coach 1940 – Peter C. Doherty, Australian surgeon and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate 1941 – Roy Masters, Australian rugby league coach, journalist, and author 1942 – Hilo Chen, Taiwanese-American painter 1942 – Harold W. Gehman, Jr., American admiral 1942 – Don Stevenson, American singer-songwriter and drummer 1943 – Penny Marshall, American actress, director, and producer (d. 2018) 1944 – Sali Berisha, Albanian cardiologist and politician, 2nd President of Albania 1944 – A. Chandranehru, Sri Lankan Tamil merchant seaman and politician (d. 2005) 1944 – Haim Saban, Israeli-American businessman, co-founded Saban Entertainment 1944 – David Trimble, Northern Irish lawyer and politician, 3rd First Minister of Northern Ireland, Nobel Prize laureate 1945 – Steve Camacho, Guyanese cricketer (d. 2015) 1945 – Antonio Cañizares Llovera, Spanish cardinal 1945 – Neophyte of Bulgaria, Bulgarian patriarch 1945 – Jim Palmer, American baseball player and sportscaster 1946 – Victor Banerjee, Indian actor and director 1946 – Richard Carpenter, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1946 – Palle Danielsson, Swedish bassist and composer 1946 – Stewart Stevenson, Scottish engineer and politician, Minister for Environment and Climate Change 1947 – Hümeyra, Turkish singer-songwriter and actress 1947 – Jaroslav Erno Šedivý, Czech drummer 1948 – Renato Corona, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 23rd Chief Justice of the Supreme Court | Gorbunovs of Latvia and the Vytautas Landsbergis of Lithuania, signed the OSCE Final Act in Helsinki, Finland. 1994 – The United States, under the Clinton administration, returns Haiti's first democratically elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, to the island. 1995 – Saddam Hussein is reelected president of Iraq through a referendum. 1997 – The Cassini probe launches from Cape Canaveral on its way to Saturn. 2001 – NASA's Galileo spacecraft passes within of Jupiter's moon Io. 2003 – China launches Shenzhou 5, its first manned space mission. 2005 – A planned neo-Nazi protest against African-American street gangs sets off a riot in Toledo, Ohio. Twenty-nine people are arrested. 2006 – The 6.7 Kiholo Bay earthquake rocks Hawaii, causing property damage, injuries, landslides, power outages, and the closure of Honolulu International Airport. 2007 – Seventeen activists in New Zealand are arrested in the country's first post-9/11 anti-terrorism raids. 2008 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes down 733.08 points, or 7.87%, the second worst percentage drop in the Dow's history. 2013 – The 7.2 Bohol earthquake strikes the Philippines. At least 215 die. 2016 – One hundred ninety-seven nations amend the Montreal Protocol to include a phase-out of hydrofluorocarbons. 2018 – 13-year-old American girl, Jayme Closs, is kidnapped from her Barron, Wisconsin home after her parents were both murdered. Births Pre-1600 99 BC (probable) – Lucretius, Roman poet and philosopher (d. 55 BCE) 70 BC – Virgil, Roman poet (d. 19 BC) 1265 – Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan (d. 1307) 1440 – Henry III, Landgrave of Upper Hesse, German noble (d. 1483) 1471 – Konrad Mutian, German epigrammatist and academic (d. 1526) 1542 – Akbar, Mughal emperor (d. 1605) 1561 – Richard Field, English cathedral dean (d. 1616) 1564 – Henry Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1613) 1599 – Cornelis de Graeff, Dutch mayor and regent of Amsterdam (d. 1664) 1601–1900 1608 – Evangelista Torricelli, Italian physicist and mathematician (d. 1647) 1622 – Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, Swedish statesman and military man (d. 1686) 1686 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet and playwright (d. 1758) 1701 – Marie-Marguerite d'Youville, Canadian nun and saint, founded Grey Nuns (d. 1771) 1711 – Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine (d. 1741) 1762 – Samuel Adams Holyoke, American composer and educator (d. 1820) 1767 – Gabriel Richard, French-born American Roman Catholic priest, missionary, educator, and politician (d. 1832) 1784 – Thomas Robert Bugeaud, French general and politician, Governor-General of Algeria (d. 1849) 1785 – José Miguel Carrera, Chilean general and politician (d. 1821) 1789 – William Christopher Zeise, Danish chemist who prepared Zeise's salt, one of the first organometallic compounds (d. 1847) 1795 – Frederick William IV of Prussia, Prussian king from 1840 to 1861 (d. 1861) 1802 – Louis-Eugène Cavaignac, French general and politician, head of state of France in 1848 (d. 1857) 1814 – Mikhail Lermontov, Russian author, poet, and painter (d. 1841) 1816 – John Robertson, English-Australian politician, 5th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1891) 1818 – Alexander Dreyschock, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1869) 1825 – Marie of Prussia (d. 1889) 1829 – Asaph Hall, American astronomer and academic (d. 1907) 1833 – John Alexander MacPherson, Australian politician, 7th Premier of Victoria (d. 1894) 1836 – James Tissot, French painter and illustrator (d. 1902) 1840 – Honoré Mercier, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 9th Premier of Quebec (d. 1894) 1844 – Friedrich Nietzsche, German composer, poet, and philosopher (d. 1900) 1858 – John L. Sullivan, American boxer, actor, and journalist (d. 1918) 1865 – Charles W. Clark, American singer and educator (d. 1925) 1872 – Wilhelm Miklas, Austrian educator and politician, 3rd President of Austria (d. 1956) 1872 – August Nilsson, Swedish pole vaulter, shot putter, and tug of war competitor (d. 1921) 1874 – Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1899) 1878 – Paul Reynaud, French lawyer and politician, 118th Prime Minister of France (d. 1966) 1879 – Jane Darwell, American actress (d. 1967) 1881 – P. G. Wodehouse, English novelist and playwright (d. 1975) 1882 – Charley O'Leary, American baseball player and coach (d. 1941) 1884 – Archibald Hoxsey, American pilot (d. 1910) 1887 – Frederick Fleet, English sailor (d. 1965) 1888 – S. S. Van Dine, American author and critic (d. 1939) 1890 – Álvaro de Campos, Portuguese poet and engineer (d. 1935) 1893 – Carol II of Romania (d. 1953) 1894 – Moshe Sharett, Ukrainian-Israeli lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1965) 1897 – Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (d. 1960) 1899 – Adolf Brudes, Polish-German racing driver (d. 1986) 1900 – Mervyn LeRoy, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1987) 1901–present 1901 – Enrique Jardiel Poncela, Spanish playwright and novelist (d. 1952) 1905 – C. P. Snow, English chemist and author (d. 1980) 1906 – Hiram Fong, American soldier and politician (d. 2004) 1906 – Alicia Patterson, American journalist and publisher, co-founded Newsday (d. 1963) 1906 – Victoria Spivey, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1976) 1907 – Varian Fry, American journalist and author (d. 1967) 1908 – Herman Chittison, American pianist (d. 1967) 1908 – John Kenneth Galbraith, Canadian-American economist and diplomat, 7th United States Ambassador to India (d. 2006) 1909 – Jesse L. Greenstein, American astronomer and academic (d. 2002) 1909 – Robert Trout, American journalist (d. 2000) 1910 – Edwin O. Reischauer, Japanese-American scholar and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Japan (d. 1990) 1912 – Nellie Lutcher, American singer and pianist (d. 2007) 1913 – Wolfgang Lüth, German commander (d. 1945) 1914 – Mohammed Zahir Shah, Afghan king (d. 2007) 1916 – Al Killian, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 2007) 1916 – George Turner, Australian author and critic (d. 1997) 1917 – Jan Miner, American actress (d. 2004) 1917 – Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., American historian and critic (d. 2007) 1917 – Paul Tanner, American trombonist and educator (d. 2013) 1919 – Malcolm Ross, American captain, balloonist, and physicist (d. 1985) 1919 – Chuck Stevenson, American race car driver (d. 1995) 1920 – Chris Economaki, American sportscaster and actor (d. 2012) 1920 – Patricia Jessel, Hong Kong-English actress (d. 1968) 1920 – Mario Puzo, American author and screenwriter (d. 1999) 1920 – Henri Verneuil, Turkish-French director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2002) 1921 – Angelica Rozeanu, Romanian-Israeli table tennis player (d. 2006) 1922 – Agustina Bessa-Luís, Portuguese author (d. 2019) 1922 – Preben Munthe, Norwegian economist and politician, State Conciliator of Norway (d. 2013) 1923 – Italo Calvino, Italian novelist, short story writer, and journalist (d. 1985) 1923 – Antonio Fontán, Spanish journalist and politician (d. 2010) 1923 – Eugene Patterson, American journalist and activist (d. 2013) 1923 – Lindsay Thompson, Australian politician, 40th Premier of Victoria (d. 2008) 1924 – Marguerite Andersen, German-Canadian author and educator 1924 – Lee Iacocca, American businessman and author (d. 2019) 1924 – Warren Miller, American director and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1925 – Mickey Baker, American-French guitarist (d. 2012) 1925 – Aurora Bautista, Spanish actress (d. 2012) 1925 – Tony Hart, English painter and television host (d. 2009) 1926 – James E. Akins, American soldier and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Saudi Arabia (d. 2010) 1926 – Agustín García Calvo, Spanish philosopher and poet (d. 2012) 1926 – Michel Foucault, French historian and philosopher (d. 1984) 1926 – Ed McBain, American author and screenwriter (d. 2005) 1926 – Jean Peters, American actress (d. 2000) 1926 – Karl Richter, German organist and conductor (d. 1981) 1927 – B. S. Abdur Rahman, Indian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2015) 1929 – Will Insley, American painter and architect (d. 2011) 1930 – FM-2030, Belgian-Iranian basketball player, philosopher and diplomat (d. 2000) 1931 – A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, Indian engineer, academic, and politician, 11th President of India (d. 2015) 1931 – Pauline Perry, Baroness Perry of Southwark, English academic and politician 1932 – Jaan Rääts, Estonian guitarist and composer 1933 – Nicky Barnes, American drug lord (d. 2012) 1934 – Alan Elsdon, English trumpet player (d. 2016) 1934 – N. Ramani, Indian flute player (d. 2015) 1935 – Barry McGuire, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1935 – Dick McTaggart, Scottish boxer 1935 – Bobby Morrow, American sprinter 1935 – Willie O'Ree, Canadian ice hockey player 1936 – Michel Aumont, French actor 1936 – Robert Baden-Powell, 3rd Baron Baden-Powell, South African-English businessman (d. 2019) 1937 – Linda Lavin, American actress and singer 1938 – Marv Johnson, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1993) 1938 – Brice Marden, American painter 1938 – Robert Ward, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2008) 1938 – Fela Kuti, Nigerian musician and activist (d. 1997) 1940 – Tommy Bishop, English rugby league player and coach 1940 – Peter C. Doherty, Australian surgeon and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate 1941 – Roy Masters, Australian rugby league coach, journalist, and author 1942 – Hilo Chen, Taiwanese-American painter 1942 – Harold W. Gehman, Jr., American admiral 1942 – Don Stevenson, American singer-songwriter and drummer 1943 – Penny Marshall, American actress, director, and producer (d. 2018) 1944 – Sali Berisha, Albanian cardiologist and politician, 2nd President of Albania 1944 – A. Chandranehru, Sri Lankan Tamil merchant seaman and politician (d. 2005) 1944 – Haim Saban, Israeli-American businessman, co-founded Saban Entertainment 1944 – David Trimble, Northern Irish lawyer and politician, 3rd First Minister of Northern Ireland, Nobel Prize laureate 1945 – Steve Camacho, Guyanese cricketer (d. 2015) 1945 – Antonio Cañizares Llovera, Spanish cardinal 1945 – Neophyte of Bulgaria, Bulgarian patriarch 1945 – Jim Palmer, American baseball player and sportscaster 1946 – Victor Banerjee, Indian actor and director 1946 – Richard Carpenter, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1946 – Palle Danielsson, Swedish bassist and composer 1946 – Stewart Stevenson, Scottish engineer and politician, Minister for Environment and Climate Change 1947 – Hümeyra, Turkish |
Scotland (d. 1460) 1483 – Gasparo Contarini, Italian cardinal and diplomat (d. 1542) 1535 – Niwa Nagahide, Japanese samurai (d. 1585) 1588 – Luke Wadding, Irish Franciscan friar and historian (d. 1657) 1601–1900 1605 – Charles Coypeau d'Assoucy, French writer and composer (d. 1677) 1620 – Pierre Paul Puget, French painter and sculptor (d. 1694) 1678 – Anna Waser, Swiss painter (d. 1714) 1679 – Jan Dismas Zelenka, Czech viol player and composer (d. 1745) 1710 – András Hadik, Austrian-Hungarian field marshal (d. 1790) 1714 – Giovanni Arduino, Italian geologist and academic (d. 1795) 1726 – Daniel Chodowiecki, Polish-German painter and educator (d. 1801) 1729 – Pierre van Maldere, Belgian violinist and composer (d. 1768) 1752 – Johann Gottfried Eichhorn, German theologian and academic (d. 1827) 1754 – Morgan Lewis, American general, lawyer, and politician, 3rd Governor of New York (d. 1844) 1758 – Noah Webster, American lexicographer (d. 1843) 1762 – Paul Hamilton, American soldier and politician, 3rd United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1816) 1789 – William Burton, American physician and politician, 39th Governor of Delaware (d. 1866) 1795 – William Buell Sprague, American minister, historian, and author (d. 1876) 1802 – Isaac Murphy, American educator and politician, 8th Governor of Arkansas (d. 1882) 1803 – Robert Stephenson, English railway and civil engineer (d. 1859) 1804 – Benjamin Russell, American painter and educator (d. 1885) 1806 – William P. Fessenden, American lawyer and politician, 26th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1869) 1815 – Francis Lubbock, American colonel and politician, 9th Governor of Texas (d. 1905) 1818 – William Forster, Indian-Australian politician, 4th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1882) 1819 – Austin F. Pike, American lawyer and politician (d. 1886) 1831 – Lucy Stanton, American activist (d. 1910) 1832 – Vicente Riva Palacio, Mexican liberal intellectual, novelist (d. 1896) 1840 – Kuroda Kiyotaka, Japanese general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1900) 1841 – Itō Hirobumi, Japanese lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1909) 1847 – Maria Pia of Savoy (d. 1911) 1852 – Carl von In der Maur, Governor of Liechtenstein (d. 1913) 1854 – Karl Kautsky, Czech-German journalist, philosopher, and theologian (d. 1938) 1854 – Oscar Wilde, Irish playwright, novelist, and poet (d. 1900) 1855 – Samad bey Mehmandarov, Azerbaijani general and politician, 3rd Azerbaijani Minister of Defense (d. 1931) 1861 – J. B. Bury, Irish historian and scholar (d. 1927) 1861 – Richard Sears, American tennis player (d. 1943) 1863 – Austen Chamberlain, English businessman and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937) 1867 – Mario Ruspoli, 2nd Prince of Poggio Suasa (d. 1963) 1869 – Claude H. Van Tyne, American historian and author (d. 1930) 1872 – Walter Buckmaster, English polo player and businessman, co-founded Buckmaster & Moore (d. 1942) 1876 – Jimmy Sinclair, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1913) 1881 – William Orthwein, American swimmer and water polo player (d. 1955) 1884 – Rembrandt Bugatti, Italian sculptor (d. 1916) 1886 – David Ben-Gurion, Polish-Israeli soldier and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1973) 1888 – Eugene O'Neill, American playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1953) 1888 – Paul Popenoe, American founder of relationship counseling (d. 1979) 1890 – Michael Collins, Irish general and politician, 2nd Irish Minister for Finance (d. 1922) 1890 – Maria Goretti, Italian martyr and saint (d. 1902) 1890 – Paul Strand, American photographer and director (d. 1975) 1897 – Louis de Cazenave, French soldier (d. 2008) 1898 – William O. Douglas, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1980) 1900 – Edward Ardizzone, Vietnamese-English author and illustrator (d. 1979) 1900 – Primo Conti, Italian painter and poet (d. 1988) 1900 – Goose Goslin, American baseball player and manager (d. 1971) 1901–present 1903 – Cecile de Brunhoff, French author and pianist (d. 2003) 1903 – Big Joe Williams, American Delta blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1982) 1904 – Björn Berglund, Swedish actor (d. 1968) 1905 – Ernst Kuzorra, German footballer and manager (d. 1990) 1906 – León Klimovsky, Argentinian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1996) 1907 – Richard Titmuss, English sociologist and academic (d. 1973) 1908 – Olivia Coolidge, English-American author and educator (d. 2006) 1908 – Enver Hoxha, Albanian general and politician, Prime Minister of Albania (d. 1985) 1911 – Otto von Bülow, German commander (d. 2006) 1912 – Clifford Hansen, American rancher and politician, 26th Governor of Wyoming (d. 2009) 1918 – Louis Althusser, Algerian-French philosopher and academic (d. 1990) 1918 – Abraham Nemeth, American mathematician and academic (d. 2013) 1918 – Tony Rolt, English race car driver and engineer (d. 2008) 1919 – Kathleen Winsor, American journalist and author (d. 2003) 1920 – Paddy Finucane, Irish fighter pilot and flying ace (d. 1942) 1921 – Matt Batts, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013) 1921 – Sita Ram Goel, Indian historian, publisher and writer (d. 2003) 1921 – MacKenzie Miller, American horse trainer and breeder (d. 2010) 1922 – Max Bygraves, English-Australian actor and singer (d. 2012) 1922 – Leon Sullivan, American minister and activist (d. 2001) 1923 – Linda Darnell, American actress (d. 1965) 1923 – Bert Kaempfert, German conductor and composer (d. 1980) 1923 – Bill McLaren, Scottish rugby player and sportscaster (d. 2010) 1924 – Gerard Parkes, Irish-Canadian actor (d. 2014) 1925 – Angela Lansbury, English-American actress, singer, and producer 1926 – Charles Dolan, American businessman, founded Cablevision and HBO 1927 – Günter Grass, German novelist, poet, playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015) 1928 – Mary Daly, American philosopher and theologian (d. 2010) 1928 – Ann Morgan Guilbert, American actress (d. 2016) 1929 – Fernanda Montenegro, Brazilian actress 1930 – John Polkinghorne, English physicist, theologian and priest (d. 2021) 1930 – Carmen Sevilla, Spanish actress 1931 – Charles Colson, American lawyer and politician (d. 2012) 1931 – Valery Klimov, Ukrainian-Russian violinist and educator 1931 – Rosa Rosal, Filipino actress 1931 – P. W. Underwood, American football player and coach (d. 2013) 1932 – John Grant, English journalist and politician (d. 2000) 1932 – Henry Lewis, American bassist and conductor (d. 1996) 1932 – Lucien Paiement, Canadian physician and politician (d. 2013) 1933 – Nobuyo Ōyama, Japanese voice actress 1934 – Peter Ashdown, English race car driver 1936 – Peter Bowles, English actor and screenwriter 1936 – Andrei Chikatilo, Ukrainian-Russian serial killer (d. 1994) 1936 – Mladen Koščak, Croatian footballer (d. 1997) 1936 – Akira Machida, Japanese lawyer and judge, 15th Chief Justice of Japan (d. 2015) 1938 – Carl Gunter, Jr., American politician (d. 1999) 1938 – Nico, German singer-songwriter, model, and actress (d. 1988) 1940 – Barry Corbin, American actor and producer 1940 – Dave DeBusschere, American basketball player and coach (d. 2003) 1940 – Ivan Della Mea, Italian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and journalist (d. 2009) 1941 – Tim McCarver, American baseball player, sportscaster, and singer 1941 – Emma Nicholson, Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne, English computer programmer and politician 1943 – Fred Turner, Canadian singer-songwriter and bass player 1944 – Kaizer Motaung, South African footballer and manager 1945 – Stefan Buczacki, English horticulturalist, botanist, and television host 1945 – Roger Hawkins, American session drummer 1945 – Paul Monette, American author and poet (d. 1995) 1946 – Geoff Barnett, English footballer (d. 2021) 1946 – Suzanne Somers, American actress and producer 1947 – Nicholas Day, English actor 1947 – Terry Griffiths, Welsh snooker player and coach 1947 – Bob Weir, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1947 – David Zucker, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1948 – Alison Chitty, English production designer and costume designer 1948 – Bruce Fleisher, American golfer 1948 – Hema Malini, Indian actress, director, producer, and politician 1948 – Leo Mazzone, American baseball player and coach 1950 – Károly Horváth, Romanian-Hungarian cellist, flute player, and composer (d. 2015) 1950 – Angry Grandpa, American internet personality (d. 2017) 1952 – Christopher Cox, American lawyer and politician 1952 – Cordell Mosson, American bass player (d. 2013) 1952 – Crazy Mohan, Indian actor, screenwriter, and playwright (d. 2019) 1952 – Glenys Thornton, Baroness Thornton, English politician 1953 – Tony Carey, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1953 – Paulo Roberto Falcão, Brazilian footballer and manager 1954 – Lorenzo Carcaterra, American author and blogger 1954 – Michael Forsyth, Baron Forsyth of Drumlean, Scottish politician, Secretary of State for Scotland 1954 – Serafino Ghizzoni, Italian rugby player 1954 – Corinna Harfouch, German actress 1955 – Kieran Doherty, Irish Republican hunger striker and politician 1955 – Ellen Dolan, American actress 1956 – Marin Alsop, American violinist and conductor 1956 – John Chavis, American football player and coach 1956 – Meg Rosoff, American-English author 1956 – Rudra Mohammad Shahidullah, Bangladeshi poet, author, and playwright (d. 1992) 1957 – Priidu Beier, Estonian poet and educator 1958 – Roy McDonough, English footballer and manager 1958 – Tim Robbins, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1959 – Kevin Brennan, Welsh journalist and politician 1959 – Brian Harper, American baseball player 1959 – Gary Kemp, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1959 – Philip Maini, Northern Irish mathematician at the University of Oxford 1959 – Tessa Munt, English lawyer and politician 1959 – Jamie Salmon, English-New Zealand rugby player and sportscaster 1959 – Erkki-Sven Tüür, Estonian flute player and composer 1959 – John Whittingdale, English politician 1960 – Guy LeBlanc, Canadian keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2015) 1960 – Bob Mould, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1961 – Marc Levy, French author 1961 – Randy Vasquez, American actor, director, and producer 1961 – Scott O'Hara, American pornographic performer, author, poet, editor and publisher (d. 1998) 1962 – Flea, Australian-American bass player, songwriter, and actor 1962 – Manute Bol, Sudanese-American basketball player and activist (d. 2010) 1962 – Dmitri Hvorostovsky, Russian opera singer (d. 2017) 1962 – Nico Lazaridis, German footballer 1962 – Tamara McKinney, American skier 1963 – Brendan Kibble, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1963 – Timothy Leighton, English physicist and academic 1964 – Shawn Little, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2012) 1964 – James Thompson, American-Finnish author (d. 2014) 1965 – Kang Kyung-ok, South Korean illustrator 1965 – Tom Tolbert, American basketball player and sportscaster 1966 – Olof Lundh, Swedish journalist 1966 – Mary Elizabeth McGlynn, American voice actress, singer, and director 1967 – Michael Laffy, Australian footballer 1967 – Davina McCall, English television host and actress 1968 – Randall Batinkoff, American actor and producer 1968 – Mark Lee, Singaporean actor and singer 1968 – Francesco Libetta, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor 1968 – Todd Stashwick, American actor and writer 1968 – Elsa Zylberstein, French actress 1969 – Roy Hargrove, American trumpet player and composer (d. 2018) 1969 – Takao Omori, Japanese wrestler 1969 – Terri J. Vaughn, American actress and producer 1969 – Wendy Wilson, American singer-songwriter 1970 – Kazuyuki Fujita, Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist 1970 – Mehmet Scholl, German footballer and manager 1971 – Chad Gray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Paul Sparks, American actor 1971 – Frank Cuesta, Spanish television presenter 1972 – Adrianne Frost, American comedian, actress, and author 1972 – Darius Kasparaitis, Lithuanian-Russian ice hockey player and coach 1972 – Kordell Stewart, American football player and radio host 1973 – Justin Credible, American wrestler 1973 – David Unsworth, English footballer and manager 1974 – Aurela Gaçe, Albanian singer 1974 – Paul Kariya, Canadian ice hockey player 1975 – Ernesto Noel Aquino, Honduran footballer 1975 – Brynjar Gunnarsson, Icelandic footballer 1975 – Jacques Kallis, South African cricketer 1975 – Kellie Martin, American actress, director, and producer 1977 – John Mayer, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1980 – Sue Bird, Israeli-American basketball player 1980 – Timana Tahu, Australian rugby league player 1981 – Brea Grant, American actress and writer 1981 – Martin Halle, Danish footballer 1981 – Boyd Melson, American boxer 1981 – Anthony Reyes, American baseball player 1982 – Frédéric Michalak, French rugby player | finishes after its sixth day, killing between 20,000 and 24,000 residents of the Lesser Antilles. 1793 – French Revolution: Queen Marie Antoinette is executed. 1793 – War of the First Coalition: French victory at the Battle of Wattignies forces Austria to raise the siege of Maubeuge. 1805 – War of the Third Coalition: Napoleon surrounds the Austrian army at Ulm. 1813 – The Sixth Coalition attacks Napoleon in the three-day Battle of Leipzig. 1817 – Simón Bolívar sentences Manuel Piar to death for challenging the racial-caste in Venezuela. 1834 – Much of the ancient structure of the Palace of Westminster in London burns to the ground. 1836 – Great Trek: Afrikaner voortrekkers repulse a Matabele attack, but lose their livestock. 1841 – Queen's University is founded in the Province of Canada. 1843 – William Rowan Hamilton invents quaternions, a three-dimensional system of complex numbers. 1846 – William T. G. Morton administers ether anesthesia during a surgical operation. 1847 – The novel Jane Eyre is published in London. 1859 – John Brown leads a raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia. 1869 – The Cardiff Giant, one of the most famous American hoaxes, is "discovered". 1869 – Girton College, Cambridge is founded, becoming England's first residential college for women. 1875 – Brigham Young University is founded in Provo, Utah. 1882 – The Nickel Plate Railroad opens for business. 1901–present 1905 – The Partition of Bengal in India takes place. 1909 – William Howard Taft and Porfirio Díaz hold the first summit between a U.S. and a Mexican president. They narrowly escape assassination. 1916 – Margaret Sanger opens the first family planning clinic in the United States. 1919 – Adolf Hitler delivers his first public address at a meeting of the German Workers' Party. 1923 – The Walt Disney Company is founded. 1934 – Chinese Communists begin the Long March to escape Nationalist encirclement. 1939 – World War II: No. 603 Squadron RAF intercepts the first Luftwaffe raid on Britain. 1940 – Holocaust in Poland: The Warsaw Ghetto is established. 1943 – Holocaust in Italy: Raid of the Ghetto of Rome. 1946 – Nuremberg trials: Ten defendants found guilty by the International Military Tribunal are executed by hanging. 1947 – The Philippines takes over the administration of the Turtle Islands and the Mangsee Islands from the United Kingdom. 1949 – The Greek Communist Party announces a "temporary cease-fire", thus ending the Greek Civil War. 1951 – The first Prime Minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan, is assassinated in Rawalpindi. 1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis begins: U.S. President John F. Kennedy is informed of photos taken on October 14 by a U-2 showing nuclear missiles (the crisis will last for 13 days starting from this point). 1964 – China detonates its first nuclear weapon. 1964 – Leonid Brezhnev becomes leader of the Soviet Communist Party, while Alexei Kosygin becomes the head of government. 1968 – Tommie Smith and John Carlos are ejected from the US Olympic team for participating in the Olympics Black Power salute. 1968 – Kingston, Jamaica is rocked by the Rodney riots, inspired by the barring of Walter Rodney from the country. 1968 – Yasunari Kawabata becomes the first Japanese person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. 1970 – Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invokes the War Measures Act during the October Crisis. 1973 – Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ are awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 1975 – Indonesian troops kill the Balibo Five, a group of Australian journalists, in Portuguese Timor. 1975 – Three-year-old Rahima Banu, from Bangladesh, is the last known case of naturally occurring smallpox. 1975 – The Australian Coalition sparks a constitutional crisis when they vote to defer funding for the government's annual budget. 1978 – Pope John Paul II becomes the first non-Italian pontiff since 1523. 1984 – Desmond Tutu is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 1985 – The Finnish dry cargo ship MS Hanna-Marjut, on its way from Mariehamn to Naantali, sank in hard sea on the open water of Kihti between the Kökar and Sottunga islands of Åland, leading to the drowning of four people. 1991 – George Hennard runs amok in Killeen, Texas, killing 23 and wounding 20. 1995 – The Million Man March takes place in Washington, D.C. About 837,000 attend. 1995 – The Skye Bridge in Scotland is opened. 1996 – Eighty-four football fans die and 180 are injured in a massive crush at a match in Guatemala City. 1998 – Former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet is arrested in London on a murder extradition warrant. 2002 – The Bibliotheca Alexandrina opens in Egypt, commemorating the ancient library of Alexandria. 2013 – Lao Airlines Flight 301 crashes on approach to Pakse International Airport in Laos, killing 49 people. 2017 – Storm Ophelia strikes the U.K. and Ireland causing major damage and power loss. Births Pre-1600 1351 – Gian Galeazzo Visconti, first Duke of Milan (d. 1402) 1396 – William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English admiral (d. 1450) 1430 – James II of Scotland (d. 1460) 1483 – Gasparo Contarini, Italian cardinal and diplomat (d. 1542) 1535 – Niwa Nagahide, Japanese samurai (d. 1585) 1588 – Luke Wadding, Irish Franciscan friar and historian (d. 1657) 1601–1900 1605 – Charles Coypeau d'Assoucy, French writer and composer (d. 1677) 1620 – Pierre Paul Puget, French painter and sculptor (d. 1694) 1678 – Anna Waser, Swiss painter (d. 1714) 1679 – Jan Dismas Zelenka, Czech viol player and composer (d. 1745) 1710 – András Hadik, Austrian-Hungarian field marshal (d. 1790) 1714 – Giovanni Arduino, Italian geologist and academic (d. 1795) 1726 – Daniel Chodowiecki, Polish-German painter and educator (d. 1801) 1729 – Pierre van Maldere, Belgian violinist and composer (d. 1768) 1752 – Johann Gottfried Eichhorn, German theologian and academic (d. 1827) 1754 – Morgan Lewis, American general, lawyer, and politician, 3rd Governor of New York (d. 1844) 1758 – Noah Webster, American lexicographer (d. 1843) 1762 – Paul Hamilton, American soldier and politician, 3rd United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1816) 1789 – William Burton, American physician and politician, 39th Governor of Delaware (d. 1866) 1795 – William Buell Sprague, American minister, historian, and author (d. 1876) 1802 – Isaac Murphy, American educator and politician, 8th Governor of Arkansas (d. 1882) 1803 – Robert Stephenson, English railway and civil engineer (d. 1859) 1804 – Benjamin Russell, American painter and educator (d. 1885) 1806 – William P. Fessenden, American lawyer and politician, 26th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1869) 1815 – Francis Lubbock, American colonel and politician, 9th Governor of Texas (d. 1905) 1818 – William Forster, Indian-Australian politician, 4th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1882) 1819 – Austin F. Pike, American lawyer and politician (d. 1886) 1831 – Lucy Stanton, American activist (d. 1910) 1832 – Vicente Riva Palacio, Mexican liberal intellectual, novelist (d. 1896) 1840 – Kuroda Kiyotaka, Japanese general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1900) 1841 – Itō Hirobumi, Japanese lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1909) 1847 – Maria Pia of Savoy (d. 1911) 1852 – Carl von In der Maur, Governor of Liechtenstein (d. 1913) 1854 – Karl Kautsky, Czech-German journalist, philosopher, and theologian (d. 1938) 1854 – Oscar Wilde, Irish playwright, novelist, and poet (d. 1900) 1855 – Samad bey Mehmandarov, Azerbaijani general and politician, 3rd Azerbaijani Minister of Defense (d. 1931) 1861 – J. B. Bury, Irish historian and scholar (d. 1927) 1861 – Richard Sears, American tennis player (d. 1943) 1863 – Austen Chamberlain, English businessman and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937) 1867 – Mario Ruspoli, 2nd Prince of Poggio Suasa (d. 1963) 1869 – Claude H. Van Tyne, American historian and author (d. 1930) 1872 – Walter Buckmaster, English polo player and businessman, co-founded Buckmaster & Moore (d. 1942) 1876 – Jimmy Sinclair, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1913) 1881 – William Orthwein, American swimmer and water polo player (d. 1955) 1884 – Rembrandt Bugatti, Italian sculptor (d. 1916) 1886 – David Ben-Gurion, Polish-Israeli soldier and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1973) 1888 – Eugene O'Neill, American playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1953) 1888 – Paul Popenoe, American founder of relationship counseling (d. 1979) 1890 – Michael Collins, Irish general and politician, 2nd Irish Minister for Finance (d. 1922) 1890 – Maria Goretti, Italian martyr and saint (d. 1902) 1890 – Paul Strand, American photographer and director (d. 1975) 1897 – Louis de Cazenave, French soldier (d. 2008) 1898 – William O. Douglas, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1980) 1900 – Edward Ardizzone, Vietnamese-English author and illustrator (d. 1979) 1900 – Primo Conti, Italian painter and poet (d. 1988) 1900 – Goose Goslin, American baseball player and manager (d. 1971) 1901–present 1903 – Cecile de Brunhoff, French author and pianist (d. 2003) 1903 – Big Joe Williams, American Delta blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1982) 1904 – Björn Berglund, Swedish actor (d. 1968) 1905 – Ernst Kuzorra, German footballer and manager (d. 1990) 1906 – León Klimovsky, Argentinian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1996) 1907 – Richard Titmuss, English sociologist and academic (d. 1973) 1908 – Olivia Coolidge, English-American author and educator (d. 2006) 1908 – Enver Hoxha, Albanian general and politician, Prime Minister of Albania (d. 1985) 1911 – Otto von Bülow, German commander (d. 2006) 1912 – Clifford Hansen, American rancher and politician, 26th Governor of Wyoming (d. 2009) 1918 – Louis Althusser, Algerian-French philosopher and academic (d. 1990) 1918 – Abraham Nemeth, American mathematician and academic (d. 2013) 1918 – Tony Rolt, English race car driver and engineer (d. 2008) 1919 – Kathleen Winsor, American journalist and author (d. 2003) 1920 – Paddy Finucane, Irish fighter pilot and flying ace (d. 1942) 1921 – Matt Batts, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013) 1921 – Sita Ram Goel, Indian historian, publisher and writer (d. 2003) 1921 – MacKenzie Miller, American horse trainer and breeder (d. 2010) 1922 – Max Bygraves, English-Australian actor and singer (d. 2012) 1922 – Leon Sullivan, American minister and activist (d. 2001) 1923 – Linda Darnell, American actress (d. 1965) 1923 – Bert Kaempfert, German conductor and composer (d. 1980) 1923 – Bill McLaren, Scottish rugby player and sportscaster (d. 2010) 1924 – Gerard Parkes, Irish-Canadian actor (d. 2014) 1925 – Angela Lansbury, English-American actress, singer, and producer 1926 – Charles Dolan, American businessman, founded Cablevision and HBO 1927 – Günter Grass, German novelist, poet, playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015) 1928 – Mary Daly, American philosopher and theologian (d. 2010) 1928 – Ann Morgan Guilbert, American actress (d. 2016) 1929 – Fernanda Montenegro, Brazilian actress 1930 – John Polkinghorne, English physicist, theologian and priest (d. 2021) 1930 – Carmen Sevilla, Spanish actress 1931 – Charles Colson, American lawyer and politician (d. 2012) 1931 – Valery Klimov, Ukrainian-Russian violinist and educator 1931 – Rosa Rosal, Filipino actress 1931 – P. W. Underwood, American football player and coach (d. 2013) 1932 – John Grant, English journalist and politician (d. 2000) 1932 – Henry Lewis, American bassist and conductor (d. 1996) 1932 – Lucien Paiement, Canadian physician and politician (d. 2013) 1933 – Nobuyo Ōyama, Japanese voice actress 1934 – Peter Ashdown, English race |
rings" (one of the king's functions is to distribute treasure), and "famous chief". Such variation, which the modern reader (who likes verbal precision) is not used to, is frequently a difficulty in producing a readable translation. Litotes Litotes is a form of dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect. Caesura Old English poetry, like other Old Germanic alliterative verse, is also commonly marked by the caesura or pause. In addition to setting pace for the line, the caesura also grouped each line into two hemistichs. Oral tradition Even though all extant Old English poetry is written and literate, many scholars propose that Old English poetry was an oral craft that was performed by a scop and accompanied by a harp. The hypotheses of Milman Parry and Albert Lord on the Homeric Question came to be applied (by Parry and Lord, but also by Francis Magoun) to verse written in Old English. That is, the theory proposes that certain features of at least some of the poetry may be explained by positing oral-formulaic composition. While Old English epic poetry may bear some resemblance to Ancient Greek epics such as the Iliad and Odyssey, the question of if and how Anglo-Saxon poetry was passed down through an oral tradition remains a subject of debate, and the question for any particular poem unlikely to be answered with perfect certainty. Parry and Lord had already demonstrated the density of metrical formulas in Ancient Greek, and observed the same feature in the Old English alliterative line: Hroþgar maþelode helm Scildinga ("Hrothgar spoke, protector of the Scildings") Beoƿulf maþelode bearn Ecgþeoƿes ("Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow") In addition to verbal formulas, many themes have been shown to appear among the various works of Anglo-Saxon literature. The theory suggests a reason for this: the poetry was composed of formulae and themes from a stock common to the poetic profession, as well as literary passages composed by individual artists in a more modern sense. Larry Benson introduced the concept of "written-formulaic" to describe the status of some Anglo-Saxon poetry which, while demonstrably written, contains evidence of oral influences, including heavy reliance on formulas and themes. Frequent oral-formulaic themes in Old English poetry include "Beasts of Battle" and the "Cliff of Death". The former, for example, is characterised by the mention of ravens, eagles, and wolves preceding particularly violent depictions of battle. Among the most thoroughly documented themes is "The Hero on the Beach". D. K. Crowne first proposed this theme, defined by four characteristics: A Hero on the Beach. Accompanying "Retainers". A Flashing Light. The Completion or Initiation of a Journey. One example Crowne cites in his article is that which concludes Beowulf's fight with the monsters during his swimming match with Breca: Crowne drew on examples of the theme's appearance in twelve Old English texts, including one occurrence in Beowulf. It was also observed in other works of Germanic origin, Middle English poetry, and even an Icelandic prose saga. John Richardson held that the schema was so general as to apply to virtually any character at some point in the narrative, and thought it an instance of the "threshold" feature of Joseph Campbell's Hero's Journey monomyth. J.A. Dane, in an article (characterised by Foley as "polemics without rigour") claimed that the appearance of the theme in Ancient Greek poetry, a tradition without known connection to the Germanic, invalidated the notion of "an autonomous theme in the baggage of an oral poet." Foley's response was that Dane misunderstood the nature of oral tradition, and that in fact the appearance of the theme in other cultures showed that it was a traditional form. Poets Most Old English poems are recorded without authors, and very few names are known with any certainty; the primary three are Cædmon, Aldhelm, and Cynewulf. Bede Bede is often thought to be the poet of a five-line poem entitled Bede's Death Song, on account of its appearance in a letter on his death by Cuthbert. This poem exists in a Northumbrian and later version. Cædmon Cædmon is considered the first Old English poet whose work still survives. He is a legendary figure, as described in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to Bede, Cædmon was first an illiterate herdsman. Following a vision of a messenger from God, Cædmon receieved the gift of poetry, and then lived as a monk under Abbess Hild at the abbey of Whitby in Northumbria in the 7th century. Bede's History claims to reproduce Cædmon's first poem, comprising nine lines. Referred to as Cædmon's Hymn, the poem is extant in Northumbrian, West-Saxon and Latin versions that appear in 19 surviving manuscripts: Cynewulf Cynewulf has proven to be a difficult figure to identify, but recent research suggests he was an Anglian poet from the early part of the 9th century. Four poems are attributed to him, signed with a runic acrostic at the end of each poem; these are The Fates of the Apostles and Elene (both found in the Vercelli Book), and Christ II and Juliana (both found in the Exeter Book). Although William of Malmesbury claims that Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne (d. 709), performed secular songs while accompanied by a harp, none of these Old English poems survives. Paul G. Remely has recently proposed that the Old English Exodus may have been the work of Aldhelm, or someone closely associated with him. Alfred Alfred is said to be the author of some of the metrical prefaces to the Old English translations of Gregory's Pastoral Care and Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy. Alfred is also thought to be the author of 50 metrical psalms, but whether the poems were written by him, under his direction or patronage, or as a general part in his reform efforts is unknown. Poetic genres and themes Heroic poetry The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with what has been termed the Germanic heroic past. Scholars suggest that Old English heroic poetry was handed down orally from generation to generation. As Christianity began to appear, re-tellers often recast the tales of Christianity into the older heroic stories. The longest at 3,182 lines, and the most important, is Beowulf, which appears in the damaged Nowell Codex. Beowulf relates the exploits of the hero Beowulf, King of the Weder-Geats or Angles, around the middle of the 5th century. The author is unknown, and no mention of Britain occurs. Scholars are divided over the date of the present text, with hypotheses ranging from the 8th to the 11th centuries. It has achieved much acclaim as well as sustained academic and artistic interest. Other heroic poems besides Beowulf exist. Two have survived in fragments: The Fight at Finnsburh, controversially interpreted by many to be a retelling of one of the battle scenes in Beowulf, and Waldere, a version of the events of the life of Walter of Aquitaine. Two other poems mention heroic figures: Widsith is believed to be very old in parts, dating back to events in the 4th century concerning Eormanric and the Goths, and contains a catalogue of names and places associated with valiant deeds. Deor is a lyric, in the style of Consolation of Philosophy, applying examples of famous heroes, including Weland and Eormanric, to the narrator's own case. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contains various heroic poems inserted throughout. The earliest from 937 is called The Battle of Brunanburh, which celebrates the victory of King Athelstan over the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the Five Boroughs (942); coronation of King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Alfred the son of King Æthelred (1036); and death of King Edward the Confessor (1065). The 325 line poem The Battle of Maldon celebrates Earl Byrhtnoth and his men who fell in battle against the Vikings in 991. It is considered one of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in 1731. A well-known speech is near the end of the poem: Elegiac poetry Related to the heroic tales are a number of short poems from the Exeter Book which have come to be described as "elegies" or "wisdom poetry". They are lyrical and Boethian in their description of the up and down fortunes of life. Gloomy in mood is The Ruin, which tells of the decay of a once glorious city of Roman Britain (cities in Britain fell into decline after the Romans departed in the early 5th century, as the early Celtic Britons continued to live their rural life), and The Wanderer, in which an older man talks about an attack that happened in his youth, when his close friends and kin were all killed; memories of the slaughter have remained with him all his life. He questions the wisdom of the impetuous decision to engage a possibly superior fighting force: the wise man engages in warfare to preserve civil society, and must not rush into battle but should seek out allies when the odds may be against him. This poet finds little glory in bravery for bravery's sake. The Seafarer is the story of a sombre exile from home on the sea, from which the only hope of redemption is the joy of heaven. Other wisdom poems include Wulf and Eadwacer, The Wife's Lament, and The Husband's Message. Alfred the Great wrote a wisdom poem over the course of his reign based loosely on the neoplatonic philosophy of Boethius called the Lays of Boethius. Translations of classical and Latin poetry Several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts. The longest is a 10th-century translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy contained in the Cotton manuscript Otho A.vi. Another is The Phoenix in the Exeter Book, an allegorisation of the De ave phoenice by Lactantius. Other short poems derive from the Latin bestiary tradition. These include The Panther, The Whale and The Partridge. Riddles The most famous Old English riddles are found in the Exeter Book. They are part of a wider Anglo-Saxon literary tradition of riddling, which includes riddles written in Latin. Riddles are both comical and obscene. The riddles of the Exeter Book are unnumbered and without titles in the manuscript. For this reason, scholars propose different interpretations of how many riddles there are, with some agreeing 94 riddles, and others proposing closer to 100 riddles in the book. Most scholars believe that the Exeter Book was compiled by a single scribe; however, the works were almost certainly originally composed by poets. A riddle in Old English, written using runic script, features on the Franks Casket. The riddle's solution is 'whale', evoking the whale-bone from which the casket made. Saints' lives in verse The Vercelli Book and Exeter Book contain four long narrative poems of saints' lives, or hagiographies. In Vercelli are Andreas and Elene and in Exeter are Guthlac and Juliana. Andreas is 1,722 lines long and is the closest of the surviving Old English poems to Beowulf in style and tone. It is the story of Saint Andrew and his journey to rescue Saint Matthew from the Mermedonians. Elene is the story of Saint Helena (mother of Constantine) and her discovery of the True Cross. The cult of the True Cross was popular in Anglo-Saxon England and this poem was instrumental in promoting it. Guthlac consists of two poems about the English 7th century Saint Guthlac. Juliana describes the life of Saint Juliana, including a discussion with the devil during her imprisonment. Poetric Biblical paraphrases There are a number of partial Old English Bible translations and paraphrases surviving. The Junius manuscript contains three paraphrases of Old Testament texts. These were re-wordings of Biblical passages in Old English, not exact translations, but paraphrasing, sometimes into beautiful poetry in its own right. The first and longest is of Genesis (originally presented as one work in the Junius manuscript but now thought to consist of two separate poems, A and B), the second is of Exodus and the third is Daniel. Contained in Daniel are two lyrics, Song of the Three Children and Song of Azarias, the latter also appearing in the Exeter Book after Guthlac. The fourth and last poem, Christ and Satan, which is contained in the second part of the Junius manuscript, does not paraphrase any particular biblical book, but retells a number of episodes from both the Old and New Testament. The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after Beowulf, called Judith, a retelling of the story of Judith. This is not to be confused with Ælfric's homily Judith, which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose. Old English translations of Psalms 51-150 have been preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms. There are verse translations of the Gloria in Excelsis, the Lord's Prayer, and the Apostles' Creed, as well as some hymns and proverbs. Original Christian poems In addition to Biblical paraphrases are a number of original religious poems, mostly lyrical (non-narrative). The Exeter Book contains a series of poems entitled Christ, sectioned into Christ I, Christ II and Christ III. Considered one of the most beautiful of all Old English poems is Dream of the Rood, contained in the Vercelli Book. The presence of a portion of the poem (in Northumbrian dialect) carved in runes on an 8th century stone cross found in Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, verifies the age of at least this portion of the poem. The Dream of the Rood is a dream vision in which the personified cross tells the story of the crucifixion. Christ appears as a young hero-king, confident of victory, while the cross itself feels all the physical pain of the crucifixion, as well as the pain of being forced to kill the young lord. The dreamer resolves to trust in the cross, and the dream ends with a vision of heaven. There are a number of religious debate poems. The longest is Christ and Satan in the Junius manuscript, which deals with the conflict between Christ and Satan during the forty days in the desert. Another debate poem is Solomon and Saturn, surviving in a number of textual fragments, Saturn is portrayed as a magician debating with the wise king Solomon. Other poems Other poetic forms exist in Old English including short verses, gnomes, and mnemonic poems for remembering long lists of names. There are short verses found in the margins of manuscripts which offer practical advice, such as remedies against the loss of cattle or how to deal with a delayed birth, often grouped as charms. The longest is called Nine Herbs Charm and is probably of pagan origin. Other similar short verses, or charms, include For a Swarm of Bees, Against a Dwarf, Against a Stabbing Pain, and Against a Wen. There are a group of mnemonic poems designed to help memorise lists and sequences of names and to keep objects in order. These poems are named Menologium, The Fates of the Apostles, The Rune Poem, The Seasons for Fasting, and the Instructions for Christians. Prose The amount of surviving Old English prose is much greater than the amount of poetry. Of the surviving prose, the majority consists of the homilies, saints' lives and biblical translations from Latin. what division of early medieval written prose works into categories of "Christian" and "secular", as below, is for convenience's sake only, for literacy in Anglo-Saxon England was largely the province of monks, nuns, and ecclesiastics (or of those laypeople to whom they had taught the skills of reading and writing Latin and/or Old English). Old English prose first appears in the 9th century, and continues to be recorded through the 12th century as the last generation of scribes, trained as boys in the standardised West Saxon before the Conquest, died as old men. Christian prose The most widely known secular author of Old English was King Alfred the Great (849–899), who translated several books, many of them religious, from Latin into Old English. Alfred, wanting to restore English culture, lamented the poor state of Latin education: Alfred proposed that students be educated in Old English, and those who excelled should go on to learn Latin. Alfred's cultural program aimed to translate "certain books [...] necessary for all men to know" from Latin to Old English. These included: Gregory the Great's Cura Pastoralis, a manual for priests on how to conduct their duties, which became the Hierdeboc ('Shepherd-book') in Old English; Boethius' De Consolatione philosophiae (the Froforboc or 'book of consolation'); and the Soliloquia of Saint Augustine (known in Old English as the Blostman or 'blooms'). In the process, some original content was interweaved through the translations. Other important Old English translations include: Orosius' Historiae Adversus Paganos, a companion piece for St. Augustine's The City of God; the Dialogues of Gregory the Great; and Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Ælfric of Eynsham, who wrote in | of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in 1731. A well-known speech is near the end of the poem: Elegiac poetry Related to the heroic tales are a number of short poems from the Exeter Book which have come to be described as "elegies" or "wisdom poetry". They are lyrical and Boethian in their description of the up and down fortunes of life. Gloomy in mood is The Ruin, which tells of the decay of a once glorious city of Roman Britain (cities in Britain fell into decline after the Romans departed in the early 5th century, as the early Celtic Britons continued to live their rural life), and The Wanderer, in which an older man talks about an attack that happened in his youth, when his close friends and kin were all killed; memories of the slaughter have remained with him all his life. He questions the wisdom of the impetuous decision to engage a possibly superior fighting force: the wise man engages in warfare to preserve civil society, and must not rush into battle but should seek out allies when the odds may be against him. This poet finds little glory in bravery for bravery's sake. The Seafarer is the story of a sombre exile from home on the sea, from which the only hope of redemption is the joy of heaven. Other wisdom poems include Wulf and Eadwacer, The Wife's Lament, and The Husband's Message. Alfred the Great wrote a wisdom poem over the course of his reign based loosely on the neoplatonic philosophy of Boethius called the Lays of Boethius. Translations of classical and Latin poetry Several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts. The longest is a 10th-century translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy contained in the Cotton manuscript Otho A.vi. Another is The Phoenix in the Exeter Book, an allegorisation of the De ave phoenice by Lactantius. Other short poems derive from the Latin bestiary tradition. These include The Panther, The Whale and The Partridge. Riddles The most famous Old English riddles are found in the Exeter Book. They are part of a wider Anglo-Saxon literary tradition of riddling, which includes riddles written in Latin. Riddles are both comical and obscene. The riddles of the Exeter Book are unnumbered and without titles in the manuscript. For this reason, scholars propose different interpretations of how many riddles there are, with some agreeing 94 riddles, and others proposing closer to 100 riddles in the book. Most scholars believe that the Exeter Book was compiled by a single scribe; however, the works were almost certainly originally composed by poets. A riddle in Old English, written using runic script, features on the Franks Casket. The riddle's solution is 'whale', evoking the whale-bone from which the casket made. Saints' lives in verse The Vercelli Book and Exeter Book contain four long narrative poems of saints' lives, or hagiographies. In Vercelli are Andreas and Elene and in Exeter are Guthlac and Juliana. Andreas is 1,722 lines long and is the closest of the surviving Old English poems to Beowulf in style and tone. It is the story of Saint Andrew and his journey to rescue Saint Matthew from the Mermedonians. Elene is the story of Saint Helena (mother of Constantine) and her discovery of the True Cross. The cult of the True Cross was popular in Anglo-Saxon England and this poem was instrumental in promoting it. Guthlac consists of two poems about the English 7th century Saint Guthlac. Juliana describes the life of Saint Juliana, including a discussion with the devil during her imprisonment. Poetric Biblical paraphrases There are a number of partial Old English Bible translations and paraphrases surviving. The Junius manuscript contains three paraphrases of Old Testament texts. These were re-wordings of Biblical passages in Old English, not exact translations, but paraphrasing, sometimes into beautiful poetry in its own right. The first and longest is of Genesis (originally presented as one work in the Junius manuscript but now thought to consist of two separate poems, A and B), the second is of Exodus and the third is Daniel. Contained in Daniel are two lyrics, Song of the Three Children and Song of Azarias, the latter also appearing in the Exeter Book after Guthlac. The fourth and last poem, Christ and Satan, which is contained in the second part of the Junius manuscript, does not paraphrase any particular biblical book, but retells a number of episodes from both the Old and New Testament. The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after Beowulf, called Judith, a retelling of the story of Judith. This is not to be confused with Ælfric's homily Judith, which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose. Old English translations of Psalms 51-150 have been preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms. There are verse translations of the Gloria in Excelsis, the Lord's Prayer, and the Apostles' Creed, as well as some hymns and proverbs. Original Christian poems In addition to Biblical paraphrases are a number of original religious poems, mostly lyrical (non-narrative). The Exeter Book contains a series of poems entitled Christ, sectioned into Christ I, Christ II and Christ III. Considered one of the most beautiful of all Old English poems is Dream of the Rood, contained in the Vercelli Book. The presence of a portion of the poem (in Northumbrian dialect) carved in runes on an 8th century stone cross found in Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, verifies the age of at least this portion of the poem. The Dream of the Rood is a dream vision in which the personified cross tells the story of the crucifixion. Christ appears as a young hero-king, confident of victory, while the cross itself feels all the physical pain of the crucifixion, as well as the pain of being forced to kill the young lord. The dreamer resolves to trust in the cross, and the dream ends with a vision of heaven. There are a number of religious debate poems. The longest is Christ and Satan in the Junius manuscript, which deals with the conflict between Christ and Satan during the forty days in the desert. Another debate poem is Solomon and Saturn, surviving in a number of textual fragments, Saturn is portrayed as a magician debating with the wise king Solomon. Other poems Other poetic forms exist in Old English including short verses, gnomes, and mnemonic poems for remembering long lists of names. There are short verses found in the margins of manuscripts which offer practical advice, such as remedies against the loss of cattle or how to deal with a delayed birth, often grouped as charms. The longest is called Nine Herbs Charm and is probably of pagan origin. Other similar short verses, or charms, include For a Swarm of Bees, Against a Dwarf, Against a Stabbing Pain, and Against a Wen. There are a group of mnemonic poems designed to help memorise lists and sequences of names and to keep objects in order. These poems are named Menologium, The Fates of the Apostles, The Rune Poem, The Seasons for Fasting, and the Instructions for Christians. Prose The amount of surviving Old English prose is much greater than the amount of poetry. Of the surviving prose, the majority consists of the homilies, saints' lives and biblical translations from Latin. what division of early medieval written prose works into categories of "Christian" and "secular", as below, is for convenience's sake only, for literacy in Anglo-Saxon England was largely the province of monks, nuns, and ecclesiastics (or of those laypeople to whom they had taught the skills of reading and writing Latin and/or Old English). Old English prose first appears in the 9th century, and continues to be recorded through the 12th century as the last generation of scribes, trained as boys in the standardised West Saxon before the Conquest, died as old men. Christian prose The most widely known secular author of Old English was King Alfred the Great (849–899), who translated several books, many of them religious, from Latin into Old English. Alfred, wanting to restore English culture, lamented the poor state of Latin education: Alfred proposed that students be educated in Old English, and those who excelled should go on to learn Latin. Alfred's cultural program aimed to translate "certain books [...] necessary for all men to know" from Latin to Old English. These included: Gregory the Great's Cura Pastoralis, a manual for priests on how to conduct their duties, which became the Hierdeboc ('Shepherd-book') in Old English; Boethius' De Consolatione philosophiae (the Froforboc or 'book of consolation'); and the Soliloquia of Saint Augustine (known in Old English as the Blostman or 'blooms'). In the process, some original content was interweaved through the translations. Other important Old English translations include: Orosius' Historiae Adversus Paganos, a companion piece for St. Augustine's The City of God; the Dialogues of Gregory the Great; and Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Ælfric of Eynsham, who wrote in the late 10th and early 11th centuries, is believed to have been a pupil of Æthelwold. He was the greatest and most prolific writer of sermons, which were copied and adapted for use well into the 13th century. In the translation of the first six books of the Bible (Old English Hexateuch), portions have been assigned to Ælfric on stylistic grounds. He included some lives of the saints in the Catholic Homilies, as well as a cycle of saints' lives to be used in sermons. Ælfric also wrote an Old English work on time-reckoning, and pastoral letters. In the same category as Ælfric, and a contemporary, was Wulfstan II, archbishop of York. His sermons were highly stylistic. His best known work is Sermo Lupi ad Anglos in which he blames the sins of the English for the Viking invasions. He wrote a number of clerical legal texts: Institutes of Polity and Canons of Edgar. One of the earliest Old English texts in prose is the Martyrology, information about saints and martyrs according to their anniversaries and feasts in the church calendar. It has survived in six fragments. It is believed to have been written in the 9th century by an anonymous Mercian author. The oldest collections of church sermons is the Blickling homilies, found in a 10th-century manuscript. There are a number of saint's lives prose works: beyond those written by Ælfric are the prose life of Saint Guthlac (Vercelli Book), the life of Saint Margaret and the life of Saint Chad. There are four additional lives in the earliest manuscript of the Lives of Saints, the Julius manuscript: Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, Saint Mary of Egypt, Saint Eustace and Saint Euphrosyne. There are six major manuscripts of the Wessex Gospels, dating from the 11th and 12th centuries. The most popular, Old English Gospel of Nicodemus, is treated in one manuscript as though it were a 5th gospel; other apocryphal gospels in translation include the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, Vindicta salvatoris, Vision of Saint Paul and the Apocalypse of Thomas. Secular prose The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was probably started in the time of King Alfred the Great and continued for over 300 years as a historical record of Anglo-Saxon history. A single example of a Classical romance has survived: a fragment of the story of Apollonius of Tyre was translated in the 11th century from the Gesta Romanorum. A monk who was writing in Old English at the same time as Ælfric and Wulfstan was Byrhtferth of Ramsey, whose book Handboc was a study of mathematics and rhetoric. He also produced a work entitled Computus, which outlined the practical application of arithmetic to the calculation of calendar days and movable feasts, as well as tide tables. Ælfric wrote two proto-scientific works, Hexameron and Interrogationes Sigewulfi, dealing with the stories of Creation. He also wrote a grammar and glossary of Latin in Old English, later used by students interested in learning Old French, as inferred from glosses in that language. In the Nowell Codex is the text of The Wonders of the East which includes a remarkable map of the world, and other illustrations. Also contained in Nowell is Alexander's Letter to Aristotle. Because this is the same manuscript that contains Beowulf, some scholars speculate it may have been a collection of materials on exotic places and creatures. There are a number of interesting medical works. There is a translation of Apuleius's Herbarium with striking illustrations, found together with Medicina de Quadrupedibus. A second collection of texts is Bald's Leechbook, a 10th-century book containing herbal and even some surgical cures. A third collection, known as the Lacnunga, includes many charms and incantations. Legal texts are a large and important part of the overall Old English corpus. The Laws of Aethelberht I of Kent, written at the turn of the 7th century, are the earliest surviving English prose work. Other laws wills and charters were written over the following centuries. Towards the end of the 9th, Alfred had compiled the law codes of Aethelberht, Ine, and Offa in a text setting out his own laws, the Domboc. By the 12th century they had been arranged into two large collections (see Textus Roffensis). They include laws of the kings, beginning with those of Aethelbert of Kent and ending with those of Cnut, and texts dealing with specific cases and places in the country. An interesting example is Gerefa, which outlines the duties of a reeve on a large manor estate. There is also a large volume of legal documents related to religious houses. These include many kinds of texts: records of donations by nobles; wills; documents of emancipation; lists of books and relics; court cases; guild rules. All of these texts provide valuable insights into the social history of Anglo-Saxon times, but are also of literary value. For example, some of the court case narratives are interesting for their use of rhetoric. Writing on objects James Paz proposes reading objects which feature Old English poems or phrases as part of the literary output of the time, and as "speaking objects". These objects include the Ruthwell monument (which includes a poem similar to the Dream of the Rood preserved in the Vercelli Book), the Frank's Casket, the Alfred Jewel. Semi-Saxon and post-conquest Old English The Soul's Address to the Body (c. 1150–1175) found in Worcester Cathedral Library MS F. 174 contains only one word of possible Latinate origin, while also maintaining a corrupt alliterative meter and Old English grammar and syntax, albeit in a degenerative state (hence, early scholars of Old English termed this late form as "Semi-Saxon"). The Peterborough Chronicle can also be considered a late-period text, continuing into the 12th century. Reception and scholarship Later medieval glossing and translation Old English literature did not disappear |
