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The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . This was augmented by a heavy secondary battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets . The tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm L / 50 guns in casemated single mounts , four 47 mm... |
= = Service history = =
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The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet 's 1st Battle Squadron after her 1911 commissioning . In 1912 , Zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , Zrínyi and her sis... |
In 1913 , Zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in the <unk> Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought <unk> di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar <unk... |
During that year , the first of four new dreadnoughts , SMS <unk> <unk> , that made up the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy — came into active service . With the commissioning of these dreadnoughts , Zrínyi and her sisters were moved from the 1st Division to the 2nd Divi... |
= = = World War I = = =
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At that time of the assassination of <unk> Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , the battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , the Tegetthoff class ( which still had one ship , SMS Szent István , under construction ) , the Erzherzog Karl class and finally , the older Habsbur... |
On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after news of the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Mon... |
The objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the <unk> for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-... |
Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships were largely confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations were limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt t... |
= = = Post @-@ war fate = = =
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After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire collapsed in 1918 , the Austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the Italians from claiming the ships as spoils of war . However , the victorious Al... |
On the morning of 7 November 1920 , Zrínyi was decommissioned . USS <unk> took her in tow and , assisted by Brooks and <unk> , towed the battleship to Italy . Under the terms of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain , Zrínyi was ultimately turned over to the Italian government at Venice . She was broken up for sc... |
= Geopyxis carbonaria =
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Geopyxis carbonaria is a species of fungus in the genus Geopyxis , family <unk> . First described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @-@ cup , dwarf <unk> cup , <unk> <unk> cup , or pixie cup . The small , <unk> @-@ shaped fruitbodies of t... |
= = Taxonomy = =
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The fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by Johannes <unk> von <unk> and Lewis David de <unk> as Peziza carbonaria . <unk> <unk> Cooke illustrated the fruitbodies , spores , and asci in his 1879 work <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> . Figures of fungi from all parts of the world . In 1889 , Pier Andrea <unk> tra... |
The specific epithet carbonaria derives from the Latin word for " charcoal " . Common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @-@ cup " , " dwarf <unk> cup " , " pixie cup " , and the British Mycological Society approved " <unk> <unk> cup " .
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= = Description = =
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The fruitbodies ( <unk> ) of Geopyxis <unk> are cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and have fringed whitish margins . The inner spore @-@ bearing surface of the cup , the hymenium , is brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface is a dull yellow , and may be either smooth or have <unk> @-@ like spots ( <unk> ) . The s... |
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
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In mass , the spores are whitish . The spores are elliptical , smooth , hyaline , devoid of oil droplets ( <unk> ) , and have dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µm . They are thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external <unk> . The asci are 190 – 225 by 9 – 10 µm . The paraphyses are slig... |
= = = Similar species = = =
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The closely related <unk> elf cup ( Geopyxis <unk> ) has a pale orange to yellowish <unk> that is deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity , and its crushed flesh often has an odor of sulfur . It may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses , which lack the orange @-@ brown granules characteristic of ... |
= = Habitat and distribution = =
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Geopyxis carbonaria is widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season . It is one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground . The <unk> litter on the forest floor increases the underlying soil <unk> as well as the availability of minerals . Fruitbodies are produce... |
The fungus is found in Europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and is widespread throughout North America . The North American distribution extends north to Alaska . In 2010 , it was reported for the first time from Turkey .