units were sold in the U.S. alone. To sell would-be customers on its technical abilities as a computer-based console, the Odyssey 2 was marketed with phrases such as "The Ultimate Computer Video Game System", "Sync-Sound Action", "True-Reality Synthesization", "On-Screen Digital Readouts" and "a serious educational tool" on the packaging for the console and its game cartridges. All games, aside from Showdown in 2100 AD, produced by Magnavox/Philips ended with an exclamation point, such as K.C. Munchkin! and Killer Bees!. No third-party game appeared for the Odyssey 2 in the United States until Imagic's Demon Attack in 1983. The lack of third-party support kept the number of new games very limited, but the success of the Philips Videopac G7000 overseas led to two other companies producing games for it: Parker Brothers released Popeye, Frogger, Q*bert and Super Cobra, while Imagic also released Atlantis. Europe In Europe, the Odyssey 2 did very well on the market. The console was most widely known as the Philips Videopac G7000, or just the Videopac, although branded variants were released in some areas of Europe under the names Philips Videopac C52, Radiola Jet 25, Schneider 7000, and Siera G7000. Philips, as Magnavox's Dutch parent company, used their own name rather than Magnavox's for European marketing. A rare model, the Philips Videopac G7200, was only released in Europe; it had a built-in black-and-white monitor. Videopac game cartridges are mostly compatible with American Odyssey 2 units, although some games have color differences and a few are completely incompatible, such as Frogger on the European console, being unable to show the second half of the playing field, and Chess on the American model, as the extra hardware module could not work with the console. A number of additional games were released in Europe that never came out in the U.S. Brazil In Brazil, the console was released simply as Philips Odyssey (since the original Odyssey had had only a limited release by a local company, Planil Comércio, under license). The Odyssey 2 became much more popular in Brazil than it ever was in the U.S.; tournaments were even held for popular games like K.C.'s Krazy Chase! (Come-Come! in Brazil). Titles of games were translated into Portuguese, sometimes creating a new story, like Pick-axe Pete!, that became Didi na Mina Encantada! (Didi in the Enchanted Mine) referring to Renato Aragão's comedy character, and was one of the most famous Odyssey games in Brazil. Japan The Odyssey 2 was released in Japan in December 1982 by Kōton Trading Toitarii Enterprise (コートン・トレーディング・トイタリー・エンタープライズ, a division of DINGU company) under the name オデッセイ２ (odessei2). "Japanese" versions of the Odyssey 2 and its games consisted of the American boxes with katakana stickers on them and cheaply printed black-and-white Japanese manuals. The initial price for the console was ¥49,800, which is approximately US$200 in 1982, but roughly $500 in 2018. It was apparently not very successful; Japanese Odyssey 2 items are now very difficult to find. Games Technical specifications CPU Intel 8048 8-bit microcontroller running at 5.37 MHz (NTSC) or 5.91 MHz (PAL) Memory: CPU-internal RAM: 64 bytes CPU-external RAM: 128 bytes Audio/video RAM: 128 bytes BIOS ROM: 1024 bytes Video: Intel 8244 (NTSC) or 8245 (PAL) custom IC 160×200 resolution (NTSC) 16-color fixed palette (8 basic colors - black, blue, green, cyan, red, magenta, yellow and white - with a half-brightness variation (4-bit RGBI)); sprites may only use 8 of these colors 4 8×8 single-color user-defined sprites; each sprite's color may be set independently 12 8×8 single-color characters; must be one of the 64 shapes built into the ROM BIOS; can be freely positioned like sprites, but cannot overlap each other; each character's color may be set independently 4 quad characters; groups of four characters displayed in a row 9×8 background grid; dots, lines, or solid blocks Audio: Intel 8244/8245 custom IC mono 24-bit shift register, clockable at 2 frequencies noise generator NOTE: There is only one 8244/8245 chip in the system, which performs both audio and video functions. Input: Two 8-way, one-button, digital joysticks. In the first production runs of the Magnavox Odyssey and the Philips 7000, these were removable and replaceable; in later models, they were permanently attached to the console. QWERTY-layout membrane keyboard Output: RF Audio/Video connector Péritel/SCART connector (France only Videopac C52) Media: ROM cartridges, typically 2 KB, 4 KB, or 8 KB in size. Expansion modules: The Voice: provides speech synthesis and enhanced sound effects. Unlike Intellivoice, games compatible with The Voice did not require it; Danny Goodman of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games predicted "that eliminates any incentive to buy the $100 voice module". Chess Module: the Odyssey 2 did not have enough memory and computing power for a decent implementation of chess on its own, so the C7010 chess module contained a secondary CPU with its own extra memory to run the chess program Videopac+/Jopac-compatible only, Microsoft Basic. The rare C7420 Home Computer Module, | customers on its technical abilities as a computer-based console, the Odyssey 2 was marketed with phrases such as "The Ultimate Computer Video Game System", "Sync-Sound Action", "True-Reality Synthesization", "On-Screen Digital Readouts" and "a serious educational tool" on the packaging for the console and its game cartridges. All games, aside from Showdown in 2100 AD, produced by Magnavox/Philips ended with an exclamation point, such as K.C. Munchkin! and Killer Bees!. No third-party game appeared for the Odyssey 2 in the United States until Imagic's Demon Attack in 1983. The lack of third-party support kept the number of new games very limited, but the success of the Philips Videopac G7000 overseas led to two other companies producing games for it: Parker Brothers released Popeye, Frogger, Q*bert and Super Cobra, while Imagic also released Atlantis. Europe In Europe, the Odyssey 2 did very well on the market. The console was most widely known as the Philips Videopac G7000, or just the Videopac, although branded variants were released in some areas of Europe under the names Philips Videopac C52, Radiola Jet 25, Schneider 7000, and Siera G7000. Philips, as Magnavox's Dutch parent company, used their own name rather than Magnavox's for European marketing. A rare model, the Philips Videopac G7200, was only released in Europe; it had a built-in black-and-white monitor. Videopac game cartridges are mostly compatible with American Odyssey 2 units, although some games have color differences and a few are completely incompatible, such as Frogger on the European console, being unable to show the second half of the playing field, and Chess on the American model, as the extra hardware module could not work with the console. A number of additional games were released in Europe that never came out in the U.S. Brazil In Brazil, the console was released simply as Philips Odyssey (since the original Odyssey had had only a limited release by a local company, Planil Comércio, under license). The Odyssey 2 became much more popular in Brazil than it ever was in the U.S.; tournaments were even held for popular games like K.C.'s Krazy Chase! (Come-Come! in Brazil). Titles of games were translated into Portuguese, sometimes creating a new story, like Pick-axe Pete!, that became Didi na Mina Encantada! (Didi in the Enchanted Mine) referring to Renato Aragão's comedy character, and was one of the most famous Odyssey games in Brazil. Japan The Odyssey 2 was released in Japan in December 1982 by Kōton Trading Toitarii Enterprise (コートン・トレーディング・トイタリー・エンタープライズ, a division of DINGU company) under the name オデッセイ２ (odessei2). "Japanese" versions of the Odyssey 2 and its games consisted of the American boxes with katakana stickers on them and cheaply printed black-and-white Japanese manuals. The initial price for the console was ¥49,800, which is approximately US$200 in 1982, but roughly $500 in 2018. It was apparently not very successful; Japanese Odyssey 2 items are now very difficult to find. Games Technical specifications CPU Intel 8048 8-bit microcontroller running at 5.37 MHz (NTSC) or 5.91 MHz (PAL) Memory: CPU-internal RAM: 64 bytes CPU-external RAM: 128 bytes Audio/video RAM: 128 bytes BIOS ROM: 1024 bytes Video: Intel 8244 (NTSC) or 8245 (PAL) custom IC 160×200 resolution (NTSC) 16-color fixed palette (8 basic colors - black, blue, green, cyan, red, magenta, yellow and white - with a half-brightness variation (4-bit RGBI)); sprites may only use 8 of these colors 4 8×8 single-color user-defined sprites; each sprite's color may be set independently 12 8×8 single-color characters; must be one of the 64 shapes built into the ROM BIOS; can be freely positioned like sprites, but cannot overlap each other; each character's color may be set independently 4 quad characters; groups of four characters displayed in a row 9×8 background grid; dots, lines, or solid blocks Audio: Intel 8244/8245 custom IC mono 24-bit shift register, clockable at 2 frequencies noise generator NOTE: There is only one 8244/8245 chip in the system, which performs both audio and video functions. Input: Two 8-way, one-button, digital joysticks. In the first production runs of the Magnavox Odyssey and the Philips 7000, these were removable and replaceable; in later models, they were permanently attached to the console. QWERTY-layout membrane keyboard Output: RF Audio/Video connector Péritel/SCART connector (France only Videopac C52) Media: ROM cartridges, typically 2 KB, 4 KB, or 8 KB in size. Expansion modules: The Voice: provides speech synthesis and enhanced sound effects. Unlike Intellivoice, games compatible with The Voice did not require it; Danny Goodman of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games predicted "that eliminates any incentive to buy the $100 voice module". Chess Module: the Odyssey 2 did not have enough memory and computing power for a decent implementation of chess on its own, so the C7010 chess module contained a secondary CPU with its own extra memory to run the chess program Videopac+/Jopac-compatible only, Microsoft Basic. The rare C7420 Home Computer Module, made available in 1983 by Philips, was a costly extension |
person to prophesy against Esau (Edom). Obadiah is supposed to have received the gift of prophecy for having hidden the "hundred prophets" from the persecution of Jezebel. He hid the prophets in two caves, so that if those in one cave should be discovered those in the other might yet escape. Obadiah was very rich, but all his wealth was expended in feeding the poor prophets, until, in order to be able to continue to support them, finally he had to borrow money at interest from Ahab's son Jehoram. Obadiah's fear of God was one degree higher than that of Abraham; and if the house of Ahab had been capable of being blessed, it would have been blessed for Obadiah's sake. Christian tradition In some Christian traditions he is said to have been born in "Sychem" (Shechem), and to have been the third captain sent out by Ahaziah against Elijah. The date of his ministry is unclear due to certain historical ambiguities in the book bearing his name, but is believed to be around 586 B.C. He is regarded as a saint by several Eastern churches. His feast day is celebrated on the 15th day of the Coptic Month Tobi (January 23/24) in the Coptic Orthodox Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite celebrate his memory on November 19. (For those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, November 19 currently falls on December 2 of the modern Gregorian Calendar.) He is celebrated on February 28 in the Syriac and Malankara Churches, and with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. According to an old tradition, Obadiah is buried in Sebastia, at the same site as Elisha and where later the body of John the Baptist was believed to have been buried by his followers. It is related to "Abdeel", "servant of God", which is also cognate to the Arabic name "Abdullah" or "Obaidullah". The equivalent Turkish name is Abdil or Abdi. Islamic tradition Some Islamic scholars identify the prophet Dhu al-Kifl with Obadiah. Other Obadiahs in the Hebrew Bible Other individuals | Yahweh." The form of Obadiah's name used in the Septuagint is Obdios. In Latin it is translated as Abdias while in Arabic it is either ʿAbdullah (), Ubaydah (), or Ubaidullah () "Slave of God". The Bishops' Bible refers to the prophet as Abdi. Prophet Obadiah The political situation implied in the prophecy points to a time after the Exile, probably in the mid-fifth century B.C. No value can be attributed to traditions identifying this prophet with King Ahab's steward (... so Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 39b) or with King Ahaziah's captain (... so Pseudo-Epiphanius...). — The Interpreters' Bible Rabbinic tradition According to the Talmud, Obadiah is said to have been a convert to Judaism from Edom, a descendant of Eliphaz, the friend of Job. He is identified with the Obadiah who was the servant of Ahab, and it is said that he was chosen to prophesy against Edom because he was himself an Edomite. Moreover, having lived with two such godless persons as Ahab and Jezebel without learning to act as they did, he seemed the most suitable person to prophesy against Esau (Edom). Obadiah is supposed to have received the gift of prophecy for having hidden the "hundred prophets" from the persecution of Jezebel. He hid the prophets in two caves, so that if those in one cave should be discovered those in the other might yet escape. Obadiah was very rich, but all his wealth was expended in feeding the poor prophets, until, in order to be able to continue to support them, finally he had to borrow money at interest from Ahab's son Jehoram. Obadiah's fear of God was one degree higher than that of Abraham; and if the house of Ahab had been capable of being blessed, it would have been blessed for Obadiah's sake. Christian tradition In some Christian traditions he is said to have been born in "Sychem" (Shechem), and to have been the third captain sent out by Ahaziah against Elijah. The date of his ministry is unclear due to certain historical ambiguities in the book bearing his name, but is believed to be around 586 B.C. He is regarded as a saint by several Eastern churches. His feast day is celebrated on the 15th day of the Coptic Month Tobi (January 23/24) in the Coptic Orthodox Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite celebrate his |
Lebombo Mountains. 1987 – The United States Navy conducts Operation Nimble Archer, an attack on two Iranian oil platforms in the Persian Gulf. 1987 – Black Monday: The Dow Jones Industrial Average falls by 22%, 508 points. 1988 – The British government imposes a broadcasting ban on television and radio interviews with members of Sinn Féin and eleven Irish republican and Ulster loyalist paramilitary groups. 1989 – The convictions of the Guildford Four are quashed by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, after they had spent 15 years in prison. 2001 – SIEV X, an Indonesian fishing boat en route to Christmas Island, carrying over 400 migrants, sinks in international waters with the loss of 353 people. 2003 – Mother Teresa is beatified by Pope John Paul II. 2004 – Thirteen people are killed when Corporate Airlines Flight 5966 crashes in Adair County, Missouri, whilst on approach to Kirksville Regional Airport. 2005 – Saddam Hussein goes on trial in Baghdad for crimes against humanity. 2005 – Hurricane Wilma becomes the most intense Atlantic hurricane on record with a minimum pressure of 882 mb. 2012 – A bomb explosion kills eight people and injures 110 more in Lebanon. 2013 – 105 people are injured in a train crash in Buenos Aires. Births Pre-1600 879 – Yingtian, empress of the Khitan Liao Dynasty (d. 953) 1276 – Prince Hisaaki of Japan (d. 1328) 1433 – Marsilio Ficino, Italian astrologer and philosopher (d. 1499) 1507 – Viglius, Dutch politician (d. 1577) 1545 – John Juvenal Ancina, Italian Oratorian and bishop (d. 1604) 1582 – Dmitry of Uglich, Russian crown prince and saint (d. 1591) 1601–1900 1605 – Thomas Browne, English physician and author (d. 1682) 1609 – Gerrard Winstanley, English Protestant religious reformer (d. 1676) 1610 – James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde, English-Irish general, academic, and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1688) 1613 – Charles of Sezze, Italian Franciscan friar and saint (d. 1670) 1658 – Adolphus Frederick II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1704) 1676 – Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses, 1st Marquis of Abrantes, Portuguese diplomat (d. 1733) 1680 – John Abernethy, Irish minister (d. 1740) 1688 – William Cheselden, English surgeon and anatomist (d. 1752) 1718 – Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie, French general and politician, French Secretary of State for War (d. 1804) 1720 – John Woolman, American-English preacher, journalist, and activist (d. 1772) 1721 – Joseph de Guignes, French orientalist and sinologist (d. 1800) 1784 – Leigh Hunt, English poet and critic (d. 1859) 1789 – Theophilos Kairis, Greek priest and philosopher (d. 1853) 1810 – Cassius Marcellus Clay, American journalist, lawyer, and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Russia (d. 1903) 1814 – Theodoros Vryzakis, Greek painter (d. 1878) 1826 – Ralph Tollemache, English priest (d. 1895) 1850 – Annie Smith Peck, American mountaineer and academic (d. 1935) 1858 – George Albert Boulenger, Belgian-English zoologist and botanist (d. 1937) 1862 – Auguste Lumière, French director and producer (d. 1954) 1868 – Bertha Knight Landes, American academic and politician, Mayor of Seattle (d. 1943) 1873 – Jaap Eden, Dutch speed skater and cyclist (d. 1925) 1873 – Bart King, American cricketer (d. 1965) 1876 – Mordecai Brown, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1945) 1876 – Mihkel Pung, Estonian lawyer and politician, 11th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1941) 1879 – Emma Bell Miles, American writer, poet, and artist (d. 1919) 1882 – Umberto Boccioni, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1916) 1885 – Charles E. Merrill, American banker and philanthropist, co-founded Merrill Lynch Wealth Management (d. 1956) 1895 – Frank Durbin, American soldier (d. 1999) 1895 – Lewis Mumford, American historian, sociologist, and philosopher (d. 1990) 1896 – Bob O'Farrell, American baseball player and manager (d. 1988) 1897 – Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, Pakistani chemist and scholar (d. 1994) 1899 – Miguel Ángel Asturias, Guatemalan journalist, author, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974) 1900 – Erna Berger, German soprano and actress (d. 1990) 1900 – Bill Ponsford, Australian cricketer and baseball player (d. 1991) 1900 – Roy Worters, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1957) 1901–present 1901 – Arleigh Burke, American admiral (d. 1996) 1903 – Tor Johnson, Swedish wrestler and actor (d. 1971) 1907 – Roger Wolfe Kahn, American bandleader and composer (d. 1962) 1908 – Geirr Tveitt, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 1981) 1909 – Marguerite Perey, French physicist and academic (d. 1975) 1910 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-American astrophysicist, astronomer, and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995) 1910 – Shunkichi Hamada, Japanese field hockey player (d. 2009) 1910 – Paul Robert, French lexicographer and publisher (d. 1980) 1913 – Vinicius de Moraes, Brazilian poet, playwright, and composer (d. 1980) 1914 – Juanita Moore, American actress (d. 2014) 1916 – Jean Dausset, French-Spanish immunologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009) 1916 – Emil Gilels, Ukrainian-Russian pianist (d. 1985) 1916 – Minoru Yasui, American soldier, lawyer, and activist (d. 1986) 1917 – Sharadchandra Shankar Shrikhande, Indian mathematician (d. 2020) 1917 – William Joel Blass, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012) 1917 – Walter Munk, Austrian-American oceanographer, author, and academic (d. 2019) 1918 – Charles Evans, English-Welsh mountaineer, surgeon, and educator (d. 1995) 1918 – Russell Kirk, American theorist and author (d. 1994) 1918 – Robert Schwarz Strauss, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Russia (d. 2014) 1920 – LaWanda Page, American actress (d. 2002) 1920 – Harry Alan Towers, English-Canadian screenwriter and producer (d. 2009) 1920 – Pandurang Shastri Athavale, Indian activist, philosopher, and spiritual leader (d. 2003) 1920 – Peter Aduja, Filipino American Hawaii Legislature representative (d. 2007) 1921 – George Nader, American actor (d. 2002) 1922 – Jack Anderson, American journalist and author (d. 2005) 1923 – Ruth Carter Stevenson, American art collector, founded the Amon Carter Museum of American Art (d. 2013) 1923 – Baby Dalupan, Filipino basketball player and coach (d. 2016) 1925 – Bernard Hepton, English actor and producer (d. 2018) 1925 – Czesław Kiszczak, Polish general and politician, 11th Prime Minister of the People's Republic of Poland (d. 2015) 1925 – Emilio Eduardo Massera, Argentinian admiral (d. 2010) 1926 – Arne Bendiksen, Norwegian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2009) 1926 – Joel Feinberg, American philosopher and academic (d. 2004) 1926 – Vladimir Shlapentokh, Ukrainian-American sociologist, historian, political scientist, and academic (d. 2015) 1926 – Marjorie Tallchief, American ballerina 1927 – Pierre Alechinsky, Belgian painter and illustrator 1927 – Stephen Keynes, English businessman (d. 2017) 1928 – Lou Scheimer, | Austria cedes Veneto and Mantua to France, which immediately awards them to Italy in exchange for the earlier Italian acquiescence to the French annexation of Savoy and Nice. 1900 – Max Planck discovers Planck's law of black-body radiation. 1901–present 1912 – Italo-Turkish War: Italy takes possession of what is now Libya from the Ottoman Empire. 1914 – First World War: The First Battle of Ypres begins. 1921 – The Portuguese Prime Minister and several officials are murdered in the Bloody Night coup. 1922 – British Conservative MPs vote to terminate the coalition government with the Liberal Party. 1935 – The League of Nations places economic sanctions on Italy for its invasion of Ethiopia. 1943 – The cargo vessel Sinfra is attacked by Allied aircraft at Crete and sunk. 2,098 Italian prisoners of war drown with it. 1943 – Streptomycin, the first antibiotic remedy for tuberculosis, is isolated by researchers at Rutgers University. 1944 – United States forces land in the Philippines. 1944 – A coup is launched against Juan Federico Ponce Vaides, beginning the ten-year Guatemalan Revolution. 1950 – China defeats the Tibetan Army at Chambo. 1950 – Korean War: The Battle of Pyongyang ends in a United Nations victory. Hours later, the Chinese Army begins crossing the border into Korea. 1950 – Iran becomes the first country to accept technical assistance from the United States under the Point Four Program. 1955 – The General Assembly of the European Broadcasting Union approves the staging of the first Eurovision Song Contest. 1956 – The Soviet Union and Japan sign a Joint Declaration, officially ending the state of war between the two countries that had existed since August 1945. 1960 – The United States imposes a near-total trade embargo against Cuba. 1973 – President Nixon rejects an Appeals Court decision that he turn over the Watergate tapes. 1974 – Niue becomes a self-governing colony of New Zealand. 1984 – A Roman Catholic priest, Jerzy Popiełuszko, associated with the Solidarity Union, is killed by three agents of the Polish Communist internal intelligence agency. 1986 – The president of Mozambique and a prominent leader of FRELIMO, along with 33 others, die when their aircraft crashes into the Lebombo Mountains. 1987 – The United States Navy conducts Operation Nimble Archer, an attack on two Iranian oil platforms in the Persian Gulf. 1987 – Black Monday: The Dow Jones Industrial Average falls by 22%, 508 points. 1988 – The British government imposes a broadcasting ban on television and radio interviews with members of Sinn Féin and eleven Irish republican and Ulster loyalist paramilitary groups. 1989 – The convictions of the Guildford Four are quashed by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, after they had spent 15 years in prison. 2001 – SIEV X, an Indonesian fishing boat en route to Christmas Island, carrying over 400 migrants, sinks in international waters with the loss of 353 people. 2003 – Mother Teresa is beatified by Pope John Paul II. 2004 – Thirteen people are killed when Corporate Airlines Flight 5966 crashes in Adair County, Missouri, whilst on approach to Kirksville Regional Airport. 2005 – Saddam Hussein goes on trial in Baghdad for crimes against humanity. 2005 – Hurricane Wilma becomes the most intense Atlantic hurricane on record with a minimum pressure of 882 mb. 2012 – A bomb explosion kills eight people and injures 110 more in Lebanon. 2013 – 105 people are injured in a train crash in Buenos Aires. Births Pre-1600 879 – Yingtian, empress of the Khitan Liao Dynasty (d. 953) 1276 – Prince Hisaaki of Japan (d. 1328) 1433 – Marsilio Ficino, Italian astrologer and philosopher (d. 1499) 1507 – Viglius, Dutch politician (d. 1577) 1545 – John Juvenal Ancina, Italian Oratorian and bishop (d. 1604) 1582 – Dmitry of Uglich, Russian crown prince and saint (d. 1591) 1601–1900 1605 – Thomas Browne, English physician and author (d. 1682) 1609 – Gerrard Winstanley, English Protestant religious reformer (d. 1676) 1610 – James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde, English-Irish general, academic, and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1688) 1613 – Charles of Sezze, Italian Franciscan friar and saint (d. 1670) 1658 – Adolphus Frederick II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1704) 1676 – Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses, 1st Marquis of Abrantes, Portuguese diplomat (d. 1733) 1680 – John Abernethy, Irish minister (d. 1740) 1688 – William Cheselden, English surgeon and anatomist (d. 1752) 1718 – Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie, French general and politician, French Secretary of State for War (d. 1804) 1720 – John Woolman, American-English preacher, journalist, and activist (d. 1772) 1721 – Joseph de Guignes, French orientalist and sinologist (d. 1800) 1784 – Leigh Hunt, English poet and critic (d. 1859) 1789 – Theophilos Kairis, Greek priest and philosopher (d. 1853) 1810 – Cassius Marcellus Clay, American journalist, lawyer, and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Russia (d. 1903) 1814 – Theodoros Vryzakis, Greek painter (d. 1878) 1826 – Ralph Tollemache, English priest (d. 1895) 1850 – Annie Smith Peck, American mountaineer and academic (d. 1935) 1858 – George Albert Boulenger, Belgian-English zoologist and botanist (d. 1937) 1862 – Auguste Lumière, French director and producer (d. 1954) 1868 – Bertha Knight Landes, American academic and politician, Mayor of Seattle (d. 1943) 1873 – Jaap Eden, Dutch speed skater and cyclist (d. 1925) 1873 – Bart King, American cricketer (d. 1965) 1876 – Mordecai Brown, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1945) 1876 – Mihkel Pung, Estonian lawyer and politician, 11th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1941) 1879 – Emma Bell Miles, American writer, poet, and artist (d. 1919) 1882 – Umberto Boccioni, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1916) 1885 – Charles E. Merrill, American banker and philanthropist, co-founded Merrill Lynch Wealth Management (d. 1956) 1895 – Frank Durbin, American soldier (d. 1999) 1895 – Lewis Mumford, American historian, sociologist, and philosopher (d. 1990) 1896 – Bob O'Farrell, American baseball player and manager (d. 1988) 1897 – Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, Pakistani chemist and scholar (d. 1994) 1899 – Miguel Ángel Asturias, Guatemalan journalist, author, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974) 1900 – Erna Berger, German soprano and actress (d. 1990) 1900 – Bill Ponsford, Australian cricketer and baseball player (d. 1991) 1900 – Roy Worters, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1957) 1901–present 1901 – Arleigh Burke, American admiral (d. 1996) 1903 – Tor Johnson, Swedish wrestler and actor (d. 1971) 1907 – Roger Wolfe Kahn, American bandleader and composer (d. 1962) 1908 – Geirr Tveitt, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 1981) 1909 – Marguerite Perey, French physicist and academic (d. 1975) 1910 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-American astrophysicist, astronomer, and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995) 1910 – Shunkichi Hamada, Japanese field hockey player (d. 2009) 1910 – Paul Robert, French lexicographer and publisher (d. 1980) 1913 – Vinicius de Moraes, Brazilian poet, playwright, and composer (d. 1980) 1914 – Juanita Moore, American actress (d. 2014) 1916 – Jean Dausset, French-Spanish immunologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009) 1916 – Emil Gilels, Ukrainian-Russian pianist (d. 1985) 1916 – Minoru Yasui, American soldier, lawyer, and activist (d. 1986) 1917 – Sharadchandra Shankar Shrikhande, Indian mathematician (d. 2020) 1917 – William Joel Blass, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012) 1917 – Walter Munk, Austrian-American oceanographer, author, and academic (d. 2019) 1918 – Charles Evans, English-Welsh mountaineer, surgeon, and educator (d. 1995) 1918 – Russell Kirk, American theorist and author (d. 1994) 1918 – Robert Schwarz Strauss, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Russia (d. 2014) 1920 – LaWanda Page, American actress (d. 2002) 1920 – Harry Alan Towers, English-Canadian screenwriter and producer (d. 2009) 1920 – Pandurang Shastri Athavale, Indian activist, philosopher, and spiritual leader (d. 2003) 1920 – Peter Aduja, Filipino American Hawaii Legislature representative (d. 2007) 1921 – George Nader, American actor (d. 2002) 1922 – Jack Anderson, American journalist and author (d. 2005) 1923 – Ruth Carter Stevenson, American art collector, founded the Amon Carter Museum of American Art (d. 2013) 1923 – Baby Dalupan, Filipino basketball player and coach (d. 2016) 1925 – Bernard Hepton, English actor and producer (d. 2018) 1925 – Czesław Kiszczak, Polish general and politician, 11th Prime Minister of the People's Republic of Poland (d. 2015) 1925 – Emilio Eduardo Massera, Argentinian admiral (d. 2010) 1926 – Arne Bendiksen, Norwegian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2009) 1926 – Joel Feinberg, American philosopher and academic (d. 2004) 1926 – Vladimir Shlapentokh, Ukrainian-American sociologist, historian, political scientist, and academic (d. 2015) 1926 – Marjorie Tallchief, American ballerina 1927 – Pierre Alechinsky, Belgian painter and illustrator 1927 – Stephen Keynes, English businessman (d. 2017) 1928 – Lou Scheimer, American animator, producer, and voice actor, co-founded the Filmation Company (d. 2013) 1929 – Lewis Wolpert, South African-English biologist, author, and academic (d. 2021) 1930 – John Evans, Baron Evans of Parkside, English union leader and politician (d. 2016) 1930 – Mavis Nicholson, Welsh-English journalist 1931 – Ed Emberley, American author and illustrator 1931 – John le Carré, English intelligence officer and author (d. 2020) 1931 – Atsushi Miyagi, Japanese tennis player 1932 – Robert Reed, American actor (d. 1992) 1933 – Brian Booth, Australian cricketer and educator 1933 – Anthony Skingsley, English air marshal (d. 2019) 1934 – Yakubu Gowon, Nigerian general and politician, 3rd Head of State of Nigeria 1934 – Dave Guard, American folk music singer-songwriter, arranger, and musician (d. 1991) 1935 – Don Ward, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2014) 1936 – James Bevel, American civil rights activist and minister (d. 2008) 1937 – Marilyn Bell, Canadian swimmer 1937 – Peter Max, German-American illustrator 1937 – Terence Thomas, Baron Thomas of Macclesfield, English banker and politician (d. 2018) 1938 – Bill Morris, Baron Morris of Handsworth, Jamaican-English union leader and politician 1939 – David Clark, Baron Clark of Windermere, Scottish academic and politician, Minister for the Cabinet Office 1940 – Larry Chance, American singer-songwriter 1940 – Michael Gambon, Irish-British actor 1940 – Rosny Smarth, Haitian lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Haiti 1941 – Peter Thornley, English professional wrestler best known for the ring character Kendo Nagasaki 1941 – Simon Ward, English actor (d. 2012) 1942 – Andrew Vachss, American lawyer and author 1943 – Robin Holloway, English composer and academic 1943 – Takis Ikonomopoulos, Greek footballer and coach 1943 – L. E. Modesitt, Jr., American author and poet 1944 – George McCrae, American singer 1944 – Peter Tosh, Jamaican singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1987) 1945 – Angus Deaton, Scottish-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1945 – Divine, American drag queen performer, and actor (d. 1988) 1945 – |
forces under Colonel Edward Baker are defeated by Confederate troops in the second major battle of the war. 1867 – The Medicine Lodge Treaty is signed by southern Great Plains Indian leaders. The treaty requires Native American Plains tribes to relocate to a reservation in the western Indian Territory. 1879 – Thomas Edison applies for a patent for his design for an incandescent light bulb. 1888 – The Swiss Social Democratic Party is founded. 1892 – Opening ceremonies for the World's Columbian Exposition are held in Chicago, though because construction was behind schedule, the exposition did not open until May 1, 1893. 1895 – The Republic of Formosa collapses as Japanese forces invade. 1901–present 1907 – The 1907 Qaratog earthquake hits the borders of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, killing between 12,000 and 15,000 people. 1910 – arrives in Halifax Harbour to become the first ship of the Royal Canadian Navy. 1921 – President Warren G. Harding delivers the first speech by a sitting U.S. president against lynching in the Deep South. 1931 – A secret society in the Imperial Japanese Army launches an abortive coup d'état attempt. 1940 – The first edition of the Ernest Hemingway novel For Whom the Bell Tolls is published. 1943 – World War II: The Provisional Government of Free India is formally established in Japanese-occupied Singapore. 1944 – World War II: The first kamikaze attack damages as the Battle of Leyte Gulf begins. 1944 – World War II: The Nemmersdorf massacre against German civilians takes place. 1944 – World War II: The city of Aachen falls to American forces after three weeks of fighting, the first German city to fall to the Allies. 1945 – In the 1945 French legislative election French women vote for the first time. 1950 – Korean War: Heavy fighting begins between British and Australian forces and North Koreans during the Battle of Yongju. 1956 – The Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya is defeated. 1959 – In New York City, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum opens to the public. 1959 – President Dwight D. Eisenhower approves the transfer of all US Army space-related activities to NASA, including most of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. 1965 – Comet Ikeya–Seki approaches perihelion, passing 450,000 kilometers (279,617 miles) from the sun. 1966 – A colliery spoil tip slips onto houses and a school in the village of Aberfan in Wales, killing 144 people, 116 of whom were schoolchildren. 1967 – The National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam organizes a march of fifty thousand people from the Lincoln Memorial to the Pentagon. 1969 – The 1969 Somali coup d'état establishes a Marxist–Leninist administration. 1971 – A gas explosion kills 22 people at a shopping centre near Glasgow, Scotland. 1973 – Fred Dryer of the Los Angeles Rams becomes the first player in NFL history to score two safeties in the same game. 1978 – Australian civilian pilot Frederick Valentich vanishes over the Bass Strait south of Melbourne, after reporting contact with an unidentified aircraft. 1979 – Moshe Dayan resigns from the Israeli government because of strong disagreements with Prime Minister Menachem Begin over policy towards the Arabs. 1981 – Andreas Papandreou becomes Prime Minister of Greece, ending an almost 50-year-long system of power dominated by conservative forces. 1983 – The metre is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. 1984 – Niki Lauda claims his third and final Formula One Drivers' Championship Title by half a point ahead of McLaren team-mate Alain Prost at the Portuguese Grand Prix. 1986 – In Lebanon, pro-Iran kidnappers claim to have abducted American writer Edward Tracy (he is released in August 1991). 1987 – The Jaffna hospital massacre is carried out by Indian peacekeeping forces in Sri Lanka, killing 70 Tamil patients, doctors and nurses. 1989 – In Honduras, 131 people are killed when a Boeing 727 crashes on approach to Toncontín International Airport near the nation's capital Tegucigalpa. 1994 – North Korea and the United States sign an Agreed Framework that requires North Korea to stop its nuclear weapons program and agree to inspections. 1994 – In Seoul, South Korea, 32 people are killed when a span of the Seongsu Bridge collapses. 2005 – Images of the dwarf planet Eris are taken and subsequently used in documenting its discovery. 2011 – Iraq War: President Barack Obama announces that the withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq will be complete by the end of the year. 2019 – Thirty people are killed in a fiery bus crash in western Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2019 – In Canada, the 2019 Canadian federal election ends, resulting in incumbent Prime Minister Justin Trudeau remaining in office, albeit with the Liberal Party in a minority government. Births Pre-1600 1328 – Hongwu Emperor of China (d. 1398) 1409 – Alessandro Sforza, Italian condottiero (d. 1473) 1449 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, Irish-English son of Cecily Neville, Duchess of York (d. 1478) 1527 – Louis I, Cardinal of Guise (d. 1578) 1536 – Joachim Ernest, Prince of Anhalt (d. 1586) 1581 – Domenichino, Italian painter (d. 1641) 1601–1900 1650 – Jean Bart, French admiral (d. 1702) 1658 – Henri de Boulainvilliers, French nobleman (d. 1722) 1675 – Emperor Higashiyama of Japan (d. 1710) 1687 – Nicolaus I Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and theorist (d. 1759) 1712 – James Steuart, Scottish economist and author (d. 1780) 1725 – Franz Moritz von Lacy, Austrian field marshal (d. 1801) 1757 – Pierre Augereau, French general (d. 1816) 1762 – Herman Willem Daendels, Dutch general, lawyer, and politician, 36th Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1818) 1772 – Samuel Taylor Coleridge, English poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1834) 1775 – Giuseppe Baini, Italian priest, composer, and critic (d. 1844) 1790 – Alphonse de Lamartine, French poet and politician, French Head of State (d. 1869) 1809 – James Clark, American Jesuit (d. 1885) 1811 – Filippo Colini, Italian operatic baritone (d. 1863) 1821 – Sims Reeves, English tenor and actor (d. 1900) 1833 – Alfred Nobel, Swedish chemist and engineer, invented dynamite and founded the Nobel Prize (d. 1896) 1845 – Will Carleton, American poet and journalist (d. 1912) 1847 – Giuseppe Giacosa, Italian poet and playwright (d. 1906) 1851 – George Ulyett, English cricketer and footballer (d. 1898) 1868 – Ernest Swinton, British Army officer (d. 1951) 1874 – Tan Kah Kee, Chinese businessman, community leader, communist and philanthropist (d. 1961) 1877 – Oswald Avery, Canadian-American physician and microbiologist (d. 1955) 1884 – Claire Waldoff, German singer and actress (d. 1957) 1886 – Eugene Burton Ely, American soldier and pilot (d. 1911) 1887 – Krishna Singh, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Bihar (d. 1961) 1894 – Edogawa Ranpo, Japanese author and critic (d. 1965) 1895 – Paavo Johansson, Finnish javelin thrower and decathlete (d. 1983) 1895 – Edna Purviance, American actress (d. 1958) 1896 – Esther Shumiatcher-Hirschbein, Russian-Canadian poet and screenwriter (d. 1985) 1898 – Eduard Pütsep, Estonian wrestler and actor (d. 1960) 1900 – Andrée Boisson, French Olympic fencer (d. 1973) 1901–present 1902 – Eddy Hamel, American footballer (d. 1943 in Auschwitz) 1907 – Nikos Engonopoulos, Greek painter and poet (d. 1985) 1908 – Niyazi Berkes, Cypriot-English | Neville, Duchess of York (d. 1478) 1527 – Louis I, Cardinal of Guise (d. 1578) 1536 – Joachim Ernest, Prince of Anhalt (d. 1586) 1581 – Domenichino, Italian painter (d. 1641) 1601–1900 1650 – Jean Bart, French admiral (d. 1702) 1658 – Henri de Boulainvilliers, French nobleman (d. 1722) 1675 – Emperor Higashiyama of Japan (d. 1710) 1687 – Nicolaus I Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and theorist (d. 1759) 1712 – James Steuart, Scottish economist and author (d. 1780) 1725 – Franz Moritz von Lacy, Austrian field marshal (d. 1801) 1757 – Pierre Augereau, French general (d. 1816) 1762 – Herman Willem Daendels, Dutch general, lawyer, and politician, 36th Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1818) 1772 – Samuel Taylor Coleridge, English poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1834) 1775 – Giuseppe Baini, Italian priest, composer, and critic (d. 1844) 1790 – Alphonse de Lamartine, French poet and politician, French Head of State (d. 1869) 1809 – James Clark, American Jesuit (d. 1885) 1811 – Filippo Colini, Italian operatic baritone (d. 1863) 1821 – Sims Reeves, English tenor and actor (d. 1900) 1833 – Alfred Nobel, Swedish chemist and engineer, invented dynamite and founded the Nobel Prize (d. 1896) 1845 – Will Carleton, American poet and journalist (d. 1912) 1847 – Giuseppe Giacosa, Italian poet and playwright (d. 1906) 1851 – George Ulyett, English cricketer and footballer (d. 1898) 1868 – Ernest Swinton, British Army officer (d. 1951) 1874 – Tan Kah Kee, Chinese businessman, community leader, communist and philanthropist (d. 1961) 1877 – Oswald Avery, Canadian-American physician and microbiologist (d. 1955) 1884 – Claire Waldoff, German singer and actress (d. 1957) 1886 – Eugene Burton Ely, American soldier and pilot (d. 1911) 1887 – Krishna Singh, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Bihar (d. 1961) 1894 – Edogawa Ranpo, Japanese author and critic (d. 1965) 1895 – Paavo Johansson, Finnish javelin thrower and decathlete (d. 1983) 1895 – Edna Purviance, American actress (d. 1958) 1896 – Esther Shumiatcher-Hirschbein, Russian-Canadian poet and screenwriter (d. 1985) 1898 – Eduard Pütsep, Estonian wrestler and actor (d. 1960) 1900 – Andrée Boisson, French Olympic fencer (d. 1973) 1901–present 1902 – Eddy Hamel, American footballer (d. 1943 in Auschwitz) 1907 – Nikos Engonopoulos, Greek painter and poet (d. 1985) 1908 – Niyazi Berkes, Cypriot-English sociologist and academic (d. 1988) 1911 – Mary Blair, American illustrator and animator (d. 1978) 1912 – Don Byas, American saxophonist and educator (d. 1972) 1912 – Alfredo Pián, Argentinian race car driver (d. 1990) 1912 – Georg Solti, Hungarian-English conductor and director (d. 1997) 1914 – Martin Gardner, American mathematician and author (d. 2010) 1915 – Owen Bradley, American country music record producer (d. 1998) 1917 – Dizzy Gillespie, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (d. 1993) 1918 – Milton Himmelfarb, American sociologist and author (d. 2006) 1918 – Albertina Sisulu, South African anti-apartheid activist (d. 2011) 1919 – Jim Wallwork, English-Canadian sergeant and pilot (d. 2013) 1921 – Malcolm Arnold, English composer (d. 2006) 1921 – Bruce Beeby, Australian-English actor (d. 2013) 1921 – Robert Clothier, Canadian actor (d. 1999) 1921 – Jim Shumate, American fiddler and composer (d. 2013) 1921 – Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld, Dutch astronomer and academic (d. 2015) 1922 – Liliane Bettencourt, French businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 2017) 1923 – Samuel Khachikian, Iranian director, screenwriter, and author (d. 2001) 1924 – Joyce Randolph, American actress 1924 – Julie Wilson, American actress and singer (d. 2015) 1925 – Celia Cruz, Cuban-American singer (d. 2003) 1925 – Virginia Zeani, Romanian soprano and educator 1926 – Bob Rosburg, American golfer (d. 2009) 1926 – Leonard Rossiter, English actor (d. 1984) 1927 – Fritz Wintersteller, Austrian mountaineer (d. 2018) 1927 – Howard Zieff, American director and photographer (d. 2009) 1928 – Whitey Ford, American baseball player and coach (d. 2020) 1928 – Eudóxia Maria Froehlich, Brazilian zoologist (d. 2015) 1928 – Vern Mikkelsen, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013) 1929 – Pierre Bellemare, French radio and television host (d. 2018) 1929 – Fritz Hollaus, Austrian footballer (d. 1994) 1929 – Ursula K. Le Guin, American author and critic (d. 2018) 1930 – Ivan Silayev, Russian engineer and politician, 19th Prime Minister of Russia 1931 – Shammi Kapoor, Indian actor and director (d. 2011) 1931 – Jim Parks junior, English cricketer and manager 1932 – Pál Csernai, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 2013) 1933 – Maureen Duffy, English author, poet, and playwright 1933 – Francisco Gento, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 2022) 1935 – Derek Bell, Irish harp player, pianist, and songwriter (d. 2002) 1935 – Mel Street, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1978) 1937 – Said Afandi al-Chirkawi, Russian spiritual leader and scholar (d. 2012) 1937 – Hank Nelson, Australian historian and academic (d. 2012) 1938 – Carl Brewer, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2001) 1940 – Geoffrey Boycott, English cricketer and sportscaster 1940 – Frances FitzGerald, American journalist and author 1940 – Rhoda Gemignani, American actress 1940 – Manfred Mann, South African-English keyboard player and producer 1940 – Marita Petersen, Faroese educator and politician, Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 2001) 1941 – Steve Cropper, American guitarist, songwriter, producer, and actor 1942 – Elvin Bishop, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1942 – Allan Grice, Australian race car driver and politician 1942 – Lou Lamoriello, American ice hockey player, coach, and manager 1942 – Judy Sheindlin, American judge and television host 1942 – Christopher A. Sims, American economist and statistician, Nobel Prize laureate 1942 – John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington, English police officer and academic 1943 – Tariq Ali, Pakistani historian and author 1943 – Ron Elliott, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and composer 1944 – Mandy Rice-Davies, English model and actress (d. 2014) 1944 – Michael Tugendhat, English lawyer and judge 1945 – Nikita Mikhalkov, Russian filmmaker 1945 – Michael White, English journalist 1946 – Jane Heal, English philosopher and academic 1946 – Jim Hill, American football player and sportscaster 1946 – Lux Interior, American singer-songwriter (d. 2009) 1946 – Lee Loughnane, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player 1948 – Shaye J. D. Cohen, American historian and academic 1948 – Allen Henry Vigneron, American archbishop 1949 – Michel Brière, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1971) 1949 – Mike Keenan, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1949 – Benjamin Netanyahu, Israeli captain and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Israel 1950 – Ronald McNair, American physicist and astronaut (d. 1986) 1950 – Leela Vernon, Belizean musician and cultural conservationist (d. 2017) 1952 – Patti Davis, American actress and author 1952 – Allen Hoey, American poet and author 1952 – Brent Mydland, German-American keyboard player (d. 1990) 1953 – Charlotte Caffey, American guitarist and songwriter 1953 – Eric Faulkner, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1953 – Keith Green, American singer-songwriter, pianist, |
Günther Treptow, German tenor (d. 1981) 1908 – John Gould, American journalist and author (d. 2003) 1908 – José Escobar Saliente, Spanish cartoonist (d. 1994) 1913 – Robert Capa, Hungarian-American photographer and journalist (d. 1954) 1913 – Bảo Đại, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1997) 1913 – Hans-Peter Tschudi, Swiss lawyer and politician, 63rd President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2002) 1915 – Yitzhak Shamir, Belarusian-Israeli civil servant and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Israel (d. 2012) 1917 – Joan Fontaine, British-American actress (d. 2013) 1918 – Lou Klein, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1976) 1919 – Doris Lessing, British novelist, poet, playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) 1920 – Timothy Leary, American psychologist and author (d. 1996) 1921 – Georges Brassens, French singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1981) 1921 – Alexander Kronrod, Russian mathematician and computer scientist (d. 1986) 1921 – Harald Nugiseks, Estonian sergeant (d. 2014) 1923 – Bert Trautmann, German footballer and manager (d. 2013) 1925 – Slater Martin, American basketball player and coach (d. 2012) 1925 – Edith Kawelohea McKinzie, Hawaiian genealogist, author, and hula expert (d. 2014) 1925 – Robert Rauschenberg, American painter and illustrator (d. 2008) 1927 – Allan Hendrickse, South African minister and politician (d. 2005) 1928 – Clare Fischer, American pianist, composer and arranger (d. 2012) 1928 – Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1929 – Michael Birkett, 2nd Baron Birkett, English director and producer (d. 2015) 1929 – Dory Previn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2012) 1929 – Lev Yashin, Russian footballer (d. 1990) 1930 – Estela de Carlotto, Argentine human rights activist 1930 – José Guardiola, Spanish singer (d. 2012) 1931 – Ann Rule, American police officer and author (d. 2015) 1933 – Carlos Alberto Sacheri, Argentine philosopher (d. 1974) 1933 – Helmut Senekowitsch, Austrian footballer and manager (d. 2007) 1934 – Donald McIntyre, New Zealand opera singer 1936 – John Blashford-Snell, English soldier, author, and explorer 1936 – Peter Cook, English architect and academic 1936 – Jovan Pavlović, Serbian metropolitan (d. 2014) 1937 – José Larralde, Argentine singer-songwriter 1937 – Manos Loïzos, Egyptian-Greek composer (d. 1982) 1938 – K. Indrapala, Sri Lankan historian and academic 1938 – Derek Jacobi, English actor 1938 – Christopher Lloyd, American actor, comedian and producer 1939 – Joaquim Chissano, Mozambican politician, 2nd President of Mozambique 1939 – George Cohen, English footballer 1939 – Jean-Pierre Desthuilliers, French poet and critic (d. 2013) 1939 – Tony Roberts, American actor and singer 1941 – Ahmet Mete Işıkara, Turkish geophysicist and earthquake scientist (d. 2013) 1941 – Charles Keating, English-American actor (d. 2014) 1942 – Bobby Fuller, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1966) 1942 – Annette Funicello, American actress and singer (d. 2013) 1943 – Allen Coage, American-Canadian wrestler and coach (d. 2007) 1943 – Catherine E. Coulson, American actress (d. 2015) 1943 – Jan de Bont, Dutch director, producer, and cinematographer 1943 – Catherine Deneuve, French actress and singer 1943 – Seif Sharif Hamad, Zanzibari politician, 2nd Chief Minister of Zanzibar 1945 – Eddie Brigati, American singer-songwriter 1945 – Yvan Ponton, Canadian actor and game show host 1945 – Buzz Potamkin, American director and producer, founded Buzzco Associates (d. 2012) 1945 – Sheila Sherwood, English long jumper 1945 – Michael Stoute, Barbadian-English horse trainer 1945 – Leslie West, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020) 1946 – Claude Charron, Canadian educator and politician 1946 – Godfrey Chitalu, Zambian footballer (d. 1993) 1946 – Deepak Chopra, Indian-American physician and author 1946 – Elizabeth Connell, South African mezzo-soprano (d. 2012) 1946 – Kelvin MacKenzie, English journalist 1946 – Jaime Nebot, Ecuadorian politician 1947 – Raymond Bachand, Canadian lawyer and politician 1947 – Haley Barbour, American lawyer and politician, 62nd Governor of Mississippi 1948 – Mike Hendrick, English cricketer, coach, and umpire 1948 – Pierre Lartigue, French rally driver 1948 – Debbie Macomber, American author 1949 – Stiv Bators, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 1990) 1949 – Vasilios Magginas, Greek politician, Greek Minister of Employment (d. 2015) 1949 – Manfred Trojahn, German flute player, composer, and conductor 1949 – Arsène Wenger, French footballer and manager 1950 – Donald Ramotar, Guyanese politician, 8th President of Guyana 1952 – Julie Dash, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1952 – Jeff Goldblum, American actor and producer 1953 – René Arce Islas, Mexican politician 1954 – Graham Joyce, English author and educator (d. 2014) 1956 – John Adam, Australian rugby league player 1956 – Alejandro Kuropatwa, Argentine photographer (d. 2003) 1957 – Henry Lauterbach, German jumper 1957 – Daniel Melingo, Argentine musician 1958 – Bobby Blotzer, American drummer 1959 – Roberto Navarro, Argentine journalist 1959 – Arto Salminen, Finnish journalist and author (d. 2005) 1959 – Marc Shaiman, American composer and songwriter 1960 – Darryl Jenifer, American bass player 1960 – Cris Kirkwood, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1961 – Takaaki Ishibashi, Japanese comedian, singer, and actor 1961 – Barbara Potter, American tennis player 1962 – Bob Odenkirk, American actor and comedian 1963 – Brian Boitano, American figure skater 1964 – Dražen Petrović, Croatian basketball player (d. 1993) 1964 – TobyMac, American singer-songwriter and producer 1965 – Valeria Golino, Italian actress 1965 – John Wesley Harding, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – A. L. Kennedy, Scottish comedian, journalist, and author 1965 – Otis Smith, American football player and coach 1965 – Piotr Wiwczarek, Polish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1966 – Yuri Arbachakov, Russian-Japanese boxer 1967 – Salvatore Di Vittorio, Italian composer and conductor 1967 – Rita Guerra, Portuguese singer 1967 – Oona King, Baroness King of Bow, English academic and politician 1967 – Ulrike Maier, Austrian skier (d. 1994) 1967 – Carlos Mencia, Honduran-American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Ron Tugnutt, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster 1968 – Stephanie Cutter, American lawyer and political consultant 1968 – Jay Johnston, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Shelby Lynne, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1968 – Stéphane Quintal, Canadian ice hockey player 1968 – Shaggy, Jamaican singer-songwriter and DJ 1969 – Julio Borges, Venezuelan politician 1969 – Héctor Carrasco, Dominican baseball player 1969 – Spike Jonze, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Helmut Lotti, Belgian singer-songwriter 1969 – Coque Malla, Spanish musician and actor 1970 – Winston Bogarde, Dutch footballer and manager 1970 – Amy Redford, American actress, director, and producer 1971 – Amanda Coetzer, South African tennis player 1971 – Kornél Dávid, Hungarian basketball player 1971 – José Manuel Martínez, Spanish runner 1971 – Jennifer Lee, American screenwriter, director, Chief Creative Officer of Walt Disney Animation Studios 1972 – D'Lo Brown, American wrestler and accountant 1972 – Saffron Burrows, English-American actress 1972 – Víctor Saldaño, the only Argentine man sentenced to death in the United States 1973 – Andrés Palop, Spanish footballer and manager 1973 – Ichiro Suzuki, Japanese baseball player 1973 – Mark van der Zijden, Dutch swimmer 1974 – Tim Kinsella, American singer-songwriter 1974 – Jeff McInnis, American basketball player 1974 – Miroslav Šatan, Slovak ice hockey player 1975 – Martín Cardetti, Argentinian footballer and manager 1975 – Jesse Tyler Ferguson, American actor 1975 – Míchel Salgado, Spanish footballer 1976 – Luke Adams, Australian race walker 1976 – Laidback Luke, Dutch DJ 1976 – Jon Foreman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1978 – Dion Glover, American basketball player and coach 1978 – Chaswe Nsofwa, Zambian footballer (d. 2007) 1978 – Owais Shah, Pakistani-English cricketer 1979 – Doni, Brazilian footballer 1980 – Niall Breslin, Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and footballer 1980 – Luke O'Donnell, Australian rugby league player 1980 – Sonia Sui, Taiwanese model and actress 1981 – Michael Fishman, American actor and producer 1981 – Olivier Pla, French racing driver 1982 – Robinson Canó, Dominican baseball player 1982 – Tim Erfen, German footballer 1982 – Heath Miller, American football player 1982 – Mark Renshaw, Australian cyclist 1983 – Byul, South Korean singer 1983 – Anton Müller, German footballer 1983 – Plan B, British singer and actor 1984 – Horacio Agulla, Argentine rugby player 1984 – Aleks Marić, Australian basketball player 1985 – Federico Ágreda, Venezuelan musician 1985 – Hadise, Belgian-Turkish singer-songwriter and dancer 1985 – Zac Hanson, American singer-songwriter and drummer 1986 – Chancellor, American musician 1986 – Kenji Ebisawa, Japanese actor 1986 – Kara Lang, Canadian footballer 1986 – Ștefan Radu, Romanian footballer 1986 – Akihiro Sato, Japanese footballer 1987 – Tiki Gelana, Ethiopian runner 1987 – Donny Montell, Lithuanian singer-songwriter 1987 – Park Ha-sun, South Korean actress 1987 – Reen Yu, Taiwanese actress 1988 – Sarah Barrow, English diver 1988 – Parineeti Chopra, Indian actress 1988 – Elena Muhhina, Estonian figure skater 1988 – Aykut Demir, Turkish footballer 1990 – Nicolás Francella, Argentine actor 1990 – Jonathan Lipnicki, American actor 1992 – Sofia Vassilieva, American actress 1993 – Charalambos Lykogiannis, Greek footballer 1995 – Saidy Janko, Swiss footballer 1996 – B.I, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer 1996 – Johannes Høsflot Klæbo, Norwegian ski runner Deaths Pre-1600 726 – Itzamnaaj K'awiil, a Maya ruler of Dos Pilas 741 – Charles Martel, Frankish king (b. 688) 842 – Abo, Japanese prince (b. 792) 1383 – Ferdinand I of Portugal (b. 1345) 1455 – Johannes Brassart, Flemish composer 1493 – James Douglas, 1st Earl of Morton 1565 – Jean Grolier de Servières, French book collector (b. 1479) 1601–1900 1604 – Domingo Báñez, Spanish theologian (b. 1528) 1626 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese daimyō (b. 1561) 1708 – Hermann Witsius, Dutch theologian and academic (b. 1636) 1751 – William IV, Prince of Orange (b. 1711) 1761 – Louis George, Margrave of Baden-Baden (b. 1702) 1755 – Elisha Williams, American minister, academic, and jurist (b. 1694) 1792 – Guillaume Le Gentil, French astronomer (b. 1725) 1847 – Sahle Selassie, Ethiopian ruler (b. 1795) 1853 – Juan Antonio Lavalleja, Uruguayan general and politician, President of Uruguay (b. 1784) 1859 – Louis Spohr, German violinist and composer (b. 1784) 1883 – George Coulthard, Australian cricketer and footballer (b. 1856) 1883 – Thomas Mayne Reid, Irish-American soldier and author (b. 1818) 1885 – Lewis Majendie, English politician (b. 1835) 1891 – Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow, Austrian physiologist and physician (b. 1846) 1901–present 1902 – Herman Adolfovich Trautschold, German geologist and paleontologist (b. 1817) 1906 – Paul Cézanne, French painter (b. 1839) 1914 – Konishiki Yasokichi I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 17th Yokozuna (b. 1866) 1917 – Bob Fitzsimmons, English-American boxer (b. 1863) 1917 – Charles Pardey Lukis, founder of the Indian Journal of Medical Research and later Director-General of the Indian Medical Service (b. 1857) 1927 – Borisav Stanković, Serbian author (b. 1876) 1928 – Andrew Fisher, Scottish-Australian lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1862) 1934 – Pretty Boy Floyd, American gangster (b. 1904) 1935 – Edward Carson, Irish-English lawyer and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (b. 1854) 1935 – Ettore Marchiafava, Italian physician (b. 1847) 1941 – Guy Môquet, French militant (b. 1924) 1952 – Ernst Rüdin, Swiss psychiatrist, geneticist, and eugenicist (b. 1874) 1954 – Jibanananda Das, Bangladeshi-Indian author and poet (b. 1899) 1956 – Hannah Mitchell, English activist (b. 1872) 1959 – George Bouzianis, Greek painter and educator (b. 1885) 1959 – Joseph Cahill, Australian politician, 29th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1891) 1965 – Muriel George, English singer and actress (b. 1883) 1969 – Tommy Edwards, American singer-songwriter (b. 1922) 1972 – James K. Baxter, New Zealand poet, writer, theologian, and social commentator. (b. 1926) 1973 – Pablo Casals, Catalan cellist and conductor (b. 1876) 1979 – Nadia Boulanger, French composer and educator (b. 1887) 1979 – Mieko Kamiya, Japanese psychiatrist and author (b. 1914) 1982 – Richard Hugo, American poet (b. 1923) 1985 – Viorica Ursuleac, Romanian soprano and educator (b. 1894) 1986 – Jane Dornacker, American actress and singer (b. 1947) 1986 – Thorgeir Stubø, Norwegian guitarist and composer (b. 1943) 1986 – Ye Jianying, Chinese general and politician, Head of State of the People's Republic of China (b. 1897) 1986 – Albert Szent-Györgyi, Hungarian-American physiologist and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1893) 1987 – Lino Ventura, Italian-French actor (b. 1919) 1988 – Cynthia Freeman, American author (b. 1915) 1989 – Ewan MacColl, English singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and playwright (b. 1915) 1989 – Jacob Wetterling, American kidnapping victim | 1923 – Bert Trautmann, German footballer and manager (d. 2013) 1925 – Slater Martin, American basketball player and coach (d. 2012) 1925 – Edith Kawelohea McKinzie, Hawaiian genealogist, author, and hula expert (d. 2014) 1925 – Robert Rauschenberg, American painter and illustrator (d. 2008) 1927 – Allan Hendrickse, South African minister and politician (d. 2005) 1928 – Clare Fischer, American pianist, composer and arranger (d. 2012) 1928 – Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1929 – Michael Birkett, 2nd Baron Birkett, English director and producer (d. 2015) 1929 – Dory Previn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2012) 1929 – Lev Yashin, Russian footballer (d. 1990) 1930 – Estela de Carlotto, Argentine human rights activist 1930 – José Guardiola, Spanish singer (d. 2012) 1931 – Ann Rule, American police officer and author (d. 2015) 1933 – Carlos Alberto Sacheri, Argentine philosopher (d. 1974) 1933 – Helmut Senekowitsch, Austrian footballer and manager (d. 2007) 1934 – Donald McIntyre, New Zealand opera singer 1936 – John Blashford-Snell, English soldier, author, and explorer 1936 – Peter Cook, English architect and academic 1936 – Jovan Pavlović, Serbian metropolitan (d. 2014) 1937 – José Larralde, Argentine singer-songwriter 1937 – Manos Loïzos, Egyptian-Greek composer (d. 1982) 1938 – K. Indrapala, Sri Lankan historian and academic 1938 – Derek Jacobi, English actor 1938 – Christopher Lloyd, American actor, comedian and producer 1939 – Joaquim Chissano, Mozambican politician, 2nd President of Mozambique 1939 – George Cohen, English footballer 1939 – Jean-Pierre Desthuilliers, French poet and critic (d. 2013) 1939 – Tony Roberts, American actor and singer 1941 – Ahmet Mete Işıkara, Turkish geophysicist and earthquake scientist (d. 2013) 1941 – Charles Keating, English-American actor (d. 2014) 1942 – Bobby Fuller, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1966) 1942 – Annette Funicello, American actress and singer (d. 2013) 1943 – Allen Coage, American-Canadian wrestler and coach (d. 2007) 1943 – Catherine E. Coulson, American actress (d. 2015) 1943 – Jan de Bont, Dutch director, producer, and cinematographer 1943 – Catherine Deneuve, French actress and singer 1943 – Seif Sharif Hamad, Zanzibari politician, 2nd Chief Minister of Zanzibar 1945 – Eddie Brigati, American singer-songwriter 1945 – Yvan Ponton, Canadian actor and game show host 1945 – Buzz Potamkin, American director and producer, founded Buzzco Associates (d. 2012) 1945 – Sheila Sherwood, English long jumper 1945 – Michael Stoute, Barbadian-English horse trainer 1945 – Leslie West, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020) 1946 – Claude Charron, Canadian educator and politician 1946 – Godfrey Chitalu, Zambian footballer (d. 1993) 1946 – Deepak Chopra, Indian-American physician and author 1946 – Elizabeth Connell, South African mezzo-soprano (d. 2012) 1946 – Kelvin MacKenzie, English journalist 1946 – Jaime Nebot, Ecuadorian politician 1947 – Raymond Bachand, Canadian lawyer and politician 1947 – Haley Barbour, American lawyer and politician, 62nd Governor of Mississippi 1948 – Mike Hendrick, English cricketer, coach, and umpire 1948 – Pierre Lartigue, French rally driver 1948 – Debbie Macomber, American author 1949 – Stiv Bators, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 1990) 1949 – Vasilios Magginas, Greek politician, Greek Minister of Employment (d. 2015) 1949 – Manfred Trojahn, German flute player, composer, and conductor 1949 – Arsène Wenger, French footballer and manager 1950 – Donald Ramotar, Guyanese politician, 8th President of Guyana 1952 – Julie Dash, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1952 – Jeff Goldblum, American actor and producer 1953 – René Arce Islas, Mexican politician 1954 – Graham Joyce, English author and educator (d. 2014) 1956 – John Adam, Australian rugby league player 1956 – Alejandro Kuropatwa, Argentine photographer (d. 2003) 1957 – Henry Lauterbach, German jumper 1957 – Daniel Melingo, Argentine musician 1958 – Bobby Blotzer, American drummer 1959 – Roberto Navarro, Argentine journalist 1959 – Arto Salminen, Finnish journalist and author (d. 2005) 1959 – Marc Shaiman, American composer and songwriter 1960 – Darryl Jenifer, American bass player 1960 – Cris Kirkwood, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1961 – Takaaki Ishibashi, Japanese comedian, singer, and actor 1961 – Barbara Potter, American tennis player 1962 – Bob Odenkirk, American actor and comedian 1963 – Brian Boitano, American figure skater 1964 – Dražen Petrović, Croatian basketball player (d. 1993) 1964 – TobyMac, American singer-songwriter and producer 1965 – Valeria Golino, Italian actress 1965 – John Wesley Harding, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – A. L. Kennedy, Scottish comedian, journalist, and author 1965 – Otis Smith, American football player and coach 1965 – Piotr Wiwczarek, Polish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1966 – Yuri Arbachakov, Russian-Japanese boxer 1967 – Salvatore Di Vittorio, Italian composer and conductor 1967 – Rita Guerra, Portuguese singer 1967 – Oona King, Baroness King of Bow, English academic and politician 1967 – Ulrike Maier, Austrian skier (d. 1994) 1967 – Carlos Mencia, Honduran-American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Ron Tugnutt, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster 1968 – Stephanie Cutter, American lawyer and political consultant 1968 – Jay Johnston, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Shelby Lynne, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1968 – Stéphane Quintal, Canadian ice hockey player 1968 – Shaggy, Jamaican singer-songwriter and DJ 1969 – Julio Borges, Venezuelan politician 1969 – Héctor Carrasco, Dominican baseball player 1969 – Spike Jonze, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Helmut Lotti, Belgian singer-songwriter 1969 – Coque Malla, Spanish musician and actor 1970 – Winston Bogarde, Dutch footballer and manager 1970 – Amy Redford, American actress, director, and producer 1971 – Amanda Coetzer, South African tennis player 1971 – Kornél Dávid, Hungarian basketball player 1971 – José Manuel Martínez, Spanish runner 1971 – Jennifer Lee, American screenwriter, director, Chief Creative Officer of Walt Disney Animation Studios 1972 – D'Lo Brown, American wrestler and accountant 1972 – Saffron Burrows, English-American actress 1972 – Víctor Saldaño, the only Argentine man sentenced to death in the United States 1973 – Andrés Palop, Spanish footballer and manager 1973 – Ichiro Suzuki, Japanese baseball player 1973 – Mark van der Zijden, Dutch swimmer 1974 – Tim Kinsella, American singer-songwriter 1974 – Jeff McInnis, American basketball player 1974 – Miroslav Šatan, Slovak ice hockey player 1975 – Martín Cardetti, Argentinian footballer and manager 1975 – Jesse Tyler Ferguson, American actor 1975 – Míchel Salgado, Spanish footballer 1976 – Luke Adams, Australian race walker 1976 – Laidback Luke, Dutch DJ 1976 – Jon Foreman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1978 – Dion Glover, American basketball player and coach 1978 – Chaswe Nsofwa, Zambian footballer (d. 2007) 1978 – Owais Shah, Pakistani-English cricketer 1979 – Doni, Brazilian footballer 1980 – Niall Breslin, Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and footballer 1980 – Luke O'Donnell, Australian rugby league player 1980 – Sonia Sui, Taiwanese model and actress 1981 – Michael Fishman, American actor and producer 1981 – Olivier Pla, French racing driver 1982 – Robinson Canó, Dominican baseball player 1982 – Tim Erfen, German footballer 1982 – Heath Miller, American football player 1982 – Mark Renshaw, Australian cyclist 1983 – Byul, South Korean singer 1983 – Anton Müller, German footballer 1983 – Plan B, British singer and actor 1984 – Horacio Agulla, Argentine rugby player 1984 – Aleks Marić, Australian basketball player 1985 – Federico Ágreda, Venezuelan musician 1985 – Hadise, Belgian-Turkish singer-songwriter and dancer 1985 – Zac Hanson, American singer-songwriter and drummer 1986 – Chancellor, American musician 1986 – Kenji Ebisawa, Japanese actor 1986 – Kara Lang, Canadian footballer 1986 – Ștefan Radu, Romanian footballer 1986 – Akihiro Sato, Japanese footballer 1987 – Tiki Gelana, Ethiopian runner 1987 – Donny Montell, Lithuanian singer-songwriter 1987 – Park Ha-sun, South Korean actress 1987 – Reen Yu, Taiwanese actress 1988 – Sarah Barrow, English diver 1988 – Parineeti Chopra, Indian actress 1988 – Elena Muhhina, Estonian figure skater 1988 – Aykut Demir, Turkish footballer 1990 – Nicolás Francella, Argentine actor 1990 – Jonathan Lipnicki, American actor 1992 – Sofia Vassilieva, American actress 1993 – Charalambos Lykogiannis, Greek footballer 1995 – Saidy Janko, Swiss footballer 1996 – B.I, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer 1996 – Johannes Høsflot Klæbo, Norwegian ski runner Deaths Pre-1600 726 – Itzamnaaj K'awiil, a Maya ruler of Dos Pilas 741 – Charles Martel, Frankish king (b. 688) 842 |
journalist (d. 2006) 1930 – Unto Mononen, Finnish musician (d. 1968) 1931 – Jim Bunning, American baseball player and politician (d. 2017) 1931 – William P. Clark, Jr., American judge and politician, 12th United States National Security Advisor (d. 2013) 1931 – Diana Dors, English actress (d. 1984) 1932 – Vasily Belov, Russian novelist, poet and playwright (d. 2012) 1933 – Carol Fran, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1933 – Carlos Lemos Simmonds, sixth Vice President of Columbia (d. 2003) 1934 – Caitro Soto, Afro-Peruvian musician (d. 2004) 1935 – Chi-Chi Rodríguez, Puerto Rican-American golfer 1935 – JacSue Kehoe, American neuroscientist (d. 2019) 1936 – Charles Goodhart, English economist and academic 1936 – Philip Kaufman, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1937 – Johnny Carroll, American rockabilly musician (d. 1995) 1937 – Carlos Lamarca, Brazilian captain (d. 1971) 1937 – Deven Verma, Indian actor, director, and producer (d. 2014) 1938 – Alan G`ilzean, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2018) 1939 – Charlie Foxx, American R&B/soul singer and guitarist (d. 1998) 1939 – C. V. Vigneswaran, Sri Lankan lawyer, judge, and politician, 1st Chief Minister of the Northern Province 1940 – Ellie Greenwich, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2009) 1940 – Jane Holzer, American model, actress, producer, and art collector 1940 – Pelé, Brazilian footballer and actor 1941 – René Metge, French rally driver 1941 – Colin Milburn, English cricketer (d. 1990) 1941 – Igor Smirnov, Moldovan engineer and politician, 1st President of Transnistria 1942 – Michael Crichton, American author, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1942 – Douglas Dunn, Scottish poet, critic, and academic 1942 – Bernd Erdmann, German footballer and manager 1942 – Anita Roddick, English businesswoman and activist, founded The Body Shop (d. 2007) 1943 – Alida Chelli, Italian actress and singer (d. 2012) 1944 – Mike Harding, English singer-songwriter and comedian 1945 – Maggi Hambling, English sculptor and painter 1945 – Kim Larsen, Danish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2018) 1945 – Graça Machel, Mozambican politician and humanitarian 1945 – Ernie Watts, American saxophonist 1945 – Maury Yeston, American composer, lyricist, and music theorist 1946 – Graeme Barker, English archaeologist and academic 1946 – Alicia Borinsky, Argentine writer 1946 – Mel Martínez, American lawyer and politician, 12th United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development 1946 – Miklós Németh, Hungarian javelin thrower 1947 – Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi, co-founder of the Palestinian movement Hamas (d. 2004) 1947 – Kazimierz Deyna, Polish footballer (d. 1989) 1947 – Greg Ridley, English bass player (d. 2003) 1948 – Hermann Hauser, Austrian-English businessman, co-founded Acorn Computers and Olivetti Research Laboratory 1948 – Gerry Robinson, Irish-born British businessman, arts patron and television personality 1948 – Brian Ross, American journalist 1948 – Jordi Sabatés, Spanish musician 1949 – Krešimir Ćosić, Croatian soldier and politician 1949 – Oscar Martínez, Argentine theater actor 1949 – Nick Tosches, American journalist, author, and poet (d. 2019) 1949 – Würzel, English singer and guitarist (d. 2011) 1950 – Maths O. Sundqvist, Swedish businessman (d. 2012) 1951 – Charly García, Argentine singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1951 – Ángel de Andrés López, Spanish actor (d. 2016) 1951 – Fatmir Sejdiu, Kosovan academic and politician, 2nd President of Kosovo 1951 – David Wills, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Pierre Moerlen, French drummer (d. 2005) 1952 – Ken Tipton, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – Taner Akçam, Turkish sociologist and historian 1953 – Joaquín Lavín, Chilean politician and economist 1954 – Ang Lee, Taiwanese-American director, producer, and screenwriter 1956 – Adam Nawałka, Polish football player and manager 1956 – Darrell Pace, American archer 1956 – Dianne Reeves, American singer 1956 – Dwight Yoakam, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1957 – Paul Kagame, Rwandan soldier and politician, 6th President of Rwanda 1957 – Graham Rix, English footballer and coach 1958 – Michael Eric Dyson, American activist, author, and academic 1958 – Rose Nabinger, German singer 1958 – Frank Schaffer, German sprinter 1959 – Nancy Grace, American lawyer and journalist 1959 – Sam Raimi, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – "Weird Al" Yankovic, American singer-songwriter, comedian, and actor 1960 – Mirwais Ahmadzaï, Swiss-French keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1960 – Katoucha Niane, French model and actress (d. 2008) 1960 – Randy Pausch, American author and academic (d. 2008) 1960 – Wayne Rainey, American motorcycle racer 1961 – Laurie Halse Anderson, American author 1961 – Vinicio Gómez, Guatemalan politician (d. 2008) 1961 – Andoni Zubizarreta, Spanish footballer and sportscaster 1962 – Doug Flutie, American football player, sportscaster, and drummer 1963 – Gordon Korman, Canadian-American author 1963 – Rashidi Yekini, Nigerian footballer (d. 2012) 1964 – Anabell López, Cuban singer 1964 – Robert Trujillo, American bass player and songwriter 1964 – Eddy Cue, American computer scientist and businessman 1965 – Augusten Burroughs, American author and screenwriter 1965 – Al Leiter, American baseball player and sportscaster 1966 – Alex Zanardi, Italian racing driver and cyclist 1967 – Dale Crover, American singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer 1967 – Omar Linares, Cuban baseball player 1967 – Walt Flanagan, American actor and illustrator 1967 – Jaime Yzaga, Peruvian tennis player 1969 – Dolly Buster, Czech film producer and director, actress and author 1969 – Trudi Canavan, Australian author and illustrator 1969 – Bill O'Brien, American football player and coach 1969 – Brooke Theiss, American actress 1970 – Matthew Barzun, American diplomat, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom 1970 – Grant Imahara, American television presenter and engineer (d. 2020) 1970 – Kenji Nomura, Japanese voice actor 1970 – Zoe Wiseman, American model and photographer 1971 – Carlo Forlivesi, Italian-Japanese composer and scholar 1971 – Chris Horner, American cyclist 1972 – Kate del Castillo, Mexican actress 1972 – Tiffeny Milbrett, American soccer player 1972 – Dominika Paleta, Polish-Mexican actress 1972 – Eduardo Paret, Cuban baseball player 1972 – Bryan Pratt, American lawyer and politician 1972 – Jasmin St. Claire, Virgin Islander-American actress 1972 – Jimmy Wayne, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Christian Dailly, Scottish footballer 1974 – Aravind Adiga, Indian journalist and author 1974 – Beatrice Faumuina, New Zealand discus thrower 1974 – Sander Westerveld, Dutch footballer 1974 – Christine Yoshikawa, Canadian pianist 1975 – Jessicka, American singer-songwriter 1975 – Michelle Beadle, American sportscaster 1975 – Odalys García, Cuban actress 1975 – Phillip Gillespie, Australian cricket umpire 1975 – Yoon Son-ha, South Korean actress and singer 1975 – Keith Van Horn, American basketball player 1975 – Manuela Velasco, Spanish actress 1976 – Cat Deeley, English model, actress, and television host 1976 – Sergio Diduch, Argentine footballer 1976 – Ryan Reynolds, Canadian-American actor and producer 1977 – Brad Haddin, Australian cricketer 1977 – Alex Tudor, English cricketer and coach 1978 – Jimmy Bullard, English footballer 1978 – Steve Harmison, English cricketer and sportscaster 1978 – John Lackey, American baseball player 1978 – Archie Thompson, New Zealand-Australian footballer 1979 – Ramón Castro, Venezuelan baseball player 1979 – Simon Davies, Welsh footballer 1979 – Prabhas, Telugu film actor 1979 – Jorge Solís, Mexican boxer 1979 – Bud Smith, American baseball player 1980 – Mate Bilić, Croatian footballer 1980 – Pedro Liriano, Dominican baseball player 1981 – Daniela Alvarado, Venezuelan actress 1981 – Jeroen Bleekemolen, Dutch racing driver 1981 – Leticia Dolera, Spanish actress 1981 – Ben Francisco, American baseball player 1981 – Lee Ki-woo, South Korean actor 1981 – Jackie Long, American actor and producer 1981 – Mirel Rădoi, Romanian footballer 1981 – Huo Siyan, Chinese actress 1982 – Valentin Badea, Romanian footballer 1982 – Rickey Paulding, American basketball player 1982 – Kristjan Kangur, Estonian basketball player 1982 – Aleksandar Luković, Serbian footballer 1982 – Rodolfo Dantas Bispo, Brazilian footballer 1983 – Filippos Darlas, Greek footballer 1983 – Valentin Demyanenko, Ukrainian-born Azerbaijani canoeist 1983 – Goldie Harvey, Nigerian singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1984 – Izabel Goulart, Brazilian model 1984 – Jeffrey Hoogervorst, Dutch footballer 1984 – Simone Masini, Italian footballer 1984 – Meghan McCain, American journalist and author 1984 – Michael Sim, Australian golfer 1984 – Keiren Westwood, English footballer 1985 – Miguel, American singer-songwriter and producer 1985 – Mohammed Abdellaoue, Norwegian footballer 1985 – Masiela Lusha, Albanian-American actress, poet, and humanitarian 1985 – Chris Neal, English footballer 1985 – Luca Spinetti, Italian footballer 1985 – Panagiotis Vouis, Greek footballer 1986 – Emilia Clarke, English actress 1986 – Briana Evigan, American actress and dancer 1986 – Jovanka Radičević, Montenegrin handball player 1986 – Jake Robinson, English footballer 1986 – Jessica Stroup, American actress 1987 – Faye, Swedish singer-songwriter 1987 – Robin Copeland, Irish rugby player 1987 – Félix Doubront, Venezuelan baseball player 1987 – Kyle Gibson, American baseball player 1987 – Seo In-guk, South Korean singer and actor 1987 – Miyuu Sawai, Japanese model and actress 1987 – Naomi Watanabe, Japanese actress 1988 – Jordan Crawford, American basketball player 1988 – Aleksandr Salugin, Russian footballer 1988 – Carolin Schiewe, German footballer 1989 – Viktor Agardius, Swedish footballer 1989 – Alain Broja, Venezuelan footballer 1989 – Jonita Gandhi, Indo-Canadian singer 1989 – Anisya Kirdyapkina, Russian race walker 1989 – Andriy Yarmolenko, Ukrainian footballer 1990 – Paradise Oskar, Finnish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1991 – Emil Forsberg, Swedish footballer 1991 – Jorge Taufua, Australian rugby league player 1991 – Princess Mako of Akishino, member of the Japanese Imperial Family 1993 – Josh Ruffels, English footballer 1997 – Jaydn Su'A, New Zealand rugby league player 1998 – Amandla Stenberg, American actress 1999 – Yui Kobayashi, Japanese idol 2002 – Shin Eun-soo, South Korean actress Deaths Pre-1600 42 BC – Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger, Roman general and politician (b. 85 BC) 877 – Ignatios of Constantinople, Byzantine patriarch (b. 797) 891 – Yazaman al-Khadim, Abbasid general and politician 902 – Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya, Aghlabid emir (b. 850) 930 – Daigo, Japanese emperor (b. 885) 945 – Hyejong of Goryeo, Korean king (b. 912) 949 – Yōzei, Japanese emperor (b. 869) 1134 – Abu al-Salt, Andalusian polymath 1157 – Sweyn III, Danish king (b. c. 1125) 1456 – John of Capistrano, Italian priest and saint (b. 1386) 1550 – Tiedemann Giese, Polish bishop (b. 1480) 1581 – Michael Neander, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1529) 1601–1900 1616 – Leonhard Hutter, German theologian and academic (b. 1563) 1688 – Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, French philologist and historian (b. 1610) 1730 – Anne Oldfield, English actress (b. 1683) 1764 – Emmanuel-Auguste de Cahideuc, Comte Dubois de la Motte, French admiral (b. 1683) 1774 – Michel Benoist, French missionary and astronomer (b. 1715) 1852 – Georg August Wallin, Finnish explorer, orientalist, and professor (b. 1811) 1867 – Franz Bopp, German linguist and academic (b. 1791) 1869 – Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1799) 1872 – Théophile Gautier, French journalist, author, and poet (b. 1811) 1885 – Charles S. West, American lawyer, jurist, and politician, Secretary of State of Texas (b. 1829) 1893 – Alexander of Battenberg (b. 1857) 1901–present 1910 – Chulalongkorn, Thai king (b. 1853) 1915 – W. G. Grace, English cricketer and physician (b. 1848) 1916 – Richard McFadden, Scottish footballer and soldier (b. 1889) 1917 – Eugène Grasset, Swiss illustrator (b. 1845) 1921 – John Boyd Dunlop, Scottish businessman, founded Dunlop Rubber (b. 1840) 1935 – Charles Demuth, American painter and educator (b. 1883) 1939 – Zane Grey, American dentist and author (b. 1872) 1942 – Ralph Rainger, American pianist and composer (b. 1901) 1943 – Wakashima Gonshirō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 21st Yokozuna (b. 1876) 1944 – Charles Glover Barkla, English-Scottish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877) 1944 – Hana Brady, Czech holocaust victim (b. 1931) 1950 – Al Jolson, Lithuanian-American actor and singer (b. 1886) 1953 – Adrien de Noailles, French son of Jules Charles Victurnien de Noailles (b. 1869) 1959 – George Bouzianis, Greek painter (b. 1885) 1959 – Gerda Lundequist, Swedish actress (b. 1871) 1964 – Frank Luther Mott, American historian and journalist (b. 1886) 1975 | – Eduardo Paret, Cuban baseball player 1972 – Bryan Pratt, American lawyer and politician 1972 – Jasmin St. Claire, Virgin Islander-American actress 1972 – Jimmy Wayne, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Christian Dailly, Scottish footballer 1974 – Aravind Adiga, Indian journalist and author 1974 – Beatrice Faumuina, New Zealand discus thrower 1974 – Sander Westerveld, Dutch footballer 1974 – Christine Yoshikawa, Canadian pianist 1975 – Jessicka, American singer-songwriter 1975 – Michelle Beadle, American sportscaster 1975 – Odalys García, Cuban actress 1975 – Phillip Gillespie, Australian cricket umpire 1975 – Yoon Son-ha, South Korean actress and singer 1975 – Keith Van Horn, American basketball player 1975 – Manuela Velasco, Spanish actress 1976 – Cat Deeley, English model, actress, and television host 1976 – Sergio Diduch, Argentine footballer 1976 – Ryan Reynolds, Canadian-American actor and producer 1977 – Brad Haddin, Australian cricketer 1977 – Alex Tudor, English cricketer and coach 1978 – Jimmy Bullard, English footballer 1978 – Steve Harmison, English cricketer and sportscaster 1978 – John Lackey, American baseball player 1978 – Archie Thompson, New Zealand-Australian footballer 1979 – Ramón Castro, Venezuelan baseball player 1979 – Simon Davies, Welsh footballer 1979 – Prabhas, Telugu film actor 1979 – Jorge Solís, Mexican boxer 1979 – Bud Smith, American baseball player 1980 – Mate Bilić, Croatian footballer 1980 – Pedro Liriano, Dominican baseball player 1981 – Daniela Alvarado, Venezuelan actress 1981 – Jeroen Bleekemolen, Dutch racing driver 1981 – Leticia Dolera, Spanish actress 1981 – Ben Francisco, American baseball player 1981 – Lee Ki-woo, South Korean actor 1981 – Jackie Long, American actor and producer 1981 – Mirel Rădoi, Romanian footballer 1981 – Huo Siyan, Chinese actress 1982 – Valentin Badea, Romanian footballer 1982 – Rickey Paulding, American basketball player 1982 – Kristjan Kangur, Estonian basketball player 1982 – Aleksandar Luković, Serbian footballer 1982 – Rodolfo Dantas Bispo, Brazilian footballer 1983 – Filippos Darlas, Greek footballer 1983 – Valentin Demyanenko, Ukrainian-born Azerbaijani canoeist 1983 – Goldie Harvey, Nigerian singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1984 – Izabel Goulart, Brazilian model 1984 – Jeffrey Hoogervorst, Dutch footballer 1984 – Simone Masini, Italian footballer 1984 – Meghan McCain, American journalist and author 1984 – Michael Sim, Australian golfer 1984 – Keiren Westwood, English footballer 1985 – Miguel, American singer-songwriter and producer 1985 – Mohammed Abdellaoue, Norwegian footballer 1985 – Masiela Lusha, Albanian-American actress, poet, and humanitarian 1985 – Chris Neal, English footballer 1985 – Luca Spinetti, Italian footballer 1985 – Panagiotis Vouis, Greek footballer 1986 – Emilia Clarke, English actress 1986 – Briana Evigan, American actress and dancer 1986 – Jovanka Radičević, Montenegrin handball player 1986 – Jake Robinson, English footballer 1986 – Jessica Stroup, American actress 1987 – Faye, Swedish singer-songwriter 1987 – Robin Copeland, Irish rugby player 1987 – Félix Doubront, Venezuelan baseball player 1987 – Kyle Gibson, American baseball player 1987 – Seo In-guk, South Korean singer and actor 1987 – Miyuu Sawai, Japanese model and actress 1987 – Naomi Watanabe, Japanese actress 1988 – Jordan Crawford, American basketball player 1988 – Aleksandr Salugin, Russian footballer 1988 – Carolin Schiewe, German footballer 1989 – Viktor Agardius, Swedish footballer 1989 – Alain Broja, Venezuelan footballer 1989 – Jonita Gandhi, Indo-Canadian singer 1989 – Anisya Kirdyapkina, Russian race walker 1989 – Andriy Yarmolenko, Ukrainian footballer 1990 – Paradise Oskar, Finnish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1991 – Emil Forsberg, Swedish footballer 1991 – Jorge Taufua, Australian rugby league player 1991 – Princess Mako of Akishino, member of the Japanese Imperial Family 1993 – Josh Ruffels, English footballer 1997 – Jaydn Su'A, New Zealand rugby league player 1998 – Amandla Stenberg, American actress 1999 – Yui Kobayashi, Japanese idol 2002 – Shin Eun-soo, South Korean actress Deaths Pre-1600 42 BC – Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger, Roman general and politician (b. 85 BC) 877 – Ignatios of Constantinople, Byzantine patriarch (b. 797) 891 – Yazaman al-Khadim, Abbasid general and politician 902 – Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya, Aghlabid emir (b. 850) 930 – Daigo, Japanese emperor (b. 885) 945 – Hyejong of Goryeo, Korean king (b. 912) 949 – Yōzei, Japanese emperor (b. 869) 1134 – Abu al-Salt, Andalusian polymath 1157 – Sweyn III, Danish king (b. c. 1125) 1456 – John of Capistrano, Italian priest and saint (b. 1386) 1550 – Tiedemann Giese, Polish bishop (b. 1480) 1581 – Michael Neander, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1529) 1601–1900 1616 – Leonhard Hutter, German theologian and academic (b. 1563) 1688 – Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, French philologist and historian (b. 1610) 1730 – Anne Oldfield, English actress (b. 1683) 1764 – Emmanuel-Auguste de Cahideuc, Comte Dubois de la Motte, French admiral (b. 1683) 1774 – Michel Benoist, French missionary and astronomer (b. 1715) 1852 – Georg August Wallin, Finnish explorer, orientalist, and professor (b. 1811) 1867 – Franz Bopp, German linguist and academic (b. 1791) 1869 – Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1799) 1872 – Théophile Gautier, French journalist, author, and poet (b. 1811) 1885 – Charles S. West, American lawyer, jurist, and politician, Secretary of State of Texas (b. 1829) 1893 – Alexander of Battenberg (b. 1857) 1901–present 1910 – Chulalongkorn, Thai king (b. 1853) 1915 – W. G. Grace, English cricketer and physician (b. 1848) 1916 – Richard McFadden, Scottish footballer and soldier (b. 1889) 1917 – Eugène Grasset, Swiss illustrator (b. 1845) 1921 – John Boyd Dunlop, Scottish businessman, founded Dunlop Rubber (b. 1840) 1935 – Charles Demuth, American painter and educator (b. 1883) 1939 – Zane Grey, American dentist and author (b. 1872) 1942 – Ralph Rainger, American pianist and composer (b. 1901) 1943 – Wakashima Gonshirō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 21st Yokozuna (b. 1876) 1944 – Charles Glover Barkla, English-Scottish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877) 1944 – Hana Brady, Czech holocaust victim (b. 1931) 1950 – Al Jolson, Lithuanian-American actor and singer (b. 1886) 1953 – Adrien de Noailles, French son of Jules Charles Victurnien de Noailles (b. 1869) 1959 – George Bouzianis, Greek painter (b. 1885) 1959 – Gerda Lundequist, Swedish actress (b. 1871) 1964 – Frank Luther Mott, American historian and journalist (b. 1886) 1975 – Marjorie Maynard British artist and farmer (b. 1891) 1978 – Maybelle Carter, American singer and autoharp player (Carter Family) (b. 1909) 1980 – Tibor Rosenbaum, Hungarian-born Swiss rabbi and businessman (b. 1923) 1983 – Jessica Savitch, American journalist (b. 1947) 1984 – Oskar Werner, Austrian-German actor (b. 1922) 1986 – Edward Adelbert Doisy, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1893) 1988 – Asashio Tarō III, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 46th Yokozuna (b. 1929) 1989 – Armida, Mexican-American actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1911) 1990 – Thomas Williams, American author and academic (b. 1926) 1994 – Robert Lansing, American actor (b. 1928) 1996 – Bob Grim, American baseball player (b. 1930) 1997 – Bert Haanstra, Dutch director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1916) 1998 – Barnett Slepian, American physician (b. 1946) 1999 – Eric Reece, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Tasmania (b. 1909) 2000 – Yokozuna, American wrestler (b. 1966) 2001 – Josh Kirby, English illustrator (b. 1928) 2001 – Daniel Wildenstein, French art dealer and historian (b. 1917) 2002 – Adolph Green, American playwright and songwriter (b. 1915) 2003 – Tony Capstick, English actor and singer (b. 1944) 2003 – Soong Mei-ling, Chinese wife of Chiang Kai-shek, 2nd First Lady of the Republic of China (b. 1898) 2004 – Robert Merrill, American actor and singer (b. 1919) 2004 – Bill Nicholson, English footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1919) 2005 – William Hootkins, American actor (b. 1948) 2005 – John Muth, American economist and academic (b. 1930) 2005 – Stella Obasanjo, Nigerian wife of Olusegun Obasanjo, 10th First Lady of Nigeria (b. 1945) 2006 – Lebo Mathosa, South African singer (Boom Shaka) (b. 1977) 2007 – John Ilhan, Turkish-Australian businessman, founded Crazy John's (b. 1965) 2007 – Lim Goh Tong, Malaysian-Chinese businessman (b. 1918) 2008 – Kevin Finnegan, English boxer (b. 1948) 2009 – Lou Jacobi, Canadian-American actor (b. 1913) 2010 – Fran Crippen, American swimmer (b. 1984) 2010 – Stanley Tanger, American businessman and philanthropist, founded the Tanger Factory Outlet Centers (b. 1923) 2011 – Herbert A. Hauptman, American chemist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1917) 2011 – Marco Simoncelli, Italian motorcycle racer (b. 1987) 2012 – William Joel Blass, American lawyer and politician (b. 1917) 2012 – Wilhelm Brasse, Polish photographer (b. 1917) 2012 – Roland de la Poype, French soldier and pilot (b. 1920) 2012 – Sunil Gangopadhyay, Indian author and poet (b. 1934) 2012 – Michael Marra, Scottish singer-songwriter (b. 1952) 2013 – Wes Bialosuknia, American basketball player (b. 1945) 2013 – Anthony Caro, English sculptor and academic (b. 1924) 2013 – Niall Donohue, Irish hurler (b. 1990) 2013 – Gypie Mayo, English guitarist and songwriter (Dr. Feelgood and The Yardbirds) (b. 1951) 2013 – Bill Mazer, Ukrainian-American journalist and sportscaster (b. 1920) 2014 – Ghulam Azam, Bangladeshi politician (b. 1922) 2014 – John Bramlett, American football player (b. 1941) 2014 – Bernard Mayes, English-American journalist and academic (b. 1929) 2014 – Joan Quigley, American astrologer and author (b. 1927) 2014 – Tullio Regge, Italian physicist and |
six months of general surgical training and four and a half years in ORL-H&N specialist surgery. In Canada and the United States, practitioners complete a five-year residency training after medical school. Following residency training, some otolaryngologist-head & neck surgeons complete an advanced sub-specialty fellowship, where training can be one to two years in duration. Fellowships include head and neck surgical oncology, facial plastic surgery, rhinology and sinus surgery, neuro-otology, pediatric otolaryngology, and laryngology. In the United States and Canada, otorhinolaryngology is one of the most competitive specialties in medicine in which to obtain a residency position following medical school. In the United Kingdom entrance to otorhinolaryngology higher surgical training is highly competitive and involves a rigorous national selection process. The training programme consists of 6 years of higher surgical training after which trainees frequently undertake fellowships in a sub-speciality prior to becoming a consultant. The typical total length of education and training, post-secondary school is 12–14 years. Otolaryngology is among the more highly compensated surgical specialties in the United States. In 2019, the average annual income was $461,000. Sub-specialties (* Currently recognized by American Board of Medical Subspecialties) Topics by subspecialty Head and neck surgery Head and neck surgical oncology (field of surgery treating cancer/malignancy of the head and neck) Head and neck mucosal malignancy (cancer of the pink lining of the upper aerodigestive tract Oral cancer (cancer of lips, gums, tongue, hard palate, cheek, floor of mouth) Oropharyngeal cancer (cancer of oropharynx, soft palate, tonsil, base of tongue) Larynx cancer (voice box cancer) Hypopharynx cancer (lower throat cancer) Sinonasal cancer Nasopharyngeal cancer Skin cancer of the head & neck Thyroid cancer Salivary gland cancer Head and neck sarcoma Endocrine surgery of the head and neck Thyroid surgery Parathyroid surgery Microvascular free flap reconstructive surgery Skull base surgery Otology and neurotology Study of diseases of the outer ear, middle ear and mastoid, and inner ear, and surrounding structures (such as the facial nerve and lateral skull base) Outer ear diseases Otitis externa – outer ear or ear canal inflammation Middle ear and mastoid diseases Otitis media – middle ear inflammation Perforated eardrum (hole in the eardrum due to infection, trauma, explosion or loud noise) Mastoiditis Inner ear diseases BPPV – benign paroxysmal positional vertigo Labyrinthitis/Vestibular neuronitis Ménière's disease/Endolymphatic hydrops Perilymphatic fistula Acoustic neuroma, vestibular schwannoma | eating, drinking, speaking, breathing, swallowing, and hearing. In addition, ENT surgery encompasses the surgical management and reconstruction of cancers and benign tumors of the head and neck as well as plastic surgery of the face and neck. Etymology The term is a combination of New Latin combining forms (oto- + rhino- + laryngo- + -logy) derived from four Ancient Greek words: οὖς ous (gen.: ὠτός otos), "ear", ῥίς rhis, "nose", λάρυγξ larynx, "larynx" and -λογία logia, "study" (cf. Greek ωτορινολαρυγγολόγος, "otorhinolaryngologist"). Training Otorhinolaryngologists are physicians (MD, DO, MBBS, MBChB, etc.) who complete medical school and then 5–7 years of post-graduate surgical training in ORL-H&N. In the United States, trainees complete at least five years of surgical residency training. This comprises three to six months of general surgical training and four and a half years in ORL-H&N specialist surgery. In Canada and the United States, practitioners complete a five-year residency training after medical school. Following residency training, some otolaryngologist-head & neck surgeons complete an advanced sub-specialty fellowship, where training can be one to two years in duration. Fellowships include head and neck surgical oncology, facial plastic surgery, rhinology and sinus surgery, neuro-otology, pediatric otolaryngology, and laryngology. In the United States and Canada, otorhinolaryngology is one of the most competitive specialties in medicine in which to obtain a residency position following medical school. In the United Kingdom entrance to otorhinolaryngology higher surgical training is highly competitive and involves a rigorous national selection process. The training programme consists of 6 years of higher surgical training after which trainees frequently undertake fellowships in a sub-speciality prior to becoming a consultant. The typical total length of education and training, post-secondary school is 12–14 years. Otolaryngology is among the more highly compensated surgical specialties in the United States. In 2019, the average annual income was $461,000. Sub-specialties (* Currently recognized by American Board of Medical Subspecialties) Topics by subspecialty Head and neck surgery Head and neck surgical oncology (field of surgery treating cancer/malignancy of the head and neck) Head and neck mucosal malignancy (cancer of the pink lining of the upper aerodigestive tract Oral cancer (cancer of lips, gums, tongue, hard palate, cheek, floor of mouth) Oropharyngeal cancer (cancer of oropharynx, soft palate, tonsil, base of tongue) Larynx cancer (voice box cancer) Hypopharynx cancer (lower throat cancer) Sinonasal cancer Nasopharyngeal cancer Skin cancer of the head & neck Thyroid cancer Salivary gland cancer Head and neck sarcoma Endocrine surgery of the head and neck Thyroid surgery Parathyroid surgery Microvascular free flap reconstructive surgery Skull base surgery Otology and neurotology Study of diseases of the outer ear, middle ear and mastoid, and inner ear, and surrounding structures (such as the facial nerve and lateral skull base) Outer ear diseases Otitis externa – outer ear or ear canal inflammation Middle ear and mastoid diseases Otitis media – middle ear inflammation Perforated eardrum (hole in the eardrum due to infection, trauma, explosion or loud noise) Mastoiditis Inner ear diseases BPPV – benign paroxysmal positional vertigo Labyrinthitis/Vestibular neuronitis Ménière's disease/Endolymphatic hydrops Perilymphatic fistula Acoustic neuroma, vestibular schwannoma Facial nerve disease Idiopathic |
2021 still stands at the dorpsstraat, behind barber Prophitius, to communicate with the allies below the river Rhine (1944/1945). During the war, multiple families were hiding jewish people from the Germans. One location was betrayed however, resulting in a razzia in 1944 at the house 'De Lindenhof' at the Hoenderlooseweg. During the liberation of Netherlands in April 1945, Otterlo became the epicenter of a fierce and bloody battle by coincidence, between German and British and Canadian soldiers. See the Battle of Otterlo. References External links Map of the former municipality, around 1868. Multimedia CBC Archives - CBC Radio reporting from Otterlo April 17, 1945. | of the war, Otterlo was relatively unharmed. The local resistance made use of a secret telephone connection from a electrician house, which in 2021 still stands at the dorpsstraat, behind barber Prophitius, to communicate with the allies below the river Rhine (1944/1945). During the war, multiple families were hiding jewish people from the Germans. One location was betrayed however, resulting in a razzia in 1944 at the house 'De Lindenhof' at |
and temporary facilities. International Olympic Committee The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organisations and federations, recognised media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter. As the umbrella organisation of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city, overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the Olympic sports programme, and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights. The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements: International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for association football, and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing body for volleyball. There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each of the Olympic sports. National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country. For example, the Russian Olympic Committee (ROC) is the NOC of the Russian Federation. There are currently 206 NOCs recognised by the IOC. Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) are temporary committees responsible for the organisation of each Olympic Games. OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the IOC. French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three (or more) languages, or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country: French is always spoken first, followed by an English translation, and then the dominant language of the host nation (when this is not English or French). Criticism The IOC has often been accused of being an intractable organisation, with several life members on the committee. The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial. Brundage fought strongly for amateurism and against the commercialisation of the Olympic Games, even as these attitudes came to be seen as incongruous with the realities of modern sports. The advent of state-sponsored athletes from the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it placed self-financed amateurs of Western countries at a disadvantage. Brundage was accused of racism—for resisting the exclusion of apartheid South Africa—and antisemitism. Under the Samaranch presidency, the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption. Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism. In 1998, it was reported that several IOC members had taken gifts from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. There were soon four independent investigations underway: by the IOC, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), the Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC), and the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). Although nothing strictly illegal had occurred, it was felt that the acceptance of the gifts was morally dubious. As a result of the investigation, ten members of the IOC were expelled and a further ten sanctioned. Stricter rules were adopted for future bids, and caps were introduced to define how much IOC members could accept from bid cities. Additionally, new term and age limits were put into place for IOC membership, and fifteen former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Nevertheless, from sporting and business standpoints, the 2002 Olympics were one of the most successful Winter Games in history; records were set in both the broadcasting and marketing programs. Over 2 billion viewers watched more than 13 billion viewer-hours. The 2002 Games were also a financial success, raising more money with fewer sponsors than any prior Olympic Games, leaving SLOC with a surplus of $40 million. This excess revenue was used to create the Utah Athletic Foundation (also known as the Utah Olympic Legacy Foundation), which maintains and operates many of the surviving Olympic venues. It was reported in 1999 that the Nagano Olympic bid committee had spent approximately $14 million on entertaining the 62 IOC members and many of their associates. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano destroyed the financial records after the IOC requested that the entertainment expenditures should not be made public. A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, which aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed that it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Games, Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London bid committee, headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe, of breaking the bid rules. He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness; Chirac gave guarded interviews concerning his involvement but the allegation was never fully explored. Turin's 2006 Winter Olympic bid was also clouded by controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, closely connected to the rival bid of Sion, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organising Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation, and also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid which potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination. The continued refusal by the IOC to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics was criticised by the victims' families and Jewish organizations, including the Anti-Defamation League and B'nai B'rith International. Ultimately, such a remembrance was held at the opening ceremony of the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. In April 2018, Norwegian track and field athletics manager Håkon Lutdal argued for abolishing the Olympic Games, arguing against the concept of gathering many sports in a single town, city or region no matter how popular or unpopular those sports are there. Instead, he argued for elevating the status of various world championships in different sports, usually at locations attracting more interested spectators. In 2020, a group of Oxford University scholars documented high costs and cost overruns for the Games and criticised the IOC for not taking enough responsibility for controlling increasing costs. The IOC criticised the study and the Oxford scholars countered the criticism, point by point, in an open letter to IOC President Thomas Bach. Commercialisation Under national organising committees The Olympic Games have been commercialised to various degrees since the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, when a number of companies paid for advertising, including Kodak. In 1908, Oxo, mouthwash, and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games. Coca-Cola first sponsored the Summer Olympics in 1928, and has remained an Olympic sponsor ever since. Before the IOC took control of sponsorship, the NOCs had responsibility for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and use of the Olympic symbols. Under IOC control The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors. It was not until the retirement of IOC President Avery Brundage, in 1972, that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them. Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand. Budget During the first half of the 20th century, the IOC ran on a small budget. As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest. Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC's decision-making. Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organising committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols. When Brundage retired the IOC had US$2 million in assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US$45 million. This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights. When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent. The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history. The Los Angeles-based organising committee, led by Peter Ueberroth, was able to generate a surplus of US$225 million, which was an unprecedented amount at that time. The organising committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies. The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights. Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Programme (TOP) in 1985, in order to create an Olympic brand. Membership in TOP was, and is, very exclusive and expensive. Fees cost US$50 million for a four-year membership. Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category, and use of the Olympic symbol, the interlocking rings, in their publications and advertisements. Effect of television The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television, though only to local audiences. The 1956 Winter Olympics in Italy were the first internationally televised Olympic Games, and the broadcasting rights for the following Winter Games in California were sold for the first time to specialised television broadcasting networks—CBS paid US$394,000 for the American rights. In the following decades, the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War, and the International Olympic Committee wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium. The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games, thereby generating more interest, which in turn enhanced the appeal of TV air time to the advertisers. This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever-increasing fees for those rights. For example, CBS paid US$375 million for the American broadcast rights for the 1998 Nagano Games, while NBC spent US$3.5 billion for the American rights to air every Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012. In 2011, NBC agreed to a $4.38 billion contract with the IOC to broadcast the Olympics through the 2020 Games, the most expensive television rights deal in Olympic history. NBC then agreed to a $7.75 billion contract extension on 7 May 2014, to air the Olympics through the 2032 Games. NBC also acquired the American television rights to the Youth Olympic Games, beginning in 2014, and the Paralympic Games. More than half of the Olympic Committee's global sponsors are American companies, and NBC is one of the major sources of revenue for the IOC. Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the 20th century. This was due to the advent of satellites for broadcasting live television worldwide starting in 1964, and the introduction of colour television in 1968. The global audience for the 1968 Mexico City Games was estimated to be 600 million, whereas the audience numbers at the Los Angeles Games of 1984 had increased to 900 million; this number had swelled to 3.5 billion by the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. With such high costs charged to broadcast the Games, the added pressure of the internet, and increased competition from cable, the television lobby demanded concessions from the IOC to boost ratings. The IOC responded by making a number of changes to the Olympic programme; at the Summer Games, the gymnastics competition was expanded from seven to nine nights, and a Champions Gala was added to attract greater interest; the events programmes were also expanded for swimming and diving, both popular sports with a broad base of television viewers. Due to the substantial fees NBC has paid for rights to the Olympics, the IOC has allowed the network to influence the event scheduling to maximise U.S. television ratings whenever possible. Notable examples of maximizing U.S. television viewership include scheduling the finals of the swimming events only during the mornings of the host cities Beijing (during the 2008 Summer Olympics) and Tokyo (during the 2020 Summer Olympics), which coincide with the evening prime time broadcast slots of the United States. Olympic marketing The sale of the Olympic brand has been controversial. The argument is that the Games have become indistinguishable from any other commercialised sporting spectacle. Another criticism is that the Games are funded by host cities and national governments; the IOC incurs none of the cost, yet controls all the rights and profits from the Olympic symbols. The IOC also takes a percentage of all sponsorship and broadcast income. Host cities continue to compete ardently for the right to host the Games, even though there is no certainty that they will earn back their investments. Research has shown that trade is around 30 percent higher for countries that have hosted the Olympics. Symbols The Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Olympic Charter. The Olympic symbol, better known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (Africa, The Americas (is considered one continent), Asia, Europe, and Oceania). The coloured version of the rings—blue, yellow, black, green, and red—over a white field forms the Olympic flag. These colours were chosen because every nation had at least one of them on its national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. It has since been hoisted during each celebration of the Games. The Olympic motto, , a Latin expression meaning "Faster, Higher, Stronger" was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin in 1894 and has been official since 1924. The motto was coined by Coubertin's friend, the Dominican priest Henri Didon OP, for a Paris youth gathering of 1891. Coubertin's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed: Months before each Games, the Olympic Flame is lit at the Temple of Hera in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess joined by ten female performers as Vestal Virgins, ignites a torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun's rays; she then lights the torch of the first relay bearer (who also is a Greek athlete), thus initiating the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city's Olympic stadium, where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony. Though the flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928, the torch relay was only introduced at the 1936 Summer Games to promote the Third Reich. The Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country, was introduced in 1968. It has played an important part of the Games' identity promotion since the 1980 Summer Olympics, when the Soviet bear cub Misha reached international stardom. The mascot of the Summer Olympics in London was named Wenlock after the town of Much Wenlock in Shropshire. Much Wenlock still hosts the Wenlock Olympian Games, which were an inspiration to Pierre de Coubertin for the Olympic Games. Ceremonies Opening ceremony As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. This ceremony takes place on a Friday and is held prior to the commencement of the sporting events (apart from some group-stage football matches, softball games, and rowing heats). Most of the rituals for the opening ceremony were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The ceremony typically starts with the entrance of the president of the International Olympic Committee and a representative of the host country followed by the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theatre representative of its culture. The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor's in terms of memorability. The opening ceremony of the Beijing Games reportedly cost $100 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment. After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter and leads the parade in order to honour the origins of the Olympics. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language, with the host country's athletes being the last to enter. During the 2004 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Athens, Greece, the Greek flag entered the stadium first, while the Greek delegation entered last. Beginning with the 2020 Summer Olympics, the succeeding hosts of the respective Olympic Games (summer or winter) will enter immediately before the current host in descending order. Speeches are given by the President of the Organizing Committee, the IOC president, and the head of state/representative of the host country, formally opening the Games. Finally, the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier, often a successful Olympic athlete from the host nation, who lights the Olympic flame in the stadium's cauldron. Closing ceremony The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place on a Sunday and after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played: the flag of the current host country; the flag of Greece, to honour the birthplace of the Olympic Games; and the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games. The president of the organising committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches, the Games are officially closed, and the Olympic flame is extinguished. In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony, the current mayor of the city that organised the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC, who then passes it on to the current mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games. The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theatre representative of its culture. As is customary, the last medal presentation of the Games is held as part of the closing ceremony. Typically, the marathon medals are presented at the Summer Olympics, while the cross-country skiing mass start medals are awarded at the Winter Olympics. Medal presentation A medal ceremony is held after the conclusion of each Olympic event. The winner, and the second- and third-place competitors or teams, stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals by a member of the IOC. After the medals have been received, the national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallist's country is played. Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, assisting the officials who present the medals and acting as flag-bearers. In the Summer Olympics, each medal ceremony is held at the venue where the event has taken place, but the ceremonies at the Winter Olympics are usually held in a special "plaza". Sports The Olympic Games programme consists of 35 sports, 30 disciplines and 408 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is further broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women, each representing a different weight class. The Summer Olympics programme includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics programme features 15 sports. Athletics, swimming, fencing, and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic programme. Cross-country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics programme since its inception in 1924. Current Olympic sports, like badminton, basketball, and volleyball, first appeared on the programme as demonstration sports, and were later promoted to full Olympic sports. Some sports that were featured in earlier Games were later dropped from the programme. Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognised by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC. There are sports recognised by the IOC that are not included in the Olympic programme. These sports are not considered Olympic sports, but they can be promoted to this status during a programme revision that occurs in the first IOC session following a celebration of the Olympic Games. During such revisions, sports can be excluded or included in the programme on the basis of a two-thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC. There are recognised sports that have never been on an Olympic programme in any capacity, for example, squash. In October and November 2004, the IOC established an Olympic Programme Commission, which was tasked with reviewing the sports on the Olympic programme and all non-Olympic recognised sports. The goal was to apply a systematic approach to establishing the Olympic programme for each celebration of the Games. The commission formulated seven criteria to judge whether a sport should be included on the Olympic programme. These criteria are history and tradition of the sport, universality, popularity of the sport, image, athletes' health, development of the International Federation that governs the sport, and costs of holding the sport. From this study five recognised sports emerged as candidates for inclusion at the 2012 Summer Olympics: golf, karate, rugby sevens, roller sports and squash. These sports were reviewed by the IOC Executive Board and then referred to the General Session in Singapore in July 2005. Of the five sports recommended for inclusion only two were selected as finalists: karate and squash. Neither sport attained the required two-thirds vote and consequently they were not promoted to the Olympic programme. In October 2009 the IOC voted to instate golf and rugby sevens as Olympic sports for the 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympic Games. The 114th IOC Session, in 2002, limited the Summer Games programme to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major programme revision was performed, which resulted in the exclusion of baseball and softball from the official programme of the 2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 programme featured just 26 sports. The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the addition of rugby and golf. Amateurism and professionalism The ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public school greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin. The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education, an attitude summed up in the saying mens sana in corpore sano, a sound mind in a sound body. In this ethos, a gentleman was one who became an all-rounder, not the best at one specific thing. There was also a prevailing concept of fairness, in which practising or training was considered tantamount to cheating. Those who practised a sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practised it merely as a hobby. The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were posthumously restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds. Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were thus considered professionals. The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but all of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis. The situation greatly disadvantaged American and Western European athletes, and was a major factor in the decline of American medal hauls in the 1970s and 1980s. However, workarounds in Western countries also allowed individuals to focus full-time on sport while passing the amateur rules. As a result, the Olympics shifted away from amateurism, as envisioned by Pierre de Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes, but only in the 1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union and its influence within the International Olympic Committee. Team Canada ice hockey dispute Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the IIHF and IOC. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition" was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics until 1988, because of the IOC's amateur-only policy. Controversies Boycotts Greece, Australia, France, and United Kingdom are the only countries to be represented at every Olympic Games since their inception in 1896. While countries sometimes miss an Olympics due to a lack of qualified athletes, some choose to boycott a celebration of the Games for various reasons. The Olympic Council of Ireland boycotted the 1936 Berlin Games, because the IOC insisted its team needed to be restricted to the Irish Free State rather than representing the entire island of Ireland. There were three boycotts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics: the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian uprising by the Soviet Union, but did send an equestrian delegation to Stockholm; Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon boycotted the Games because of the Suez Crisis; and the People's Republic of China boycotted the Games due to the participation of the Republic of China, composed of athletes coming from Taiwan. In 1972 and 1976 a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott to force them to ban South Africa and Rhodesia, because of their segregationist rule. New Zealand was also one of the African boycott targets, | practices be eliminated. Another date commonly cited is 426 AD, when his successor, Theodosius II, ordered the destruction of all Greek temples. Modern Games Forerunners Various uses of the term "Olympic" to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since the 17th century. The first such event was the Cotswold Games or "Cotswold Olimpick Games", an annual meeting near Chipping Campden, England, involving various sports. It was first organised by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642, with several later celebrations leading up to the present day. The British Olympic Association, in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London, mentioned these games as "the first stirrings of Britain's Olympic beginnings". , a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games. The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics. The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport. In 1834 and 1836, Olympic games were held in (Olympiska spelen i Ramlösa), and an additional in Stockholm, Sweden in 1843, all organised by Gustaf Johan Schartau and others. At most 25,000 spectators saw the games. In 1850, an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock, in Shropshire, England. In 1859, Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games. This annual sports festival continues to this day. The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Brookes on 15 November 1860. Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly, these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook, although only 'gentlemen amateurs' could compete. The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics. In 1865 Hulley, Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter. In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organised at London's Crystal Palace. Revival Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead", published in 1833. Evangelos Zappas, a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games. Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in an Athens city square. Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games. The stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875. Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870, though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games. In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years. He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee. This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894, at the University of Paris. On the last day of the Congress, it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896. The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president. 1896 Games The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896. The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events. Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games. This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games. George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games. The Greek government also provided funding, which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set. Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city. The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world. The second Olympics was held in Paris. Changes and adaptations After the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation which threatened its survival. The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904 failed to attract much participation or notice. Of the 650 athletes in the 1904 Olympics, 580 were American; the winner of the marathon was later disqualified upon discovery of a photograph of him riding in a car during the race. The Games rebounded with the 1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second Olympics to take place within the third Olympiad), which were held in Athens. These Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated a great deal of public interest, marking the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics. The 1906 Games were officially recognised by the IOC at the time (although not any longer), and no Intercalated Games have been held since. Winter Games The Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities. At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (it was actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France, in connection with the Paris Games held three months later; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games. Although it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year, this idea was quickly abandoned. The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years in the same year as their summer counterpart. This tradition was upheld through the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held every four years, two years after each Summer Olympics. Paralympics In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, determined to promote the rehabilitation of soldiers after World War II, organised a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. Originally known as the Stoke Mandeville Games, Guttmann's event became an annual sports festival. Over the next 12 years, Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing. In 1960, Guttmann brought 400 athletes to Rome to compete in the "Parallel Olympics", which ran in parallel with the Summer Olympics and came to be known as the first Paralympics. Since then, the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year and, starting with the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul, the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement in 2001 which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games. The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, and at the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver. Two years before the 2012 Games, the LOCOG chairman Lord Coe made the following statement about the Paralympics and Olympics in London: Youth Games In 2010, the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games, which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete. The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC. The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14 to 26 August 2010, while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, two years later. These Games will be shorter than the senior Games; the summer version will last twelve days, while the winter version will last nine days. The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games, and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games. The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games, however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events. 