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= = Ecology = =
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Although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @-@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots , Geopyxis carbonaria has been shown to be capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with Norway spruce ( <unk> <unk> ) . It had been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus has a biotrophic in... |
Large <unk> of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree , such as that which occurs with burning . A field study conducted in Norway demonstrated that fruit bodies were more likely to be found in areas that were heavily burned , compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees r... |
= Gold dollar =
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The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 . The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The Type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any United States coin ever mi... |
A gold dollar had been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s , but was not initially adopted . Congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of <unk> caused by the California gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . In its early years , silver coins were being <unk> or exported ... |
Gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did , the gold dollar did not regain its place . In its final years , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by <unk> . It was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . The regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; the foll... |
= = Background = =
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In proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @-@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender . Congress followed Hamilton 's recom... |
In 1831 , the first gold dollar was minted , at the private mint of Christopher Bechtler in North Carolina . Much of the gold then being produced in the United States came from the mountains of North Carolina and Georgia , and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by Bechtler circulated through that region , a... |
Soon after the <unk> began to strike their private issues , Secretary of the Treasury Levi <unk> became an advocate of having the Mint of the United States ( " Mint " , when described as an institution ) strike the one @-@ dollar denomination in gold . He was opposed by the Mint Director , Robert M. Patterson . <unk> ... |
<unk> was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the <unk> legislation that became the Mint Act of 1837 . The Philadelphia newspaper Public Ledger , in December 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating that " the dollar is the smallest gold coin that would be convenient , and as it would b... |
= = <unk> = =
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In January 1844 , North Carolina Representative James <unk> McKay , the chairman of the Committee on Ways and <unk> , solicited the views of Director Patterson on the gold dollar . Patterson had more of Gobrecht 's pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin that if issued would ... |
Even before 1848 , record amounts of gold were flowing to American mints to be struck into coin , but the California Gold Rush vastly increased these quantities . This renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then the largest gold coin . In January 1849 , M... |
McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version into the House on February 20 ; debate began the same ... |
= = Preparation = =
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The officers at the Philadelphia Mint , including Chief <unk> Franklin <unk> , were mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The <unk> in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre had been appointed ... |
When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist him . Longacre wrote the following year that he had been warned by a Mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly <unk> ) planned to undermine the chief engraver 's position by having the work of preparing designs and dies do... |
The engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks . I made the original dies and <unk> for making the working dies twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery . I had a wish to execute this work single handed , that I might thus silently reply... |
= = Original design = =
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The Type 1 gold dollar depicts a head of Liberty , facing left , with a <unk> or tiara on her head bearing her name . Her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states . The reverse features the date and denomination within a wreath , with the name of the nation near the ri... |
Contemporary reviews of the Type 1 design were generally favorable . The New York Weekly Tribune on May 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the <unk> , <unk> , lightest , coin in this country ... it is too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes , and <unk> , and salt pork . Oberon might have pa... |
= = <unk> = =
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Mint records indicate the first gold dollars were produced on May 7 , 1849 ; Longacre 's diary notes state instead that the first were struck on May 8 . A few coins in proof condition were struck on the first day , along with about 1 @,@ 000 for circulation . There are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from... |
The continued flow of gold from California made silver expensive in terms of gold , and U.S. silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 , a flow that accelerated over the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise . By 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @,... |
As early as 1851 , New York Congressman William <unk> alleged that that Patterson had made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . Patterson retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , George N. <unk> , annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns were s... |
The Act of February 21 , 1853 , that had lightened the silver coins also authorized a gold three @-@ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . To ensure that the three @-@ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins , it had been made thinner and wider than it would normally be , and Longacre put a di... |
Nevertheless , the Type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details were brought out . This was due to the high relief of the design — the three Southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece . Many of the Type 2 p... |
= = = Design of Type 2 and 3 dollars = = =
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The Type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict Liberty as a Native American princess , with a <unk> feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any Indian tribe . This image is an <unk> copy of the design Longacre had made for the three @-@ dollar piece , and is one of a number of versions of Liberty Longacre created based o... |
Art historian Cornelius <unk> <unk> the Indian princess design used by Longacre for the <unk> of the Types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the three @-@ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a <unk> engraver 's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of ... |
= = War years = =
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The gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s , though mintages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . Only about 51 @,@ 000 gold dollars were produced in 1860 , with over two @-@ thirds of that figure at Philadelphia , just under a third at San Francisco , and ... |
The other candidate for the <unk> from that mint is the 1861 @-@ D , with an estimated mintage of 1 @,@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . Two pairs of dies were shipped from Philadelphia to Dahlonega on December 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on January 7 , 1861 , two weeks before Georgia voted to secede from the Union , as ... |
Dahlonega , like the other two branch mints in the South , closed its doors after the 1861 <unk> . It and the Charlotte facility never reopened ; the New Orleans Mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold dollars again . After 1861 , the only issuance of gold dollars outside Philadelphia was a... |
The outbreak of the Civil War shook public confidence in the Union , and citizens began hoarding specie , gold and silver coins . In late December 1861 , banks and then the federal Treasury stopped paying out gold at face value . By mid @-@ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , had vanished from commer... |
= = Final years , abolition , and collecting = =
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Since gold did not circulate in the United States ( except on the West Coast ) in the postwar period , much of the production of coins of that metal in the United States was double eagles for export . Accordingly , although 1 @,@ 361 @,@ 355 gold dollars were struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a mi... |
In the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @-@ mintage gold dollar . <unk> coins was becoming more popular , and a number of <unk> put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . The Mint most likely channeled its production through some favored Philadelphia dealers , though proof coins co... |
James <unk> , in his final report as Mint Director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to <unk> who specifically requested it . " The gold dollar is not a convenient coin , on account of its small size , and it suffers more <unk> from <unk> than larger coins . " His successors called for its abolitio... |
A total of 19 @,@ 499 @,@ 337 gold dollars were coined , of which 18 @,@ 223 @,@ <unk> were struck at Philadelphia , 1 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 at New Orleans , 109 @,@ 138 at Charlotte , 90 @,@ 232 at San Francisco and 72 @,@ 529 at Dahlonega . According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of The <unk> , gold dol... |
= = <unk> gold dollars = =
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The gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of Early United States commemorative coins . Between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues were produced , with a total mintage of 99 @,@ 799 . These were minted for various public events , did not circulate , and none used Longacre 's design .