21st-century Games The Summer Olympics have grown from 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, to more than 11,200 competitors representing 207 nations in 2016. The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller; for example, Pyeongchang hosted 2,922 athletes from 92 nations in 2018. Most of the athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village for the duration of the Games. This accommodation centre is designed to be a self-contained home for all Olympic participants, and is furnished with cafeterias, health clinics, and locations for religious expression. The IOC has allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees (NOCs) to represent individual nations. These do not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organisations demand. As a result, colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games, examples being territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country. The current version of the Olympic Charter allows for the establishment of new NOCs to represent nations that qualify as "an independent State recognised by the international community". Consequently, the IOC did not allow the formation of NOCs for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010, although the IOC had recognised the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986. Since 2012, athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles have had the option to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba. Cost of the Games The Oxford Olympics Study 2016 found that, since 1960, sports-related costs for the Summer Games were on average US$5.2 billion and for the Winter Games $3.1 billion. These figures do not include wider infrastructure costs like roads, urban rail, and airports, which often cost as much or more than the sports-related costs. The most expensive Summer Games were Beijing 2008 at US$40–44 billion, and the most expensive Winter Games were Sochi 2014 at US$51 billion. As of 2016, costs per athlete were, on average, US$599,000 for the Summer Games and $1.3 million for the Winter Games; for London 2012, the cost per athlete was $1.4 million, and the figure was $7.9 million for Sochi 2014. Where ambitious construction for the 1976 Games in Montreal and the 1980 Games in Moscow had burdened organisers with expenses greatly in excess of revenues, Los Angeles strictly controlled expenses for the 1984 Games by using existing facilities that were paid for by corporate sponsors. The Olympic Committee led by Peter Ueberroth used some of the profits to endow the LA84 Foundation to promote youth sports in Southern California, educate coaches and maintain a sports library. The 1984 Summer Olympics are often considered the most financially successful modern Olympics and a model for future Games. Budget overruns are common for the Games. Average overrun for Games since 1960 is 156% in real terms, which means that actual costs turned out to be on average 2.56 times the budget that was estimated at the time of winning the bid to host the Games. Montreal 1976 had the highest cost overrun for Summer Games, and for any Games, at 720%; Lake Placid 1980 had the highest cost overrun for Winter Games, at 324%. London 2012 had a cost overrun of 76%, Sochi 2014 of 289%. It has been documented that cost and cost overrun for the Games follow a power-law distribution, which means that, first, the Games are prone to large cost overruns and, second, it is only a matter of time until an overrun occurs that is larger than the largest to date. In short, hosting the Games is economically and financially extremely risky. Economic and social impact on host cities and countries Many economists are sceptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games, emphasising that such "mega-events" often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run. Conversely hosting (or even bidding for) the Olympics appears to increase the host country's exports, as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games. Moreover, research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city, which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector. This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards, although not permanently. This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society. The Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities; for example, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades, often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups. The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history, costing in excess of US$50 billion. According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games, this cost will not boost Russia's national economy, but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of Russia in the future as a result of improved services. But by December 2014, The Guardian stated that Sochi "now feels like a ghost town", citing the spread-out nature of the stadiums and arenas, the still-unfinished construction, and the overall effects of Russia's political and economic turmoil. Furthermore, at least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics, citing the high costs or the lack of local support, resulting in only a two-city race between Almaty, Kazakhstan and Beijing, China. Thus in July 2016, The Guardian stated that the biggest threat to the future of the Olympics is that very few cities want to host them. Bidding for the 2024 Summer Olympics also became a two-city race between Paris and Los Angeles, so the IOC took the unusual step of simultaneously awarding both the 2024 Games to Paris and the 2028 Games to Los Angeles. Both the bids were praised for planning to use a record-breaking number of existing and temporary facilities. International Olympic Committee The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organisations and federations, recognised media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter. As the umbrella organisation of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city, overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the Olympic sports programme, and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights. The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements: International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for association football, and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing body for volleyball. There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each of the Olympic sports. National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country. For example, the Russian Olympic Committee (ROC) is the NOC of the Russian Federation. There are currently 206 NOCs recognised by the IOC. Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) are temporary committees responsible for the organisation of each Olympic Games. OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the IOC. French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three (or more) languages, or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country: French is always spoken first, followed by an English translation, and then the dominant language of the host nation (when this is not English or French). Criticism The IOC has often been accused of being an intractable organisation, with several life members on the committee. The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial. Brundage fought strongly for amateurism and against the commercialisation of the Olympic Games, even as these attitudes came to be seen as incongruous with the realities of modern sports. The advent of state-sponsored athletes from the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it placed self-financed amateurs of Western countries at a disadvantage. Brundage was accused of racism—for resisting the exclusion of apartheid South Africa—and antisemitism. Under the Samaranch presidency, the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption. Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism. In 1998, it was reported that several IOC members had taken gifts from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. There were soon four independent investigations underway: by the IOC, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), the Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC), and the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). Although nothing strictly illegal had occurred, it was felt that the acceptance of the gifts was morally dubious. As a result of the investigation, ten members of the IOC were expelled and a further ten sanctioned. Stricter rules were adopted for future bids, and caps were introduced to define how much IOC members could accept from bid cities. Additionally, new term and age limits were put into place for IOC membership, and fifteen former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Nevertheless, from sporting and business standpoints, the 2002 Olympics were one of the most successful Winter Games in history; records were set in both the broadcasting and marketing programs. Over 2 billion viewers watched more than 13 billion viewer-hours. The 2002 Games were also a financial success, raising more money with fewer sponsors than any prior Olympic Games, leaving SLOC with a surplus of $40 million. This excess revenue was used to create the Utah Athletic Foundation (also known as the Utah Olympic Legacy Foundation), which maintains and operates many of the surviving Olympic venues. It was reported in 1999 that the Nagano Olympic bid committee had spent approximately $14 million on entertaining the 62 IOC members and many of their associates. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano destroyed the financial records after the IOC requested that the entertainment expenditures should not be made public. A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, which aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed that it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Games, Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London bid committee, headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe, of breaking the bid rules. He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness; Chirac gave guarded interviews concerning his involvement but the allegation was never fully explored. Turin's 2006 Winter Olympic bid was also clouded by controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, closely connected to the rival bid of Sion, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organising Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation, and also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid which potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination. The continued refusal by the IOC to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics was criticised by the victims' families and Jewish organizations, including the Anti-Defamation League and B'nai B'rith International. Ultimately, such a remembrance was held at the opening ceremony of the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. In April 2018, Norwegian track and field athletics manager Håkon Lutdal argued for abolishing the Olympic Games, arguing against the concept of gathering many sports in a single town, city or region no matter how popular or unpopular those sports are there. Instead, he argued for elevating the status of various world championships in different sports, usually at locations attracting more interested spectators. In 2020, a group of Oxford University scholars documented high costs and cost overruns for the Games and criticised the IOC for not taking enough responsibility for controlling increasing costs. The IOC criticised the study and the Oxford scholars countered the criticism, point by point, in an open letter to IOC President Thomas Bach. Commercialisation Under national organising committees The Olympic Games have been commercialised to various degrees since the inaugural 1896 Summer |
Prussian ceased to be spoken probably around the beginning of the 18th century, because many of its remaining speakers died in the famines and the bubonic plague outbreak which harrowed the East Prussian countryside and towns from 1709 until 1711. The Germanic regional dialect of Low German spoken in Prussia (or East Prussia), called Low Prussian (cf. High Prussian, also a Germanic language), preserved a number of Baltic Prussian words, such as , from the Old Prussian , for shoe in contrast to common Low German (standard German ). Until the 1938 renaming of East Prussian placenames, Old Prussian river- and place-names, such as and , could still be found. Revitalization A few linguists and philologists are involved in reviving a reconstructed form of the language from Luther's catechisms, the Elbing Vocabulary, place names, and Prussian loanwords in the Low Prussian dialect of German. Several dozen people use the language in Lithuania, Kaliningrad, and Poland, including a few children who are native speakers. The Prusaspirā Society has published their translation of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince. The book was translated by Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) and released in 2015. The other efforts of Baltic Prussian societies include the development of online dictionaries, learning apps and games. There also have been several attempts to produce music with lyrics written in the revived Baltic Prussian language, most notably in the Kaliningrad Oblast by the bands Romowe Rikoito, Kellan and Āustras Laīwan, as well as in Lithuania by Kūlgrinda in their 2005 album Prūsų Giesmės (Prussian Hymns), and Latvia by Rasa Ensemble in 1988 and Valdis Muktupāvels in his 2005 oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian. Important in this revival was Vytautas Mažiulis, who died on 11 April 2009, and his pupil , leader of the experiment and author of the website Prussian Reconstructions. Two late contributors were (Prāncis Arellis) in Lithuania, and Dailonis Rusiņš (Dailūns Russinis) in Latvia. After them, Twankstas Glabbis from Kaliningrad oblast and Nērtiks Pamedīns from Warmia-Mazuria actively joined. Grammar With other remains being merely word lists, the grammar of Old Prussian is reconstructed chiefly on the basis of the three Catechisms. There is no consensus on the number of cases that Old Prussian had, and at least four can be determined with certainty: nominative, genitive, accusative and dative, with different suffixes. There are traces of a vocative case, such as in the phrase "O God the Lord", reflecting the inherited PIE vocative ending *. There was a definite article ( m., f. = štas, šta, with s due to German orthography); three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and two numbers (singular and plural). Declensional classes were -stems, -stems (feminine), -stems (feminine), -stems, -stems, /-stems, /-stems and consonant-stems. The final -n is now lost in Eastern Baltic languages. Present, future and past tense are attested, as well as optative forms (used with imperative or permissive forms of verbs), infinitive, and four participles (active/passive present/past). Phonology The following description is based on the phonological analysis by Schmalstieg (1974): Consonants Palato-alveolar fricatives are recorded as well, usually with the German orthography-style sch. There is said to have existed palatalization (i.e. ) among nearly all of the consonant sounds except for , and possibly for and . The sounds and also existed in Old Prussian, but are disputed as to whether they are native to the language as they are non native to Lithuanian and Latvian. Vowels may have also been realized as a mid-back diphthong . Sample texts Versions of the Lord's Prayer Lord's Prayer after Simon Grunau (Curonian-Latvian) Lord's Prayer after Prätorius (Curonian-Latvian) Lord's Prayer in Old Prussian (from the so-called "1st Catechism") Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian dialect of Insterburg (Prediger Hennig) Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian dialect of Nadruvia, corrupted (Simon Praetorius) A list of remains of Old Prussian Prussian-language geographical names within the territory of (Baltic) Prussia. Georg Gerullis undertook the first basic study of these names in ("The Old Prussian Place-names"), written and published with the help of Walter de Gruyter, in 1922. Prussian personal names. Separate words found in various historical documents. Vernacularisms in the German dialects of East and West Prussia, as well as words of Old Curonian origin in Latvian and West-Baltic vernacularisms in Lithuanian. The so-called Basel Epigram, the oldest written Prussian sentence (1369). It reads: This jocular inscription was most probably made by a Prussian student studying in Prague (Charles University); found by Stephen McCluskey (1974) in manuscript MS F.V.2 (book of physics by Nicholas Oresme), fol. 63r, stored in the Basel University library. Various fragmentary texts:Recorded in several versions by Hieronymus Maletius in Sudovian Nook in the middle of the 16th century, as | in the Kaliningrad Oblast by the bands Romowe Rikoito, Kellan and Āustras Laīwan, as well as in Lithuania by Kūlgrinda in their 2005 album Prūsų Giesmės (Prussian Hymns), and Latvia by Rasa Ensemble in 1988 and Valdis Muktupāvels in his 2005 oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian. Important in this revival was Vytautas Mažiulis, who died on 11 April 2009, and his pupil , leader of the experiment and author of the website Prussian Reconstructions. Two late contributors were (Prāncis Arellis) in Lithuania, and Dailonis Rusiņš (Dailūns Russinis) in Latvia. After them, Twankstas Glabbis from Kaliningrad oblast and Nērtiks Pamedīns from Warmia-Mazuria actively joined. Grammar With other remains being merely word lists, the grammar of Old Prussian is reconstructed chiefly on the basis of the three Catechisms. There is no consensus on the number of cases that Old Prussian had, and at least four can be determined with certainty: nominative, genitive, accusative and dative, with different suffixes. There are traces of a vocative case, such as in the phrase "O God the Lord", reflecting the inherited PIE vocative ending *. There was a definite article ( m., f. = štas, šta, with s due to German orthography); three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and two numbers (singular and plural). Declensional classes were -stems, -stems (feminine), -stems (feminine), -stems, -stems, /-stems, /-stems and consonant-stems. The final -n is now lost in Eastern Baltic languages. Present, future and past tense are attested, as well as optative forms (used with imperative or permissive forms of verbs), infinitive, and four participles (active/passive present/past). Phonology The following description is based on the phonological analysis by Schmalstieg (1974): Consonants Palato-alveolar fricatives are recorded as well, usually with the German orthography-style sch. There is said to have existed palatalization (i.e. ) among nearly all of the consonant sounds except for , and possibly for and . The sounds and also existed in Old Prussian, but are disputed as to whether they are native to the language as they are non native to Lithuanian and Latvian. Vowels may have also been realized as a mid-back diphthong . Sample texts Versions of the Lord's Prayer Lord's Prayer after Simon Grunau (Curonian-Latvian) Lord's Prayer after Prätorius (Curonian-Latvian) Lord's Prayer in Old Prussian (from the so-called "1st Catechism") Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian dialect of Insterburg (Prediger Hennig) Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian dialect of Nadruvia, corrupted (Simon Praetorius) A list of remains of Old Prussian Prussian-language geographical names within the territory of (Baltic) Prussia. Georg Gerullis undertook the first basic study of these names in ("The Old Prussian Place-names"), written and published with the help of Walter de Gruyter, in 1922. Prussian personal names. Separate words found in various historical documents. Vernacularisms in the German dialects of East and West Prussia, as well as words of Old Curonian origin in Latvian and West-Baltic vernacularisms in Lithuanian. The so-called Basel Epigram, the oldest written Prussian sentence (1369). It reads: This jocular inscription was most probably made by a Prussian student studying in Prague (Charles University); found by Stephen McCluskey (1974) in manuscript MS F.V.2 (book of physics by Nicholas Oresme), fol. 63r, stored in the Basel University library. Various fragmentary texts:Recorded in several versions by Hieronymus Maletius in Sudovian Nook in the middle of the 16th century, as noted by Vytautas Mažiulis, are: ("Run, run, devils!") ("Hello our friend!") – a drinking toast, reconstructed as ("A cheer for a cheer, a tit for tat", literally: "A healthy one after a healthy one, one after another!") ("A carter drives here, a carter drives here!") – also recorded as , , ("Oh my dear holy fire!") A manuscript fragment of the first words of the in Prussian, from the beginning of the 15th century: . 100 words (in strongly varying versions) of the Vocabulary by friar Simon Grunau (Simon Grunovius), a historian of the Teutonic Knights, written in his . Apart from those words Grunau also recorded an expression ("This (is) our lord, our lord"). The so-called Elbing Vocabulary, which consists of 802 thematically sorted words and their German equivalents. Peter Holcwesscher from Marienburg copied the manuscript around 1400; the original dates from the beginning of the 14th or the end of the 13th century. It was found in 1825 by Fr Neumann among other manuscripts acquired by him from the heritage of the Elbing merchant A. Grübnau; it was thus dubbed the . The three Catechisms printed in in 1545, 1545, and 1561 respectively. The first two consist of only six pages of text in Old Prussian – the second one being a correction of the first into another Old Prussian dialect. The third catechism, or Enchiridion, consists of 132 pages of text, and is a translation of Luther's Small Catechism by a German cleric called Abel Will, with his Prussian assistant Paul Megott. Will himself knew little or no Old Prussian, and his Prussian interpreter was probably illiterate, but according to Will spoke Old Prussian quite well. The text itself is mainly a word-for-word translation, and Will phonetically recorded Megott's oral translation. Because of this, the Enchiridion exhibits many irregularities, such as |
their external dependencies (if any). The framework is conceptually divided into the following areas: BundlesBundles are normal JAR components with extra manifest headers. ServicesThe services layer connects bundles in a dynamic way by offering a publish-find-bind model for plain old Java interfaces (POJIs) or plain old Java objects (POJOs). Services RegistryThe application programming interface for management services. Life-CycleThe application programming interface for life cycle management (install, start, stop, update, and uninstall) for bundles. ModulesThe layer that defines encapsulation and declaration of dependencies (how a bundle can import and export code). SecurityThe layer that handles the security aspects by limiting bundle functionality to pre-defined capabilities. Execution EnvironmentDefines what methods and classes are available in a specific platform. There is no fixed list of execution environments, since it is subject to change as the Java Community Process creates new versions and editions of Java. However, the following set is currently supported by most OSGi implementations: CDC-1.0/Foundation-1.0 CDC-1.1/Foundation-1.1 OSGi/Minimum-1.0 OSGi/Minimum-1.1 JRE-1.1 From J2SE-1.2 up to J2SE-1.6 Bundles A bundle is a group of Java classes and additional resources equipped with a detailed manifest MANIFEST.MF file on all its contents, as well as additional services needed to give the included group of Java classes more sophisticated behaviors, to the extent of deeming the entire aggregate a component. Below is an example of a typical MANIFEST.MF file with OSGi Headers: Bundle-Name: Hello World Bundle-SymbolicName: org.wikipedia.helloworld Bundle-Description: A Hello World bundle Bundle-ManifestVersion: 2 Bundle-Version: 1.0.0 Bundle-Activator: org.wikipedia.Activator Export-Package: org.wikipedia.helloworld;version="1.0.0" Import-Package: org.osgi.framework;version="1.3.0" The meaning of the contents in the example is as follows: Bundle-Name: Defines a human-readable name for this bundle, Simply assigns a short name to the bundle. Bundle-SymbolicName: The only required header, this entry specifies a unique identifier for a bundle, based on the reverse domain name convention (used also by the java packages). Bundle-Description: A description of the bundle's functionality. Bundle-ManifestVersion: Indicates the OSGi specification to use for reading this bundle. Bundle-Version: Designates a version number to the bundle. Bundle-Activator: Indicates the class name to be invoked once a bundle is activated. Export-Package: Expresses which Java packages contained in a bundle will be made available to the outside world. Import-Package: Indicates which Java packages will be required from the outside world to fulfill the dependencies needed in a bundle. Life-cycle A Life Cycle layer adds bundles that can be dynamically installed, started, stopped, updated and uninstalled. Bundles rely on the module layer for class loading but add an API to manage the modules in run time. The life cycle layer introduces dynamics that are normally not part of an application. Extensive dependency mechanisms are used to assure the correct operation of the environment. Life cycle operations are fully protected with the security architecture. Below is an example of a typical Java class implementing the BundleActivator interface: package org.wikipedia; import org.osgi.framework.BundleActivator; import org.osgi.framework.BundleContext; public class Activator implements BundleActivator { private BundleContext context; @Override public void start(BundleContext context) throws Exception { System.out.println("Starting: Hello World"); this.context = context; } @Override public void stop(BundleContext context) throws Exception { System.out.println("Stopping: Goodbye Cruel World"); this.context = null; } } Services Standard services The OSGi Alliance has specified many services. Services are specified by a Java interface. Bundles can implement this interface and register the service with the Service Registry. Clients of the service can find it in the registry, or react to it when it appears or disappears. The table below shows a description of OSGi System Services: The table below shows a description of OSGi Protocol Services: The table below shows a description of OSGi Miscellaneous Services: Organization The OSGi Alliance was founded by Ericsson, IBM, Motorola, Sun Microsystems and others in March 1999. Before incorporating as a nonprofit corporation, it was called the Connected Alliance. Among its members are () more than 35 companies from quite different business areas, for example Adobe Systems, Deutsche Telekom, Hitachi, IBM, Liferay, Makewave, NEC, NTT, Oracle, Orange S.A., ProSyst, Salesforce.com, Siemens, Software AG and TIBCO Software. The Alliance has a board of directors that provides the organization's overall governance. OSGi officers have various roles and responsibilities in supporting the alliance. Technical work is conducted within Expert Groups (EGs) chartered by the board of directors, and non-technical work is conducted in various working groups and committees. The technical work conducted within Expert Groups include developing specifications, reference implementations, and compliance tests. These Expert Groups have produced five major releases of the OSGi specifications (). | a bundle. Life-cycle A Life Cycle layer adds bundles that can be dynamically installed, started, stopped, updated and uninstalled. Bundles rely on the module layer for class loading but add an API to manage the modules in run time. The life cycle layer introduces dynamics that are normally not part of an application. Extensive dependency mechanisms are used to assure the correct operation of the environment. Life cycle operations are fully protected with the security architecture. Below is an example of a typical Java class implementing the BundleActivator interface: package org.wikipedia; import org.osgi.framework.BundleActivator; import org.osgi.framework.BundleContext; public class Activator implements BundleActivator { private BundleContext context; @Override public void start(BundleContext context) throws Exception { System.out.println("Starting: Hello World"); this.context = context; } @Override public void stop(BundleContext context) throws Exception { System.out.println("Stopping: Goodbye Cruel World"); this.context = null; } } Services Standard services The OSGi Alliance has specified many services. Services are specified by a Java interface. Bundles can implement this interface and register the service with the Service Registry. Clients of the service can find it in the registry, or react to it when it appears or disappears. The table below shows a description of OSGi System Services: The table below shows a description of OSGi Protocol Services: The table below shows a description of OSGi Miscellaneous Services: Organization The OSGi Alliance was founded by Ericsson, IBM, Motorola, Sun Microsystems and others in March 1999. Before incorporating as a nonprofit corporation, it was called the Connected Alliance. Among its members are () more than 35 companies from quite different business areas, for example Adobe Systems, Deutsche Telekom, Hitachi, IBM, Liferay, Makewave, NEC, NTT, Oracle, Orange S.A., ProSyst, Salesforce.com, Siemens, Software AG and TIBCO Software. The Alliance has a board of directors that provides the organization's overall governance. OSGi officers have various roles and responsibilities in supporting the alliance. Technical work is conducted within Expert Groups (EGs) chartered by the board of directors, and non-technical work is conducted in various working groups and committees. The technical work conducted within Expert Groups include developing specifications, reference implementations, and compliance tests. These Expert Groups have produced five major releases of the OSGi specifications (). Dedicated Expert Groups exist for the enterprise, mobile, vehicle and the core platform areas. The Enterprise Expert Group (EEG) is the newest EG and is addressing Enterprise / Server-side applications. In November 2007 the Residential Expert Group (REG) started to work on specifications to remotely manage residential/home-gateways. In October 2003, Nokia, Motorola, IBM, ProSyst and other OSGi members formed a Mobile Expert Group (MEG) that will specify a MIDP-based service platform for the next generation of smart mobile phones, addressing some of the needs that CLDC cannot manage - other than CDC. MEG became part of OSGi as with R4. Specification versions OSGi Release 1 (R1): May 2000 OSGi Release 2 (R2): October 2001 OSGi Release 3 (R3): March 2003 OSGi Release 4 (R4): October 2005 / September 2006 Core Specification (R4 Core): October 2005 Mobile Specification (R4 Mobile / JSR-232): September 2006 OSGi Release 4.1 (R4.1): May 2007 (AKA JSR-291) OSGi Release 4.2 (R4.2): September 2009 Enterprise Specification (R4.2): March 2010 OSGi Release 4.3 (R4.3): April 2011 Core: April 2011 Compendium and Residential: May 2012 OSGi Release 5 (R5): June 2012 Core and Enterprise: June 2012 OSGi Release 6 (R6): June 2015 Core: June 2015 OSGi Release 7 (R7): April 2018 Core and Compendium: April 2018 OSGi Release 8 (R8): December 2020 Related standards MHP / OCAP Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) DPWS ITU-T G.hn LonWorks CORBA CEBus EHS (KNX) / CECED CHAIN Java Management Extensions Projects using OSGi Adobe Experience Manager - an enterprise Content Management System Apache Aries - Blueprint Container implementations and extensions of application-focused specifications defined by OSGi Enterprise Expert Group Apache Sling - OSGi-based applications layer for JCR content repositories Atlassian Confluence and JIRA - the plug-in architecture for this enterprise wiki and issue tracker uses OSGi Business Intelligence and Reporting Tools (BIRT) Project - Open source reporting engine Cytoscape - an open source bioinformatics software platform (as of version 3.0) DataNucleus - open source data services and persistence platform in service-oriented architectures DDF - Distributed Data Framework provides free and open-source data integration Dotcms - open source Web Content Management EasyBeans - open source EJB 3 container Eclipse - open source IDE and rich client platform iDempiere - is an OSGi implementation of the open source ERP Branch GlobalQSS Adempiere361 originally started by Low Heng Sin Eclipse Virgo - open source microkernel-based server constructed of OSGi bundles and supporting OSGi applications GlassFish (v3) - application server for Java EE Fuse ESB - a productized and supported release of ServiceMix 4. Integrated Genome Browser - an open source, desktop GUI for visualizing, exploring, and analyzing genome data IntelliJ - Java IDE and rich client platform with free community edition JBoss - Red Hat's JBoss Application Server JOnAS 5 - open source Java EE 5 application server Joram - open source messaging server (JMS, MQTT, AMQP, etc.) JOSSO 2 - Atricore's open source standards-based Identity and Access Management Platform Liferay Dxp - open source and commercial enterprise Portal platform use |
functions of the reproductive system important to the maturation of sperm and may be necessary for a healthy libido. Overview of actions Structural Anabolic: Increases muscle mass and strength, speed of muscle regeneration, and bone density, increased sensitivity to exercise, protection against muscle damage, stronger collagen synthesis, increases the collagen content of connective tissues, tendons, and ligaments, but also decreases stiffness of tendons and ligaments (especially during menstruation). Decreased stiffness of tendons gives women much lower predisposition to muscle strains but soft ligaments are much more prone to injuries (ACL tears are 2-8x more common among women than men). Anti-inflammatory properties Mediate formation of female secondary sex characteristics Accelerate metabolism Increased fat storage in some body parts such as breasts, buttocks, and legs but decreased abdominal and visceral fat (androgenic obesity).Estradiol also regulates energy expenditure, body weight homeostasis, and seems to have much stronger anti-obesity effects than testosterone in general. Women tend to have lower base strength but on average have about the same increases of muscle mass in responses to resistance training as men and far faster relative increases in strength. Stimulate endometrial growth Increase uterine growth Increase vaginal lubrication Thicken the vaginal wall Maintenance of vessel and skin Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation Protein synthesis Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, plasminogen Decrease antithrombin III Increase platelet adhesiveness Increase vWF (estrogen -> Angiotensin II -> Vasopressin) Increase PAI-1 and PAI-2 also through Angiotensin II Lipid Increase HDL, triglyceride Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance Salt (sodium) and water retention Increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers (see section below) Lung function Promotes lung function by supporting alveoli (in rodents but probably in humans). Uterus lining Estrogen together with progesterone promotes and maintains the uterus lining in preparation for implantation of fertilized egg and maintenance of uterus function during gestation period, also upregulates oxytocin receptor in myometrium Ovulation Surge in estrogen level induces the release of luteinizing hormone, which then triggers ovulation by releasing the egg from the Graafian follicle in the ovary. Sexual behavior Estrogen is required for female mammals to engage in lordosis behavior during estrus (when animals are "in heat"). This behavior is required for sexual receptivity in these mammals and is regulated by the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. Sex drive is dependent on androgen levels only in the presence of estrogen, but without estrogen, free testosterone level actually decreases sexual desire (instead of increases sex drive), as demonstrated for those women who have hypoactive sexual desire disorder, and the sexual desire in these women can be restored by administration of estrogen (using oral contraceptive). Female pubertal development Estrogens are responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, including breast development, widening of the hips, and female fat distribution. Conversely, androgens are responsible for pubic and body hair growth, as well as acne and axillary odor. Breast development Estrogen, in conjunction with growth hormone (GH) and its secretory product insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), is critical in mediating breast development during puberty, as well as breast maturation during pregnancy in preparation of lactation and breastfeeding. Estrogen is primarily and directly responsible for inducing the ductal component of breast development, as well as for causing fat deposition and connective tissue growth. It is also indirectly involved in the lobuloalveolar component, by increasing progesterone receptor expression in the breasts and by inducing the secretion of prolactin. Allowed for by estrogen, progesterone and prolactin work together to complete lobuloalveolar development during pregnancy. Androgens such as testosterone powerfully oppose estrogen action in the breasts, such as by reducing estrogen receptor expression in them. Female reproductive system Estrogens are responsible for maturation and maintenance of the vagina and uterus, and are also involved in ovarian function, such as maturation of ovarian follicles. In addition, estrogens play an important role in regulation of gonadotropin secretion. For these reasons, estrogens are required for female fertility. Neuroprotection and DNA repair Estrogen regulated DNA repair mechanisms in the brain have neuroprotective effects. Estrogen regulates the transcription of DNA base excision repair genes as well as the translocation of the base excision repair enzymes between different subcellular compartments. Brain and behavior Sex drive Estrogens are involved in libido (sex drive) in both women and men. Cognition Verbal memory scores are frequently used as one measure of higher level cognition. These scores vary in direct proportion to estrogen levels throughout the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause. Furthermore, estrogens when administered shortly after natural or surgical menopause prevents decreases in verbal memory. In contrast, estrogens have little effect on verbal memory if first administered years after menopause. Estrogens also have positive influences on other measures of cognitive function. However the effect of estrogens on cognition is not uniformly favorable and is dependent on the timing of the dose and the type of cognitive skill being measured. The protective effects of estrogens on cognition may be mediated by estrogen's anti-inflammatory effects in the brain. Studies have also shown that the | Increase uterine growth Increase vaginal lubrication Thicken the vaginal wall Maintenance of vessel and skin Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation Protein synthesis Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, plasminogen Decrease antithrombin III Increase platelet adhesiveness Increase vWF (estrogen -> Angiotensin II -> Vasopressin) Increase PAI-1 and PAI-2 also through Angiotensin II Lipid Increase HDL, triglyceride Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance Salt (sodium) and water retention Increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers (see section below) Lung function Promotes lung function by supporting alveoli (in rodents but probably in humans). Uterus lining Estrogen together with progesterone promotes and maintains the uterus lining in preparation for implantation of fertilized egg and maintenance of uterus function during gestation period, also upregulates oxytocin receptor in myometrium Ovulation Surge in estrogen level induces the release of luteinizing hormone, which then triggers ovulation by releasing the egg from the Graafian follicle in the ovary. Sexual behavior Estrogen is required for female mammals to engage in lordosis behavior during estrus (when animals are "in heat"). This behavior is required for sexual receptivity in these mammals and is regulated by the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. Sex drive is dependent on androgen levels only in the presence of estrogen, but without estrogen, free testosterone level actually decreases sexual desire (instead of increases sex drive), as demonstrated for those women who have hypoactive sexual desire disorder, and the sexual desire in these women can be restored by administration of estrogen (using oral contraceptive). Female pubertal development Estrogens are responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, including breast development, widening of the hips, and female fat distribution. Conversely, androgens are responsible for pubic and body hair growth, as well as acne and axillary odor. Breast development Estrogen, in conjunction with growth hormone (GH) and its secretory product insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), is critical in mediating breast development during puberty, as well as breast maturation during pregnancy in preparation of lactation and breastfeeding. Estrogen is primarily and directly responsible for inducing the ductal component of breast development, as well as for causing fat deposition and connective tissue growth. It is also indirectly involved in the lobuloalveolar component, by increasing progesterone receptor expression in the breasts and by inducing the secretion of prolactin. Allowed for by estrogen, progesterone and prolactin work together to complete lobuloalveolar development during pregnancy. Androgens such as testosterone powerfully oppose estrogen action in the breasts, such as by reducing estrogen receptor expression in them. Female reproductive system Estrogens are responsible for maturation and maintenance of the vagina and uterus, and are also involved in ovarian function, such as maturation of ovarian follicles. In addition, estrogens play an important role in regulation of gonadotropin secretion. For these reasons, estrogens are required for female fertility. Neuroprotection and DNA repair Estrogen regulated DNA repair mechanisms in the brain have neuroprotective effects. Estrogen regulates the transcription of DNA base excision repair genes as well as the translocation of the base excision repair enzymes between different subcellular compartments. Brain and behavior Sex drive Estrogens are involved in libido (sex drive) in both women and men. Cognition Verbal memory scores are frequently used as one measure of higher level cognition. These scores vary in direct proportion to estrogen levels throughout the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause. Furthermore, estrogens when administered shortly after natural or surgical menopause prevents decreases in verbal memory. In contrast, estrogens have little effect on verbal memory if first administered years after menopause. Estrogens also have positive influences on other measures of cognitive function. However the effect of estrogens on cognition is not uniformly favorable and is dependent on the timing of the dose and the type of cognitive skill being measured. The protective effects of estrogens on cognition may be mediated by estrogen's anti-inflammatory effects in the brain. Studies have also shown that the Met allele gene and level of estrogen mediates the efficiency of prefrontal cortex dependent working memory tasks. Researchers have urged for further research to illuminate the role of estrogen and its potential for improvement on cognitive function. Mental health Estrogen is considered to play a significant role in women's mental health. Sudden estrogen withdrawal, fluctuating estrogen, and periods of sustained low estrogen levels correlate with significant mood lowering. Clinical recovery from postpartum, perimenopause, and postmenopause depression has been shown to be effective after levels of estrogen were stabilized and/or restored. Menstrual exacerbation (including menstrual psychosis) is typically triggered by low estrogen levels, and is often mistaken for premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Compulsions in male lab mice, such as those in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), may be caused by low estrogen levels. When estrogen levels were raised through the increased activity of the enzyme aromatase in male lab mice, OCD rituals were dramatically decreased. Hypothalamic protein levels in the gene COMT are enhanced by increasing estrogen levels which are believed to return mice that displayed OCD rituals to normal activity. Aromatase deficiency is ultimately suspected which is involved in the synthesis of estrogen in humans and has therapeutic implications in humans having obsessive-compulsive disorder. Local application of estrogen in the rat hippocampus has been shown to inhibit the re-uptake of serotonin. Contrarily, local application of estrogen has been shown to block the ability of fluvoxamine to slow serotonin clearance, suggesting that the same pathways which are involved in SSRI efficacy may also be affected by components of local estrogen signaling pathways. Parenthood Studies have also found that fathers had lower levels of cortisol and testosterone but higher levels of estrogen (estradiol) than did non-fathers. Binge eating Estrogen may play a role in suppressing binge eating. Hormone replacement therapy using estrogen may be a possible treatment for binge eating behaviors in females. Estrogen replacement has been shown to suppress binge eating behaviors in female mice. The mechanism by which estrogen replacement inhibits binge-like eating involves the replacement of serotonin (5-HT) neurons. Women exhibiting binge eating behaviors are found to have increased brain uptake of neuron 5-HT, and therefore less of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the cerebrospinal fluid. Estrogen works to activate 5-HT neurons, leading to suppression of binge like eating behaviors. It is also suggested that there is an interaction between hormone levels and eating at different points in the female menstrual cycle. Research has predicted increased emotional eating during hormonal flux, which is characterized by high progesterone and estradiol levels that occur during the mid-luteal phase. It is hypothesized that these changes occur due to brain changes across the menstrual cycle that are likely a genomic effect of hormones. These effects produce menstrual cycle changes, which result in hormone release leading to behavioral changes, notably binge and emotional eating. These occur especially prominently among women who are genetically vulnerable to binge eating phenotypes. Binge eating is associated with decreased estradiol and increased progesterone. Klump et al. Progesterone may moderate the effects of low estradiol (such as during dysregulated eating behavior), but that this may only be true in women who have had clinically diagnosed binge episodes (BEs). Dysregulated eating is more strongly associated with such ovarian hormones in women with BEs than in women without BEs. The implantation of 17β-estradiol pellets in ovariectomized mice significantly reduced binge eating behaviors and injections of GLP-1 in ovariectomized mice decreased binge-eating behaviors. The associations between binge eating, menstrual-cycle phase and ovarian hormones correlated. Masculinization in rodents In rodents, estrogens (which are locally aromatized from androgens in the brain) play an important role in psychosexual differentiation, for example, by masculinizing territorial behavior; the same is not true in humans. In humans, the masculinizing effects of prenatal androgens on behavior (and other tissues, with the possible exception of effects on bone) appear to act exclusively through the androgen receptor. Consequently, the utility of rodent models for studying human psychosexual differentiation has been questioned. Skeletal system Estrogens are responsible for both the pubertal growth spurt, which causes an acceleration in linear growth, and epiphyseal closure, which limits height and limb length, in both females and males. In addition, estrogens are responsible for bone maturation and maintenance of bone mineral density throughout life. Due to hypoestrogenism, the risk of osteoporosis increases during menopause. Cardiovascular system Women suffer less from heart disease due to vasculo-protective action of estrogen which helps in preventing atherosclerosis. It also helps in maintaining the delicate balance between fighting infections and protecting arteries from damage thus lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease. During pregnancy, high levels of estrogens increase coagulation and the risk of venous thromboembolism. Immune system Estrogen has anti-inflammatory properties and helps in mobilization of polymorphonuclear white blood cells or neutrophils. Associated conditions Researchers have implicated estrogens in various estrogen-dependent conditions, such as ER-positive breast cancer, as well as a number of genetic conditions involving estrogen signaling or metabolism, such as estrogen insensitivity syndrome, aromatase deficiency, and aromatase excess syndrome. High estrogen can amplify stress-hormone responses in stressful situations. Biochemistry Biosynthesis Estrogens, in females, are produced primarily by the ovaries, and during pregnancy, the placenta. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the ovarian production of estrogens by the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles and corpora lutea. Some estrogens are also produced in smaller amounts by other tissues such as the liver, pancreas, bone, adrenal glands, skin, brain, adipose tissue, and the breasts. These secondary sources of estrogens are especially important in |
legal implications with MPC Electronics. It was an influential device at that time, allowing drummers and percussionists the opportunity to trigger virtually any MIDI sound source without the need of a full electronic drum set. Features The Pad 8 Consists of eight individual pads (divided in two rows of four pads) and six external pad trigger ports. The controlled had no internal sound source and limited memory for four user patches. A unique initialization procedure, when powered on, would load a "patch preset" and configure the Pad-8 to work with either the Roland's TR-909 or TR-707/TR-727. The Pad 8 could only transmit on a single MIDI channel (channel 10 on power up), however each of the 14 pads is assigned a different MIDI-Note number. Both MIDI channel and note numbers could be edited to suite the device being controlled over MIDI. There is one parameter adjustable for each pad: MIDI Note. The remaining five parameters adjustable are global: MIDI Channel; Pad Sensitivity; Volume Curve; Minimum Velocity; and the Gate Time. Notable Users/Endorsers Hard Corps Michael Shrieve/ David Beal Stephen Morris (New Order) John Molo (Bruce Hornsby & The Range) Norman Hassas (UB40) Eric Clapton Phil Collins (Genesis, Mike & Mechanics, Howard Jones, and Solo project) Roland Pad-80 The second model, introduced in 1989, was the Pad-80 Octapad II. Again the Pad-80 was an eight pad MIDI controller that allowed for various | different MIDI-Note number. Both MIDI channel and note numbers could be edited to suite the device being controlled over MIDI. There is one parameter adjustable for each pad: MIDI Note. The remaining five parameters adjustable are global: MIDI Channel; Pad Sensitivity; Volume Curve; Minimum Velocity; and the Gate Time. Notable Users/Endorsers Hard Corps Michael Shrieve/ David Beal Stephen Morris (New Order) John Molo (Bruce Hornsby & The Range) Norman Hassas (UB40) Eric Clapton Phil Collins (Genesis, Mike & Mechanics, Howard Jones, and Solo project) Roland Pad-80 The second model, introduced in 1989, was the Pad-80 Octapad II. Again the Pad-80 was an eight pad MIDI controller that allowed for various types of MIDI sound sources. Improvements in this second model included the ability to play up to three notes per pad, and velocity switching, which allowed the user to stack or alternate between the assigned notes depending on how hard the pads were struck. This feature became useful for creating more realistic sounding drum parts, and in addition allowed drummers to play melodic instruments with greater ease. These new features were groundbreaking at the time, and are still utilized in Roland's electronic percussion today. The memory was increased, allowing up to 64 different patches internally and another 64 patches to be stored on a Roland M-256E memory card. Further improvements to the MIDI specification included the control of modulation, pitch bend |
teaching certificate. In 1905, Spengler suffered a nervous breakdown. Career Biographers report that his life as a teacher was uneventful. He briefly served as a teacher in Saarbrücken then in Düsseldorf. From 1908 to 1911 he worked at a grammar school (Realgymnasium) in Hamburg, where he taught science, German history, and mathematics. In 1911, following his mother's death, he moved to Munich, where he would live until his death in 1936. He lived as a cloistered scholar, supported by his modest inheritance. Spengler survived on very limited means and was marked by loneliness. He owned no books, and took work as a tutor or wrote for magazines to earn additional income. He began work on the first volume of The Decline of the West intending at first to focus on Germany within Europe, but the Agadir Crisis of 1911 affected him deeply, and he widened the scope of his study: According to Spengler the book was completed in 1914, but certainly the first edition was published in 1918, shortly before the end of World War I. Due to a severe heart problem, Spengler was exempted from military service. During the war, however, his inheritance was largely useless because it was invested overseas; thus he lived in genuine poverty for this period. When the first volume of The Decline of the West was published in the summer of 1918, it was a wild success. It instantly made him a celebrity. The national humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) and later the economic depression around 1923 fueled by hyperinflation seemed to prove Spengler right. It comforted Germans because it seemingly rationalized their downfall as part of larger world-historical processes. The book met with wide success outside of Germany as well, and by 1919 had been translated into several other languages. In the second volume, published in 1922, Spengler argued that German socialism differed from Marxism, and was in fact compatible with traditional German conservatism. Spengler declined an appointment as Professor of Philosophy at the University of Göttingen, saying he needed time to focus on writing. The book was widely discussed, even by those who had not read it. Historians took umbrage at his unapologetically non-scientific approach. Novelist Thomas Mann compared reading Spengler's book to reading Schopenhauer for the first time. Academics gave it a mixed reception. Sociologist Max Weber described Spengler as a "very ingenious and learned dilettante", while philosopher Karl Popper called the thesis "pointless". Aftermath In 1924, following the social-economic upheaval and hyperinflation, Spengler entered politics in an effort to bring Reichswehr General Hans von Seeckt to power as the country's leader. The attempt failed and Spengler proved ineffective in practical politics. A 1928 Time review of the second volume of Decline described the immense influence and controversy Spengler's ideas enjoyed during the 1920s: "When the first volume of The Decline of the West appeared in Germany a few years ago, thousands of copies were sold. Cultivated European discourse quickly became Spengler-saturated. Spenglerism spurted from the pens of countless disciples. It was imperative to read Spengler, to sympathize or revolt. It still remains so". In 1931, he published Man and Technics, which warned against the dangers of technology and industrialism to culture. He especially pointed to the tendency of Western technology to spread to hostile "Colored races" which would then use the weapons against the West. It was poorly received because of its anti-industrialism. This book contains the well-known Spengler quote "Optimism is cowardice". Despite voting for Hitler over Hindenburg in 1932, Spengler found the Führer vulgar. He met Hitler in 1933 and after a lengthy discussion remained unimpressed, saying that Germany did not need a "heroic tenor [Heldentenor: one of several conventional tenor classifications] but a real hero [Held]". He quarreled publicly with Alfred Rosenberg, and his pessimism and remarks about the Führer resulted in isolation and public silence. He further rejected offers from Joseph Goebbels to give public speeches. However, Spengler did become a member of the German Academy that year. The Hour of Decision, published in 1934, was a bestseller, but was later banned for its critique of National Socialism. Spengler's criticisms of liberalism were welcomed by the Nazis, but Spengler disagreed with their biological ideology and anti-Semitism. While racial mysticism played a key role in his own worldview, Spengler had always been an outspoken critic of the racial theories professed by the Nazis and many others in his time, and was not inclined to change his views during and after Hitler's rise to power. Although a German nationalist, Spengler viewed the Nazis as too narrowly German, and not occidental enough to lead the fight against other peoples. The book also warned of a coming world war in which Western Civilization risked being destroyed, and was widely distributed abroad before eventually being banned by the National Socialist German Workers Party in Germany. A Time review of The Hour of Decision noted Spengler's international popularity as a polemicist, observing that "When Oswald Spengler speaks, many a Western Worldling stops to listen". The review recommended the book for "readers who enjoy vigorous writing", who "will be glad to be rubbed the wrong way by Spengler's harsh aphorisms" and his pessimistic predictions. Later life and death On 13 October 1933, Spengler became one of the hundred senators of the German Academy. Spengler spent his final years in Munich, listening to Beethoven, reading Molière and Shakespeare, buying several thousand books, and collecting ancient Turkish, Persian and Indian weapons. He made occasional trips to the Harz mountains and to Italy. In the spring of 1936 (shortly before his death), he prophetically remarked in a letter to Reichsleiter Hans Frank that "in ten years, a German Reich will probably no longer exist" ("da ja wohl in zehn Jahren ein Deutsches Reich nicht mehr existieren wird!"). Spengler died of a heart attack on 8 May 1936, in Munich, three weeks before his 56th birthday Views Influences In the introduction to The Decline of the West, Spengler cites Johann W. von Goethe and Friedrich Nietzsche as his major influences. Goethe's vitalism and Nietzsche's cultural criticism, in particular, are highlighted in his works. Spengler was also influenced by the universal and cyclical vision of world history proposed by the German historian Eduard Meyer. The belief in the progression of civilizations through an evolutionary process comparable with living beings can be traced back to classical antiquity, although it is difficult to assess the extent of the influence those thinkers had on Spengler: Cato the Elder, Cicero, Seneca, Florus, Ammianus Marcellinus, and later, Francis Bacon, who compared different empires with each other with the help of biological analogies. The Decline of the West (1918) The concept of historical philosophy developed by Spengler is founded upon two assumptions: the existence of social entities called 'Cultures' (Kulturen) and regarded as the largest possible actors in human history, which itself had no metaphysical sense, the parallelism between the evolution of those Cultures and the evolution of living beings. Spengler enumerates nine Cultures: Ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian, Chinese, Greco-Roman or 'Apollonian', 'Magian' or 'Arabic' (including early and Byzantine Christianity and Islam), Mexican, Western or 'Faustian', and Russian. They interacted with each other in time and space but were distinctive due to 'internal' attributes. According to Spengler, "Cultures are organisms, and world-history is their collective biography." Spengler also compares the evolution of Cultures to the different ages of human life, "Every Culture passes through the age-phases of the individual man. Each has its childhood, youth, manhood and old age." When a Culture enters its late stage, Spengler argues, it becomes a 'Civilization' (Zivilisation), a petrified body characterized in the modern age by technology, imperialism, and mass society, which he expected to fossilize and decline from the 2000s onward. The first-millennium Near East was, in his view, not a transition between Classical Antiquity, Western Christianity, and Islam, but rather an emerging new Culture he named 'Arabian' or 'Magian', explaining messianic Judaism, early Christianity, Gnosticism, Mandaeism, Zoroastrianism, and Islam as different expressions of a single Culture sharing a unique worldview. The great historian of antiquity Eduard Meyer thought highly of Spengler, although he also had some criticisms of him. Spengler's obscurity, intuitiveness, and mysticism were easy targets, especially for the positivists and neo-Kantians who rejected the possibility that there was meaning in world history. The critic and aesthete Count Harry Kessler thought him unoriginal and rather inane, especially in regard to his opinion on Nietzsche. Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, however, shared Spengler's cultural pessimism. Spengler's work became an important foundation for social cycle theory. Prussianism and Socialism (1919) In late 1919, Spengler published Prussianism and Socialism (Preußentum und Sozialismus), an essay based on notes intended for the second volume of The Decline of the West in which he argues that German socialism is the correct socialism in contrast to English socialism. In his view, correct socialism has a much more "national" spirit. According to Spengler, the West will spend the next and last several hundred years of its existence in a state of Caesarian socialism, when all humans will be synergized into a harmonious and happy totality by a dictator, like an orchestra is synergized into a harmonious totality by its conductor. According to some recent critics such as Ishay Landa, "Prussian socialism" has some decidedly capitalistic traits. Spengler declares himself resolutely opposed to labor strikes (Spengler describes them as "the unsocialistic earmark of Marxism"), trade unions ("wage-Bolshevism" in Spengler's terms), progressive taxation or any imposition of taxes on the rich ("dry Bolshevism"), any shortening of the working day (he argues that workers should work even on Sundays), as well as any form of government insurance for sickness, | a petrified body characterized in the modern age by technology, imperialism, and mass society, which he expected to fossilize and decline from the 2000s onward. The first-millennium Near East was, in his view, not a transition between Classical Antiquity, Western Christianity, and Islam, but rather an emerging new Culture he named 'Arabian' or 'Magian', explaining messianic Judaism, early Christianity, Gnosticism, Mandaeism, Zoroastrianism, and Islam as different expressions of a single Culture sharing a unique worldview. The great historian of antiquity Eduard Meyer thought highly of Spengler, although he also had some criticisms of him. Spengler's obscurity, intuitiveness, and mysticism were easy targets, especially for the positivists and neo-Kantians who rejected the possibility that there was meaning in world history. The critic and aesthete Count Harry Kessler thought him unoriginal and rather inane, especially in regard to his opinion on Nietzsche. Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, however, shared Spengler's cultural pessimism. Spengler's work became an important foundation for social cycle theory. Prussianism and Socialism (1919) In late 1919, Spengler published Prussianism and Socialism (Preußentum und Sozialismus), an essay based on notes intended for the second volume of The Decline of the West in which he argues that German socialism is the correct socialism in contrast to English socialism. In his view, correct socialism has a much more "national" spirit. According to Spengler, the West will spend the next and last several hundred years of its existence in a state of Caesarian socialism, when all humans will be synergized into a harmonious and happy totality by a dictator, like an orchestra is synergized into a harmonious totality by its conductor. According to some recent critics such as Ishay Landa, "Prussian socialism" has some decidedly capitalistic traits. Spengler declares himself resolutely opposed to labor strikes (Spengler describes them as "the unsocialistic earmark of Marxism"), trade unions ("wage-Bolshevism" in Spengler's terms), progressive taxation or any imposition of taxes on the rich ("dry Bolshevism"), any shortening of the working day (he argues that workers should work even on Sundays), as well as any form of government insurance for sickness, old age, accidents, or unemployment. Nazism and Fascism In his private papers, Spengler denounced Nazi anti-Semitism in even stronger terms, wondering "how much envy of the capability of other people in view of one's lack of it lies hidden in anti-Semitism!", and arguing that "when one would rather destroy business and scholarship than see Jews in them, one is an ideologue, i.e., a danger for the nation. Idiotic." Spengler was an admirer of the old Prussian aristocracy and showed contempt for the proletarian and demagogic character of the Nazi party, and considered the Aryan racial doctrine to be nonsense. In 1934, Spengler pronounced the funeral oration for one of the victims of the Night of the Long Knives and retired in 1935 from the board of the highly influential Nietzsche Archive in opposition to the regime. Spengler, however, regarded the transformation of ultra-capitalist mass democracies into dictatorial regimes as inevitable, and he had expressed some sympathy for Benito Mussolini and the Italian Fascist movement as a first symptom of this development. He also considered Judaism to be a "disintegrating element" (zersetzendes Element) that acts destructively "wherever it intervenes" (wo es auch eingreift). In his view, Jews are characterized by a "cynical intelligence" (zynische Intelligenz) and their "money thinking" (Gelddenken). Therefore, they were incapable of adapting to Western culture and represented a foreign body in Europe. He also clarifies in The Decline of the West that this is a pattern shared in all civilizations: He mentions how the ancient Jew would have seen the cynical, atheistic Romans of the late Roman empire the same way Westerners today see Jews. Alexander Bein argues that with these characterizations Spengler contributed significantly to the enforcement of Jewish stereotypes in pre-WW2 German circles. Works , 2 vols. – The Decline of the West; an Abridged Edition by Helmut Werner (tr. by C.F. Atkinson). "On the Style-Patterns of Culture." In Talcott Parsons, ed., Theories of Society, Vol. II, The Free Press of Glencoe, 1961. Preussentum und Sozialismus, 1920, Translated 1922 as Prussianism And Socialism by C.F. Atkinson (Prussianism and Socialism). Pessimismus?, G. Stilke, 1921. Neubau des deutschen Reiches, 1924. Die Revolution ist nicht zu Ende, 1924. Politische Pflichten der deutschen Jugend; Rede gehalten am 26. Februar 1924 vor dem Hochschulring deutscher Art in Würzburg, 1925. Der Mensch und die Technik, 1931 (Man and Technics: A Contribution to a Philosophy of Life, tr. C.F. Atkinson, Knopf, 1932). Politische Schriften, 1932. Jahre der Entscheidung, 1934 (The Hour of Decision tr. C.F. Atkinson). Reden und Aufsätze, 1937 (ed. by Hildegard Kornhardt) – Selected Essays (tr. Donald O. White). Gedanken, c. 1941 (ed. by Hildegard Kornhardt) – Aphorisms (translated by Gisela Koch-Weser O’Brien). Briefe, 1913–1936, 1963 [The Letters of Oswald Spengler, 1913–1936] (ed. and tr. by A. Helps). Urfragen; Fragmente aus dem Nachlass, 1965 (ed. by Anton Mirko Koktanek and Manfred Schröter). Frühzeit der Weltgeschichte: Fragmente aus dem Nachlass, 1966 (ed. by A. M. Koktanek and Manfred Schröter). Der Briefwechsel zwischen Oswald Spengler und Wolfgang E. Groeger. Über russische Literatur, Zeitgeschichte und soziale Fragen, 1987 (ed. by Xenia Werner). See also Arnold J. Toynbee Carroll Quigley Francis Parker Yockey Feliks Koneczny Samuel P. Huntington Social cycle theory Notes References Sources Further reading Theodor W. Adorno Prisms. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1967. David E. Cooper. 'Reactionary Modernism'. In Anthony O'Hear (ed.) German Philosophy Since Kant. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 291–304. Costello, Paul. World Historians and Their Goals: Twentieth-Century Answers to Modernism (1993). Fischer, Klaus P. History and Prophecy: Oswald Spengler and the Decline of the West. Durham: Moore, 1977. Frye, Northrop. "Spengler Revisited." In Northrop Frye on Modern Culture (2003), pp 297–382, first published 1974. Goddard, E. H. Civilisation or Civilisations: An Essay on the Spenglerian Philosophy of History, Boni & Liveright, 1926. Kidd, Ian James. "Oswald Spengler, Technology, and Human Nature: 'Man and Technics' as Philosophical Anthropology". In The European Legacy, (2012) 17#1 pp 19–31. Kroll, Joe Paul. "'A Biography of the Soul': Oswald Spengler's Biographical Method and the Morphology of History German Life & Letters (2009) 62#1 pp 67-83. Robert W. Merry "Spengler's Ominous Prophecy," National Interest, 2 January 2013. In foreign languages Baltzer, Armin. Philosoph oder Prophet? Oswald Spenglers Vermächtnis und Voraussagen [Philosopher or Prophet?], Verlag für Kulturwissenschaften, 1962. Caruso, Sergio. La politica del Destino. Relativismo storico e irrazionalismo politico nel pensiero di Oswald Spengler [Destiny's politics. Historical relativism & political irrationalism in Oswald Spengler's thought]. Firenze: Cultura 1979. Caruso, Sergio. "Minoranze, caste e partiti nel pensiero di Oswald Spengler". In Politica e società. Scritti in onore di Luciano Cavalli, ed. by G. Bettin. Cedam: Padova 1997, pp. 214–82. Felken, Detlef. Oswald Spengler; Konservativer Denker zwischen Kaiserreich und Diktatur. Munich: CH Beck, 1988. Messer, August. Oswald Spengler als Philosoph, Strecker und Schröder, 1922. Reichelt, Stefan G. "Oswald Spengler". In: Nikolaj A. Berdjaev in Deutschland 1920–1950. Eine rezeptionshistorische Studie. Universitätsverlag: Leipzig 1999, pp. 71–73. . Schroeter, Manfred. Metaphysik des Untergangs: eine kulturkritische Studie über Oswald Spengler,'' Leibniz Verlag, 1949. External links S. Srikanta Sastri. Oswald Spengler on Indian Culture The Oswald Spengler Collection Timeline of Spengler's life Translated from the German Works by Spengler, including his books, essays and lectures (in German) Complete bibliography of Spengler's essays, lectures, and books, including translations, arranged chronologically The |
there was an oracle of Artemis Tauropolus. Oracle at Claros At Claros, there was the oracle of Apollo Clarius. Oracle at Ptoion At Ptoion, there was an oracle of Ptoios and later of Apollo. Oracle at Gryneium At Gryneium, there was a sanctuary of Apollo with an ancient oracle. In other cultures The term "oracle" is also applied in modern English to parallel institutions of divination in other cultures. Specifically, it is used in the context of Christianity for the concept of divine revelation, and in the context of Judaism for the Urim and Thummim breastplate, and in general any utterance considered prophetic. Celtic polytheism In Celtic polytheism, divination was performed by the priestly caste, either the druids or the vates. This is reflected in the role of "seers" in Dark Age Wales (dryw) and Ireland (fáith). China In China, oracle bones were used for divination in the late Shang dynasty, (c. 1600–1046 BC). Diviners applied heat to these bones, usually ox scapulae or tortoise plastrons, and interpreted the resulting cracks. A different divining method, using the stalks of the yarrow plant, was practiced in the subsequent Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). Around the late 9th century BC, the divination system was recorded in the I Ching, or "Book of Changes", a collection of linear signs used as oracles. In addition to its oracular power, the I Ching has had a major influence on the philosophy, literature and statecraft of China since the Zhou period. Hawaii In Hawaii, oracles were found at certain heiau, Hawaiian temples. These oracles were found in towers covered in white kapa cloth made from plant fibres. In here, priests received the will of gods. These towers were called 'Anu'u. An example of this can be found at Ahu'ena heiau in Kona. India and Nepal In ancient India, the oracle was known as akashawani or Ashareera vani (a voice without body or unseen) or asariri (Tamil), literally meaning "voice from the sky" and was related to the message of a god. Oracles played key roles in many of the major incidents of the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. An example is that Kamsa (or Kansa), the evil uncle of Krishna, was informed by an oracle that the eighth son of his sister Devaki would kill him. However, there are no references in any Indian literature of the oracle being a specific person. Contemporarily, Theyyam or "theiyam" in Malayalam - a south Indian language - the process by which a devotee invites a Hindu god or goddess to use his or her body as a medium or channel and answer other devotees' questions, still happens. The same is called "arulvaakku" or "arulvaak" in Tamil, another south Indian language - Adhiparasakthi Siddhar Peetam is famous for arulvakku in Tamil Nadu. The people in and around Mangalore in Karnataka call the same, Buta Kola, "paathri" or "darshin"; in other parts of Karnataka, it is known by various names such as, "prashnaavali", "vaagdaana", "asei", "aashirvachana" and so on. In Nepal it is known as, "Devta ka dhaamee" or "jhaakri". In English, the closest translation for these is, "oracle." Nigeria The Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria in Africa have a long tradition of using oracles. In Igbo villages, oracles were usually female priestesses to a particular deity, usually dwelling in a cave or other secluded location away from urban areas, and, much as the oracles of ancient Greece, would deliver prophecies in an ecstatic state to visitors seeking advice. Two of their ancient oracles became especially famous during the pre-colonial period: the Agbala oracle at Awka and the Chukwu oracle at Arochukwu. Although the vast majority of Igbos today are Christian, many of them still use oracles. Among the related Yoruba peoples of the same country, the Babalawos (and their female counterparts, the Iyanifas) serve collectively as the principal aspects of the tribe's world-famous Ifa divination system. Due to this, they customarily officiate at a great many of its traditional and religious ceremonies. Norse mythology In Norse mythology, Odin took the severed head of the god Mimir to Asgard for consultation as an oracle. The Havamal and other sources relate the sacrifice of Odin for the oracular runes whereby he lost an eye (external sight) and won wisdom (internal sight; insight). Pre-Columbian Americas In the migration myth of the Mexitin, i.e., the early Aztecs, a mummy-bundle (perhaps an effigy) carried by four priests directed the trek away from the cave of origins by giving oracles. An oracle led to the foundation of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. The Yucatec Mayas knew oracle priests or chilanes, literally 'mouthpieces' of the deity. Their written repositories of traditional knowledge, the Books of Chilam Balam, were all ascribed to one famous oracle priest who had correctly predicted the coming of the Spaniards and its associated disasters. Tibet In Tibet, oracles have played, and continue to play, an important part in religion and government. The word "oracle" is used by Tibetans to refer to the spirit that enters those men and women who act as media between the natural and the spiritual realms. The media are, therefore, known as kuten, which literally means, "the physical basis". The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle, which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. The Dalai Lama has according to centuries-old custom, consulted the Nechung Oracle during the new year festivities of Losar. Nechung and Gadhong are the primary oracles currently consulted; former oracles such as Karmashar and Darpoling are no longer active in exile. The Gadhong oracle has died leaving Nechung to be the only primary | polytheism, divination was performed by the priestly caste, either the druids or the vates. This is reflected in the role of "seers" in Dark Age Wales (dryw) and Ireland (fáith). China In China, oracle bones were used for divination in the late Shang dynasty, (c. 1600–1046 BC). Diviners applied heat to these bones, usually ox scapulae or tortoise plastrons, and interpreted the resulting cracks. A different divining method, using the stalks of the yarrow plant, was practiced in the subsequent Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). Around the late 9th century BC, the divination system was recorded in the I Ching, or "Book of Changes", a collection of linear signs used as oracles. In addition to its oracular power, the I Ching has had a major influence on the philosophy, literature and statecraft of China since the Zhou period. Hawaii In Hawaii, oracles were found at certain heiau, Hawaiian temples. These oracles were found in towers covered in white kapa cloth made from plant fibres. In here, priests received the will of gods. These towers were called 'Anu'u. An example of this can be found at Ahu'ena heiau in Kona. India and Nepal In ancient India, the oracle was known as akashawani or Ashareera vani (a voice without body or unseen) or asariri (Tamil), literally meaning "voice from the sky" and was related to the message of a god. Oracles played key roles in many of the major incidents of the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. An example is that Kamsa (or Kansa), the evil uncle of Krishna, was informed by an oracle that the eighth son of his sister Devaki would kill him. However, there are no references in any Indian literature of the oracle being a specific person. Contemporarily, Theyyam or "theiyam" in Malayalam - a south Indian language - the process by which a devotee invites a Hindu god or goddess to use his or her body as a medium or channel and answer other devotees' questions, still happens. The same is called "arulvaakku" or "arulvaak" in Tamil, another south Indian language - Adhiparasakthi Siddhar Peetam is famous for arulvakku in Tamil Nadu. The people in and around Mangalore in Karnataka call the same, Buta Kola, "paathri" or "darshin"; in other parts of Karnataka, it is known by various names such as, "prashnaavali", "vaagdaana", "asei", "aashirvachana" and so on. In Nepal it is known as, "Devta ka dhaamee" or "jhaakri". In English, the closest translation for these is, "oracle." Nigeria The Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria in Africa have a long tradition of using oracles. In Igbo villages, oracles were usually female priestesses to a particular deity, usually dwelling in a cave or other secluded location away from urban areas, and, much as the oracles of ancient Greece, would deliver prophecies in an ecstatic state to visitors seeking advice. Two of their ancient oracles became especially famous during the pre-colonial period: the Agbala oracle at Awka and the Chukwu oracle at Arochukwu. Although the vast majority of Igbos today are Christian, many of them still use oracles. Among the related Yoruba peoples of the same country, the Babalawos (and their female counterparts, the Iyanifas) serve collectively as the principal aspects of the tribe's world-famous Ifa divination system. Due to this, they customarily officiate at a great many of its traditional and religious ceremonies. Norse mythology In Norse mythology, Odin took the severed head of the god Mimir to Asgard for consultation as an oracle. The Havamal and other sources relate the sacrifice of Odin for the oracular runes whereby he lost an eye (external sight) and won wisdom (internal sight; insight). Pre-Columbian Americas In the migration myth of the Mexitin, i.e., the early Aztecs, a mummy-bundle (perhaps an effigy) carried by four priests directed the trek away from the cave of origins by giving oracles. An oracle led to the foundation of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. The Yucatec Mayas knew oracle priests or chilanes, literally 'mouthpieces' of the deity. Their written repositories of traditional knowledge, the Books of Chilam Balam, were all ascribed to one famous oracle priest who had correctly predicted the coming of the Spaniards and its associated disasters. Tibet In Tibet, oracles have played, and continue to play, an important part in religion and government. The word "oracle" is used by Tibetans to refer to the spirit that enters those men and women who act as media between the natural and the spiritual realms. The media are, therefore, known as kuten, which literally means, "the physical basis". The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle, which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. The Dalai Lama has according to centuries-old custom, consulted the Nechung Oracle during the new year festivities of Losar. Nechung and Gadhong are the primary oracles currently consulted; former oracles such as Karmashar and Darpoling are no longer active in exile. The Gadhong oracle has died leaving Nechung to be the only primary oracle. Another oracle the Dalai Lama consults is the Tenma Oracle, for which a young Tibetan woman by the name of Khandro La is the medium for the mountain goddesses Tseringma along with the other 11 goddesses. The Dalai Lama gives a complete description of the process of trance and spirit possession in his book Freedom in Exile. Dorje Shugden oracles were once consulted by the Dalai Lamas until the 14th Dalai Lama banned the practice, even though he consulted Dorje Shugden for advice to escape and was successful in it. Due to the ban, many of the abbots that were worshippers of Dorje Shugden have been forced to go against the Dalai Lama. See also Fuji (planchette writing) Futomani Jiaobei Kau Cim Lên đồng Lingqijing Mudang Poe divination Tangki Tung Shing References Further reading Broad, William J. (2007). The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets. New York: Penguin Press. Broad, William J. (2006). The Oracle: The Lost Secrets and Hidden Message of Ancient Delphi. New York: Penguin Press. Curnow, T. (1995). The Oracles of the Ancient World: A Comprehensive Guide. London: Duckworth – Evans-Pritchard, E. (1976). Witchcraft, Oracle, and Magic among the Azande. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Fontenrose, J. (1981). The Delphic Oracle: Its Responses and Operations, with a Catalogue of Responses. Berkeley: University of California Press. Kajava, Mika (ed.) (2013). Studies in Ancient Oracles and Divination (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 40). Rome: Institutum |
continues the Hyperion Essbase tradition of multi-dimensional database management MySQL, a relational database management system licensed under the GNU General Public License, initially developed by MySQL AB Oracle NoSQL Database, a scalable, distributed key-value NoSQL database Middleware Oracle Fusion Middleware is a family of middleware software products, including (for instance) application server, system integration, business process management (BPM), user interaction, content management, identity management and business intelligence (BI) products. Oracle Secure Enterprise Search Oracle Secure Enterprise Search (SES), Oracle's enterprise-search offering, gives users the ability to search for content across multiple locations, including websites, XML files, file servers, content management systems, enterprise resource planning systems, customer relationship management systems, business intelligence systems, and databases. Oracle Beehive Released in 2008, the Oracle Beehive collaboration software provides team workspaces (including wikis, team calendaring and file sharing), email, calendar, instant messaging, and conferencing on a single platform. Customers can use Beehive as licensed software or as software as a service ("SaaS"). Applications Following a number of acquisitions beginning in 2003, especially in the area of applications, Oracle Corporation maintains a number of product lines: Oracle E-Business Suite PeopleSoft Enterprise Siebel JD Edwards JD Edwards EnterpriseOne JD Edwards World Merchandise Operations Management (Formerly Retek) Planning & Optimisation Store Operations (Formerly 360Commerce) Development of applications commonly takes place in Java (using Oracle JDeveloper) or through PL/SQL (using, for example, Oracle Forms and Oracle Reports/BIPublisher). Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward "wizard"-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications. Third-party applications Oracle Corporation works with "Oracle Certified Partners" to enhance its overall product marketing. The variety of applications from third-party vendors includes database applications for archiving, splitting and control, ERP and CRM systems, as well as more niche and focused products providing a range of commercial functions in areas like human resources, financial control and governance, risk management, and compliance (GRC). Vendors include Hewlett-Packard, Creoal Consulting, UC4 Software, Motus, and Knoa Software. Enterprise management Oracle Enterprise Manager (OEM) provides web-based monitoring and management tools for Oracle products (and for some third-party software), including database management, middleware management, application management, hardware and virtualization management and cloud management. The Primavera products of Oracle's Construction & Engineering Global Business Unit (CEGBU) consist of project-management software. Development software Oracle Corporation's tools for developing applications include (among others): Oracle Designer – a CASE tool which integrates with Oracle Developer Suite Oracle Developer – which consists of Oracle Forms, Oracle Discoverer and Oracle Reports Oracle JDeveloper, a freeware IDE NetBeans, a Java-based software-development platform Oracle Application Express – also known as APEX; for web-oriented development Oracle SQL Developer, an integrated development environment for working with SQL-based databases Oracle SQL*Plus Worksheet, a component of Oracle Enterprise Manager (OEM) OEPE, Oracle Enterprise Pack for Eclipse Open Java Development Kit Oracle Developer Studio – a software generation system for the development of C, C++, Fortran, and Java software Many external and third-party tools make the Oracle database administrator's tasks easier. File systems ZFS combines file-system and logical volume management functionality. BtrFS "B-tree File-System" is meant to be an improvement over the existing Linux ext4 filesystem, and offer features approaching those of ZFS. Operating systems Oracle Corporation develops and supports two operating systems: Oracle Solaris and Oracle Linux. Hardware The Sun hardware range acquired by Oracle Corporation's purchase of Sun Microsystems Oracle SPARC T-series servers and M-series mainframes developed and released after Sun acquisition Engineered systems: pre-engineered and pre-assembled hardware/software bundles for enterprise use Exadata Database Machine – hardware/software integrated storage Exalogic Elastic Cloud – hardware/software integrated application server Exalytics In-Memory Machine – hardware/software integrated in-memory analytics server Oracle Database Appliance Big Data Appliance – integrated map-reduce/big data solution SPARC SuperCluster T4-4 – a general purpose engineered system Services Oracle Cloud Oracle Cloud is a cloud computing service offered by Oracle Corporation providing servers, storage, network, applications and services through a global network of Oracle Corporation managed data centers. The company allows these services to be provisioned on demand over the Internet. Oracle Cloud provides Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), Software as a Service (SaaS) and Data as a Service (DaaS). These services are used to build, deploy, integrate and extend applications in the cloud. This platform supports open standards (SQL, HTML5, REST, etc.) open-source solutions (Kubernetes, Hadoop, Kafka, etc.) and a variety of programming languages, databases, tools and frameworks including Oracle-specific, free and third-party software and systems. Software as a Service (SaaS) Enterprise applications: SCM, EPM, HCM, ERP and CX SaaS offerings Oracle sells a SaaS suite of Oracle Fusion Applications business applications. NetSuite, acquired by Oracle in 2016, provides cloud ERP, CRM, supply chain and e-commerce software to small and medium-sized businesses. It is regarded as the first fully cloud company in the world and is an industry leader in its own right Platform as a Service (PaaS) Oracle has branded its Platform as a Service as Oracle Cloud Platform. Oracle Cloud Platform include Data Management, Application Development, Integration, Content and Experience, Business Analytics, Management and Security. Platform services on which to build and deploy applications or extend SaaS applications: database, Java application server, mobile, business analytics, integration, process, big data, Internet of Things, Node.js etc. Data as a Service (DaaS) Oracle Data Cloud is composed of several acquisitions including AddThis, BlueKai, Crosswise, Datalogix, Grapeshot, and Moat. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) Oracle has branded its Infrastructure as a Service as Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI). Oracle Cloud Infrastructure offerings include the following services. Compute Service Storage Service Network Service On July 28, 2016, Oracle bought NetSuite, the first cloud company, for $9.3 billion. On May 16, 2018, Oracle announced that it had acquired DataScience.com, a privately held cloud workspace platform for data science projects and workloads. Other services Oracle Consulting – technical and business expert services Oracle Financing Oracle Marketing & Support Product support: Oracle Corporation identifies its customers and their support entitlements using CSI (Customer Support Identifier) codes. Registered customers can submit Service Requests (SRs)—usually via the web-accessible My Oracle Support (MOS), a re-incarnation of Oracle Metalink with web access administered by a site Customer User Administrator (CUA). Critical Patch Updates: since 2005 Oracle Corporation has grouped collections of patches and security fixes for its products each quarter into a "Critical Patch Update" (CPU), released each January, April, July and October. Oracle Configuration Manager (OCM, previously Customer Configuration repository or CCR) gathers and uploads details of the configuration of Oracle software. Oracle Auto Service Request (ASR) automatically creates Service Requests for specific hardware faults on qualified Oracle server, storage, Oracle Exadata, and Oracle Exalogic products. My Oracle Support Community (MOSC) Oracle University (training in Oracle products) Oracle Certification Program NetSuite Social Impact program assists nonprofits with moving operations to the cloud. In October 2018, Oracle announced the expansion of the program to include product donation, pro bono expansion and online community building. As of September 13, 2020, Oracle acquired a trade deal with the ByteDance owned social video platform TikTok. This was the result of an executive order issued by U.S. president Donald Trump stating that TikTok must be sold to a U.S. company by September 15, 2020. The exact nature of the agreement is still unknown, but it implies that Oracle will become TikTok's technology partner and assume responsibility for the company's U.S. user data. The agreement is still pending approval from regulatory government bodies. Marketing Sales practices In 1990, Oracle laid off 10% (about 400 people) of its work force because of accounting errors. This crisis came about because of Oracle's "up-front" marketing strategy, in which sales people urged potential customers to buy the largest possible amount of software all at once. The sales people then booked the value of future license sales in the current quarter, thereby increasing their bonuses. This became a problem when the future sales subsequently failed to materialize. Oracle eventually had to restate its earnings twice, and also settled (out of court) class-action lawsuits arising from its having overstated its earnings. Ellison stated in 1992 that Oracle had made "an incredible business mistake". Competition In 1994, Informix overtook Sybase and became Oracle's most important rival. The intense war between Informix CEO Phil White and Ellison made front-page news in Silicon Valley for three years. Informix claimed that Oracle had hired away Informix engineers to disclose important trade secrets about an upcoming product. Informix finally dropped its lawsuit against Oracle in 1997. In November 2005, a book detailing the war between Oracle and Informix was published, titled The Real Story of Informix Software and Phil White. It gave a detailed chronology of the battle of Informix against Oracle, and how Informix Software's CEO Phil White landed in jail because of his obsession with overtaking Ellison. Once it had overcome Informix and Sybase, Oracle Corporation enjoyed years of dominance in the database market until use of Microsoft SQL Server became widespread in the late 1990s and IBM acquired Informix Software in 2001 (to complement its DB2 database). Oracle competes for new database licenses on UNIX, GNU, and Windows operating systems primarily against IBM's DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server. IBM's DB2 dominates the mainframe database market. In 2004, Oracle's sales grew at a rate of 14.5% to $6.2 billion, giving it 41.3% and the top share of the relational-database market (InformationWeek – March 2005), with market share estimated at up to 44.6% in 2005 by some sources. Oracle Corporation's main competitors in the database arena remain IBM DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server, and to a lesser extent Sybase and Teradata, with free databases such as PostgreSQL and MySQL also having a significant share of the market. EnterpriseDB, based on PostgreSQL, has made inroads by proclaiming that its product delivers Oracle compatibility features at a much lower price-point. In the software-applications market, Oracle Corporation primarily competes against SAP. On March 22, 2007, Oracle sued SAP, accusing them of fraud and unfair competition. In the market for business intelligence software, many other software companies—small and large—have successfully competed in quality with Oracle and SAP products. Business intelligence vendors can be categorized into the "big four" consolidated BI firms such as Oracle, who has entered BI market through a recent trend of acquisitions (including Hyperion Solutions), and the independent "pure play" vendors such as MicroStrategy, Actuate, and SAS. Oracle Financials was ranked in the Top 20 Most Popular Accounting Software Infographic by Capterra in 2014, beating out SAP and a number of their other competitors. Oracle and SAP From 1988, Oracle Corporation and the German company SAP AG had a decade-long history of cooperation, beginning with the integration of SAP's R/3 enterprise application suite with Oracle's relational database products. Despite the SAP partnership with Microsoft, and the increasing integration of SAP applications with Microsoft products (such as Microsoft SQL Server, a competitor to Oracle Database), Oracle and SAP continue their cooperation. According to Oracle Corporation, the majority of SAP's customers use Oracle databases. In 2004, Oracle began to increase its interest in the enterprise-applications market (in 1989, Oracle had already released Oracle Financials). A series of acquisitions by Oracle Corporation began, most notably with those of PeopleSoft, Siebel Systems and Hyperion. SAP recognized that Oracle had started to become a competitor in a markets where SAP had the leadership, and saw an opportunity to lure in customers from those companies that Oracle Corporation had acquired. SAP would offer those customers special discounts on the licenses for its enterprise applications. Oracle Corporation would resort to a similar strategy, by advising SAP customers to get "OFF SAP" (a play on the words of the acronym for its middleware platform "Oracle Fusion for SAP"), and also by providing special discounts on licenses and services to SAP customers who chose Oracle Corporation products. Oracle and SAP (the latter through its recently acquired subsidiary TomorrowNow) compete in the third-party enterprise software maintenance and support market. On March 22, 2007, Oracle filed a lawsuit against SAP. In Oracle Corporation v. SAP AG Oracle alleged that TomorrowNow, which provides discount support for legacy Oracle product lines, used the accounts of former Oracle customers to systematically download patches and support documents from Oracle's website and to appropriate them for SAP's use. Some analysts have suggested the suit could form part of a strategy by Oracle Corporation to decrease competition with SAP in the market for third-party enterprise software maintenance and support. On July 3, 2007, SAP admitted that TomorrowNow employees had made "inappropriate downloads" from the Oracle support website. However, it claims that SAP personnel and SAP customers had no access to Oracle intellectual property via TomorrowNow. SAP's CEO Henning Kagermann stated that "Even a single inappropriate download is unacceptable from my perspective. We regret very much that this occurred." Additionally, SAP announced that it had "instituted changes" in TomorrowNow's operational oversight. On November 23, 2010, a U.S. district court jury in Oakland, California found that SAP AG must pay Oracle Corp $1.3 billion for copyright infringement, awarding damages that could be the largest-ever for copyright infringement. While admitting liability, SAP estimated the damages at no more than $40 million, while Oracle claimed that they are at least $1.65 billion. The awarded amount is one of the 10 or 20 largest jury verdicts in U.S. legal history. SAP said they were disappointed by the verdict and might appeal. On September 1, 2011, a federal judge overturned the judgment and offered a reduced amount or a new trial, calling Oracle's original award "grossly" excessive. Oracle chose a new trial. On August 3, 2012, SAP and Oracle agreed on a judgment for $306 million in damages, pending approval from the U.S. district court judge, “to save time and expense of [a] new trial". After the accord has been approved, Oracle can ask a federal appeals court to reinstate the earlier jury verdict. In addition to the damages payment, SAP has already paid Oracle $120 million for its legal fees. Slogans "Information driven" For the Oracle Database: "Can't break it, can't break in" and "Unbreakable" Enabling the Information Age Enabling the Information Age Through Network Computing" : "The Information Company" As of 2010: "Software. Hardware. Complete." As of late 2010: "Hardware and Software, Engineered to Work Together" As of mid 2015: "Integrated Cloud Applications and Platform Services" Media Oracle Corporation produces and distributes the "Oracle ClearView" series of videos as part of its marketing mix. Controversies Trashgate In 2000, Oracle attracted attention from the computer industry and the press after hiring private investigators to dig through the trash of organizations involved in an antitrust trial involving Microsoft. The Chairman of Oracle Corporation, Larry Ellison, staunchly defended his company's hiring of an East Coast detective agency to investigate groups that supported rival Microsoft Corporation during its antitrust trial, calling the snooping a "public service". The investigation reportedly included a $1,200 offer to janitors at the Association for Competitive Technology to look through Microsoft's trash. When asked how he would feel if others were looking into Oracle's business activities, Ellison said: "We will ship our garbage to Redmond, and they can go through it. We believe in full disclosure." "Can't break it, can't break in" In 2002, Oracle Corporation marketed many of its products using the slogan "Can't break it, can't break in", or "Unbreakable". This signified a demand on information security. Oracle Corporation also stressed the reliability of networked databases and network access to databases as major selling points. However, two weeks after its introduction, David Litchfield, Alexander Kornbrust, Cesar Cerrudo and others demonstrated a whole suite of successful attacks against Oracle products. Oracle Corporation's chief security officer Mary Ann Davidson said that, rather than representing a literal claim of Oracle's products' impregnability, she saw the campaign in the context of fourteen independent security evaluations that Oracle Corporation's database server had passed. Relationship with John Ashcroft In 2004, then-United States Attorney General John Ashcroft sued Oracle Corporation to prevent it from acquiring a multibillion-dollar intelligence contract. After Ashcroft's resignation from government, he founded a lobbying firm, The Ashcroft Group, which Oracle hired in 2005. With the group's help, Oracle went on to acquire the contract. Expeditionary Combat Support System Computer Sciences Corporation, as the prime contractor, reportedly spent a billion dollars developing the Expeditionary Combat Support System for the United States Air Force. It yielded no significant capability, because, according to an Air Force source, the prime contractor "was simply not up to the task of adapting" the Oracle software, on which the system was based, to meet the specialized performance criteria. Cover Oregon Healthcare Exchange Oracle Corporation was awarded a contract by the State of | Microsoft SQL Server. IBM's DB2 dominates the mainframe database market. In 2004, Oracle's sales grew at a rate of 14.5% to $6.2 billion, giving it 41.3% and the top share of the relational-database market (InformationWeek – March 2005), with market share estimated at up to 44.6% in 2005 by some sources. Oracle Corporation's main competitors in the database arena remain IBM DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server, and to a lesser extent Sybase and Teradata, with free databases such as PostgreSQL and MySQL also having a significant share of the market. EnterpriseDB, based on PostgreSQL, has made inroads by proclaiming that its product delivers Oracle compatibility features at a much lower price-point. In the software-applications market, Oracle Corporation primarily competes against SAP. On March 22, 2007, Oracle sued SAP, accusing them of fraud and unfair competition. In the market for business intelligence software, many other software companies—small and large—have successfully competed in quality with Oracle and SAP products. Business intelligence vendors can be categorized into the "big four" consolidated BI firms such as Oracle, who has entered BI market through a recent trend of acquisitions (including Hyperion Solutions), and the independent "pure play" vendors such as MicroStrategy, Actuate, and SAS. Oracle Financials was ranked in the Top 20 Most Popular Accounting Software Infographic by Capterra in 2014, beating out SAP and a number of their other competitors. Oracle and SAP From 1988, Oracle Corporation and the German company SAP AG had a decade-long history of cooperation, beginning with the integration of SAP's R/3 enterprise application suite with Oracle's relational database products. Despite the SAP partnership with Microsoft, and the increasing integration of SAP applications with Microsoft products (such as Microsoft SQL Server, a competitor to Oracle Database), Oracle and SAP continue their cooperation. According to Oracle Corporation, the majority of SAP's customers use Oracle databases. In 2004, Oracle began to increase its interest in the enterprise-applications market (in 1989, Oracle had already released Oracle Financials). A series of acquisitions by Oracle Corporation began, most notably with those of PeopleSoft, Siebel Systems and Hyperion. SAP recognized that Oracle had started to become a competitor in a markets where SAP had the leadership, and saw an opportunity to lure in customers from those companies that Oracle Corporation had acquired. SAP would offer those customers special discounts on the licenses for its enterprise applications. Oracle Corporation would resort to a similar strategy, by advising SAP customers to get "OFF SAP" (a play on the words of the acronym for its middleware platform "Oracle Fusion for SAP"), and also by providing special discounts on licenses and services to SAP customers who chose Oracle Corporation products. Oracle and SAP (the latter through its recently acquired subsidiary TomorrowNow) compete in the third-party enterprise software maintenance and support market. On March 22, 2007, Oracle filed a lawsuit against SAP. In Oracle Corporation v. SAP AG Oracle alleged that TomorrowNow, which provides discount support for legacy Oracle product lines, used the accounts of former Oracle customers to systematically download patches and support documents from Oracle's website and to appropriate them for SAP's use. Some analysts have suggested the suit could form part of a strategy by Oracle Corporation to decrease competition with SAP in the market for third-party enterprise software maintenance and support. On July 3, 2007, SAP admitted that TomorrowNow employees had made "inappropriate downloads" from the Oracle support website. However, it claims that SAP personnel and SAP customers had no access to Oracle intellectual property via TomorrowNow. SAP's CEO Henning Kagermann stated that "Even a single inappropriate download is unacceptable from my perspective. We regret very much that this occurred." Additionally, SAP announced that it had "instituted changes" in TomorrowNow's operational oversight. On November 23, 2010, a U.S. district court jury in Oakland, California found that SAP AG must pay Oracle Corp $1.3 billion for copyright infringement, awarding damages that could be the largest-ever for copyright infringement. While admitting liability, SAP estimated the damages at no more than $40 million, while Oracle claimed that they are at least $1.65 billion. The awarded amount is one of the 10 or 20 largest jury verdicts in U.S. legal history. SAP said they were disappointed by the verdict and might appeal. On September 1, 2011, a federal judge overturned the judgment and offered a reduced amount or a new trial, calling Oracle's original award "grossly" excessive. Oracle chose a new trial. On August 3, 2012, SAP and Oracle agreed on a judgment for $306 million in damages, pending approval from the U.S. district court judge, “to save time and expense of [a] new trial". After the accord has been approved, Oracle can ask a federal appeals court to reinstate the earlier jury verdict. In addition to the damages payment, SAP has already paid Oracle $120 million for its legal fees. Slogans "Information driven" For the Oracle Database: "Can't break it, can't break in" and "Unbreakable" Enabling the Information Age Enabling the Information Age Through Network Computing" : "The Information Company" As of 2010: "Software. Hardware. Complete." As of late 2010: "Hardware and Software, Engineered to Work Together" As of mid 2015: "Integrated Cloud Applications and Platform Services" Media Oracle Corporation produces and distributes the "Oracle ClearView" series of videos as part of its marketing mix. Controversies Trashgate In 2000, Oracle attracted attention from the computer industry and the press after hiring private investigators to dig through the trash of organizations involved in an antitrust trial involving Microsoft. The Chairman of Oracle Corporation, Larry Ellison, staunchly defended his company's hiring of an East Coast detective agency to investigate groups that supported rival Microsoft Corporation during its antitrust trial, calling the snooping a "public service". The investigation reportedly included a $1,200 offer to janitors at the Association for Competitive Technology to look through Microsoft's trash. When asked how he would feel if others were looking into Oracle's business activities, Ellison said: "We will ship our garbage to Redmond, and they can go through it. We believe in full disclosure." "Can't break it, can't break in" In 2002, Oracle Corporation marketed many of its products using the slogan "Can't break it, can't break in", or "Unbreakable". This signified a demand on information security. Oracle Corporation also stressed the reliability of networked databases and network access to databases as major selling points. However, two weeks after its introduction, David Litchfield, Alexander Kornbrust, Cesar Cerrudo and others demonstrated a whole suite of successful attacks against Oracle products. Oracle Corporation's chief security officer Mary Ann Davidson said that, rather than representing a literal claim of Oracle's products' impregnability, she saw the campaign in the context of fourteen independent security evaluations that Oracle Corporation's database server had passed. Relationship with John Ashcroft In 2004, then-United States Attorney General John Ashcroft sued Oracle Corporation to prevent it from acquiring a multibillion-dollar intelligence contract. After Ashcroft's resignation from government, he founded a lobbying firm, The Ashcroft Group, which Oracle hired in 2005. With the group's help, Oracle went on to acquire the contract. Expeditionary Combat Support System Computer Sciences Corporation, as the prime contractor, reportedly spent a billion dollars developing the Expeditionary Combat Support System for the United States Air Force. It yielded no significant capability, because, according to an Air Force source, the prime contractor "was simply not up to the task of adapting" the Oracle software, on which the system was based, to meet the specialized performance criteria. Cover Oregon Healthcare Exchange Oracle Corporation was awarded a contract by the State of Oregon's Oregon Health Authority (OHA) to develop Cover Oregon, the state's healthcare exchange website, as part of the U.S. Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. When the site tried to go live on October 1, 2013, it failed, and registrations had to be taken using paper applications until the site could be fixed. On April 25, 2014, the State of Oregon voted to discontinue Cover Oregon and instead use the federal exchange to enroll Oregon residents. The cost of switching to the federal portal was estimated at $5 million, whereas fixing Cover Oregon would have required another $78 million. Oracle president Safra Catz responded to Cover Oregon and the OHA in a letter claiming that the site's problems were due to OHA mismanagement, specifically that a third-party systems integrator was not hired to manage the complex project. In August 2014, Oracle Corporation sued Cover Oregon for breach of contract, and then later that month the state of Oregon sued Oracle Corporation, in a civil complaint for breach of contract, fraud, filing false claims and "racketeering". In September 2016, the two sides reached a settlement valued at over $100 million to the state, and a six-year agreement for Oracle to continue modernizing state software and IT. Events Acquisition of Sun Microsystems In January 2010, Oracle completed its acquisition of Sun Microsystems—valued at more than $7 billion—a move that transformed Oracle from solely a software company to a manufacturer of both software and hardware. The acquisition was delayed for several months by the European Commission because of concerns about MySQL, but was unconditionally approved in the end. In September 2011, U.S. State Department Embassy cables were leaked to WikiLeaks. One cable revealed that the U.S. pressured the E.U. to allow Oracle to acquire Sun. The Sun acquisition was closely watched by free software users and some companies, due to the fear that Oracle might end Sun's traditional support of free projects. Since the acquisition, Oracle has discontinued OpenSolaris and StarOffice, and sued Google over the Java patents Oracle acquired from Sun. Justice Department lawsuit On July 29, 2010, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) filed suit against Oracle Corporation alleging fraud. The lawsuit argues that the government received deals inferior to those Oracle gave to its commercial clients. The DoJ added its heft to an already existing whistleblower lawsuit filed by Paul Frascella, who was once senior director of contract services at Oracle. It was settled in 2011. Lawsuit against Google Background Oracle, the plaintiff, acquired ownership of the Java computer programing language when it acquired Sun Microsystems in January 2010. The Java software includes sets of pre-developed software code to allow programs and apps to accomplish common tasks in a consistent manner. The pre-developed code is organized into separate "packages" which each contain a set of "classes". Each class contains numerous methods, which instruct a program or app to do a certain task. Software developers "became accustomed to using Java’s designations at the package, class, and method level". Oracle and Google (the defendant) tried to negotiate an agreement for Oracle to license Java to Google, which would have allowed Google to use Java in developing programs for mobile devices using the Android operating system. However, the two companies never reached an agreement. After negotiations failed, Google created its own programming platform, which was based on Java, and contained 37 copied Java packages as well as new packages developed by Google. First trial In 2010, Oracle sued Google for copyright infringement for the use of the 37 Java packages. The case was handled in U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California and assigned to Judge William Alsup (who taught |
ruling Conservatives the first true opposition they had faced for decades (the local Liberal Democrat and Labour parties being negligible). Hughes retained his seats with increased majorities in subsequent elections, and took the Devon County Council seat from the local party's Chief Whip in the council. To date, two councillors have subsequently become mayors: Alan Hope in Ashburton in Devon and Chris "Screwy" Driver on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent. At the Bootle by-election in May 1990, the Loony candidate (Sutch) received more votes than the candidate for the continuing Social Democrats. The story was a major headline in many UK newspapers; ironically, the by-election itself had attracted little coverage. Bootle is still regarded by the party as their most significant result in politics, albeit one largely lampooning the political world. In the 2019 Brecon and Radnorshire by-election, the OMRLP candidate Lady Lily the Pink polled more votes than the United Kingdom Independence Party. The party got a record number of votes in the 2019 general election, when they polled 9,739 votes. Having fielded 24 candidates, this was, numerically, the party's highest vote at a general election. However, they have yet to improve on their best vote share of 0.1% at the 1992 general election. The party has yet to save its deposit at a by-election, although the party's former leader, Screaming Lord Sutch, came close at the 1994 Rotherham by-election, winning 4.2% of the vote. The threshold for saving a deposit is 5% of the vote. General elections By-elections 48th Parliament 49th Parliament 50th Parliament 51st Parliament 52nd Parliament 53rd Parliament 54th Parliament 55th Parliament 56th Parliament 57th Parliament 58th Parliament Parish and town councillors As of 2021, the party has seven parish and town councillors, one via the Molesey Residents Association. 2010 William Hill branding For the 2010 general election, the OMRLP used the description "Monster Raving Loony William Hill Party", which was met with criticism by some members, with John Cartwright, Loony candidate in Croydon, publicly stating, "I am not and will not be a mercenary, or an advert, for a commercial company during the course of the election campaign." Membership The statement of accounts for the period 1 January to 31 December 2008 outlines membership at 1,354, made up of 173 paying members and 1,181 "lifetime but non-paying". It currently costs £12 per year for membership, which includes a party rosette, a certificate of insanity, a 'Loony Badge,' a personal party ID card, and a letter from the party's leader. A £14.50 membership is available for those overseas. Sir Patrick Moore (1923–2012), the British TV amateur astronomer, was the finance minister of the party for a short time. He once said that the Monster Raving Loony Party "had an advantage over all the other parties, in that they knew they were loonies". In 1992, the Glasgow band Hugh Reed and the Velvet Underpants released the song "Vote Monster Raving Looney", despite not having any actual ties to the party. Policies and electoral strategy The OMRLP are distinguished by having a deliberately bizarre manifesto, which contains things that seem to be impossible or too absurd to implement – usually to highlight what they see as real-life absurdities. Despite its satirical nature, some of the things that have featured in Loony manifestos have become law, such as "passports for pets", abolition of dog licences and all-day pub openings. Other suggestions so far unadopted included minting a 99p coin and forbidding greyhound racing in order to "stop the country going to the dogs". The Loonies generally field as many candidates as possible in United Kingdom general elections, some (but by no means all) standing under ridiculous names they have adopted via deed poll. Sutch himself stood against all three main party leaders (John Major, Neil Kinnock and Paddy Ashdown) in the 1992 general election. Parliamentary candidates have to pay their own deposit (which currently stands at £500) and cover all of their expenses. No OMRLP candidate has managed to get the required 5% of the popular vote needed to retain their deposit, but this does not stop people standing. Sutch came closest with 4.1% and over a thousand votes at the Rotherham by-election, whilst Stuart Hughes still holds the record for the largest number of votes for a Loony candidate at a Parliamentary election, with 1,442 at the 1992 general election in the Honiton seat in east Devon. The all-time highest vote achieved was by comedian Danny Blue, who secured 3,339 votes in the 1994 European elections under the pseudonym of "John Major". Bamford had also acted as an election agent for Lindi St Clair's rival Corrective Party, and was a former close associate of Stuart Hughes. In the run-up to the 2011 Alternative Vote referendum, the party adopted an equivocal stance, advising its supporters, on 8 April, to "vote as you see fit". In response to mainstream parties debating Brexit, the OMRLP suggested sending Noel Edmonds to the European Parliament "because he understands Deal or No Deal". They have advocated an "Al dente | The OMRLP succeeded in standing in the two by-elections of 19 July 2007 in Sedgefield and Ealing Southall, but again achieving derisory results: Alan Hope acquiring 129 votes (0.46%) and John Cartwright taking 188 (0.51%), beating the English Democrats but coming behind the Christian Party of the Reverend George Hargreaves and David Braid. In recognition that reforms were needed, Peter 'T.C.' Owen was moved from the honorary position of Party chairman to that of Deputy Leader (and thus effective day-to-day leader) of the OMRLP, whilst Anthony "The Jersey Flyer" Blyth (owner of the Ommaroo and a member of the Jersey Heritage Trust) took over Owen's role. Owen is one of four Raving Loonies to have scored over 1000 votes in an election. On 31 May 2017 Hope was interviewed by Andrew Neil on the BBC's Daily Politics programme. Electoral performance In 1987, the OMRLP won its first seat on Ashburton Town Council in Devon, as Alan "Howling Laud" Hope was elected unopposed. He subsequently became Deputy Mayor and later Mayor of Ashburton in 1998 (mainly opposed by the local Conservatives; they allegedly never forgave him for becoming a member of the OMRLP) until he moved to Hampshire after Sutch's death. For over a decade, his hotel The Golden Lion in Ashburton (referred to by some in the party as "The Mucky Mog") was the party's headquarters and conference centre. The first party member to win a vote, rather than an uncontested election, was Stuart Hughes, taking the "safe" Conservative Party seat of Sidmouth Woolbrook on East Devon District Council in May 1991. He also took a seat on Sidmouth Town Council from the Conservatives the following day. His success was met with hostility from the local Tories. Hughes' reaction was to attempt to make their lives a misery for the next three years by refusing to pay his Community Charge (popularly known as the Poll Tax), then dumping scrap metal in the middle of the council chambers to the value of his unpaid tax when threatened with legal action. He also formed an alliance known as "The Coastals" (because of the seats they held) of Independents and the sole Green Party councillor, giving East Devon's ruling Conservatives the first true opposition they had faced for decades (the local Liberal Democrat and Labour parties being negligible). Hughes retained his seats with increased majorities in subsequent elections, and took the Devon County Council seat from the local party's Chief Whip in the council. To date, two councillors have subsequently become mayors: Alan Hope in Ashburton in Devon and Chris "Screwy" Driver on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent. At the Bootle by-election in May 1990, the Loony candidate (Sutch) received more votes than the candidate for the continuing Social Democrats. The story was a major headline in many UK newspapers; ironically, the by-election itself had attracted little coverage. Bootle is still regarded by the party as their most significant result in politics, albeit one largely lampooning the political world. In the 2019 Brecon and Radnorshire by-election, the OMRLP candidate Lady Lily the Pink polled more votes than the United Kingdom Independence Party. The party got a record number of votes in the 2019 general election, when they polled 9,739 votes. Having fielded 24 candidates, this was, numerically, the party's highest vote at a general election. However, they have yet to improve on their best vote share of 0.1% at the 1992 general election. The party has yet to save its deposit at a by-election, although the party's former leader, Screaming Lord Sutch, came close at the 1994 Rotherham by-election, winning 4.2% of the vote. The threshold for saving a deposit is 5% of the vote. General elections By-elections 48th Parliament 49th Parliament 50th Parliament 51st Parliament 52nd Parliament 53rd Parliament 54th Parliament 55th Parliament 56th Parliament 57th Parliament 58th Parliament Parish |