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= Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction =
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The Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the Corey – Chaykovsky reaction or <unk> ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of epoxides , aziridines , and <unk> . It was discovered in 1961 by A. William Johnson and developed significantly by E. J. Corey and Michae... |
The reaction is most often employed for <unk> via methylene transfer , and to this end has been used in several notable total syntheses ( See Synthesis of epoxides below ) . Additionally detailed below are the history , mechanism , scope , and enantioselective variants of the reaction . Several reviews have been publi... |
= = History = =
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The original publication by Johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @-@ <unk> <unk> with substituted <unk> derivatives . The attempted <unk> @-@ like reaction failed and a <unk> oxide was obtained instead , noting that " Reaction between the sulfur <unk> and <unk> did not afford <unk> as had the phosphorus and arsenic <un... |
The subsequent development of ( <unk> ) methanide , ( <unk> ) <unk> and ( <unk> ) methanide , ( <unk> ) <unk> ( known as Corey – Chaykovsky reagents ) by Corey and Chaykovsky as efficient methylene @-@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon .
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= = <unk> = =
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The reaction mechanism for the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction consists of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to the <unk> or <unk> group . A negative charge is transferred to the <unk> and because the sulfonium cation is a good leaving group it gets expelled forming the ring . In the related <unk> reaction , th... |
The trans diastereoselectivity observed results from the reversibility of the initial addition , allowing <unk> to the favored anti betaine over the <unk> betaine . Initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine with adjacent charges ; density functional theory calculations have shown that the rate @-@ limiting st... |
The degree of reversibility in the initial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) depends on four factors , with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity :
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<unk> of the substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by favoring the starting material over the betaine .
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<unk> of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility .
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<unk> hindrance in the betaine with greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by <unk> formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @-@ limiting rotation of the central bond .
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<unk> of charges in the betaine by <unk> such as lithium with greater <unk> allowing more <unk> rotation in the betaine intermediate , lowering the amount of reversibility .
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= = <unk> = =
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The application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction in organic synthesis is diverse . The reaction has come to encompass reactions of many types of sulfur ylides with <unk> well beyond the original publications . It has seen use in a number of high @-@ profile total syntheses , as detailed below , and is gene... |
= = = Types of ylides = = =
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Many types of ylides can be prepared with various functional groups both on the <unk> carbon center and on the sulfur . The substitution pattern can influence the ease of preparation for the reagents ( typically from the sulfonium <unk> , e.g. <unk> iodide ) and overall reaction rate in various ways . The general form... |
Use of a sulfoxonium allows more <unk> preparation of the reagent using weaker bases as compared to sulfonium ylides . ( The difference being that a sulfoxonium contains a <unk> bonded oxygen whereas the sulfonium does not . ) The former react slower due to their increased stability . In addition , the <unk> by @-@ pr... |
The vast majority of reagents are <unk> at the ylide carbon ( either R1 or <unk> as hydrogen ) . <unk> reagents are much rarer but have been described :
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If the ylide carbon is substituted with an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( <unk> ) , the reagent is referred to as a stabilized ylide . These , similarly to sulfoxonium reagents , react much slower and are typically easier to prepare . These are limited in their usefulness as the reaction can become <unk> sluggish : ... |
If the ylide carbon is substituted with an <unk> or <unk> group , the reagent is referred to as a semi @-@ stabilized ylide . These have been developed extensively , second only to the classical methylene reagents ( R1 = <unk> = H ) . The substitution pattern on <unk> reagents can heavily influence the selectivity of ... |
If the ylide carbon is substituted with an <unk> group the reagent is referred to as an <unk> ylide . The size of the <unk> groups are the major factors in selectivity with these reagents .
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The R @-@ groups on the sulfur , though typically <unk> , have been used to synthesize reagents that can perform enantioselective variants of the reaction ( See Variations below ) . The size of the groups can also influence diastereoselectivity in <unk> substrates .
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= = = Synthesis of epoxides = = =
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Reactions of sulfur ylides with <unk> and <unk> to form epoxides are by far the most common application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction . Examples involving complex substrates and ' exotic ' ylides have been reported , as shown below .
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The reaction has been used in a number of notable total syntheses including the <unk> <unk> total synthesis , which produces the <unk> drug <unk> , and the <unk> <unk> total synthesis which produces the <unk> <unk> .
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= = = Synthesis of aziridines = = =
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The synthesis of aziridines from <unk> is another important application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction and provides an alternative to amine transfer from <unk> . Though less widely applied , the reaction has a similar substrate scope and functional group tolerance to the <unk> equivalent . The examples s... |
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