and cachexia, omega−3 fatty acids supplements may be of benefit, improving appetite, weight, and quality of life. Cardiovascular disease Moderate and high quality evidence from a 2020 review showed that EPA and DHA, such as that found in omega−3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements, does not appear to improve mortality or cardiovascular health. There is weak evidence indicating that α-linolenic acid may be associated with a small reduction in the risk of a cardiovascular event or the risk of arrhythmia. A 2018 meta-analysis found no support that daily intake of one gram of omega−3 fatty acid in individuals with a history of coronary heart disease prevents fatal coronary heart disease, nonfatal myocardial infarction or any other vascular event. However, omega−3 fatty acid supplementation greater than one gram daily for at least a year may be protective against cardiac death, sudden death, and myocardial infarction in people who have a history of cardiovascular disease. No protective effect against the development of stroke or all-cause mortality was seen in this population. A 2018 study found that omega−3 supplementation was helpful in protecting cardiac health in those who did not regularly eat fish, particularly in the African American population. Eating a diet high in fish that contain long chain omega−3 fatty acids does appear to decrease the risk of stroke. Fish oil supplementation has not been shown to benefit revascularization or abnormal heart rhythms and has no effect on heart failure hospital admission rates. Furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes. In the EU, a review by the European Medicines Agency of omega−3 fatty acid medicines containing a combination of an ethyl ester of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid at a dose of 1 g per day concluded that these medicines are not effective in secondary prevention of heart problems in patients who have had a myocardial infarction. Evidence suggests that omega−3 fatty acids modestly lower blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) in people with hypertension and in people with normal blood pressure. Omega−3 fatty acids can also reduce heart rate, an emerging risk factor. Some evidence suggests that people with certain circulatory problems, such as varicose veins, may benefit from the consumption of EPA and DHA, which may stimulate blood circulation and increase the breakdown of fibrin, a protein involved in blood clotting and scar formation. Omega−3 fatty acids reduce blood triglyceride levels but do not significantly change the level of LDL cholesterol or HDL cholesterol in the blood. The American Heart Association position (2011) is that borderline elevated triglycerides, defined as 150–199 mg/dL, can be lowered by 0.5–1.0 grams of EPA and DHA per day; high triglycerides 200–499 mg/dL benefit from 1–2 g/day; and >500 mg/dL be treated under a physician's supervision with 2–4 g/day using a prescription product. In this population omega−3 fatty acid supplementation decreases the risk of heart disease by about 25%. A 2019 review found that Omega 3 fatty acid supplements make little or no difference to cardiovascular mortality and that patients with myocardial infarction yield no benefit in taking the supplements. A 2021 review found that omega-3 supplementation has no effect on CVD outcomes. Stroke A 2019 Cochrane review found that the effect of omega−3 supplementation on stroke is unclear as there is insufficient high‐quality evidence. Inflammation A 2013 systematic review found tentative evidence of benefit for lowering inflammation levels in healthy adults and in people with one or more biomarkers of metabolic syndrome. Consumption of omega−3 fatty acids from marine sources lowers blood markers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and TNF alpha. For rheumatoid arthritis, one systematic review found consistent but modest, evidence for the effect of marine n−3 PUFAs on symptoms such as "joint swelling and pain, duration of morning stiffness, global assessments of pain and disease activity" as well as the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. The American College of Rheumatology has stated that there may be modest benefit from the use of fish oils, but that it may take months for effects to be seen, and cautions for possible gastrointestinal side effects and the possibility of the supplements containing mercury or vitamin A at toxic levels. The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health has concluded that "supplements containing omega−3 fatty acids... may help relieve rheumatoid arthritis symptoms" and warns that such supplements "may interact with drugs that affect blood clotting". Developmental disabilities One meta-analysis concluded that omega−3 fatty acid supplementation demonstrated a modest effect for improving ADHD symptoms. A Cochrane review of PUFA (not necessarily omega−3) supplementation found "there is little evidence that PUFA supplementation provides any benefit for the symptoms of ADHD in children and adolescents", while a different review found "insufficient evidence to draw any conclusion about the use of PUFAs for children with specific learning disorders". Another review concluded that the evidence is inconclusive for the use of omega−3 fatty acids in behavior and non-neurodegenerative neuropsychiatric disorders such as ADHD and depression. A 2015 meta-analysis of the effect of omega−3 supplementation during pregnancy did not demonstrate a decrease in the rate of preterm birth or improve outcomes in women with singleton pregnancies with no prior preterm births. A 2018 Cochrane systematic review with moderate to high quality of evidence suggested that omega−3 fatty acids may reduce risk of perinatal death, risk of low body weight babies; and possibly mildly increased LGA babies. A 2021 umbrella review with moderate to high quality of evidence suggested that "omega-3 supplementation during pregnancy can exert favorable effects against pre-eclampsia, low-birth weight, pre-term delivery, and post-partum depression, and can improve anthropometric measures, immune system, and visual activity in infants and cardiometabolic risk factors in pregnant mothers." Mental health Omega-3 supplementation has not been shown to significantly affect symptoms of anxiety, major depressive disorder or schizophrenia. A 2021 Cochrane review concluded that there is not "sufficient high‐certainty evidence to determine the effects of n‐3PUFAs as a treatment for MDD". Omega−3 fatty acids have also been investigated as an add-on for the treatment of depression associated with bipolar disorder although there is limited data available. Two reviews have suggested that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation significantly improves depressive symptoms in perinatal women. In contrast to dietary supplementation studies, there is significant difficulty in interpreting the literature regarding dietary intake of omega−3 fatty acids (e.g. from fish) due to participant recall and systematic differences in diets. There is also controversy as to the efficacy of omega−3, with many meta-analysis papers finding heterogeneity among results which can be explained mostly by publication bias. A significant correlation between shorter treatment trials was associated with increased omega−3 efficacy for treating depressed symptoms further implicating bias in publication. Cognitive aging A 2016 Cochrane review found no convincing evidence for the use of omega‐3 PUFA supplements in treatment of Alzheimer's disease or dementia. There is preliminary evidence of effect on mild cognitive problems, but none supporting an effect in healthy people or those with dementia. A 2020 review suggested that omega 3 supplementation has no effect on global cognitive function but has a mild benefit in improving memory in non-demented adults. A 2022 looked at observational studies and randomized control trials. The authors see promising evidence for prevention of cognitive decline in people who regularly eat long-chain omega 3 rich foods. Conversely, clinical trials with participants already diaganosed with Alzheimer's show no effect. Brain and visual functions Brain function and vision rely on dietary intake of DHA to support a broad range of cell membrane properties, particularly in grey matter, which is rich in membranes. A major structural component of the mammalian brain, DHA is the most abundant omega−3 fatty acid in the brain. Omega 3 PUFA supplementation has no effect on macular degeneration or development of visual loss. Atopic diseases Results of studies investigating the role of LCPUFA supplementation and LCPUFA status in the prevention and therapy of atopic diseases (allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, atopic dermatitis, and allergic asthma) are controversial; therefore, it could not be stated either that the nutritional intake of n−3 fatty acids has a clear preventive or therapeutic role, or that the intake of n-6 fatty acids has a promoting role in the context of atopic diseases. Risk of deficiency People with PKU often have low intake of omega−3 fatty acids, because nutrients rich in omega−3 fatty acids are excluded from their diet due to high protein content. Asthma As of 2015, there was no evidence that taking omega−3 supplements can prevent asthma attacks in children. Diabetes A 2019 review found that omega-3 supplements have no effect on prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes. Chemistry An omega−3 fatty acid is a fatty acid with multiple double bonds, where the first double bond is between the third and fourth carbon atoms from the end of the carbon atom chain. "Short-chain" omega−3 fatty acids have a chain of 18 carbon atoms or less, while "long-chain" omega−3 fatty acids have a chain of 20 or more. Three omega−3 fatty acids are important in human physiology, α-linolenic acid (18:3, n-3; ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5, n-3; EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6, n-3; DHA). These three polyunsaturates have either 3, 5, or 6 double bonds in a carbon chain of 18, 20, or 22 carbon atoms, respectively. As with most naturally-produced fatty acids, all double bonds are in the cis-configuration, in other words, the two hydrogen atoms are on the same | omega−3. The rapid evolution of human diet away from a 1:1 omega−3 and omega−6 ratio, such as during the Neolithic Agricultural Revolution, has presumably been too fast for humans to have adapted to biological profiles adept at balancing omega−3 and omega−6 ratios of 1:1. This is commonly believed to be the reason why modern diets are correlated with many inflammatory disorders. While omega−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may be beneficial in preventing heart disease in humans, the level of omega−6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (and, therefore, the ratio) does not matter. Both omega−6 and omega−3 fatty acids are essential: humans must consume them in their diet. Omega−6 and omega−3 eighteen-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids compete for the same metabolic enzymes, thus the omega−6:omega−3 ratio of ingested fatty acids has significant influence on the ratio and rate of production of eicosanoids, a group of hormones intimately involved in the body's inflammatory and homeostatic processes, which include the prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes, among others. Altering this ratio can change the body's metabolic and inflammatory state. In general, grass-fed animals accumulate more omega−3 than do grain-fed animals, which accumulate relatively more omega−6. Metabolites of omega−6 are more inflammatory (esp. arachidonic acid) than those of omega−3. This necessitates that omega−6 and omega−3 be consumed in a balanced proportion; healthy ratios of omega−6:omega−3, according to some authors, range from 1:1 to 1:4. Other authors believe that a ratio of 4:1 (4 times as much omega−6 as omega−3) is already healthy. Studies suggest the evolutionary human diet, rich in game animals, seafood, and other sources of omega−3, may have provided such a ratio. Typical Western diets provide ratios of between 10:1 and 30:1 (i.e., dramatically higher levels of omega−6 than omega−3). The ratios of omega−6 to omega−3 fatty acids in some common vegetable oils are: canola 2:1, hemp 2–3:1, soybean 7:1, olive 3–13:1, sunflower (no omega−3), flax 1:3, cottonseed (almost no omega−3), peanut (no omega−3), grapeseed oil (almost no omega−3) and corn oil 46:1. History Although omega−3 fatty acids have been known as essential to normal growth and health since the 1930s, awareness of their health benefits has dramatically increased since the 1980s. On September 8, 2004, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration gave "qualified health claim" status to EPA and DHA omega−3 fatty acids, stating, "supportive but not conclusive research shows that consumption of EPA and DHA [omega−3] fatty acids may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease". This updated and modified their health risk advice letter of 2001 (see below). The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has recognized the importance of DHA omega−3 and permits the following claim for DHA: "DHA, an omega−3 fatty acid, supports the normal physical development of the brain, eyes, and nerves primarily in children under two years of age." Historically, whole food diets contained sufficient amounts of omega−3, but because omega−3 is readily oxidized, the trend to shelf-stable, processed foods has led to a deficiency in omega−3 in manufactured foods. Dietary sources Dietary recommendations In the United States, the Institute of Medicine publishes a system of Dietary Reference Intakes, which includes Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for individual nutrients, and Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) for certain groups of nutrients, such as fats. When there is insufficient evidence to determine an RDA, the institute may publish an Adequate Intake (AI) instead, which has a similar meaning but is less certain. The AI for α-linolenic acid is 1.6 grams/day for men and 1.1 grams/day for women, while the AMDR is 0.6% to 1.2% of total energy. Because the physiological potency of EPA and DHA is much greater than that of ALA, it is not possible to estimate one AMDR for all omega−3 fatty acids. Approximately 10 percent of the AMDR can be consumed as EPA and/or DHA. The Institute of Medicine has not established a RDA or AI for EPA, DHA or the combination, so there is no Daily Value (DVs are derived from RDAs), no labeling of foods or supplements as providing a DV percentage of these fatty acids per serving, and no labeling a food or supplement as an excellent source, or "High in..." As for safety, there was insufficient evidence as of 2005 to set an upper tolerable limit for omega−3 fatty acids, although the FDA has advised that adults can safely consume up to a total of 3 grams per day of combined DHA and EPA, with no more than 2 g from dietary supplements. The American Heart Association (AHA) has made recommendations for EPA and DHA due to their cardiovascular benefits: individuals with no history of coronary heart disease or myocardial infarction should consume oily fish two times per week; and "Treatment is reasonable" for those having been diagnosed with coronary heart disease. For the latter the AHA does not recommend a specific amount of EPA + DHA, although it notes that most trials were at or close to 1000 mg/day. The benefit appears to be on the order of a 9% decrease in relative risk. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved a claim "EPA and DHA contributes to the normal function of the heart" for products that contain at least 250 mg EPA + DHA. The report did not address the issue of people with pre-existing heart disease. The World Health Organization recommends regular fish consumption (1-2 servings per week, equivalent to 200 to 500 mg/day EPA + DHA) as protective against coronary heart disease and ischaemic stroke. Contamination Heavy metal poisoning from consuming fish oil supplements is highly unlikely, because heavy metals (mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic, and cadmium) selectively bind with protein in the fish flesh rather than accumulate in the oil. However, other contaminants (PCBs, furans, dioxins, and PBDEs) might be found, especially in less-refined fish oil supplements. Throughout their history, the Council for Responsible Nutrition and the World Health Organization have published acceptability standards regarding contaminants in fish oil. The most stringent current standard is the International Fish Oils Standard. Fish oils that are molecularly distilled under vacuum typically make this highest-grade; levels of contaminants are stated in parts per billion per trillion. Rancidity A 2022 study found that a number of products on the market used oxidised oils, with the rancidity often masked by flavourings. Another study found that 2015 an average of 20% of products had excess oxidation. Whether rancid fish oil is harmful remains unclear. Some studies show that highly oxidised fish oil can have negative impact on cholesterol levels. Animal testing showed that high doses have toxic effects. Furthermore, rancid oil is likely to be less effective than fresh fish oil. Fish The most widely available dietary source of EPA and DHA is oily fish, such as salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, and sardines. Oils from these fishes have around seven times as much omega−3 as omega−6. Other oily fish, such as tuna, also contain n-3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Although fish are a dietary source of omega−3 fatty acids, fish do not synthesize omega−3 fatty acids, but rather obtain them via their food supply, including algae or plankton. In order for farmed marine fish to have amounts of EPA and DHA comparable to those of wild-caught fish, their feed must be supplemented with EPA and DHA, most commonly in the form of fish oil. For this reason, 81% of the global fish oil supply in 2009 was consumed by aquaculture. Fish oil Marine and freshwater fish oil vary in content of arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA. They also differ in their effects on organ lipids. Not all forms of fish oil may be equally digestible. Of four studies that compare bioavailability of the glyceryl ester form of fish oil vs. the ethyl ester form, two have concluded the natural glyceryl ester form is better, and the other two studies did not find a significant difference. No studies have shown the ethyl ester form to be superior, although it is cheaper to manufacture. Krill Krill oil is a source of omega−3 fatty acids. The effect of krill oil, at a lower dose of EPA + DHA (62.8%), was demonstrated to be similar to that of fish oil on blood lipid levels and markers of inflammation in healthy humans. While not an endangered species, krill are a mainstay of the diets of many ocean-based species including whales, causing environmental and scientific concerns about their sustainability. Preliminary studies appear to indicate that the DHA and EPA omega−3 fatty acids found in krill oil may be more bio-available than in fish oil. Additionally, krill oil contains astaxanthin, a marine-source keto-carotenoid antioxidant that may act synergistically with EPA and DHA. Plant sources Table 1. ALA content as the percentage of the seed oil. Table 2. ALA content as the percentage of the whole food. Linseed (or flaxseed) (Linum usitatissimum) and its oil are perhaps the most widely available botanical source of the omega−3 fatty acid ALA. Flaxseed oil consists of approximately 55% ALA, which makes it six times richer than most fish oils in omega−3 fatty acids. A portion of this is converted by the body to EPA and DHA, though the actual converted percentage may differ between men and women. In 2013 Rothamsted Research in the UK reported they had developed a genetically modified form of the plant Camelina that produced EPA and DHA. Oil from the seeds of this plant contained on average 11% EPA and 8% DHA in one development and 24% EPA in another. Eggs Eggs produced by hens fed a diet of greens and insects contain higher levels of omega−3 fatty acids than those produced by chickens fed corn or soybeans. In addition to feeding chickens insects and greens, fish oils may be added to their diets to increase the omega−3 fatty acid concentrations in eggs. The addition of flax and canola seeds to the diets of laying, both good sources of alpha-linolenic acid, increases the omega−3 content of the eggs, predominantly DHA. However, this enrichment could lead to an increment of lipid oxidation in the eggs if the seeds are used in higher doses, without using an appropriate antioxidant. The addition of green algae or seaweed to the diets boosts the content of DHA and EPA, which are the forms of omega−3 approved by the FDA for medical claims. A common consumer complaint is "Omega−3 eggs can sometimes have a fishy taste if the hens are fed marine oils". Meat Omega−3 fatty acids are formed in the chloroplasts of green leaves and algae. While seaweeds and algae are the sources of omega−3 fatty acids present in fish, grass is the source of omega−3 fatty acids present in grass-fed animals. When cattle are taken off omega−3 fatty acid-rich grass and shipped to a feedlot to be fattened on omega−3 fatty acid deficient grain, they begin losing their store of this beneficial fat. Each day that an animal spends in the feedlot, the amount of omega−3 fatty acids in its meat is diminished. The omega−6:omega−3 ratio of grass-fed beef is about 2:1, making it a more useful source of omega−3 than grain-fed beef, which usually has a ratio of 4:1. In a 2009 joint study by the USDA and researchers at Clemson University in South Carolina, grass-fed beef was compared with grain-finished beef. The researchers found that grass-finished beef is higher in moisture content, 42.5% lower total lipid content, 54% lower in total fatty acids, 54% higher in beta-carotene, 288% higher in vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), higher in the B-vitamins thiamin and riboflavin, higher in the minerals calcium, magnesium, and potassium, 193% higher in total omega−3s, 117% higher in CLA (cis-9, trans-11 octadecenoic acid, a conjugated linoleic acid, which is a potential cancer fighter), 90% higher in vaccenic acid (which can be transformed into CLA), lower in the saturated fats, and has a healthier ratio of omega−6 to omega−3 fatty acids (1.65 vs 4.84). Protein and cholesterol content were equal. The omega−3 content of chicken meat may be enhanced by increasing the animals' dietary intake of grains high in omega−3, such as flax, chia, and canola. Kangaroo meat is also a source of omega−3, with fillet and steak containing 74 mg per 100 g of raw meat. Seal oil Seal oil is a source of EPA, DPA, |
Clastic hosted or SEDEX Lead-zinc-silver deposits. They are typified, among others, by Red Dog, McArthur River, Mount Isa, Rammelsberg. Mississippi valley type (MVT) zinc-lead deposits Sediment-hosted stratiform Cu-Co-(Ag) deposit, typified by the Copperbelt of Zambia and DRC. Astrobleme-related ores Sudbury Basin nickel and copper, Ontario, Canada Extraction The basic extraction of ore deposits follows these steps: Prospecting or exploration to find and then define the extent and value of ore where it is located ("ore body"). Conduct resource estimation to mathematically estimate the size and grade of the deposit. Conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, technical and financial risks and robustness of the project and make a decision as whether to develop or walk away from a proposed mine project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements and a cradle to grave analysis of the possible mine, from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation. Development of access to an ore body and building of mine plant and equipment. The operation of the mine in an active sense. Reclamation to make land where a mine had been suitable for future use. Trade Ores (metals) are traded internationally and comprise a sizeable portion of international trade in raw materials both in value and volume. This is because the worldwide distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand and from smelting infrastructure. Most base metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel) are traded internationally on the London Metal Exchange, with smaller stockpiles and metals exchanges monitored by the COMEX and NYMEX exchanges in the United States and the Shanghai Futures Exchange in China. Iron ore is traded between customer and producer, though various benchmark prices are set quarterly between the major mining conglomerates and the major consumers, and this sets the stage for smaller participants. Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices, with most prices negotiated between suppliers and customers one-on-one. This generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include lithium, niobium-tantalum, bismuth, antimony and rare earths. Most of these commodities | of ore deposits follows these steps: Prospecting or exploration to find and then define the extent and value of ore where it is located ("ore body"). Conduct resource estimation to mathematically estimate the size and grade of the deposit. Conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, technical and financial risks and robustness of the project and make a decision as whether to develop or walk away from a proposed mine project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements and a cradle to grave analysis of the possible mine, from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation. Development of access to an ore body and building of mine plant and equipment. The operation of the mine in an active sense. Reclamation to make land where a mine had been suitable for future use. Trade Ores (metals) are traded internationally and comprise a sizeable portion of international trade in raw materials both in value and volume. This is because the worldwide distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand and from smelting infrastructure. Most base metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel) are traded internationally on the London Metal Exchange, with smaller stockpiles and metals exchanges monitored by the COMEX and NYMEX exchanges in the United States and the Shanghai Futures Exchange in China. Iron ore is traded between customer and producer, though various benchmark prices are set quarterly between the major mining conglomerates and the major consumers, and this sets the stage for smaller participants. Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices, with most prices negotiated between suppliers and customers one-on-one. This generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include lithium, niobium-tantalum, bismuth, antimony and rare earths. Most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the world's reserves. The London Metal Exchange aims to add uranium to its list of metals on warrant. The World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the US and Japan. Important ore minerals Acanthite (cooled polymorph of Argentite): Ag2S for production of silver Barite: BaSO4 Bauxite Al(OH)3 and AlOOH, dried to Al2O3 for production of aluminium Beryl: Be3Al2(SiO3)6 Bornite: Cu5FeS4 Cassiterite: SnO2 Chalcocite: Cu2S for production of copper Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2 Chromite: (Fe, Mg)Cr2O4 for production of chromium Cinnabar: HgS for production of mercury Cobaltite: (Co, Fe)AsS Columbite-Tantalite or Coltan: (Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6 Galena: PbS Native gold: Au, typically associated with quartz or as placer deposits |
with this property are the stilbenes, e.g., 4,4′-diamino-2,2′-stilbenedisulfonic acid. Older, non-commercial fluorescent compounds include umbelliferone, which absorbs in the UV portion of the spectrum and re-emit it in the blue portion of the visible spectrum. A white surface treated with an optical brightener can emit more visible light than that which shines on it, making it appear brighter. The blue light emitted by the brightener compensates for the diminishing blue of the treated material and changes the hue away from yellow or brown and toward white. Approximately 400 brightener types are listed in the international Colour Index database, but fewer than 90 are produced commercially, and only a handful are commercially important. The Colour Index Generic Names and Constitution Numbers can be assigned to a specific substance. However, some are duplicated, since manufacturers apply for the index number when they produce it. The global OBA production for paper, textiles, and detergents is dominated by just a few di- and tetra-sulfonated triazole-stilbenes and a di-sulfonated stilbene-biphenyl derivatives. The stilbene derivatives are subject to fading upon prolonged exposure to UV, due to the formation of optically inactive cis-stilbenes. They are also degraded | are listed in the international Colour Index database, but fewer than 90 are produced commercially, and only a handful are commercially important. The Colour Index Generic Names and Constitution Numbers can be assigned to a specific substance. However, some are duplicated, since manufacturers apply for the index number when they produce it. The global OBA production for paper, textiles, and detergents is dominated by just a few di- and tetra-sulfonated triazole-stilbenes and a di-sulfonated stilbene-biphenyl derivatives. The stilbene derivatives are subject to fading upon prolonged exposure to UV, due to the formation of optically inactive cis-stilbenes. They are also degraded by oxygen in air, like most dye colorants. All brighteners have extended conjugation and/or aromaticity, allowing for electron movement. Some non-stilbene brighteners are used in more permanent applications such as whitening synthetic fiber. Brighteners can be "boosted" by the addition of certain polyols, such as high molecular weight polyethylene glycol or polyvinyl alcohol. These additives increase the visible |
paintings into the present day suggests that oil paints had been used in Asia for some time before the 7th century. Most European Renaissance sources, in particular Vasari, falsely credit northern European painters of the 15th century, and Jan van Eyck in particular, with the invention of oil paints However, Theophilus (Roger of Helmarshausen?) clearly gives instructions for oil-based painting in his treatise, On Various Arts, written about 1125. At this period, it was probably used for painting sculptures, carvings and wood fittings, perhaps especially for outdoor use. Outdoor surfaces and surfaces like shields—both those used in tournaments and those hung as decorations—were more durable when painted in oil-based media than when painted in the traditional tempera paints. However, early Netherlandish painting with artists like Van Eyck and Robert Campin in the early and mid-15th century were the first to make oil the usual painting medium, and explore the use of layers and glazes, followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only then Italy. Such works were painted on wooden panels, but towards the end of the 15th century canvas began to be used as a support, as it was cheaper, easier to transport, allowed larger works, and did not require complicated preliminary layers of gesso (a fine type of plaster). Venice, where sail-canvas was easily available, was a leader in the move to canvas. Small cabinet paintings were also made on metal, especially copper plates. These supports were more expensive but very firm, allowing intricately fine detail. Often printing plates from printmaking were reused for this purpose. The increasing use of oil spread through Italy from Northern Europe, starting in Venice in the late 15th century. By 1540, the previous method for painting on panel (tempera) had become all but extinct, although Italians continued to use chalk-based fresco for wall paintings, which was less successful and durable in damper northern climates. Renaissance techniques used a number of thin almost transparent layers or glazes, usually each allowed to dry before the next was added, greatly increasing the time a painting took. The underpainting or ground beneath these was usually white (typically gesso coated with a primer), allowing light to reflect back through the layers. But van Eyck, and Robert Campin a little later, used a wet-on-wet technique in places, painting a second layer soon after the first. Initially the aim was, as with the established techniques of tempera and fresco, to produce a smooth surface when no attention was drawn to the brushstrokes or texture of the painted surface. Among the earliest impasto effects, using a raised or rough texture in the surface of the paint, are those from the later works of the Venetian painter Giovanni Bellini, around 1500. This became much more common in the 16th century, as may painters began to draw attention to the process of their painting, by leaving individual brushstrokes obvious, and a rough painted surface. Another Venetian, Titian, was a leader in this. In the 17th century some artists, including Rembrandt, began to use dark grounds. Until the mid-19th century there was a division between artists who exploited "effects of handling" in their paintwork, and those who continued to aim at "an even, glassy surface from which all evidences of manipulation had been banished". Before the 19th century, artists or their apprentices ground pigments and mixed their paints for the range of painting media. This made portability difficult and kept most painting activities confined to the studio. This changed when tubes of oil paint became widely available following the American portrait painter John Goffe Rand's invention of the squeezable or collapsible metal tube in 1841. Artists could mix colors quickly and easily, which enabled, for the first time, relatively convenient plein air painting (a common approach in French Impressionism) Ingredients The linseed oil itself comes from the flax seed, a common fiber crop. Linen, a "support" for oil painting (see relevant section), also comes from the flax plant. Safflower oil or the walnut or poppyseed oil are sometimes used in formulating lighter colors like white because they "yellow" less on drying than linseed oil, but they have the slight drawback of drying more slowly and may not provide the strongest paint film. Linseed oil tends to dry yellow and can change the hue of the color. Recent advances in chemistry have produced modern water miscible oil paints that can be used and cleaned up with water. Small alterations in the molecular structure of the oil creates this water miscible property. Supports for oil painting The earliest oil paintings were almost all panel paintings on wood, which had been seasoned and prepared in a complicated and rather expensive process with the panel constructed from several pieces of wood, although such a support has a tendency to warp. Panels continued to be used well into the 17th century, including by Rubens, who painted several large works on wood. The artists of the Italian regions moved towards canvas in the early 16th century, led partly by a wish to paint larger images, which would have been too heavy as panels. Canvas for sails was made in Venice and so easily available and cheaper than wood. Smaller paintings, with very fine detail, were easier to paint on a very firm surface, and wood panels or copper plates, often reused from printmaking, were often chosen for small cabinet paintings even in the 19th century. Portrait miniatures normally used very firm supports, including ivory, or stiff paper card. Traditional artists' canvas is made from linen, but less expensive cotton fabric has been used. The artist first prepares a wooden frame called a "stretcher" or "strainer". The difference between the two names is that stretchers are slightly adjustable, while strainers are rigid and lack adjustable corner notches. The canvas is then pulled across the wooden frame and tacked or stapled tightly to the back edge. Then the artist applies a "size" to isolate the canvas from the acidic qualities of the paint. Traditionally, the canvas was coated with a layer of animal glue (modern painters will use rabbit skin glue) as the size and primed with lead white paint, sometimes with added chalk. Panels were prepared with a gesso, a mixture of glue and chalk. Modern acrylic "gesso" is made of titanium dioxide with an acrylic binder. It is frequently used on canvas, whereas real gesso is not suitable for canvas. The artist might apply several | property. Supports for oil painting The earliest oil paintings were almost all panel paintings on wood, which had been seasoned and prepared in a complicated and rather expensive process with the panel constructed from several pieces of wood, although such a support has a tendency to warp. Panels continued to be used well into the 17th century, including by Rubens, who painted several large works on wood. The artists of the Italian regions moved towards canvas in the early 16th century, led partly by a wish to paint larger images, which would have been too heavy as panels. Canvas for sails was made in Venice and so easily available and cheaper than wood. Smaller paintings, with very fine detail, were easier to paint on a very firm surface, and wood panels or copper plates, often reused from printmaking, were often chosen for small cabinet paintings even in the 19th century. Portrait miniatures normally used very firm supports, including ivory, or stiff paper card. Traditional artists' canvas is made from linen, but less expensive cotton fabric has been used. The artist first prepares a wooden frame called a "stretcher" or "strainer". The difference between the two names is that stretchers are slightly adjustable, while strainers are rigid and lack adjustable corner notches. The canvas is then pulled across the wooden frame and tacked or stapled tightly to the back edge. Then the artist applies a "size" to isolate the canvas from the acidic qualities of the paint. Traditionally, the canvas was coated with a layer of animal glue (modern painters will use rabbit skin glue) as the size and primed with lead white paint, sometimes with added chalk. Panels were prepared with a gesso, a mixture of glue and chalk. Modern acrylic "gesso" is made of titanium dioxide with an acrylic binder. It is frequently used on canvas, whereas real gesso is not suitable for canvas. The artist might apply several layers of gesso, sanding each smooth after it has dried. Acrylic gesso is very difficult to sand. One manufacturer makes a "sandable" acrylic gesso, but it is intended for panels only and not canvas. It is possible to make the gesso a particular color, but most store-bought gesso is white. The gesso layer, depending on its thickness, will tend to draw the oil paint into the porous surface. Excessive or uneven gesso layers are sometimes visible in the surface of finished paintings as a change that's not from the paint. Standard sizes for oil paintings were set in France in the 19th century. The standards were used by most artists, not only the French, as it was—and evidently still is—supported by the main suppliers of artists' materials. Size 0 (toile de 0) to size 120 (toile de 120) is divided in separate "runs" for figures (figure), landscapes (paysage) and marines (marine) that more or less preserve the diagonal. Thus a 0 figure corresponds in height with a paysage 1 and a marine 2. Although surfaces like linoleum, wooden panel, paper, slate, pressed wood, Masonite, and cardboard have been used, the most popular surface since the 16th century has been canvas, although many artists used panel through the 17th century and beyond. Panel is more expensive, heavier, harder to transport, and prone to warp or split in poor conditions. For fine detail, however, the absolute solidity of a wooden panel has an advantage. Process Oil paint is made by mixing pigments of colors with an oil medium. Since the 19th century the different main colors are purchased in paint tubes pre-prepared before painting begins, further shades of color are usually obtained by mixing small quantities together as the painting process is underway. An artist's palette, traditionally a thin wood board held in the hand, is used for holding and mixing paints. Pigments may be any number of natural or synthetic substances with color, such as sulphides for yellow or cobalt salts for blue. Traditional pigments were based on minerals or plants, but many have proven unstable over long periods of time. Modern pigments often use synthetic chemicals. The pigment is mixed with oil, usually linseed, but other oils may be used. The various oils dry differently, which creates assorted effects. A brush is most commonly employed by the artist to apply the paint, often over a sketched outline of their subject (which could be in another medium). Brushes are made from a variety of fibers to create different effects. For example, brushes made with hog bristle might be used for bolder strokes and impasto textures. Fitch hair and mongoose hair brushes are fine and smooth, and thus answer well for portraits and detail work. Even more expensive are red sable brushes (weasel hair). The finest quality brushes are called "kolinsky sable"; these brush fibers are taken from the tail of the Siberian weasel. This hair keeps a superfine point, has smooth handling, and good memory (it returns to its original point when lifted off the canvas), known to artists as a brush's "snap". Floppy fibers with no snap, such as squirrel hair, are generally not used by oil painters. In the past few decades, many synthetic brushes have been marketed. These are very durable and can be quite good, as well as cost efficient. Brushes come in multiple sizes and are used for different purposes. The type of brush also makes a difference. For example, a "round" is a pointed brush used for detail work. "Flat" brushes are used to apply broad swaths of color. "Bright" is a flat brush with shorter brush hairs, used for "scrubbing in". "Filbert" is a flat brush with rounded corners. "Egbert" is a very long, and rare, filbert brush. The artist might also apply paint with a palette knife, which is a flat metal blade. A palette knife may also be used to remove paint from the canvas when necessary. A variety of unconventional tools, such as rags, sponges, and cotton swabs, may be used to apply or remove paint. Some artists even paint with their fingers. Old masters usually applied paint in layers known as "glazes", a method also simply called "indirect painting". This method was first perfected through an adaptation of the egg tempera painting technique (egg yolks used as a |
John Bell Hood sought to retake the city, Driver hung the flag out of the third-story window and left to join the defense of the city. For the rest of the American Civil War, Driver served as provost marshal of Nashville, serving in hospitals. Mary Jane Roland, Driver's daughter, said Driver gave her the flag as a gift on July 10, 1873, telling her "This is my old ship flag Old Glory. I love it as a mother loves her child. Take it and cherish it as I have always cherished it; for it has been my steadfast friend and protector in all parts of the world—savage, heathen and civilized." Driver died on March 3, 1886, and was buried in the Nashville City Cemetery, where, at Driver's request, his rescue of the Bounty descendants is noted on his grave stone. Following Driver’s death, a family feud erupted over the ownership of the flag. Driver's niece, Harriet Ruth Waters Cooke, the daughter of Driver's youngest sister, said she inherited the flag and presented her version of Old Glory to the Essex Institute in Salem, which became the Peabody Essex Museum, along with family memorabilia that included a letter from the Pitcairn Islands to Driver. Cooke published a family memoir in 1889, omitting any mention of Mary Jane Roland. Roland wrote an account of the flag, publishing Old Glory, The True Story in 1918. In that memoir, Roland disputed Cooke's narrative and presented evidence for her claim that the flag she owned was the true Old Glory. In 1922, Roland gave her Old Glory to President Warren G. Harding. Harding had the flag sent to the Smithsonian Institution. The same year, the Peabody Essex Museum sent its Old Glory to the Smithsonian. In 2019, Captain Driver's great-great grandson, Jack Benz, published a novel depicting the life and adventures of Captain William Driver using information collected from personal research and inherited from Captain Driver's descendants. Smithsonian Institution collection The Smithsonian Institution has regarded the Roland flag as the authentic Old Glory, since "documentary evidence in the Tennessee State Library and Archives suggests it was the one hidden in the quilt and presented to Union troops who took Nashville. The Roland flag is 17x10 feet. The Peabody flag is 12x6 feet. In June 2006, the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History (NMAH) loaned the Roland flag to the Tennessee State Museum in Nashville for an eight-month exhibit entitled "Old Glory: An American Treasure Comes Home". The flag was in fragile condition and had to be carefully shipped and displayed. A conservation evaluation of both flags by NMAH curator Jennifer Locke Jones and Thomassen-Krauss began in 2012. Preliminary findings indicate that the larger Roland flag has the | salesman and served as vestryman of Christ Episcopal Church. In 1860, Driver, his wife and daughters repaired the flag, sewing on 10 additional stars, and Driver added by appliqué a small white anchor in the lower right corner, to symbolize his maritime career. By that time, the secession crisis had begun and Driver's family was split. While Driver was a staunch Unionist, two of his sons were fervent Confederates who enlisted in local regiments. One of Driver’s sons died from wounds suffered at Perryville. In March 1862, Driver wrote: "Two sons in the army of the South! My entire house estranged...and when I come home...no one to soothe me." Soon after Tennessee seceded from the Union, Governor Isham G. Harris sent men to Driver's home to demand the flag. Driver, 58 years old, turned the men away at his door after demanding they produce a search warrant. An armed group returned to Driver's front porch, who refused to produce the flag, saying "If you want my flag you'll have to take it over my dead body." To save the flag from further threats, Driver and some of his neighbors sewed it into a coverlet and hid it until February 1862, when Nashville fell to Union forces. When the Union Army, led by the 6th Ohio Infantry, entered the city, Driver went to Tennessee state capitol after seeing the U.S. flag and the 6th Ohio's regimental colors raised on the Capitol flagstaffand asked to see the general in command. Horace Fisher, the aide-de-camp to the Union commander in the city, Brigadier General William "Bull" Nelson, described Driver as "a stout, middle-aged man, with hair well shot with gray, short in stature, broad in shoulder, and with a roll in his gait." Introducing himself as a sea captain and Unionist, Driver brought the coverlet with him and opened it, revealing the flag. Nelson accepted the flag and ordered it run up on the Capitol flagstaff. The 6th Ohio later adopted the motto "Old Glory." That night, a violent storm threatened to tear flag, so Driver replaced it with a newer flag, taking the original Old Glory for safekeeping. The flag remained in his home until December 1864, when the Battle of Nashville was fought. As Confederate troopers under the command of John Bell Hood sought to retake the city, Driver hung the flag out of the third-story window and left to join the defense of the city. For the rest of the American Civil War, Driver served as provost marshal of Nashville, serving in hospitals. Mary Jane Roland, Driver's daughter, said Driver gave her the flag as a gift on July 10, 1873, telling her "This is my old ship flag Old Glory. I love it as a mother loves her child. Take it and cherish it as I have always cherished it; for it has been my steadfast friend and protector in all parts of the world—savage, heathen and civilized." Driver died on March 3, 1886, and was buried in the Nashville City Cemetery, where, at Driver's request, his rescue of the Bounty descendants is noted on his grave stone. Following Driver’s death, a family feud erupted over the ownership of the flag. Driver's niece, Harriet Ruth Waters Cooke, the daughter of Driver's youngest sister, said she inherited the flag and presented her version of Old Glory to the Essex Institute in Salem, which became the Peabody Essex Museum, along with family memorabilia that included a letter from the Pitcairn Islands to Driver. Cooke published a family memoir in 1889, omitting any mention of |
government. In 1973, Letelier was recalled to Chile and served successively as Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Interior and Defense. In the coup d'état of 11 September 1973, he was the first high-ranking member of the Allende administration to be arrested. He was held for twelve months in various concentration camps and suffered severe torture: first at the Tacna Regiment, then at the Military Academy; later he was sent for eight months to a political prison on Dawson Island; from there he was transferred to the basement of the Air Force War Academy, and finally to the concentration camp of Ritoque. Following international diplomatic pressure, especially from Diego Arria, then Governor of Distrito Federal of Venezuela, he was released in September 1974 on the condition that he immediately leave Chile. After his release, he and his family resettled in Caracas, but later moved to the United States on the recommendation of American writer Saul Landau. In 1975, Letelier moved to Washington D.C., where he became senior fellow of the Washington, D.C.-based Institute for Policy Studies, a think tank Landau was involved in. Letelier became director of the Amsterdam-based Transnational Institute and taught at the School of International Service of the American University in Washington, D.C. Letelier wrote several articles criticizing the "Chicago Boys", a group of South American economists trained at the University of Chicago by Milton Friedman and Arnold Harberger who returned to their home countries to promote and advise leaders on the benefits of a free-market economy. This economic model was used to great effect in Chile where General Pinochet sought to dismantle the country's socialist economic system and replace it with a free market economy. Letelier believed that in a resource driven economy such as Chile, allowing markets to operate freely simply guaranteed the movement of wealth from the lower and middle classes to the monopolists and financial speculators. He soon became the leading voice of the Chilean resistance, preventing several loans (especially from Europe) from being awarded to the Chilean government. On 10 September 1976, he was stripped of his Chilean nationality. Assassination Letelier was killed by a car bomb explosion on 21 September 1976 in Sheridan Circle in Washington, D.C., along with his American co-worker, Ronni Karpen Moffitt. Moffit's husband, Michael Moffitt, was injured but survived. Several people were prosecuted and convicted for the murder. Among them were Michael Townley, a U.S. expatriate working for DINA, General Manuel Contreras, former head of DINA, and Brigadier Pedro Espinoza, also formerly of DINA. Townley was convicted in the United States in 1978 and served 62 months in prison for the murder; he is now free as a participant in the United States Federal Witness Protection Program. Contreras and Espinoza were convicted in Chile in 1993. During the FBI investigation into the assassination, documents in Letelier's possession were copied and leaked to journalists Rowland Evans and Robert Novak of The Washington Times and Jack Anderson by the FBI before being returned to his widow. The documents purportedly show Letelier was working with Eastern Bloc Intelligence agencies for a decade and coordinating his activities with the surviving political leadership of the Popular Unity coalition exiled in East Berlin. The FBI suspected that these individuals had been recruited by the Stasi. Documents in the briefcase showed that Letelier had maintained contact with Salvador Allende’s daughter, Beatriz Allende who was married to Cuban DGI station chief Luis Fernandez Ona. Letelier's funeral was held at St. Matthew's Cathedral in Washington D.C., followed by a march to the site of the car-bombing at Sheridan Circle on Massachusetts Avenue, where folksinger Joan Baez sang in honor of Letelier. Several thousand U.S. citizens and Chilean exiles took part. Diego Arria intervened again by bringing Letelier's body to Caracas for burial, where he remained until 1994 after the end of Pinochet's rule. General Augusto Pinochet, who died on 10 December 2006, was never brought to trial for the murders, despite evidence implicating him as having ordered them. Following the assassination, the United States cut military aid to Chile, and took a stance of 'unobtrusiveness' within the country. Aftermath Following the death of Pinochet in December 2006, the Institute for Policy Studies (IPS), for which both Letelier and Moffitt worked, called for the release of all classified documents relating to the Letelier–Moffitt assassination. According to the IPS, the Clinton administration de-classified more than 16,000 documents relating to Chile, but withheld documents relating to the Letelier-Moffitt assassination in Washington on the grounds that they were associated with an ongoing investigation. The IPS said the Clinton administration had re-opened the investigation into the Letelier-Moffitt murders and sent agents to Chile to gather additional evidence that Pinochet had authorized the crime. The former Chilean Secret Police Chief, Manuel Contreras, who was convicted for his role in the crime in 1993, later pointed the finger | 2006, the Institute for Policy Studies (IPS), for which both Letelier and Moffitt worked, called for the release of all classified documents relating to the Letelier–Moffitt assassination. According to the IPS, the Clinton administration de-classified more than 16,000 documents relating to Chile, but withheld documents relating to the Letelier-Moffitt assassination in Washington on the grounds that they were associated with an ongoing investigation. The IPS said the Clinton administration had re-opened the investigation into the Letelier-Moffitt murders and sent agents to Chile to gather additional evidence that Pinochet had authorized the crime. The former Chilean Secret Police Chief, Manuel Contreras, who was convicted for his role in the crime in 1993, later pointed the finger at his superiors, claiming that all relevant orders had come from Pinochet. Subsequent disclosures A US State Department document made available by the National Security Archive on 10 April 2010 reveals that a démarche protesting Pinochet's Operation Condor assassination program was proposed and sent on 23 August 1976 to US diplomatic missions in Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile to be delivered to their host governments but later rescinded on 16 September 1976 by Henry Kissinger, following concerns raised by US ambassadors assigned there of both personal safety and a likely diplomatic contretemps. Five days later, the Letelier assassination took place. Documents released in 2015 revealed a CIA report dated 28 April 1978, which showed that the agency by then had knowledge that Pinochet ordered the murders. The report stated, "Contreras told a confidante he authorized the assassination of Letelier on orders from Pinochet." A State Department document also referred to eight separate CIA reports from around the same date, each sourced to "extremely sensitive informants" who provided evidence of Pinochet's direct involvement in ordering the assassination and in directing the subsequent cover-up. During the tenure of Richard Downie at the William J. Perry Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies, a U.S. Southern Command educational institution located at the National Defense University, the alleged (and as yet unproven) role of Jaime Garcia Covarrubias, a Chilean professor who was head of counterintelligence for DINA in the 1970s, in the torture and murder of seven detainees was revealed inside the center. His alleged role was first brought to Downie's attention in early 2008 by Center Assistant Professor Martin Edwin Andersen, a senior staff member who earlier, as a senior advisor for policy planning at the Criminal Division of the U.S. Department of Justice, was the first national security whistleblower to receive the U.S. Office of Special Counsel's "Public Servant Award." In an October 1987 investigative report in The Nation, Andersen broke the story of how, in a June 1976 meeting in the Hotel Carrera in Santiago, Kissinger gave the bloody military junta in neighboring Argentina the "green light" for their own dirty "war." See |
a new play, Salomé, written rapidly and in French. A tragedy, it tells the story of Salome, the stepdaughter of the tetrarch Herod Antipas, who, to her stepfather's dismay but mother's delight, requests the head of Jokanaan (John the Baptist) on a silver platter as a reward for dancing the Dance of the Seven Veils. When Wilde returned to London just before Christmas the Paris Echo referred to him as "le great event" of the season. Rehearsals of the play, starring Sarah Bernhardt, began but the play was refused a licence by the Lord Chamberlain, since it depicted biblical characters. Salome was published jointly in Paris and London in 1893, but was not performed until 1896 in Paris, during Wilde's later incarceration. Comedies of society Wilde, who had first set out to irritate Victorian society with his dress and talking points, then outrage it with Dorian Gray, his novel of vice hidden beneath art, finally found a way to critique society on its own terms. Lady Windermere's Fan was first performed on 20 February 1892 at St James's Theatre, packed with the cream of society. On the surface a witty comedy, there is subtle subversion underneath: "it concludes with collusive concealment rather than collective disclosure". The audience, like Lady Windermere, are forced to soften harsh social codes in favour of a more nuanced view. The play was enormously popular, touring the country for months, but largely trashed by conservative critics. The success of the play saw Wilde earn £7,000 in the first year alone (worth £ today). His first hit play was followed by A Woman of No Importance in 1893, another Victorian comedy, revolving around the spectre of illegitimate births, mistaken identities and late revelations. Wilde was commissioned to write two more plays and An Ideal Husband, written in 1894, followed in January 1895. Peter Raby said these essentially English plays were well-pitched: "Wilde, with one eye on the dramatic genius of Ibsen, and the other on the commercial competition in London's West End, targeted his audience with adroit precision". Queensberry family In mid-1891 Lionel Johnson introduced Wilde to Lord Alfred Douglas, Johnson's cousin and an undergraduate at Oxford at the time. Known to his family and friends as "Bosie", he was a handsome and spoilt young man. An intimate friendship sprang up between Wilde and Douglas and by 1893 Wilde was infatuated with Douglas and they consorted together regularly in a tempestuous affair. If Wilde was relatively indiscreet, even flamboyant, in the way he acted, Douglas was reckless in public. Wilde, who was earning up to £100 a week from his plays (his salary at The Woman's World had been £6), indulged Douglas's every whim: material, artistic, or sexual. Douglas soon initiated Wilde into the Victorian underground of gay prostitution and Wilde was introduced to a series of young working-class male prostitutes (rent boys) from 1892 onwards by Alfred Taylor. These infrequent rendezvous usually took the same form: Wilde would meet the boy, offer him gifts, dine him privately and then take him to a hotel room. Unlike Wilde's idealised relations with Ross, John Gray, and Douglas, all of whom remained part of his aesthetic circle, these consorts were uneducated and knew nothing of literature. Soon his public and private lives had become sharply divided; in De Profundis he wrote to Douglas that "It was like feasting with panthers; the danger was half the excitement... I did not know that when they were to strike at me it was to be at another's piping and at another's pay." Douglas and some Oxford friends founded a journal, The Chameleon, to which Wilde "sent a page of paradoxes originally destined for the Saturday Review". "Phrases and Philosophies for the Use of the Young" was to come under attack six months later at Wilde's trial, where he was forced to defend the magazine to which he had sent his work. In any case, it became unique: The Chameleon was not published again. Lord Alfred's father, the Marquess of Queensberry, was known for his outspoken atheism, brutish manner and creation of the modern rules of boxing. Queensberry, who feuded regularly with his son, confronted Wilde and Lord Alfred about the nature of their relationship several times, but Wilde was able to mollify him. In June 1894, he called on Wilde at 16 Tite Street, without an appointment, and clarified his stance: "I do not say that you are it, but you look it, and pose at it, which is just as bad. And if I catch you and my son again in any public restaurant I will thrash you" to which Wilde responded: "I don't know what the Queensberry rules are, but the Oscar Wilde rule is to shoot on sight". His account in De Profundis was less triumphant: "It was when, in my library at Tite Street, waving his small hands in the air in epileptic fury, your father... stood uttering every foul word his foul mind could think of, and screaming the loathsome threats he afterwards with such cunning carried out". Queensberry only described the scene once, saying Wilde had "shown him the white feather", meaning he had acted in a cowardly way. Though trying to remain calm, Wilde saw that he was becoming ensnared in a brutal family quarrel. He did not wish to bear Queensberry's insults, but he knew to confront him could lead to disaster were his liaisons disclosed publicly. The Importance of Being Earnest Wilde's final play again returns to the theme of switched identities: the play's two protagonists engage in "bunburying" (the maintenance of alternative personas in the town and country) which allows them to escape Victorian social mores. Earnest is even lighter in tone than Wilde's earlier comedies. While their characters often rise to serious themes in moments of crisis, Earnest lacks the by-now stock Wildean characters: there is no "woman with a past", the principals are neither villainous nor cunning, simply idle cultivés, and the idealistic young women are not that innocent. Mostly set in drawing rooms and almost completely lacking in action or violence, Earnest lacks the self-conscious decadence found in The Picture of Dorian Gray and Salome. The play, now considered Wilde's masterpiece, was rapidly written in Wilde's artistic maturity in late 1894. It was first performed on 14 February 1895, at St James's Theatre in London, Wilde's second collaboration with George Alexander, the actor-manager. Both author and producer assiduously revised, prepared and rehearsed every line, scene and setting in the months before the premiere, creating a carefully constructed representation of late-Victorian society, yet simultaneously mocking it. During rehearsal Alexander requested that Wilde shorten the play from four acts to three, which the author did. Premieres at St James's seemed like "brilliant parties", and the opening of The Importance of Being Earnest was no exception. Allan Aynesworth (who played Algernon) recalled to Hesketh Pearson, "In my fifty-three years of acting, I never remember a greater triumph than [that] first night." Earnests immediate reception as Wilde's best work to date finally crystallised his fame into a solid artistic reputation. In a review of the play for The Pall Mall Gazette H. G. Wells wrote, "More humorous dealing with theatrical conventions it would be difficult to imagine. Mr Oscar Wilde has decorated a humour that is Gilbertian with innumerable spangles of that wit that is all his own". The Importance of Being Earnest remains his most popular play. Wilde's professional success was mirrored by an escalation in his feud with Queensberry. Queensberry had planned to insult Wilde publicly by throwing a bouquet of rotting vegetables onto the stage; Wilde was tipped off and had Queensberry barred from entering the theatre. Fifteen weeks later Wilde was in prison. Trials Wilde v. Queensberry On 18 February 1895, the Marquess of Queensberry left his calling card at Wilde's club, the Albemarle, inscribed: "For Oscar Wilde, posing somdomite". Wilde, encouraged by Douglas and against the advice of his friends, initiated a private prosecution against Queensberry for libel, since the note amounted to a public accusation that Wilde had committed the crime of sodomy. Queensberry was arrested for criminal libel, a charge carrying a possible sentence of up to two years in prison. Under the 1843 Libel Act, Queensberry could avoid conviction for libel only by demonstrating that his accusation was in fact true, and furthermore that there was some "public benefit" to having made the accusation openly. Queensberry's lawyers thus hired private detectives to find evidence of Wilde's homosexual liaisons. Wilde's friends had advised him against the prosecution at a Saturday Review meeting at the Café Royal on 24 March 1895; Frank Harris warned him that "they are going to prove sodomy against you" and advised him to flee to France. Wilde and Douglas walked out in a huff, Wilde saying "it is at such moments as these that one sees who are one's true friends". The scene was witnessed by George Bernard Shaw who recalled it to Arthur Ransome a day or so before Ransome's trial for libelling Douglas in 1913. To Ransome it confirmed what he had said in his 1912 book on Wilde: that Douglas's rivalry for Wilde with Robbie Ross and his arguments with his father had resulted in Wilde's public disaster, as Wilde wrote in De Profundis. Douglas lost his case. Shaw included an account of the argument between Harris, Douglas and Wilde in the preface to his play The Dark Lady of the Sonnets. The libel trial became a cause célèbre as salacious details of Wilde's private life with Taylor and Douglas began to appear in the press. A team of private detectives had directed Queensberry's lawyers, led by Edward Carson QC, to the world of the Victorian underground. Wilde's association with blackmailers and male prostitutes, cross-dressers and homosexual brothels was recorded, and various persons involved were interviewed, some being coerced to appear as witnesses since they too were accomplices to the crimes of which Wilde was accused. The trial opened at the Old Bailey on 3 April 1895 before Justice Richard Henn Collins amid scenes of near hysteria both in the press and the public galleries. The extent of the evidence massed against Wilde forced him to declare meekly, "I am the prosecutor in this case". Wilde's lawyer, Sir Edward Clarke, opened the case by pre-emptively asking Wilde about two suggestive letters Wilde had written to Douglas, which the defence had in its possession. He characterised the first as a "prose sonnet" and admitted that the "poetical language" might seem strange to the court but claimed its intent was innocent. Wilde stated that the letters had been obtained by blackmailers who had attempted to extort money from him, but he had refused, suggesting they should take the £60 (equal to £ today) offered, "unusual for a prose piece of that length". He claimed to regard the letters as works of art rather than something of which to be ashamed. Carson, a fellow Dubliner who had attended Trinity College Dublin at the same time as Wilde, cross-examined Wilde on how he perceived the moral content of his works. Wilde replied with characteristic wit and flippancy, claiming that works of art are not capable of being moral or immoral but only well or poorly made, and that only "brutes and illiterates", whose views on art "are incalculably stupid", would make such judgements about art. Carson, a leading barrister, diverged from the normal practice of asking closed questions. Carson pressed Wilde on each topic from every angle, squeezing out nuances of meaning from Wilde's answers, removing them from their aesthetic context and portraying Wilde as evasive and decadent. While Wilde won the most laughs from the court, Carson scored the most legal points. To undermine Wilde's credibility, and to justify Queensberry's description of Wilde as a "posing somdomite", Carson drew from the witness an admission of his capacity for "posing", by demonstrating that he had lied about his age under oath. Playing on this, he returned to the topic throughout his cross-examination. Carson also tried to justify Queensberry's characterisation by quoting from Wilde's novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, referring in particular to a scene in the second chapter, in which Lord Henry Wotton explains his decadent philosophy to Dorian, an "innocent young man", in Carson's words. Carson then moved to the factual evidence and questioned Wilde about his friendships with younger, lower-class men. Wilde admitted being on a first-name basis and lavishing gifts upon them, but insisted that nothing untoward had occurred and that the men were merely good friends of his. Carson repeatedly pointed out the unusual nature of these relationships and insinuated that the men were prostitutes. Wilde replied that he did not believe in social barriers, and simply enjoyed the society of young men. Then Carson asked Wilde directly whether he had ever kissed a certain servant boy, Wilde responded, "Oh, dear no. He was a particularly plain boy – unfortunately ugly – I pitied him for it." Carson pressed him on the answer, repeatedly asking why the boy's ugliness was relevant. Wilde hesitated, then for the first time became flustered: "You sting me and insult me and try to unnerve me; and at times one says things flippantly when one ought to speak more seriously." In his opening speech for the defence, Carson announced that he had located several male prostitutes who were to testify that they had had sex with Wilde. On the advice of his lawyers, Wilde dropped the prosecution. Queensberry was found not guilty, as the court declared that his accusation that Wilde was "posing as a Somdomite " was justified, "true in substance and in fact". Under the Libel Act 1843, Queensberry's acquittal rendered Wilde legally liable for the considerable expenses Queensberry had incurred in his defence, which left Wilde bankrupt. Regina v. Wilde After Wilde left the court, a warrant for his arrest was applied for on charges of sodomy and gross indecency. Robbie Ross found Wilde at the Cadogan Hotel, Pont Street, Knightsbridge, with Reginald Turner. Both men advised Wilde to go at once to Dover and try to get a boat to France; his mother advised him to stay and fight. Wilde, lapsing into inaction, could only say, "The train has gone. It's too late." On 6 April 1895, Wilde was arrested for "gross indecency" under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, a term meaning homosexual acts not amounting to buggery (an offence under a separate statute). At Wilde's instruction, Ross and Wilde's butler forced their way into the bedroom and library of 16 Tite Street, packing some personal effects, manuscripts, and letters. Wilde was then imprisoned on remand at Holloway, where he received daily visits from Douglas. Events moved quickly and his prosecution opened on 26 April 1895, before Mr Justice Charles. Wilde pleaded not guilty. He had already begged Douglas to leave London for Paris, but Douglas complained bitterly, even wanting to give evidence; he was pressed to go and soon fled to the Hotel du Monde. Fearing persecution, Ross and many others also left the United Kingdom during this time. Under cross examination Wilde was at first hesitant, then spoke eloquently: This response was counter-productive in a legal sense as it only served to reinforce the charges of homosexual behaviour. The trial ended with the jury unable to reach a verdict. Wilde's counsel, Sir Edward Clarke, was finally able to get a magistrate to allow Wilde and his friends to post bail. The Reverend Stewart Headlam put up most of the £5,000 surety required by the court, having disagreed with Wilde's treatment by the press and the courts. Wilde was freed from Holloway and, shunning attention, went into hiding at the house of Ernest and Ada Leverson, two of his firm friends. Edward Carson approached Frank Lockwood QC, the Solicitor General and asked "Can we not let up on the fellow now?" Lockwood answered that he would like to do so, but feared that the case had become too politicised to be dropped. The final trial was presided over by Mr Justice Wills. On 25 May 1895 Wilde and Alfred Taylor were convicted of gross indecency and sentenced to two years' hard labour. The judge described the sentence, the maximum allowed, as "totally inadequate for a case such as this", and that the case was "the worst case I have ever tried". Wilde's response "And I? May I say nothing, my Lord?" was drowned out in cries of "Shame" in the courtroom. Although it is widely believed that the charges were related to Wilde's consensual activities, The Trials of Oscar Wilde, which includes an original transcript of the libel trial (which came to light in 2000), suggests that he took advantage of teenagers. However, one of the authors, Merlin Holland, argues, "One is taking it out of context, he was not an odious predator. The boys seemed to be willing partners and there appeared to be a relationship going on between him and them". Antony Edmonds feels that Wilde would have faced prosecution today: "For example, he certainly paid for sex with youths under the age of 18 which is a criminal offence. But even if his activities had led only to exposure and not to arrest, he would have been savagely pilloried in the media. Wilde was 39 when he seduced Alphonse Conway, and Conway was an inexperienced boy of 16". Imprisonment Wilde was incarcerated from 25 May 1895 to 18 May 1897. He first entered Newgate Prison in London for processing, then was moved to Pentonville Prison, where the "hard labour" to which he had been sentenced consisted of many hours of walking a treadmill and picking oakum (separating the fibres in scraps of old navy ropes), and where prisoners were allowed to read only the Bible and The Pilgrim's Progress. A few months later he was moved to Wandsworth Prison in London. Inmates there also followed the regimen of "hard labour, hard fare and a hard bed", which wore harshly on Wilde's delicate health. In November he collapsed during chapel from illness and hunger. His right ear drum was ruptured in the fall, an injury that later contributed to his death. He spent two months in the infirmary. Richard B. Haldane, the Liberal MP and reformer, visited Wilde and had him transferred in November to Reading Gaol, west of London on 23 November 1895. The transfer itself was the lowest point of his incarceration, as a crowd jeered and spat at him on the railway platform. He spent the remainder of his sentence there, addressed and identified only as "C.3.3" – the occupant of the third cell on the third floor of C ward. About five months after Wilde arrived at Reading Gaol, Charles Thomas Wooldridge, a trooper in the Royal Horse Guards, was brought to Reading to await his trial for murdering his wife on 29 March 1896; on 17 June Wooldridge was sentenced to death and returned to Reading for his execution, which took place on Tuesday, 7 July 1896 – the first hanging at Reading in 18 years. From Wooldridge's hanging, Wilde later wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol. Wilde was not, at first, even allowed paper and pen, but Haldane eventually succeeded in allowing access to books and writing materials. Wilde requested, among others, the Bible in French; Italian and German grammars; some Ancient Greek texts; Dante's Divine Comedy; Joris-Karl Huysmans's new French novel about Christian redemption, En route; and essays by St Augustine, Cardinal Newman and Walter Pater. Between January and March 1897 Wilde wrote a 50,000-word letter to Douglas. He was not allowed to send it, but was permitted to take it with him when released from prison. In reflective mode, Wilde coldly examines his career to date, how he had been a colourful agent provocateur in Victorian society, his art, like his paradoxes, seeking to subvert as well as sparkle. His own estimation of himself was: one who "stood in symbolic relations to the art and culture of my age". It was from these heights that his life with Douglas began, and Wilde examines that particularly closely, repudiating him for what Wilde finally sees as his arrogance and vanity: he had not forgotten Douglas' remark, when he was ill, "When you are not on your pedestal you are not interesting." Wilde blamed himself, though, for the ethical degradation of character that he allowed Douglas to bring about in him and took responsibility for his own fall, "I am here for having tried to put your father in prison." The first half concludes with Wilde forgiving Douglas, for his own sake as much as Douglas's. The second half of the letter traces Wilde's spiritual journey of redemption and fulfilment through his prison reading. He realised that his ordeal had filled his soul with the fruit of experience, however bitter it tasted at the time. ... I wanted to eat of the fruit of all the trees in the garden of the world ... And so, indeed, I went out, and so I lived. My only mistake was that I confined myself so exclusively to the trees of what seemed to me the sun-lit side of the garden, and shunned the other side for its shadow and its gloom. Wilde was released from prison on 19 May 1897 and sailed that evening for Dieppe, France. He never returned to the UK. On his release, he gave the manuscript to Ross, who may or may not have carried out Wilde's instructions to send a copy to Douglas (who later denied having received it). The letter was partially published in 1905 as De Profundis; its complete and correct publication first occurred in 1962 in The Letters of Oscar Wilde. Decline: 1897–1900 Exile Though Wilde's health had suffered greatly from the harshness and diet of prison, he had a feeling of spiritual renewal. He immediately wrote to the Society of Jesus requesting a six-month Catholic retreat; when the request was denied, Wilde wept. "I intend to be received into the Catholic Church before long", Wilde told a journalist who asked about his religious intentions. He spent his last three years impoverished and in exile. He took the name "Sebastian Melmoth", after Saint Sebastian and the titular character of Melmoth the Wanderer (a Gothic novel by Charles Maturin, Wilde's great-uncle). Wilde wrote two long letters to the editor of the Daily Chronicle, describing the brutal conditions of English prisons and advocating penal reform. His discussion of the dismissal of Warder Martin for giving biscuits to an anaemic child prisoner repeated the themes of the corruption and degeneration of punishment that he had earlier outlined in The Soul of Man under Socialism. Wilde spent mid-1897 with Robert Ross in the seaside village of Berneval-le-Grand in northern France, where he wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol, narrating the execution of Charles Thomas Wooldridge, who murdered his wife in a rage at her infidelity. It moves from an objective story-telling to symbolic identification with the prisoners. No attempt is made to assess the justice of the laws which convicted them but rather the poem highlights the brutality of the punishment that all convicts share. Wilde juxtaposes the executed man and himself with the line "Yet each man kills the thing he loves". He adopted the proletarian ballad form and the author was credited as "C33", Wilde's cell number in Reading Gaol. He suggested that it be published in Reynolds' Magazine, "because it circulates widely among the criminal classes – to which I now belong – for once I will be read by my peers – a new experience for me". It was an immediate roaring commercial success, going through seven editions in less than two years, only after which "[Oscar Wilde]" was added to the title page, though many in literary circles had known Wilde to be the author. It brought him a small amount of money. Although Douglas had been the cause of his misfortunes, he and Wilde were reunited in August 1897 at Rouen. This meeting was disapproved of by the friends and families of both men. Constance Wilde was already refusing to meet Wilde or allow him to see their sons, though she sent him money – three pounds a week. During the latter part of 1897, Wilde and Douglas lived together near Naples for a few months until they were separated by their families under the threat of cutting off all funds. Wilde's final address was at the dingy Hôtel d'Alsace (now known as L'Hôtel), on rue des Beaux-Arts in Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Paris. "This poverty really breaks one's heart: it is so sale [filthy], so utterly depressing, so hopeless. Pray do what you can" he wrote to his publisher. He corrected and published An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest, the proofs of which, according to Ellmann, show a man "very much in command of himself and of the play" but he refused to write anything else: "I can write, but have lost the joy of writing". He wandered the boulevards alone and spent what little money he had on alcohol. A series of embarrassing chance encounters with hostile English visitors, or Frenchmen he had known in better days, drowned his spirit. Soon Wilde was sufficiently confined to his hotel to joke, on one of his final trips outside, "My wallpaper and I are fighting a duel to the death. One of us has got to go". On 12 October 1900 he sent a telegram to Ross: "Terribly weak. Please come". His moods fluctuated; Max Beerbohm relates how their mutual friend Reginald 'Reggie' Turner had found Wilde very depressed after a nightmare. "I dreamt that I had died, and was supping with the dead!" "I am sure", Turner replied, "that you must have been the life and soul of the party." Turner was one of the few of the old circle who remained with Wilde to the end and was at his bedside when he died. Death By 25 November 1900 Wilde had developed meningitis, then called "cerebral meningitis". Robbie Ross arrived on 29 November, sent for a priest, and Wilde was conditionally baptised into the Catholic Church by Fr Cuthbert Dunne, a Passionist priest from Dublin, Wilde having been baptised in the Church of Ireland and having moreover a recollection of Catholic baptism as a child, a fact later attested to by the minister of the sacrament, Fr Lawrence Fox. Fr Dunne recorded the baptism, As the voiture rolled through the dark streets that wintry night, the sad story of Oscar Wilde was in part repeated to me... Robert Ross knelt by the bedside, assisting me as best he could while I administered conditional baptism, and afterwards answering the responses while I gave Extreme Unction to the prostrate man and recited the prayers for the dying. As the man was in a semi-comatose condition, I did not venture to administer the Holy Viaticum; still I must add that he could be roused and was roused from this state in my presence. When roused, he gave signs of being inwardly conscious... Indeed I was fully satisfied that he understood me when told that I was about to receive him into the Catholic Church and gave him the Last Sacraments... And when I repeated close to his ear the Holy Names, the Acts of Contrition, Faith, Hope and Charity, with acts of humble resignation to the Will of God, he tried all through to say the words after me. Wilde died of meningitis on 30 November 1900. Different opinions are given as to the cause of the disease: Richard Ellmann claimed it was syphilitic; Merlin Holland, Wilde's grandson, thought this to be a misconception, noting that Wilde's meningitis followed a surgical intervention, perhaps a mastoidectomy; Wilde's physicians, Dr Paul Cleiss and A'Court Tucker, reported that the condition stemmed from an old suppuration of the right ear (from the prison injury, see above) treated for several years () and made no allusion to syphilis. Burial Wilde was initially buried in the Cimetière de Bagneux outside Paris; in 1909 his remains were disinterred and transferred to Père Lachaise Cemetery, inside the city. His tomb there was designed by Sir Jacob Epstein. It was commissioned by Robert Ross, who asked for a small compartment to | imprisonment, and early death from meningitis at age 46. Wilde's parents were Anglo-Irish intellectuals in Dublin. A young Wilde learned to speak fluent French and German. At university, Wilde read Greats; he demonstrated himself to be an exceptional classicist, first at Trinity College Dublin, then at Oxford. He became associated with the emerging philosophy of aestheticism, led by two of his tutors, Walter Pater and John Ruskin. After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles. As a spokesman for aestheticism, he tried his hand at various literary activities: he published a book of poems, lectured in the United States and Canada on the new "English Renaissance in Art" and interior decoration, and then returned to London where he worked prolifically as a journalist. Known for his biting wit, flamboyant dress and glittering conversational skill, Wilde became one of the best-known personalities of his day. At the turn of the 1890s, he refined his ideas about the supremacy of art in a series of dialogues and essays, and incorporated themes of decadence, duplicity, and beauty into what would be his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890). The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with larger social themes, drew Wilde to write drama. He wrote Salome (1891) in French while in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to an absolute prohibition on the portrayal of Biblical subjects on the English stage. Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, which made him one of the most successful playwrights of late-Victorian London. At the height of his fame and success, while The Importance of Being Earnest (1895) was still being performed in London, Wilde prosecuted the Marquess of Queensberry for criminal libel. The Marquess was the father of Wilde's lover, Lord Alfred Douglas. The libel trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest and trial for gross indecency with men. After two more trials he was convicted and sentenced to two years' hard labour, the maximum penalty, and was jailed from 1895 to 1897. During his last year in prison, he wrote De Profundis (published posthumously in 1905), a long letter which discusses his spiritual journey through his trials, forming a dark counterpoint to his earlier philosophy of pleasure. On his release, he left immediately for France, and never returned to Ireland or Britain. There he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. Early life Oscar Wilde was born at 21 Westland Row, Dublin (now home of the Oscar Wilde Centre, Trinity College), the second of three children born to an Anglo-Irish couple: Jane, née Elgee and Sir William Wilde. Oscar was two years younger than his brother, William (Willie) Wilde. Jane Wilde was a niece (by marriage) of the novelist, playwright and clergyman Charles Maturin (1780 – 1824), who may have influenced her own literary career. She had distant Italian ancestry, and under the pseudonym "Speranza" (the Italian word for 'hope'), she wrote poetry for the revolutionary Young Irelanders in 1848; she was a lifelong Irish nationalist. Jane Wilde read the Young Irelanders' poetry to Oscar and Willie, inculcating a love of these poets in her sons. Her interest in the neo-classical revival showed in the paintings and busts of ancient Greece and Rome in her home. William Wilde was Ireland's leading oto-ophthalmologic (ear and eye) surgeon and was knighted in 1864 for his services as medical adviser and assistant commissioner to the censuses of Ireland. He also wrote books about Irish archaeology and peasant folklore. A renowned philanthropist, his dispensary for the care of the city's poor at the rear of Trinity College Dublin, was the forerunner of the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital, now located at Adelaide Road. On his father's side Wilde was descended from a Dutchman, Colonel de Wilde, who went to Ireland with King William of Orange's invading army in 1690, and numerous Anglo-Irish ancestors. On his mother's side, Wilde's ancestors included a bricklayer from County Durham, who emigrated to Ireland sometime in the 1770s. Wilde was baptised as an infant in St. Mark's Church, Dublin, the local Church of Ireland (Anglican) church. When the church was closed, the records were moved to the nearby St. Ann's Church, Dawson Street. Davis Coakley mentions a second baptism by a Catholic priest, Father Prideaux Fox, who befriended Oscar's mother circa 1859. According to Fox's testimony in Donahoe's Magazine in 1905, Jane Wilde would visit his chapel in Glencree, County Wicklow, for Mass and would take her sons with her. She asked Father Fox in this period to baptise her sons. Fox described it in this way: I am not sure if she ever became a Catholic herself but it was not long before she asked me to instruct two of her children, one of them being the future erratic genius, Oscar Wilde. After a few weeks I baptized these two children, Lady Wilde herself being present on the occasion. In addition to his two full siblings, Oscar Wilde had three half siblings, who were born out of wedlock before the marriage of his father: Henry Wilson, born in 1838 to one woman, and Emily and Mary Wilde, born in 1847 and 1849, respectively, to a second woman. Sir William acknowledged paternity of his illegitimate or "natural" children and provided for their education, arranging for them to be reared by his relatives rather than with his legitimate children in his family household with his wife. In 1855, the family moved to No. 1 Merrion Square, where Wilde's sister, Isola Francesca Emily Wilde was born 2 April 1857. She was named in tribute to Iseult of Ireland, wife of Mark of Cornwall and lover of the Cornish knight, Sir Tristan. She shared the name Francesca with her mother while Emily was the name of her maternal aunt. Oscar was very close to her and grief struck when she died at the age of nine of a febrile illness. Isola lit up their lives like "a golden ray of sunshine dancing about our home. The Wildes' new home was larger. With both his parents' success and delight in social life, the house soon became the site of a "unique medical and cultural milieu". Guests at their salon included Sheridan Le Fanu, Charles Lever, George Petrie, Isaac Butt, William Rowan Hamilton and Samuel Ferguson. Until he was nine, Wilde was educated at home, where a French nursemaid and a German governess taught him their languages. He joined his brother Willie at Portora Royal School in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh, which he attended from 1864 to 1871. At Portora, although he was not as popular as his older brother, Wilde impressed his peers with the humorous and inventive school stories he told. Later in life he claimed that his fellow students had regarded him as a "prodigy" for his ability to speed read, claiming that he could read two facing pages simultaneously and consume a three-volume book in half an hour, retaining enough information to give a basic account of the plot. He excelled academically, particularly in the subject of Classics, in which he ranked fourth in the school in 1869. His aptitude for giving oral translations of Greek and Latin texts won him multiple prizes, including the Carpenter Prize for Greek Testament. He was one of only three students at Portora to win a Royal School scholarship to Trinity in 1871. Until his early twenties, Wilde summered at the villa, Moytura House, which his father had built in Cong, County Mayo. There the young Wilde and his brother Willie played with George Moore. Isola died at age nine of meningitis. Wilde's poem "Requiescat" is written to her memory: "Tread lightly, she is nearUnder the snow Speak gently, she can hear the daisies grow" University education: 1870s Trinity College Dublin Wilde left Portora with a royal scholarship to read classics at Trinity College Dublin, from 1871 to 1874, sharing rooms with his older brother Willie Wilde. Trinity, one of the leading classical schools, placed him with scholars such as R. Y. Tyrell, Arthur Palmer, Edward Dowden and his tutor, Professor J. P. Mahaffy, who inspired his interest in Greek literature. As a student Wilde worked with Mahaffy on the latter's book Social Life in Greece. Wilde, despite later reservations, called Mahaffy "my first and best teacher" and "the scholar who showed me how to love Greek things". For his part, Mahaffy boasted of having created Wilde; later, he said Wilde was "the only blot on my tutorship". The University Philosophical Society also provided an education, as members discussed intellectual and artistic subjects such as Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Algernon Charles Swinburne weekly. Wilde quickly became an established member – the members' suggestion book for 1874 contains two pages of banter (sportingly) mocking Wilde's emergent aestheticism. He presented a paper titled "Aesthetic Morality". At Trinity, Wilde established himself as an outstanding student: he came first in his class in his first year, won a scholarship by competitive examination in his second and, in his finals, won the Berkeley Gold Medal in Greek, the University's highest academic award. He was encouraged to compete for a demyship (a half-scholarship worth £95 (£ today) per year) to Magdalen College, Oxford – which he won easily. Magdalen College, Oxford At Magdalen, he read Greats from 1874 to 1878, and from there he applied to join the Oxford Union, but failed to be elected. Attracted by its dress, secrecy, and ritual, Wilde petitioned the Apollo Masonic Lodge at Oxford, and was soon raised to the "Sublime Degree of Master Mason". During a resurgent interest in Freemasonry in his third year, he commented he "would be awfully sorry to give it up if I secede from the Protestant Heresy". Wilde's active involvement in Freemasonry lasted only for the time he spent at Oxford; he allowed his membership of the Apollo University Lodge to lapse after failing to pay subscriptions. Catholicism deeply appealed to him, especially its rich liturgy, and he discussed converting to it with clergy several times. In 1877, Wilde was left speechless after an audience with Pope Pius IX in Rome. He eagerly read the books of Cardinal Newman, a noted Anglican priest who had converted to Catholicism and risen in the church hierarchy. He became more serious in 1878, when he met the Reverend Sebastian Bowden, a priest in the Brompton Oratory who had received some high-profile converts. Neither his father, who threatened to cut off his funds, nor Mahaffy thought much of the plan; but Wilde, the supreme individualist, balked at the last minute from pledging himself to any formal creed, and on the appointed day of his baptism into Catholicism, sent Father Bowden a bunch of altar lilies instead. Wilde did retain a lifelong interest in Catholic theology and liturgy. While at Magdalen College, Wilde became particularly well known for his role in the aesthetic and decadent movements. He wore his hair long, openly scorned "manly" sports though he occasionally boxed, and he decorated his rooms with peacock feathers, lilies, sunflowers, blue china and other objets d'art. He once remarked to friends, whom he entertained lavishly, "I find it harder and harder every day to live up to my blue china." The line quickly became famous, accepted as a slogan by aesthetes but used against them by critics who sensed in it a terrible vacuousness. Some elements disdained the aesthetes, but their languishing attitudes and showy costumes became a recognised pose. Wilde was once physically attacked by a group of four fellow students, and dealt with them single-handedly, surprising critics. By his third year Wilde had truly begun to develop himself and his myth, and considered his learning to be more expansive than what was within the prescribed texts. This attitude resulted in his being rusticated for one term, after he had returned late to a college term from a trip to Greece with Mahaffy. Wilde did not meet Walter Pater until his third year, but had been enthralled by his Studies in the History of the Renaissance, published during Wilde's final year in Trinity. Pater argued that man's sensibility to beauty should be refined above all else, and that each moment should be felt to its fullest extent. Years later, in De Profundis, Wilde described Pater's Studies... as "that book that has had such a strange influence over my life". He learned tracts of the book by heart, and carried it with him on travels in later years. Pater gave Wilde his sense of almost flippant devotion to art, though he gained a purpose for it through the lectures and writings of critic John Ruskin. Ruskin despaired at the self-validating aestheticism of Pater, arguing that the importance of art lies in its potential for the betterment of society. Ruskin admired beauty, but believed it must be allied with, and applied to, moral good. When Wilde eagerly attended Ruskin's lecture series The Aesthetic and Mathematic Schools of Art in Florence, he learned about aesthetics as the non-mathematical elements of painting. Despite being given to neither early rising nor manual labour, Wilde volunteered for Ruskin's project to convert a swampy country lane into a smart road neatly edged with flowers. Wilde won the 1878 Newdigate Prize for his poem "Ravenna", which reflected on his visit there the year before, and he duly read it at Encaenia. In November 1878, he graduated with a double first in his B.A. of Classical Moderations and Literae Humaniores (Greats). Wilde wrote to a friend, "The dons are '' beyond words – the Bad Boy doing so well in the end!" Apprenticeship of an aesthete: 1880s Debut in society After graduation from Oxford, Wilde returned to Dublin, where he met again Florence Balcombe, a childhood sweetheart. She became engaged to Bram Stoker and they married in 1878. Wilde was disappointed but stoic: he wrote to her, remembering "the two sweet years – the sweetest years of all my youth" during which they had been close. He also stated his intention to "return to England, probably for good". This he did in 1878, only briefly visiting Ireland twice after that. Unsure of his next step, Wilde wrote to various acquaintances enquiring about Classics positions at Oxford or Cambridge. The Rise of Historical Criticism was his submission for the Chancellor's Essay prize of 1879, which, though no longer a student, he was still eligible to enter. Its subject, "Historical Criticism among the Ancients" seemed ready-made for Wilde – with both his skill in composition and ancient learning – but he struggled to find his voice with the long, flat, scholarly style. Unusually, no prize was awarded that year. With the last of his inheritance from the sale of his father's houses, he set himself up as a bachelor in London. The 1881 British Census listed Wilde as a boarder at 1 (now 44) Tite Street, Chelsea, where Frank Miles, a society painter, was the head of the household. He had been publishing lyrics and poems in magazines since entering Trinity College, especially in Kottabos and the Dublin University Magazine. In mid-1881, at 27 years old, he published Poems, which collected, revised and expanded his poems. Though the book sold out its first print run of 750 copies it was not generally well received by the critics, Punch for example saying "The poet is Wilde, but his poetry's tame". By a tight vote, the Oxford Union condemned the book for alleged plagiarism. The librarian, who had requested the book for the library, returned the presentation copy to Wilde with a note of apology. Biographer Richard Ellmann argues that Wilde's poem "Hélas!" was a sincere, though flamboyant, attempt to explain the dichotomies the poet saw in himself; one line reads: "To drift with every passion till my soul / Is a stringed lute on which all winds can play". The book had further printings in 1882. It was bound in a rich, enamel parchment cover (embossed with gilt blossom) and printed on hand-made Dutch paper; over the next few years, Wilde presented many copies to the dignitaries and writers who received him during his lecture tours. North America: 1882 Aestheticism was sufficiently in vogue to be caricatured by Gilbert and Sullivan in Patience (1881). Richard D'Oyly Carte, an English impresario, invited Wilde to make a lecture tour of North America, simultaneously priming the pump for the US tour of Patience and selling this most charming aesthete to the American public. Wilde journeyed on the SS Arizona, arriving 2 January 1882, and disembarking the following day. Originally planned to last four months, the tour continued for almost a year owing to its commercial success. Wilde sought to transpose the beauty he saw in art into daily life. This was a practical as well as philosophical project: in Oxford he had surrounded himself with blue china and lilies, and now one of his lectures was on interior design. In a British Library article on aestheticism and decadence, Carolyn Burdett writes, "Wilde teased his readers with the claim that life imitates art rather than the other way round. His point was a serious one: we notice London fogs, he argued, because art and literature has taught us to do so. Wilde, among others, 'performed' these maxims. He presented himself as the impeccably dressed and mannered dandy figure whose life was a work of art." When asked to explain reports that he had paraded down Piccadilly in London carrying a lily, long hair flowing, Wilde replied, "It's not whether I did it or not that's important, but whether people believed I did it". Wilde believed that the artist should hold forth higher ideals, and that pleasure and beauty would replace utilitarian ethics. Wilde and aestheticism were both mercilessly caricatured and criticised in the press: the Springfield Republican, for instance, commented on Wilde's behaviour during his visit to Boston to lecture on aestheticism, suggesting that Wilde's conduct was more a bid for notoriety rather than devotion to beauty and the aesthetic. T. W. Higginson, a cleric and abolitionist, wrote in "Unmanly Manhood" of his general concern that Wilde, "whose only distinction is that he has written a thin volume of very mediocre verse", would improperly influence the behaviour of men and women. According to biographer Michèle Mendelssohn, Wilde was |
loss of status. After the ten years, he was allowed to return without stigma. It was possible for the assembly to recall an ostracised person ahead of time; before the Persian invasion of 479 BC, an amnesty was declared under which at least two ostracised leaders—Pericles' father Xanthippus and Aristides 'the Just'—are known to have returned. Similarly, Cimon, ostracised in 461 BC, was recalled during an emergency. History Distinction from other Athenian democratic processes Ostracism was crucially different from Athenian law at the time; there was no charge, and no defence could be mounted by the person expelled. The two stages of the procedure ran in the reverse order from that used under almost any trial system—here it is as if a jury are first asked "Do you want to find someone guilty?", and subsequently asked "Whom do you wish to accuse?". Equally out of place in a judicial framework is perhaps the institution's most peculiar feature: that it can take place at most once a year, and only for one person. In this it resembles the Greek pharmakos or scapegoat—though in contrast, pharmakos generally ejected a lowly member of the community. A further distinction between these two modes (and one not obvious from a modern perspective) is that ostracism was an automatic procedure that required no initiative from any individual, with the vote simply occurring on the wish of the electorate—a diffuse exercise of power. By contrast, an Athenian trial needed the initiative of a particular citizen-prosecutor. While prosecution often led to a counterattack (or was a counterattack itself), no such response was possible in the case of ostracism as responsibility lay with the polity as a whole. In contrast to a trial, ostracism generally reduced political tension rather than increased it. Although ten years of exile would have been difficult for an Athenian to face, it was relatively mild in comparison to the kind of sentences inflicted by courts; when dealing with politicians held to be acting against the interests of the people, Athenian juries could inflict very severe penalties such as death, unpayable large fines, confiscation of property, permanent exile and loss of citizens' rights through atimia. Further, the elite Athenians who suffered ostracism were rich or noble men who had connections or xenoi in the wider Greek world and who, unlike genuine exiles, were able to access their income in Attica from abroad. In Plutarch, following as he does the anti-democratic line common in elite sources, the fact that people might be recalled early appears to be another example of the inconsistency of majoritarianism that was characteristic of Athenian democracy. However, ten years of exile usually resolved whatever had prompted the expulsion. Ostracism was simply a pragmatic measure; the concept of serving out the full sentence did not apply as it was a preventative measure, not a punitive one. One curious window on the practicalities of ostracism comes from the cache of 190 ostraka discovered dumped in a well next to the acropolis. From the handwriting, they appear to have been written by fourteen individuals and bear the name of Themistocles, ostracised before 471 BC and were evidently meant for distribution to voters. This was not necessarily evidence of electoral fraud (being no worse than modern voting instruction cards), but their being dumped in the well may suggest that their creators wished to hide them. If so, these ostraka provide an example of organized groups attempting to influence the outcome of ostracisms. The two-month gap between the first and second phases would have easily allowed for such a campaign. There is another interpretation, however, according to which these ostraka were prepared beforehand by enterprising businessmen who offered them for sale to citizens who could not easily inscribe the desired names for themselves or who simply wished to save time. The two-month gap is a key feature in the institution, much as in elections under modern liberal democracies. It first prevented the candidate for expulsion being chosen out of immediate anger, although an Athenian general such as Cimon would have not wanted to lose a battle the week before such a second vote. Secondly, it opened up a period for discussion (or perhaps agitation), whether informally in daily talk or public speeches before the Athenian assembly or Athenian courts. In this process a consensus, or rival consensuses, might emerge.The process of democratized influence over elite members of Athenian society might have emboldened the popular citizenry into civic action, while prominent citizens might have felt pressure to please those below their social standing. Further, in that time of waiting, ordinary Athenian citizens must have felt a certain power over the greatest members of their city; conversely, the most prominent citizens had an incentive to worry how their social inferiors regarded them. Period of operation Ostracism was not in use throughout the whole period of Athenian democracy (circa 506–322 BC), but only occurred in the fifth century BC. The standard account, found in Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians 22.3, attributes the establishment to Cleisthenes, a pivotal reformer in the creation of the democracy. In that case, ostracism would have been in place from around 506 BC. The first victim of the practice, however, was not expelled until 487 BC—nearly 20 years later. Over the course of the next 60 years some 12 or more individuals followed him. The list may not be complete, but there is good reason to believe the Athenians did not feel the need to eject someone in this way every year. The list of known ostracisms runs as follows: 487 Hipparchos son of Charmos, a relative of the tyrant Peisistratos 486 Megacles son of Hippocrates; Cleisthenes' nephew (possibly ostracised twice) 485 Kallixenos nephew of Cleisthenes and head of the Alcmaeonids at the time (not known for certain) 484 Xanthippus son of Ariphron; Pericles' father 482 Aristides son of Lysimachus 471 Themistocles son of Neocles (last possible year) 461 Cimon son of Miltiades 460 Alcibiades son of Kleinias (possibly ostracised twice) 457 Menon son of Meneclides [less certain] 442 Thucydides son of Melesias 440s Callias son of Didymos [less certain] 440s Damon son of Damonides [less certain] 416 Hyperbolus son of Antiphanes (±1 year) Around 12,000 political ostraka have been excavated in the Athenian agora and in the Kerameikos. The second victim, Cleisthenes' nephew Megacles, is named by 4647 of these, but for a second undated ostracism not listed above. The known ostracisms seem to fall into three distinct phases: the 480s BC, mid-century 461–443 BC and finally the years 417–415: this matches fairly well with the clustering of known expulsions, although Themistocles before 471 may count as an exception. This suggests that ostracism fell in and out of fashion. The last known ostracism was that of Hyperbolus in circa 417 BC. There is no sign of its use after the Peloponnesian War, when democracy was restored after the oligarchic coup of the Thirty had collapsed in 403 BC. However, while ostracism was not an active feature of the fourth-century version of democracy, it remained; the question was put to the assembly each year, but they did not wish to hold one. Purpose Because ostracism was carried out by thousands of people over many decades of an evolving political situation and culture, it did not serve a single monolithic purpose. Observations can be made about the outcomes, as well as the initial purpose for which it was created. The first instance of people ostracised in the decade after the defeat of | 403 BC. However, while ostracism was not an active feature of the fourth-century version of democracy, it remained; the question was put to the assembly each year, but they did not wish to hold one. Purpose Because ostracism was carried out by thousands of people over many decades of an evolving political situation and culture, it did not serve a single monolithic purpose. Observations can be made about the outcomes, as well as the initial purpose for which it was created. The first instance of people ostracised in the decade after the defeat of the first Persian invasion at Marathon in 490 BC were all related or connected to the tyrant Peisistratos, who had controlled Athens for 36 years up to 527 BC. After his son Hippias was deposed with Spartan help in 510 BC, the family sought refuge with the Persians, and nearly twenty years later Hippias landed with their invasion force at Marathon. Tyranny and Persian aggression were paired threats facing the new democratic regime at Athens, and ostracism was used against both. Tyranny and democracy had arisen at Athens out of clashes between regional and factional groups organised around politicians, including Cleisthenes. As a reaction, in many of its features the democracy strove to reduce the role of factions as the focus of citizen loyalties. Ostracism, too, may have been intended to work in the same direction: by temporarily decapitating a faction, it could help to defuse confrontations that threatened the order of the State. In later decades when the threat of tyranny was remote, ostracism seems to have been used as a way to decide between radically opposed policies. For instance, in 443 BC Thucydides, son of Melesias (not to be confused with the historian of the same name) was ostracised. He led an aristocratic opposition to Athenian imperialism and in particular to Pericles' building program on the acropolis, which was funded by taxes created for the wars against the Achaemenid Empire. By expelling Thucydides the Athenian people sent a clear message about the direction of Athenian policy. Similar but similarly controversial claims have been made about the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC. The motives of individual voting citizens cannot be known. Many of the surviving ostraka name people otherwise unattested. They may well be just someone the submitter disliked, and voted for in moment of private spite. Some ostraka even bear the word "Limos" (hunger) instead of a human name. As such, it may be seen as a secular, civic variant of Athenian curse tablets, studied in scholarly literature under the Latin name defixiones, where small dolls were wrapped in lead sheets written with curses and then buried, sometimes stuck through with nails for good measure. In one anecdote about Aristides, known as "the Just", who was ostracised in 482, an illiterate citizen, not recognising him, came up to ask him to write the name Aristides on his ostrakon. When Aristides asked why, the man replied it was because he was sick of hearing him being called "the Just". Perhaps merely the sense that someone had become too arrogant or prominent was enough to get someone's name onto an ostrakon. Ostracism rituals could have also been an attempt to dissuade people from covertly committing murder or assassination of intolerable or emerging individuals of power so as to create an open arena or outlet for those harbouring primal frustrations and urges or political motivations. The solution for murder, in Gregory H. Padowitz's theory, would then be "ostracism" which would ultimately be beneficial for all parties—the unfortunate individual would live and get a second chance and society would be spared the ugliness of feuds, civil war, political jams and murder. Fall into disuse The last ostracism, that of Hyperbolos in or near 417 BC, is elaborately narrated by Plutarch in three separate lives: Hyperbolos is pictured urging the people to expel one of his rivals, but they, Nicias and Alcibiades, laying aside their own hostility for a moment, use their combined influence to have him ostracised instead. According to Plutarch, the people then become disgusted with ostracism and abandoned the procedure forever. In part ostracism lapsed as a procedure at the end of the fifth century because it was replaced by the graphe paranomon, a regular court action under which a much larger number of politicians might be targeted, instead of just one a year as with ostracism, and with greater severity. But it may already have come to seem like an anachronism as factional alliances organised around important men became increasingly less significant in the later period, and power was more specifically located in the interaction of the individual speaker with the power of the assembly and the courts. The threat to the democratic system in the late fifth century came not from tyranny but from oligarchic coups, threats of which became prominent after two brief seizures of power, in 411 BC by "the Four Hundred" and in 404 BC by "the Thirty", which were not dependent on single powerful individuals. Ostracism was not an effective defence against the oligarchic threat and it was not so used. Analogues Other cities are known to have set up forms of ostracism on the Athenian model, namely Megara, Miletos, Argos and Syracuse, Sicily. In the last of these it was referred to as petalismos, because the names were written on olive leaves. Little is known about these institutions. Furthermore, pottery shards identified as ostraka have been found in Chersonesos Taurica, leading historians to the conclusion that a similar institution existed there as well, in spite of the silence of the ancient records on that count. A similar modern practice is the recall election, in which the electoral body removes its representation from an elected officer. Unlike under modern voting procedures, the Athenians did not have to adhere to a strict format for the inscribing of ostraka. Many extant ostraka show that it was possible to write expletives, short epigrams or cryptic injunctions beside the name of the candidate without invalidating the vote. For example: Kallixenes, son of Aristonimos, "the traitor" Archen, "lover of foreigners" Agasias, "the donkey" Megacles, "the adulterer" Modern usage Ostracism is evident in several animal species, as well as in modern human interactions. The social psychologist Kipling Williams defines ostracism as "any act or acts of ignoring and excluding of an individual or groups by an individual or a group" without necessarily involving "acts of verbal or physical abuse". Williams suggests that the most common form of ostracism is silent treatment, wherein refusing to communicate with a person |
the number of prime divisors of n (counting multiplicity). In notation related to Big O notation to describe the asymptotic behavior of functions. Chaitin's constant. In set theory, the first infinite ordinal number, ω In set theory, the first uncountable ordinal number, ω1 or Ω As part of logo or trademark: The logo of Omega Watches SA. The logo of Omegaklinikken Part of the original Pioneer logo. Part of the Badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. Part of the mission patch for STS-135, as it was the last mission of the Space Shuttle program. The logo of the God of War video game series based on Greek mythology. In God of War (2018), it is revealed it stands as the symbol of war in Greece. The logo of E-123 Omega, a Sonic the Hedgehog character. The logo of the Heroes of Olympus series, based on Greek mythology. the logo of the Ultramarines in Warhammer 40,000 The logo of Primal Groudon, the version mascot of Pokémon Omega Ruby. The logo of Darkseid in DC comics One of the logos of professional wrestler Kenny Omega The logo for Meow Wolf's Omega Mart in Area15, Las Vegas, Nevada. The logo for AMPLY Power’s Omega™ Charge Management System. Other The symbol of the resistance movement against the Vietnam-era draft in the United States Year or date of death In eschatology, the symbol for the end of everything In molecular biology, the symbol is used as shorthand to signify a genetic construct introduced by a two-point crossover Omega Particle in the Star Trek universe The final form of NetNavi bosses in some of the Mega Man Battle Network games The personal symbol for Death, as worn by Death in the Discworld series by Terry Pratchett The symbol to represent Groudon in Pokémon Omega Ruby and Alpha Sapphire A secret boss in the Final Fantasy series called Omega ( Ω ) Weapon. A character from the series Doctor Who called Omega, believed to be one of the creators of the Time Lords of Gallifrey. The symbol for the highest power level of a PSI attack in the MOTHER/EarthBound games The symbol ω (lower case letter) The minuscule letter ω is used as a symbol: Biology, biochemistry and chemistry: In biochemistry, for one of the RNA polymerase subunits In biochemistry, for the dihedral angle associated with the peptide group, involving the backbone atoms Cα-C'-N-Cα In biology, for fitness In chemistry, for denoting the carbon atom furthest from the carboxyl group of a fatty acid In genomics, as a measure of molecular evolution in protein-coding genes | Omega, believed to be one of the creators of the Time Lords of Gallifrey. The symbol for the highest power level of a PSI attack in the MOTHER/EarthBound games The symbol ω (lower case letter) The minuscule letter ω is used as a symbol: Biology, biochemistry and chemistry: In biochemistry, for one of the RNA polymerase subunits In biochemistry, for the dihedral angle associated with the peptide group, involving the backbone atoms Cα-C'-N-Cα In biology, for fitness In chemistry, for denoting the carbon atom furthest from the carboxyl group of a fatty acid In genomics, as a measure of molecular evolution in protein-coding genes (also denoted as dN/dS or Ka/Ks ratio) Physics Angular velocity or angular frequency In computational fluid dynamics, the specific turbulence dissipation rate In meteorology, the change of pressure with respect to time of a parcel of air In circuit analysis and signal processing to represent natural frequency, related to frequency f by ω = 2πf In astronomy, as a ranking of a star's brightness within a constellation In orbital mechanics, as designation of the argument of periapsis of an orbit In particle physics to represent the omega meson Computer science: In notation related to Big O notation, the asymptotically dominant nature of functions In relational database theory to represent NULL, a missing or inapplicable value In APL, to represent the right parameter to a function Mathematics: The first and smallest transfinite ordinal number, often identified with the set of natural numbers including 0 (sometimes written ) In set theory, ω1 is the first uncountable ordinal number (also sometimes written as Ω) A primitive root of unity, like the complex cube roots of 1 The Wright Omega function A generic differential form In number theory, ω(n) is the number of distinct prime divisors of n In number theory, an arithmetic function In combinatory logic, the self-application combinator, (λ x. x x) In mathematical/options finance, the elasticity of financial options In analytical investment management, the tracking error of an investment manager Clique number in Graph theory Other: Used in place of ん in Japanese typing shorthand. In linguistics, the phonological word In textual criticism, the archetype of a manuscript tradition In sociology, used to refer to the lowest ranking member of a group In shift_JIS art, used to represent the cat's mouth. (e.g. (´･ω･`) ｼｮﾎﾞｰﾝ) In actuarial sciences, used to represent the maximum life span that characterizes a mortality table Character encodings Greek omega/Coptic oou Cyrillic omega Latin/IPA omega Technical omega symbols Mathematical omega These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using |
Gorky and Rostov to the port city of Astrakhan at the mouth of the Volga on the Caspian Sea. The report concluded that—once established—this military border would reduce the threat to Germany from attacks by enemy bombers. Although Hitler was warned by his general staff that occupying "Western Russia" would create "more of a drain than a relief for Germany's economic situation", he anticipated compensatory benefits, such as the demobilization of entire divisions to relieve the acute labor shortage in German industry; the exploitation of Ukraine as a reliable and immense source of agricultural products; the use of forced labor to stimulate Germany's overall economy; and the expansion of territory to improve Germany's efforts to isolate the United Kingdom. Hitler was convinced that Britain would sue for peace once the Germans triumphed in the Soviet Union, and if they did not, he would use the resources available in the East to defeat the British Empire. On 5 December 1940, Hitler received the final military plans for the invasion on which the German High Command had been working since July 1940 under the codename "Operation Otto". Hitler, however, was dissatisfied with these plans and on 18 December issued Führer Directive 21, which called for a new battle plan, now code-named "Operation Barbarossa". The operation was named after medieval Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire, a leader of the Third Crusade in the 12th century. On 30 March 1941 the Barbarossa decree declared that the war would be one of extermination and advocated the eradication of all political and intellectual elites. The invasion was set for 15 May 1941, though it was delayed for over a month to allow for further preparations and possibly better weather. (See Reasons for delay.) According to a 1978 essay by German historian Andreas Hillgruber, the invasion plans drawn up by the German military elite were coloured by hubris stemming from the rapid defeat of France at the hands of the "invincible" Wehrmacht and by traditional German stereotypes of Russia as a primitive, backward "Asiatic" country. Red Army soldiers were considered brave and tough, but the officer corps was held in contempt. The leadership of the Wehrmacht paid little attention to politics, culture, and the considerable industrial capacity of the Soviet Union, in favour of a very narrow military view. Hillgruber argued that because these assumptions were shared by the entire military elite, Hitler was able to push through with a "war of annihilation" that would be waged in the most inhumane fashion possible with the complicity of "several military leaders", even though it was quite clear that this would be in violation of all accepted norms of warfare. In autumn 1940, high-ranking German officials drafted a memorandum on the dangers of an invasion of the Soviet Union. They said Ukraine, Belorussia, and the Baltic States would end up as only a further economic burden for Germany. It was argued that the Soviets in their current bureaucratic form were harmless and that the occupation would not benefit Germany. Hitler disagreed with economists about the risks and told his right-hand man Hermann Göring, the chief of the Luftwaffe, that he would no longer listen to misgivings about the economic dangers of a war with Russia. It is speculated that this was passed on to General Georg Thomas, who had produced reports that predicted a net economic drain for Germany in the event of an invasion of the Soviet Union unless its economy was captured intact and the Caucasus oilfields seized in the first blow; Thomas revised his future report to fit Hitler's wishes. The Red Army's ineptitude in the Winter War against Finland in 1939–40 convinced Hitler of a quick victory within a few months. Neither Hitler nor the General Staff anticipated a long campaign lasting into the winter, and therefore adequate preparations, such as the distribution of warm clothing and winterization of vehicles and lubricants, were not made. Beginning in March 1941, Göring's Green Folder laid out details for the Soviet economy after conquest. The Hunger Plan outlined how entire urban populations of conquered territories were to be starved to death, thus creating an agricultural surplus to feed Germany and urban space for the German upper class. Nazi policy aimed to destroy the Soviet Union as a political entity in accordance with the geopolitical ideals for the benefit of future generations of the "Nordic master race". In 1941, Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg—later appointed Reich Minister of the Occupied Eastern Territories—suggested that conquered Soviet territory should be administered in the following ('Reich Commissionerships'): German military planners also researched Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia. In their calculations, they concluded that there was little danger of a large-scale retreat of the Red Army into the Russian interior, as it could not afford to give up the Baltic states, Ukraine, or the Moscow and Leningrad regions, all of which were vital to the Red Army for supply reasons and would thus, have to be defended. Hitler and his generals disagreed on where Germany should focus its energy. Hitler, in many discussions with his generals, repeated his order of "Leningrad first, the Donbas second, Moscow third"; but he consistently emphasized the destruction of the Red Army over the achievement of specific terrain objectives. Hitler believed Moscow to be of "no great importance" in the defeat of the Soviet Union and instead believed victory would come with the destruction of the Red Army west of the capital, especially west of the Western Dvina and Dnieper rivers, and this pervaded the plan for Barbarossa. This belief later led to disputes between Hitler and several German senior officers, including Heinz Guderian, Gerhard Engel, Fedor von Bock and Franz Halder, who believed the decisive victory could only be delivered at Moscow. They were unable to sway Hitler, who had grown overconfident in his own military judgment as a result of the rapid successes in Western Europe. German preparations The Germans had begun massing troops near the Soviet border even before the campaign in the Balkans had finished. By the third week of February 1941, 680,000 German soldiers were gathered in assembly areas on the Romanian-Soviet border. In preparation for the attack, Hitler had secretly moved upwards of 3 million German troops and approximately 690,000 Axis soldiers to the Soviet border regions. Additional Luftwaffe operations included numerous aerial surveillance missions over Soviet territory many months before the attack. Although the Soviet High Command was alarmed by this, Stalin's belief that Nazi Germany was unlikely to attack only two years after signing the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact resulted in a slow Soviet preparation. This fact aside, the Soviets did not entirely overlook the threat of their German neighbor. Well before the German invasion, Marshal Semyon Timoshenko referred to the Germans as the Soviet Union's "most important and strongest enemy", and as early as July 1940, the Red Army Chief of Staff, Boris Shaposhnikov, produced a preliminary three-pronged plan of attack for what a German invasion might look like, remarkably similar to the actual attack. Since April 1941, the Germans had begun setting up Operation Haifisch and Operation Harpune to substantiate their claims that Britain was the real target. These simulated preparations in Norway and the English Channel coast included activities such as ship concentrations, reconnaissance flights and training exercises. The reasons for the postponement of Barbarossa from the initially planned date of 15 May to the actual invasion date of 22 June 1941 (a 38-day delay) are debated. The reason most commonly cited is the unforeseen contingency of invading Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941. Historian Thomas B. Buell indicates that Finland and Romania, which weren't involved in initial German planning, needed additional time to prepare to participate in the invasion. Buell adds that an unusually wet winter kept rivers at full flood until late spring. The floods may have discouraged an earlier attack, even if they occurred before the end of the Balkans Campaign. The importance of the delay is still debated. William Shirer argued that Hitler's Balkan Campaign had delayed the commencement of Barbarossa by several weeks and thereby jeopardized it. Many later historians argue that the 22 June start date was sufficient for the German offensive to reach Moscow by September. Antony Beevor wrote in 2012 about the delay caused by German attacks in the Balkans that "most [historians] accept that it made little difference" to the eventual outcome of Barbarossa. The Germans deployed one independent regiment, one separate motorized training brigade and 153 divisions for Barbarossa, which included 104 infantry, 19 panzer and 15 motorized infantry divisions in three army groups, nine security divisions to operate in conquered territories, four divisions in Finland and two divisions as reserve under the direct control of OKH. These were equipped with 6,867 armored vehicles, of which 3,350–3,795 were tanks, 2,770–4,389 aircraft (that amounted to 65 percent of the Luftwaffe), 7,200–23,435 artillery pieces, 17,081 mortars, about 600,000 motor vehicles and 625,000–700,000 horses. Finland slated 14 divisions for the invasion, and Romania offered 13 divisions and eight brigades over the course of Barbarossa. The entire Axis forces, 3.8 million personnel, deployed across a front extending from the Arctic Ocean southward to the Black Sea, were all controlled by the OKH and organized into Army Norway, Army Group North, Army Group Center and Army Group South, alongside three Luftflotten (air fleets, the air force equivalent of army groups) that supported the army groups: Luftflotte 1 for North, Luftflotte 2 for Center and Luftflotte 4 for South. Army Norway was to operate in far northern Scandinavia and bordering Soviet territories. Army Group North was to march through the Baltic states into northern Russia, either take or destroy the city of Leningrad and link up with Finnish forces. Army Group Center, the army group equipped with the most armour and air power, was to strike from Poland into Belorussia and the west-central regions of Russia proper, and advance to Smolensk and then Moscow. Army Group South was to strike the heavily populated and agricultural heartland of Ukraine, taking Kiev before continuing eastward over the steppes of southern USSR to the Volga with the aim of controlling the oil-rich Caucasus. Army Group South was deployed in two sections separated by a gap. The northern section, which contained the army group's only panzer group, was in southern Poland right next to Army Group Center, and the southern section was in Romania. The German forces in the rear (mostly and units) were to operate in conquered territories to counter any partisan activity in areas they controlled, as well as to execute captured Soviet political commissars and Jews. On 17 June, Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) chief Reinhard Heydrich briefed around thirty to fifty commanders on "the policy of eliminating Jews in Soviet territories, at least in general terms". While the were assigned to the Wehrmachts units, which provided them with supplies such as gasoline and food, they were controlled by the RSHA. The official plan for Barbarossa assumed that the army groups would be able to advance freely to their primary objectives simultaneously, without spreading thin, once they had won the border battles and destroyed the Red Army's forces in the border area. Soviet preparations In 1930, Mikhail Tukhachevsky, a prominent military theorist in tank warfare in the interwar period and later Marshal of the Soviet Union, forwarded a memo to the Kremlin that lobbied for colossal investment in the resources required for the mass production of weapons, pressing the case for "40,000 aircraft and 50,000 tanks". In the early 1930s, a modern operational doctrine for the Red Army was developed and promulgated in the 1936 Field Regulations in the form of the Deep Battle Concept. Defense expenditure also grew rapidly from just 12 percent of the gross national product in 1933 to 18 percent by 1940. During Stalin's Great Purge in the late-1930s, which had not ended by the time of the German invasion on 22 June 1941, much of the officer corps of the Red Army was executed or imprisoned and their replacements, appointed by Stalin for political reasons, often lacked military competence. Of the five Marshals of the Soviet Union appointed in 1935, only Kliment Voroshilov and Semyon Budyonny survived Stalin's purge. Tukhachevsky was killed in 1937. Fifteen of 16 army commanders, 50 of the 57 corps commanders, 154 of the 186 divisional commanders, and 401 of 456 colonels were killed, and many other officers were dismissed. In total, about 30,000 Red Army personnel were executed. Stalin further underscored his control by reasserting the role of political commissars at the divisional level and below to oversee the political loyalty of the army to the regime. The commissars held a position equal to that of the commander of the unit they were overseeing. But in spite of efforts to ensure the political subservience of the armed forces, in the wake of Red Army's poor performance in Poland and in the Winter War, about 80 percent of the officers dismissed during the Great Purge were reinstated by 1941. Also, between January 1939 and May 1941, 161 new divisions were activated. Therefore, although about 75 percent of all the officers had been in their position for less than one year at the start of the German invasion of 1941, many of the short tenures can be attributed not only to the purge but also to the rapid increase in the creation of military units. In the Soviet Union, speaking to his generals in December 1940, Stalin mentioned Hitler's references to an attack on the Soviet Union in Mein Kampf and Hitler's belief that the Red Army would need four years to ready itself. Stalin declared "we must be ready much earlier" and "we will try to delay the war for another two years". As early as August 1940, British intelligence had received hints of German plans to attack the Soviets only a week after Hitler informally approved the plans for Barbarossa and warned the Soviet Union accordingly. But Stalin's distrust of the British led him to ignore their warnings in the belief that they were a trick designed to bring the Soviet Union into the war on their side. In early 1941, Stalin's own intelligence services and American intelligence gave regular and repeated warnings of an impending German attack. Soviet spy Richard Sorge also gave Stalin the exact German launch date, but Sorge and other informers had previously given different invasion dates that passed peacefully before the actual invasion. Stalin acknowledged the possibility of an attack in general and therefore made significant preparations, but decided not to run the risk of provoking Hitler. Beginning in July 1940, the Red Army General Staff developed war plans that identified the Wehrmacht as the most dangerous threat to the Soviet Union, and that in the case of a war with Germany, the Wehrmachts main attack would come through the region north of the Pripyat Marshes into Belorussia, which later proved to be correct. Stalin disagreed, and in October he authorized the development of new plans that assumed a German attack would focus on the region south of Pripyat Marshes towards the economically vital regions in Ukraine. This became the basis for all subsequent Soviet war plans and the deployment of their armed forces in preparation for the German invasion. In early-1941 Stalin authorized the State Defense Plan 1941 (DP-41), which along with the Mobilization Plan 1941 (MP-41), called for the deployment of 186 divisions, as the first strategic echelon, in the four military districts of the western Soviet Union that faced the Axis territories; and the deployment of another 51 divisions along the Dvina and Dnieper Rivers as the second strategic echelon under Stavka control, which in the case of a German invasion was tasked to spearhead a Soviet counteroffensive along with the remaining forces of the first echelon. But on 22 June 1941 the first echelon only contained 171 divisions, numbering 2.6–2.9 million; and the second strategic echelon contained 57 divisions that were still mobilizing, most of which were still understrength. The second echelon was undetected by German intelligence until days after the invasion commenced, in most cases only when German ground forces bumped into them. At the start of the invasion, the manpower of the Soviet military force that had been mobilized was 5.3–5.5 million, and it was still increasing as the Soviet reserve force of 14 million, with at least basic military training, continued to mobilize. The Red Army was dispersed and still preparing when the invasion commenced. Their units were often separated and lacked adequate transportation. While transportation remained insufficient for Red Army forces, when Operation Barbarossa kicked off, they possessed some 33,000 pieces of artillery, a number far greater than the Germans had at their disposal. The Soviet Union had some 23,000 tanks available of which only 14,700 were combat-ready. Around 11,000 tanks were in the western military districts that faced the German invasion force. Hitler later declared to some of his generals, "If I had known about the Russian tank strength in 1941 I would not have attacked". However, maintenance and readiness standards were very poor; ammunition and radios were in short supply, and many armoured units lacked the trucks for supplies. The most advanced Soviet tank models – the KV-1 and T-34 – which were superior to all current German tanks, as well as all designs still in development as of the summer 1941, were not available in large numbers at the time the invasion commenced. Furthermore, in the autumn of 1939, the Soviets disbanded their mechanized corps and partly dispersed their tanks to infantry divisions; but following their observation of the German campaign in France, in late-1940 they began to reorganize most of their armored assets back into mechanized corps with a target strength of 1,031 tanks each. But these large armoured formations were unwieldy, and moreover they were spread out in scattered garrisons, with their subordinate divisions up to apart. The reorganization was still in progress and incomplete when Barbarossa commenced. Soviet tank units were rarely well equipped, and they lacked training and logistical support. Units were sent into combat with no arrangements in place for refueling, ammunition resupply, or personnel replacement. Often, after a single engagement, units were destroyed or rendered ineffective. The Soviet numerical advantage in heavy equipment was thoroughly offset by the superior training and organization of the Wehrmacht. The Soviet Air Force (VVS) held the numerical advantage with a total of approximately 19,533 aircraft, which made it the largest air force in the world in the summer of 1941. About 7,133–9,100 of these were deployed in the five western military districts, and an additional 1445 were under naval control. Historians have debated whether Stalin was planning an invasion of German territory in the summer of 1941. The debate began in the late-1980s when Viktor Suvorov published a journal article and later the book Icebreaker in which he claimed that Stalin had seen the outbreak of war in Western Europe as an opportunity to spread communist revolutions throughout the continent, and that the Soviet military was being deployed for an imminent attack at the time of the German invasion. This view had also been advanced by former German generals following the war. Suvorov's thesis was fully or partially accepted by a limited number of historians, including Valeri Danilov, Joachim Hoffmann, Mikhail Meltyukhov, and Vladimir Nevezhin, and attracted public attention in Germany, Israel, and Russia. It has been strongly rejected by most historians, and Icebreaker is generally considered to be an "anti-Soviet tract" in Western countries. David Glantz and Gabriel Gorodetsky wrote books to rebut Suvorov's arguments. The majority of historians believe that Stalin was seeking to avoid war in 1941, as he believed that his military was not ready to fight the German forces.. The debate on whether Stalin intended to launch offensive against Germany in 1941 remains inconclusive but | of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany and some of its Axis allies, which started on Sunday, 22 June 1941, during World War II. The operation was named after Frederick Barbarossa ("red beard"), a 12th-century Holy Roman emperor and German king. The operation put into action Nazi Germany's ideological goal of conquering the western Soviet Union to repopulate it with Germans. The German aimed to use some of the conquered people as forced labour for the Axis war effort while acquiring the oil reserves of the Caucasus as well as the agricultural resources of various Soviet territories. Their ultimate goal included the eventual extermination, enslavement, Germanization and mass deportation to Siberia of the Slavic peoples, and to create more (living space) for Germany. In the two years leading up to the invasion, Germany and the Soviet Union signed political and economic pacts for strategic purposes. Following the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, the German High Command began planning an invasion of the Soviet Union in July 1940 (under the codename Operation Otto), which Adolf Hitler authorized on 18 December 1940. Over the course of the operation, over 3.8 million personnel of the Axis powers—the largest invasion force in the history of warfare—invaded the western Soviet Union along a front, with 600,000 motor vehicles and over 600,000 horses for non-combat operations. The offensive marked a massive escalation of World War II, both geographically and in the formation of the Allied coalition including the Soviet Union. The operation opened up the Eastern Front, in which more forces were committed than in any other theater of war in history. The area saw some of the world's largest battles, most horrific atrocities, and highest casualties (for Soviet and Axis forces alike), all of which influenced the course of World War II and the subsequent history of the 20th century. The German armies eventually captured some five million Soviet Red Army troops. The Nazis deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet prisoners of war, and millions of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" worked to solve German food shortages and exterminate the Slavic population through starvation. Mass shootings and gassing operations, carried out by the Nazis or willing collaborators, murdered over a million Soviet Jews as part of the Holocaust. The failure of Operation Barbarossa reversed the fortunes of Nazi Germany. Operationally, German forces achieved significant victories and occupied some of the most important economic areas of the Soviet Union (mainly in Ukraine) and inflicted, as well as sustained, heavy casualties. Despite these early successes, the German offensive stalled in the Battle of Moscow at the end of 1941, and the subsequent Soviet winter counteroffensive pushed the Germans about 250 km back. The Germans had confidently expected a quick collapse of Soviet resistance as in Poland, but the Red Army absorbed the German Wehrmachts strongest blows and bogged it down in a war of attrition for which the Germans were unprepared. The Wehrmachts diminished forces could no longer attack along the entire Eastern Front, and subsequent operations to retake the initiative and drive deep into Soviet territory—such as Case Blue in 1942 and Operation Citadel in 1943—eventually failed, which resulted in the Wehrmachts retreat and collapse. Background Racial policies of Nazi Germany As early as 1925, Adolf Hitler vaguely declared in his political manifesto and autobiography Mein Kampf that he would invade the Soviet Union, asserting that the German people needed to secure ('living space') to ensure the survival of Germany for generations to come. On 10 February 1939, Hitler told his army commanders that the next war would be "purely a war of ['worldviews'] ... totally a people's war, a racial war". On 23 November, once World War II had already started, Hitler declared that "racial war has broken out and this war shall determine who shall govern Europe, and with it, the world". The racial policy of Nazi Germany portrayed the Soviet Union (and all of Eastern Europe) as populated by non-Aryan ('sub-humans'), ruled by Jewish Bolshevik conspirators. Hitler claimed in Mein Kampf that Germany's destiny was to "turn to the East" as it did "six hundred years ago" (see ). Accordingly, it was a partially secret but well-documented Nazi policy to kill, deport, or enslave the majority of Russian and other Slavic populations and repopulate the land with Germanic peoples, under the Generalplan Ost. The Nazis' belief in their ethnic superiority pervades official records and pseudoscientific articles in German periodicals, on topics such as "how to deal with alien populations". While older histories tended to emphasize the myth of the "clean Wehrmacht", upholding its honor in the face of Hitler's fanaticism, the historian Jürgen Förster notes that "In fact, the military commanders were caught up in the ideological character of the conflict, and involved in its implementation as willing participants." Before and during the invasion of the Soviet Union, German troops were heavily indoctrinated with anti-Bolshevik, anti-Semitic, and anti-Slavic ideology via movies, radio, lectures, books, and leaflets. Likening the Soviets to the forces of Genghis Khan, Hitler told Croatian military leader Slavko Kvaternik that the "Mongolian race" threatened Europe. Following the invasion, many Wehrmacht officers told their soldiers to target people who were described as "Jewish Bolshevik subhumans", the "Mongol hordes", the "Asiatic flood", and the "Red beast". Nazi propaganda portrayed the war against the Soviet Union as both an ideological war between German National Socialism and Jewish Bolshevism, and a racial war between the disciplined Germans and the Jewish, Gypsy, and Slavic . An 'order from the Führer' stated that the paramilitary SS , which closely followed the Wehrmachts advance, were to execute all Soviet functionaries who were "less valuable Asiatics, Gypsies and Jews". Six months into the invasion of the Soviet Union, the had already murdered in excess of 500,000 Soviet Jews, a figure greater than the number of Red Army soldiers killed in combat during that time. German army commanders cast the Jews as the major cause behind the "partisan struggle". The main guideline for German troops was "Where there's a partisan, there's a Jew, and where there's a Jew, there's a partisan", or "The partisan is where the Jew is". Many German troops viewed the war in Nazi terms and regarded their Soviet enemies as sub-human. After the war began, the Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and foreign slave workers. There were regulations enacted against the ('Eastern workers') that included the death penalty for sexual relations with a German. Heinrich Himmler, in his secret memorandum, Reflections on the Treatment of Peoples of Alien Races in the East (dated 25 May 1940), outlined the Nazi plans for the non-German populations in the East. Himmler believed the Germanization process in Eastern Europe would be complete when "in the East dwell only men with truly German, Germanic blood". The Nazi secret plan ('General Plan for the East'), prepared in 1941 and confirmed in 1942, called for a "new order of ethnographical relations" in the territories occupied by Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe. It envisaged ethnic cleansing, executions, and enslavement of the populations of conquered countries, with very small percentages undergoing Germanization, expulsion into the depths of Russia, or other fates, while the conquered territories would be Germanized. The plan had two parts: the ('small plan'), which covered actions to be taken during the war, and the ('large plan'), which covered policies after the war was won, to be implemented gradually over 25 to 30 years. A speech given by General Erich Hoepner demonstrates the dissemination of the Nazi racial plan, as he informed the 4th Panzer Group that the war against the Soviet Union was "an essential part of the German people's struggle for existence" (), also referring to the imminent battle as the "old struggle of Germans against Slavs" and even stated, "the struggle must aim at the annihilation of today's Russia and must, therefore, be waged with unparalleled harshness". Hoepner also added that the Germans were fighting for "the defense of European culture against Moscovite–Asiatic inundation, and the repulse of Jewish Bolshevism ... No adherents of the present Russian-Bolshevik system are to be spared." Walther von Brauchitsch also told his subordinates that troops should view the war as a "struggle between two different races and [should] act with the necessary severity". Racial motivations were central to Nazi ideology and played a key role in planning for Operation Barbarossa since both Jews and communists were considered equivalent enemies of the Nazi state. Nazi imperialist ambitions rejected the common humanity of both groups, declaring the supreme struggle for to be a ('war of annihilation'). German-Soviet relations of 1939–40 In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact in Moscow known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. A secret protocol to the pact outlined an agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union on the division of the eastern European border states between their respective "spheres of influence": the Soviet Union and Germany would partition Poland in the event of an invasion by Germany, and the Soviets would be allowed to overrun the Baltic states and Finland. On 23 August 1939 the rest of the world learned of this pact but were unaware of the provisions to partition Poland. The pact stunned the world because of the parties' earlier mutual hostility and their conflicting ideologies. The conclusion of this pact was followed by the German invasion of Poland on 1 September that triggered the outbreak of World War II in Europe, then the Soviet invasion of Poland that led to the annexation of the eastern part of the country. As a result of the pact, Germany and the Soviet Union maintained reasonably strong diplomatic relations for two years and fostered an important economic relationship. The countries entered a trade pact in 1940 by which the Soviets received German military equipment and trade goods in exchange for raw materials, such as oil and wheat, to help the Nazis war effort by circumventing the British blockade of Germany. Despite the parties' ostensibly cordial relations, each side was highly suspicious of the other's intentions. For instance, the Soviet invasion of Bukovina in June 1940 went beyond their sphere of influence as agreed with Germany. After Germany entered the Axis Pact with Japan and Italy, it began negotiations about a potential Soviet entry into the pact. After two days of negotiations in Berlin from 12 to 14 November 1940, Germany presented a written proposal for a Soviet entry into the Axis. On 25 November 1940, the Soviet Union offered a written counter-proposal to join the Axis if Germany would agree to refrain from interference in the Soviet Union's sphere of influence, but Germany did not respond. As both sides began colliding with each other in Eastern Europe, conflict appeared more likely, although they did sign a border and commercial agreement addressing several open issues in January 1941. According to historian Robert Service, Joseph Stalin was convinced that the overall military strength of the USSR was such that he had nothing to fear and anticipated an easy victory should Germany attack; moreover, Stalin believed that since the Germans were still fighting the British in the west, Hitler would be unlikely to open up a two front war and subsequently delayed the reconstruction of defensive fortifications in the border regions. When German soldiers swam across the Bug River to warn the Red Army of an impending attack, they were treated like enemy agents and shot. Some historians believe that Stalin, despite providing an amicable front to Hitler, did not wish to remain allies with Germany. Rather, Stalin might have had intentions to break off from Germany and proceed with his own campaign against Germany to be followed by one against the rest of Europe. German invasion plans Stalin's reputation as a brutal dictator contributed both to the Nazis' justification of their assault and their faith in success; many competent and experienced military officers had been killed in the Great Purge of the 1930s, leaving the Red Army with a relatively inexperienced leadership compared to that of their German adversary. The Nazis often emphasized the Soviet regime's brutality when targeting the Slavs with propaganda. They also claimed that the Red Army was preparing to attack the Germans, and their own invasion was thus presented as a pre-emptive strike. In the middle of 1940, following the rising tension between the Soviet Union and Germany over territories in the Balkans, an eventual invasion of the Soviet Union seemed the only solution to Hitler. While no concrete plans had yet been made, Hitler told one of his generals in June that the victories in Western Europe finally freed his hands for a showdown with Bolshevism. With the successful end to the campaign in France, General Erich Marcks was assigned the task of drawing up the initial invasion plans of the Soviet Union. The first battle plans were entitled Operation Draft East (colloquially known as the Marcks Plan). His report advocated the A-A line as the operational objective of any invasion of the Soviet Union. This assault would extend from the northern city of Arkhangelsk on the Arctic Sea through Gorky and Rostov to the port city of Astrakhan at the mouth of the Volga on the Caspian Sea. The report concluded that—once established—this military border would reduce the threat to Germany from attacks by enemy bombers. Although Hitler was warned by his general staff that occupying "Western Russia" would create "more of a drain than a relief for Germany's economic situation", he anticipated compensatory benefits, such as the demobilization of entire divisions to relieve the acute labor shortage in German industry; the exploitation of Ukraine as a reliable and immense source of agricultural products; the use of forced labor to stimulate Germany's overall economy; and the expansion of territory to improve Germany's efforts to isolate the United Kingdom. Hitler was convinced that Britain would sue for peace once the Germans triumphed in the Soviet Union, and if they did not, he would use the resources available in the East to defeat the British Empire. On 5 December 1940, Hitler received the final military plans for the invasion on which the German High Command had been working since July 1940 under the codename "Operation Otto". Hitler, however, was dissatisfied with these plans and on 18 December issued Führer Directive 21, which called for a new battle plan, now code-named "Operation Barbarossa". The operation was named after medieval Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire, a leader of the Third Crusade in the 12th century. On 30 March 1941 the Barbarossa decree declared that the war would be one of extermination and advocated the eradication of all political and intellectual elites. The invasion was set for 15 May 1941, though it was delayed for over a month to allow for further preparations and possibly better weather. (See Reasons for delay.) According to a 1978 essay by German historian Andreas Hillgruber, the invasion plans drawn up by the German military elite were coloured by hubris stemming from the rapid defeat of France at the hands of the "invincible" Wehrmacht and by traditional German stereotypes of Russia as a primitive, backward "Asiatic" country. Red Army soldiers were considered brave and tough, but the officer corps was held in contempt. The leadership of the Wehrmacht paid little attention to politics, culture, and the considerable industrial capacity of the Soviet Union, in favour of a very narrow military view. Hillgruber argued that because these assumptions were shared by the entire military elite, Hitler was able to push through with a "war of annihilation" that would be waged in the most inhumane fashion possible with the complicity of "several military leaders", even though it was quite clear that this would be in violation of all accepted norms of warfare. In autumn 1940, high-ranking German officials drafted a memorandum on the dangers of an invasion of the Soviet Union. They said Ukraine, Belorussia, and the Baltic States would end up as only a further economic burden for Germany. It was argued that the Soviets in their current bureaucratic form were harmless and that the occupation would not benefit Germany. Hitler disagreed with economists about the risks and told his right-hand man Hermann Göring, the chief of the Luftwaffe, that he would no longer listen to misgivings about the economic dangers of a war with Russia. It is speculated that this was passed on to General Georg Thomas, who had produced reports that predicted a net economic drain for Germany in the event of an invasion of the Soviet Union unless its economy was captured intact and the Caucasus oilfields seized in the first blow; Thomas revised his future report to fit Hitler's wishes. The Red Army's ineptitude in the Winter War against Finland in 1939–40 convinced Hitler of a quick victory within a few months. Neither Hitler nor the General Staff anticipated a long campaign lasting into the winter, and therefore adequate preparations, such as the distribution of warm clothing and winterization of vehicles and lubricants, were not made. Beginning in March 1941, Göring's Green Folder laid out details for the Soviet economy after conquest. The Hunger Plan outlined how entire urban populations of conquered territories were to be starved to death, thus creating an agricultural surplus to feed Germany and urban space for the German upper class. Nazi policy aimed to destroy the Soviet Union as a political entity in accordance with the geopolitical ideals for the benefit of future generations of the "Nordic master race". In 1941, Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg—later appointed Reich Minister of the Occupied Eastern Territories—suggested that conquered Soviet territory should be administered in the following ('Reich Commissionerships'): German military planners also researched Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia. In their calculations, they concluded that there was little danger of a large-scale retreat of the Red Army into the Russian interior, as it could not afford to give up the Baltic states, Ukraine, or the Moscow and Leningrad regions, all of which were vital to the Red Army for supply reasons and would thus, have to be defended. Hitler and his generals disagreed on where Germany should focus its energy. Hitler, in many discussions with his generals, repeated his order of "Leningrad first, the Donbas second, Moscow third"; but he consistently emphasized the destruction of the Red Army over the achievement of specific terrain objectives. Hitler believed Moscow to be of "no great importance" in the defeat of the Soviet Union and instead believed victory would come with the destruction of the Red Army west of the capital, especially west of the Western Dvina and Dnieper rivers, and this pervaded the plan for Barbarossa. This belief later led to disputes between Hitler and several German senior officers, including Heinz Guderian, Gerhard Engel, Fedor von Bock and Franz Halder, who believed the decisive victory could only be delivered at Moscow. They were unable to sway Hitler, who had grown overconfident in his own military judgment as a result of the rapid successes in Western Europe. German preparations The Germans had begun massing troops near the Soviet border even before the campaign in the Balkans had finished. By the third week of February 1941, 680,000 German soldiers were gathered in assembly areas on the Romanian-Soviet border. In preparation for the attack, Hitler had secretly moved upwards of 3 million German troops and approximately 690,000 Axis soldiers to the Soviet border regions. Additional Luftwaffe operations included numerous aerial surveillance missions over Soviet territory many months before the attack. Although the Soviet High Command was alarmed by this, Stalin's belief that Nazi Germany was unlikely to attack only two years after signing the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact resulted in a slow Soviet preparation. This fact aside, the Soviets did not entirely overlook the threat of their German neighbor. Well before the German invasion, Marshal Semyon Timoshenko referred to the Germans as the Soviet Union's "most important and strongest enemy", and as early as July 1940, the Red Army Chief of Staff, Boris Shaposhnikov, produced a preliminary three-pronged plan of attack for what a German invasion might look like, remarkably similar to the actual attack. Since April 1941, the Germans had begun setting up Operation Haifisch and Operation Harpune to substantiate their claims that Britain was the real target. These simulated preparations in Norway and the English Channel coast included activities such as ship concentrations, reconnaissance flights and training exercises. The reasons for the postponement of Barbarossa from the initially planned date of 15 May to the actual invasion date of 22 June 1941 (a 38-day delay) are debated. The reason most commonly cited is the unforeseen contingency of invading Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941. Historian Thomas B. Buell indicates that Finland and Romania, which weren't involved in initial German planning, needed additional time to prepare to participate in the invasion. Buell adds that an unusually wet winter kept rivers at full flood until late spring. The floods may have discouraged an earlier attack, even if they occurred before the end of the Balkans Campaign. The importance of the delay is still debated. William Shirer argued that Hitler's Balkan Campaign had delayed the commencement of Barbarossa by several weeks and thereby jeopardized it. Many later historians argue that the 22 June start date was sufficient for the German offensive to reach Moscow by September. Antony Beevor wrote in 2012 about the delay caused by German attacks in the Balkans that "most [historians] accept that it made little difference" to the eventual outcome of Barbarossa. The Germans deployed one independent regiment, one separate motorized training brigade and 153 divisions for Barbarossa, which included 104 infantry, 19 panzer and 15 motorized infantry divisions in three army groups, nine security divisions to operate in conquered territories, four divisions in Finland and two divisions as reserve under the direct control of OKH. These were equipped with 6,867 armored vehicles, of which 3,350–3,795 were tanks, 2,770–4,389 aircraft (that amounted to 65 percent of the Luftwaffe), 7,200–23,435 artillery pieces, 17,081 mortars, about 600,000 motor vehicles and 625,000–700,000 horses. Finland slated 14 divisions for the invasion, and Romania offered 13 divisions and eight brigades over the course of Barbarossa. The entire Axis forces, 3.8 million personnel, deployed across a front extending from the Arctic Ocean southward to the Black Sea, were all controlled by the OKH and organized into Army Norway, Army Group North, Army Group Center and Army Group South, alongside three Luftflotten (air fleets, the air force equivalent of army groups) that supported the army groups: Luftflotte 1 for North, Luftflotte 2 for Center and Luftflotte 4 for South. Army Norway was to operate in far northern Scandinavia and bordering Soviet territories. Army Group North was to march through the Baltic states into northern Russia, either take or destroy the city of Leningrad and link up with Finnish forces. Army Group Center, the army group equipped with the most armour and air power, was to strike from Poland into Belorussia and the west-central regions of Russia proper, and advance to Smolensk and then Moscow. Army Group South was to strike the heavily populated and agricultural heartland of Ukraine, taking Kiev before continuing eastward over the steppes of southern USSR to the Volga with the aim of controlling the oil-rich Caucasus. Army Group South was deployed in two sections separated by a gap. The northern section, which contained the army group's only panzer group, was in southern Poland right next to Army Group Center, and the southern section was in Romania. The German forces in the rear (mostly and units) were to operate in conquered territories to counter any partisan activity in areas they controlled, as well as to execute captured Soviet political commissars and Jews. On 17 June, Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) chief Reinhard Heydrich briefed around thirty to fifty commanders on "the policy of eliminating Jews in Soviet territories, at least in general terms". While the were assigned to the Wehrmachts units, which provided them with supplies such as gasoline and food, they were controlled by the RSHA. The official plan for Barbarossa assumed that the army groups would be able to advance freely to their primary objectives simultaneously, without spreading thin, once they had won the border battles and destroyed the Red Army's forces in the border area. Soviet preparations In 1930, Mikhail Tukhachevsky, a prominent military theorist in tank warfare in the interwar period and later Marshal of the Soviet Union, forwarded a memo to the Kremlin that lobbied for colossal investment in the resources required for the mass production of weapons, pressing the case for "40,000 aircraft and 50,000 tanks". In the early 1930s, a modern operational doctrine for the Red Army was developed and promulgated in the 1936 Field Regulations in the form of the Deep Battle Concept. Defense expenditure also grew rapidly from just 12 percent of the gross national product in 1933 to 18 percent by 1940. During Stalin's Great Purge in the late-1930s, which had not ended by the time of the German invasion on 22 June 1941, much of the officer corps of the Red Army was executed or imprisoned and their replacements, appointed by Stalin for political reasons, often lacked military competence. Of the five Marshals of the Soviet Union appointed in 1935, only Kliment Voroshilov and Semyon Budyonny survived Stalin's purge. Tukhachevsky was killed in 1937. Fifteen of 16 army commanders, 50 of the 57 corps commanders, 154 of the 186 divisional commanders, and 401 of 456 colonels were killed, and many other officers were dismissed. In total, about 30,000 Red Army personnel were executed. Stalin further underscored his control by reasserting the role of political commissars at the divisional level and below to oversee the political loyalty of the army to the regime. The commissars held a position equal to that of the commander of the unit they were overseeing. But in spite of efforts to ensure the political subservience of the armed forces, in the wake of Red Army's poor performance in Poland and in the Winter War, about 80 percent of the officers dismissed during the Great Purge were reinstated by 1941. Also, between January 1939 and May 1941, 161 new divisions were activated. Therefore, although about 75 percent of all the officers had been in their position for less than one year at the start of the German invasion of 1941, many of the short tenures can be attributed not only to the purge but also to the rapid increase in the creation of military units. In the Soviet Union, speaking to his generals in December 1940, Stalin mentioned Hitler's references to an attack on the Soviet Union in Mein Kampf and Hitler's belief that the Red Army would need four years to ready itself. Stalin declared "we must be ready much earlier" and "we will try to delay the war for another two years". As early as August 1940, British intelligence had received hints of German plans to attack the Soviets only a week after Hitler informally approved the plans for Barbarossa and warned the Soviet Union accordingly. But Stalin's distrust of the British led him to ignore their warnings in the belief that they were a trick designed to bring the Soviet Union into the war on their side. In early 1941, Stalin's own intelligence services and American intelligence gave regular and repeated warnings of an impending German attack. Soviet spy Richard Sorge also gave Stalin the exact German launch date, but Sorge and other informers had previously given different invasion dates that passed peacefully before the actual invasion. Stalin acknowledged the possibility of an attack in general and therefore made significant preparations, but decided not to run the risk of provoking Hitler. Beginning in July 1940, the Red Army General Staff developed war plans that identified the Wehrmacht as the most dangerous threat to the Soviet Union, and that in the case of a war with Germany, the Wehrmachts main attack would come through the region north of the Pripyat Marshes into Belorussia, which later proved to be correct. Stalin disagreed, and in October he authorized the development of new plans that assumed a German attack would focus on the region south of Pripyat Marshes towards the economically vital regions in Ukraine. This became the basis for all subsequent Soviet war plans and the deployment of their armed forces in preparation for the German invasion. In early-1941 Stalin authorized the State Defense Plan 1941 (DP-41), which along with the Mobilization Plan 1941 (MP-41), called for the deployment of 186 divisions, as the first strategic echelon, in the four military districts of the western Soviet Union that faced the Axis territories; and the deployment of another 51 divisions along the Dvina and Dnieper Rivers as the second strategic echelon under Stavka control, which in the case of a German invasion was tasked to spearhead a Soviet counteroffensive along with the remaining forces of the first echelon. But on 22 June 1941 the first echelon only contained 171 divisions, numbering 2.6–2.9 million; and the second strategic echelon contained 57 divisions that were still mobilizing, most of which were still understrength. The second echelon was undetected by German intelligence until days after the invasion commenced, in most cases only when German ground forces bumped into them. At the start of the invasion, the manpower of the Soviet military force that had been mobilized was 5.3–5.5 million, and it was still increasing as the Soviet reserve force of 14 million, with at least basic military training, continued to mobilize. The Red Army was dispersed and still preparing when the invasion commenced. Their units were often separated and lacked adequate transportation. While transportation remained insufficient for Red Army forces, when Operation Barbarossa kicked off, they possessed some 33,000 pieces of artillery, a number far greater than the Germans had at their disposal. The Soviet Union had some 23,000 tanks available of which only 14,700 were combat-ready. Around 11,000 tanks were in the western military districts that faced the German invasion force. Hitler later declared to some of his generals, "If I had known about the Russian tank strength in 1941 I would not have attacked". However, maintenance and readiness standards were very poor; ammunition and radios were in short supply, and many armoured units lacked the trucks for supplies. The most advanced Soviet tank models – the KV-1 and T-34 – which were superior to all current German tanks, as well as all designs still in development as of the summer 1941, were not available in large numbers at the time the invasion commenced. Furthermore, in the autumn of 1939, the Soviets disbanded their mechanized corps and partly dispersed their tanks to infantry divisions; but following their observation of the German campaign in France, in late-1940 they began to reorganize most of their armored assets back into mechanized corps with a target strength of 1,031 tanks each. But these large armoured formations were unwieldy, and moreover they were spread out in scattered garrisons, with their subordinate divisions up to apart. The reorganization was still in progress and incomplete when Barbarossa commenced. Soviet tank units were rarely well equipped, and they lacked training and logistical support. Units were sent into combat with no arrangements in place for refueling, ammunition resupply, or personnel replacement. Often, after a single engagement, units were destroyed or rendered ineffective. The Soviet numerical advantage in heavy equipment was thoroughly offset by the superior training and organization of the Wehrmacht. The Soviet Air Force (VVS) held the numerical advantage with a total of approximately 19,533 aircraft, which made it the largest air force in the world in the summer of 1941. About 7,133–9,100 of these were deployed in the five western military districts, and an additional 1445 were under naval control. Historians have debated whether Stalin was planning an invasion of German territory in the summer of 1941. The debate began in the late-1980s when Viktor Suvorov published a journal article and later the book Icebreaker in which he claimed that Stalin had seen the outbreak of war in Western Europe as an opportunity to spread communist revolutions throughout the continent, and that the Soviet military was being deployed for an imminent attack at the time of the German invasion. This view had also been advanced by former German generals following the war. Suvorov's thesis was fully or partially accepted by a limited number of historians, including Valeri Danilov, Joachim Hoffmann, Mikhail Meltyukhov, and Vladimir Nevezhin, and attracted public attention in Germany, Israel, and Russia. It has been strongly rejected by most historians, and Icebreaker is generally considered to be an "anti-Soviet tract" in Western countries. David Glantz and Gabriel Gorodetsky wrote books to rebut Suvorov's arguments. The majority of historians believe that Stalin was seeking to avoid war in 1941, as he believed that his military was not ready to fight the German forces.. The debate on whether Stalin intended to launch offensive against Germany in 1941 remains inconclusive but has produced an abundance of scholarly literature and helped to expand the understanding of larger themes in Soviet and world history during the interwar period. Order of battle Invasion At around 01:00 on 22 June 1941, the Soviet military districts in the border area were alerted by NKO Directive No. 1, issued late on the night of 21 June. It called on them to "bring all forces to combat readiness," but to "avoid provocative actions of any kind". It took up to two hours for several of the units subordinate to the Fronts to receive the order of the directive, and the majority did not receive it before the invasion commenced. A German deserter, Alfred Liskow, had crossed the lines at 21:00 on 21 June and informed the Soviets that an attack was coming at 04:00. Stalin was informed, but apparently regarded it as disinformation. Liskow was still being interrogated when the attack began. On 21 June, at 13:00 Army Group North received the codeword "Düsseldorf", indicating Barbarossa would commence the next morning, and passed down its own codeword, "Dortmund". At around 03:15 on 22 June 1941, the Axis Powers commenced the invasion of the Soviet Union with the bombing of major cities in Soviet-occupied Poland and an artillery barrage on Red Army defences on the entire front. Air-raids were conducted as far as Kronstadt near Leningrad, Ismail in Bessarabia, and Sevastopol in the Crimea. Meanwhile, ground troops crossed the border, accompanied in some locales by Lithuanian and Ukrainian fifth columnists. Roughly three million soldiers of the Wehrmacht went into action and faced slightly fewer Soviet troops at the border. Accompanying the German forces during the initial invasion were Finnish and Romanian units as well. At around noon, the news of the invasion was broadcast to the population by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov: "... Without a declaration of war, German forces fell on our country, attacked our frontiers in many places ... The Red Army and the whole nation will wage a victorious Patriotic War for our beloved country, for honour, for liberty ... Our cause is just. The enemy will be beaten. Victory will be ours!" By calling upon the population's devotion to their nation rather than the Party, Molotov struck a patriotic chord that helped a stunned people absorb the shattering news. Within the first few days of the invasion, the Soviet High Command and Red Army were extensively reorganized so as to place them on the necessary war footing. Stalin did not address the nation about the German invasion until 3 July, when he also called for a "Patriotic War... of the entire Soviet people". In Germany, on the morning of 22 June, Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels announced the invasion to the waking nation in a radio broadcast with Hitler's words: "At this moment a march is taking place that, for its extent, compares with the greatest the world has ever seen. I have decided today to place the fate and future of the Reich and our people in the hands of our soldiers. May God aid us, especially in this fight!" Later the same morning, Hitler proclaimed to his colleagues, "Before three months have passed, we shall witness a collapse of Russia, the like of which has never been seen in history." Hitler also addressed the German people via the radio, presenting himself as a man of peace, who reluctantly had to attack the Soviet Union. Following the invasion, Goebbels instructed that Nazi propaganda use the slogan "European crusade against Bolshevism" to describe the war; subsequently thousands of volunteers and conscripts joined the Waffen-SS. Initial attacks The initial momentum of the German ground and air attack completely destroyed the Soviet organizational command and control within the first few hours, paralyzing every level of command from the infantry platoon to the Soviet High Command in Moscow. Moscow not only failed to grasp the magnitude of the catastrophe that confronted the Soviet forces in the border area, but Stalin's first reaction was also disbelief. At around 07:15, Stalin issued NKO Directive No. 2, which announced the invasion to the Soviet Armed Forces, and called on them to attack Axis forces wherever they had violated the borders and launch air strikes into the border regions of German territory. At around 09:15, Stalin issued NKO Directive No. 3, signed by Marshal Semyon Timoshenko, which now called for a general counteroffensive on the entire front "without any regards for borders" that both men hoped would sweep the enemy from Soviet territory. Stalin's order, which Timoshenko authorized, was not based on a realistic appraisal of the military situation at hand, but commanders passed it along for fear of retribution if they failed to obey; several days passed before the Soviet leadership became aware of the enormity of the opening defeat.. Air war Luftwaffe reconnaissance units plotted Soviet troop concentration, supply dumps and airfields, and marked them down for destruction. Additional Luftwaffe attacks were carried out against Soviet command and control centers to disrupt the mobilization and organization of Soviet forces. In contrast, Soviet artillery observers based at the border area had been under the strictest |
Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the Battle of Bita Paka, the Solomon Islands campaign, the Air raids on Darwin, the Kokada Track, and the Borneo campaign. The United States fought the Battle of Guam from July 21 to August 10, 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation. Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia). Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000. Geography Oceania was originally conceived as the lands of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from the Strait of Malacca to the coast of the Americas. It comprised four regions: Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia (now called the Malay Archipelago), and Melanesia. Today, parts of three geological continents are included in the term "Oceania": Eurasia, Australia, and Zealandia, as well the non-continental volcanic islands of the Philippines, Wallacea, and the open Pacific. Under a four region model with Australasia included, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Excluded are the Pacific islands of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Japanese archipelago, all on the margins of Asia, and the Aleutian Islands of North America. In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl 28 degrees north to the Bonin Islands in the northern hemisphere, and 55 degrees south to Macquarie Island in the southern hemisphere. Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and Solomon Islands. Oceania is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern Ocean. The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia. Regions Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast. Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Maluku Islands Archipelago, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands archipelago, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia. Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the center, and the Marquesas Islands, Tuamotu, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east. Australasia comprises Australia, New Zealand, the island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India most of Australasia lies on the Indo-Australian Plate with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south. Geology The Pacific Plate, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At , it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands. It is almost entirely oceanic crust. The oldest member disappearing by way of the plate tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago). Australia, being part of the Indo-Australian plate, is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism. The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and Western Antarctica. The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The Tasman Sea, and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the Australian Plate (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate. Most islands in the Pacific are high islands (volcanic islands), such as, Easter Island, American Samoa and Fiji, among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were formed approximately 7 to 30 million years ago, as shield volcanoes over the same volcanic hotspot that formed the Emperor Seamounts to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south. Hawaii's tallest mountain Mauna Kea is above mean sea level. Flora The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre. Desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus – gum trees), and Fabaceae (Acacia – wattle). The flora of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia is tropical dry forest, with tropical vegetation that includes palm trees, premna protrusa, psydrax odorata, gyrocarpus americanus and derris trifoliata. New Zealand's landscape ranges from the fjord-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook, at . Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year. There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand. In Hawaii, one endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of Brighamia – B. rockii and B. insignis – are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas. Fauna The aptly-named Pacific kingfisher is found in the Pacific Islands, as is the Red-vented bulbul, Polynesian starling, Brown goshawk, Pacific Swallow and the Cardinal myzomela, among others. Birds breeding on Pitcairn include the fairy tern, common noddy and red-tailed tropicbird. The Pitcairn reed warbler, endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the endangered species list in 2008. Native to Hawaii is the Hawaiian crow, which has been extinct in the wild since 2002. The brown tree snake is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands. Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are birds of paradise, honeyeaters, Australasian treecreeper, Australasian robin, kingfishers, butcherbirds and bowerbirds. A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals, and dominance of the marsupials – a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums and dasyuromorphs. The passerines of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include wrens, the magpie group, thornbills, corvids, pardalotes, lyrebirds. Predominant bird species in the country include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra. The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland. The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the kākāpō which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek breeding parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighboring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the kiwi, kea, takahē, kākāpō, mohua, tūī and the bellbird. The tuatara is a notable reptile endemic to New Zealand. Climate The Pacific Islands are ruled by a tropical rainforest and tropical savanna climate. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions. In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active. To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a maritime climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and subtropical in Northland. Snow falls in New Zealand's South Island and at higher altitudes in the North Island. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island. Hawaii, although being in the tropics, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The island of Hawaii for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). A few islands in the northwest, such as Guam, are susceptible to typhoons in the wet season. The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached . The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was , at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of recorded in 1995 in nearby Ophir. Pohnpei of the Senyavin Islands in Micronesia is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding each year in certain mountainous locations. The Big Bog on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average each year. Demographics The linked map below shows the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring areas, as a guide to the following table (there are few land boundaries that can be drawn on a map of the Pacific at this scale). The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each description. Largest city for regions Australasia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Sydney) Melanesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Port Moresby) Micronesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Tarawa) Polynesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Auckland) Urban areas Religion The predominant religion in Oceania is Christianity (73%). A 2011 survey found that 92% in Melanesia, 93% in Micronesia and 96% in Polynesia described themselves as Christians. Traditional religions are often animist, and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (masalai in Tok Pisin) representing natural forces. In the 2018 census, 37% of New Zealanders affiliated themselves with Christianity and 48% declared no religion. In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated "no religion". In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to "no religion" (which includes atheism, agnosticism, deism, secular humanism). In Tonga, everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The Ahmadiyya mosque in Marshall Islands is the only mosque in Micronesia. Another one in Tuvalu belongs to the same sect. The Baháʼí House of Worship in Tiapapata, Samoa, is one of seven designations administered in the Baháʼí Faith. Other religions in the region include Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, which are prominent minority religions in Australia and New Zealand. Judaism, Sikhism and Jainism are also present. Sir Isaac Isaacs was the first Australian born Governor General of Australia and was the first Jewish vice-regal representative in the British Empire. Prince Philip Movement is followed around Yaohnanen village on the southern island of Tanna in Vanuatu. Languages Native languages of Oceania fall into three major geographic groups: The large Austronesian language family, with such languages as Malay (Indonesian), and Oceanic languages such as Gilbertese, Fijian, Māori or Hawaiian The Aboriginal Australian languages, including the large Pama–Nyungan family The Papuan languages of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea family Colonial languages include English in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and many other territories; French in New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, and Vanuatu; Japanese in the Bonin Islands; and Spanish on Galápagos Islands and Easter Island. There are also Creoles formed from the interaction of Malay or the colonial languages with indigenous languages, such as Tok Pisin, Bislama, Chavacano, various Malay trade and creole languages, Hawaiian Pidgin, Norfuk, and Pitkern. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin. Immigrants brought their own languages to the region, such as Mandarin, Hindi, Italian, Arabic, Portuguese, Polish, German, Spanish, Russian, Korean, Cantonese and Greek, among many others, namely in Australia and New Zealand, or Fiji Hindi in Fiji. Immigration The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a high degree of immigration, are Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country. Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40 percent of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others. Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe, and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney. European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British Isles, but also from continental Europe, the Pacific, The Americas and Asia. Auckland is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas born population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 64 percent of its Asian-born population, and 56 percent of its Middle Eastern and African born population. Hawaii is a majority-minority state. Chinese workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways. , a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry – especially Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 Portuguese immigrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the sugarcane plantations. Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii. Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's Pacific Solution policy transferred asylum seekers to several Pacific nations, including the Nauru detention centre. Australia, New Zealand and other nations took part in the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands between 2003 and 2017 after a request for aid. Archaeogenetics Archaeology, linguistics, and existing genetic studies indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The first migration of Australo-Melanesians took place approximately 40 to 80 thousand years ago, and these migrants, Papuans, colonised much of Near Oceania. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of Austronesian speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to the far corners of the Pacific, colonising Remote Oceania. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the Austronesian expansion and demonstrate the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous haplogroups support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. Santa Cruz, a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin. Large areas of New Guinea are unexplored by scientists and anthropologists due to extensive forestation and mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in Papua New Guinea have very little contact with local authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain preliterate and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. Economy Australia and New Zealand Australia and New Zealand are the only highly developed independent nations in the region, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. New Caledonia, Hawaii and French Polynesia are highly developed too but are not sovereign states. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity. New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade. The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific. New Zealand is the 53rd-largest national economy in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product | human remains found in Australia are that of Mungo Man, which have been dated at about 40,000 years old. Melanesia The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from South-East Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands archipelago, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east. Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples. Micronesia Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis. The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan, dated to 1500 BC or slightly before. The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Yap and Pohnpei. The prehistories of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well. The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands and discovered it at some period between 4000 BC to 2000 BC from South-East Asia. They became known as the Chamorros. Their language was named after them. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch or Carolinian people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BC, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts. Polynesia The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between about 3000 and 1000 BC, speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island South-East Asia, as tribes whose natives were thought to have arrived through South China about 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia. In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BC, "Lapita Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of north-west Melanesia. Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matu'a discovered the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family. They are believed to have been Polynesian. Around 1200, Tahitian explorers discovered and began settling the area. This date range is based on glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities. Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was discovered and settled as recently as 1200. European exploration Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Maluku Islands (by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512), Timor, the Aru Islands (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands (by Gomes de Sequeira in 1525), and west Papua New Guinea (by Jorge de Menezes in 1526). In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the strait that bears his name and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão, then sailed north and caught the trade winds which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by Juan Sebastián Elcano returned west across the Indian Ocean and the other went north in the hope of finding the westerlies and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The Magellan-Elcano expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the world and reached the Philippines, the Mariana Islands and other islands of Oceania. From 1527 to 1595 a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the arrival in Marshall Islands and Palau in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands archipelago, the Cook Islands and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, sailed to Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Willem Janszoon, made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in Cape York Peninsula. Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji islands. He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands. On 23 April 1770 British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia. European settlement and colonisation In 1789 the Mutiny on the Bounty against William Bligh led to several of the mutineers escaping the Royal Navy and settling on Pitcairn Islands, which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire. The Gilbert Islands (now known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (now known as Tuvalu) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century. French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854. The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by Krusenstern, after English explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet). In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "Territory of Papua"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaii becoming a U.S. territory in 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899. Modern history One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the Occupation of German Samoa in August 1914 by New Zealand forces. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony. Australian forces attacked German New Guinea in September 1914. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender. The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941. The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II. The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the Battle of Bita Paka, the Solomon Islands campaign, the Air raids on Darwin, the Kokada Track, and the Borneo campaign. The United States fought the Battle of Guam from July 21 to August 10, 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation. Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia). Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000. Geography Oceania was originally conceived as the lands of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from the Strait of Malacca to the coast of the Americas. It comprised four regions: Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia (now called the Malay Archipelago), and Melanesia. Today, parts of three geological continents are included in the term "Oceania": Eurasia, Australia, and Zealandia, as well the non-continental volcanic islands of the Philippines, Wallacea, and the open Pacific. Under a four region model with Australasia included, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Excluded are the Pacific islands of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Japanese archipelago, all on the margins of Asia, and the Aleutian Islands of North America. In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl 28 degrees north to the Bonin Islands in the northern hemisphere, and 55 degrees south to Macquarie Island in the southern hemisphere. Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and Solomon Islands. Oceania is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern Ocean. The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia. Regions Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast. Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Maluku Islands Archipelago, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands archipelago, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia. Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the center, and the Marquesas Islands, Tuamotu, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east. Australasia comprises Australia, New Zealand, the island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India most of Australasia lies on the Indo-Australian Plate with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south. Geology The Pacific Plate, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At , it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands. It is almost entirely oceanic crust. The oldest member disappearing by way of the plate tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago). Australia, being part of the Indo-Australian plate, is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism. The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and Western Antarctica. The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The Tasman Sea, and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the Australian Plate (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate. Most islands in the Pacific are high islands (volcanic islands), such as, Easter Island, American Samoa and Fiji, among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were formed approximately 7 to 30 million years ago, as shield volcanoes over the same volcanic hotspot that formed the Emperor Seamounts to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south. Hawaii's tallest mountain Mauna Kea is above mean sea level. Flora The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre. Desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus – gum trees), and Fabaceae (Acacia – wattle). The flora of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia is tropical dry forest, with tropical vegetation that includes palm trees, premna protrusa, psydrax odorata, gyrocarpus americanus and derris trifoliata. New Zealand's landscape ranges from the fjord-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook, at . Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year. There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand. In Hawaii, one endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of Brighamia – B. rockii and B. insignis – are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas. Fauna The aptly-named Pacific kingfisher is found in the Pacific Islands, as is the Red-vented bulbul, Polynesian starling, Brown goshawk, Pacific Swallow and the Cardinal myzomela, among others. Birds breeding on Pitcairn include the fairy tern, common noddy and red-tailed tropicbird. The Pitcairn reed warbler, endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the endangered species list in 2008. Native to Hawaii is the Hawaiian crow, which has been extinct in the wild since 2002. The brown tree snake is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands. Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are birds of paradise, honeyeaters, Australasian treecreeper, Australasian robin, kingfishers, butcherbirds and bowerbirds. A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals, and dominance of the marsupials – a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums and dasyuromorphs. The passerines of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include wrens, the magpie group, thornbills, corvids, pardalotes, lyrebirds. Predominant bird species in the country include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra. The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland. The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the kākāpō which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek breeding parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighboring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the kiwi, kea, takahē, kākāpō, mohua, tūī and the bellbird. The tuatara is a notable reptile endemic to New Zealand. Climate The Pacific Islands are ruled by a tropical rainforest and tropical savanna climate. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions. In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active. To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a maritime climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and subtropical in Northland. Snow falls in New Zealand's South Island and at higher altitudes in the North Island. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island. Hawaii, although being in the tropics, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The island of Hawaii for example hosts |
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