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9501 | the following example: Being thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower is not the "only" cause of death, since there exist numerous different causes of death. Affirming the consequent is commonly used in rationalization, and thus appears as a coping mechanism in some people. Example 4 In "Catch-22", the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being 'Washington Irving'/'Irving Washington', who has been blocking out large portions of soldiers' letters home. The colonel has found such a letter, but with the Chaplain's name signed. "P" in this case is 'The chaplain signs his own name', and "Q" 'The chaplain's name is | "Affirming the consequent" | [
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9502 | written'. The chaplain's name may be written, but he did not necessarily write it, as the colonel falsely concludes." Affirming the consequent Affirming the consequent, sometimes called converse error, fallacy of the converse, or confusion of necessity and sufficiency, is a formal fallacy of taking a true conditional statement (e.g., "If the lamp were broken, then the room would be dark,") and invalidly inferring its converse ("The room is dark, so the lamp is broken,") even though the converse may not be true. This arises when a consequent ("the room would be dark") has one or more "other" antecedents (for | "Affirming the consequent" | [
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9503 | Andrei Tarkovsky Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky (; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Russian filmmaker, writer, film editor, film theorist, theatre and opera director. His work is characterized by long takes, unconventional dramatic structure, distinctly authored use of cinematography, and spiritual and metaphysical themes. Director Ingmar Bergman said of him: Tarkovsky for me is the greatest (director), the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream. Tarkovsky's films include "Ivan's Childhood" (1962), "Andrei Rublev" (1966), "Solaris" (1972), "Mirror" (1975), and "Stalker" (1979). He | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9504 | directed the first five of his seven feature films in the Soviet Union; his last two films, "Nostalghia" (1983) and "The Sacrifice" (1986), were produced in Italy and Sweden, respectively. The films "Andrei Rublev", "Solaris", "Mirror", and "Stalker" are regularly listed among the greatest films of all time. Andrei Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in the Yuryevetsky District of the Ivanovo Industrial Oblast (modern-day Kadyysky District of the Kostroma Oblast, Russia) to the poet and translator Arseny Alexandrovich Tarkovsky, a native of Yelisavetgrad, Kherson Governorate, and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9505 | who later worked as a corrector; she was born in Moscow in the Dubasov family estate. Andrei's paternal grandfather Aleksandr Karlovich Tarkovsky (in ) was a Polish nobleman who worked as a bank clerk. His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a Romanian teacher who arrived from Iași. Andrei's maternal grandmother Vera Nikolaevna Vishnyakova (née Dubasova) belonged to an old Dubasov family of Russian nobility that traces its history back to the 17th century; among her relatives was Admiral Fyodor Dubasov, a fact she had to conceal during the Soviet days. She was married to Ivan Ivanovich Vishnyakov, a native of | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9506 | the Kaluga Governorate who studied law at the Moscow University and served as a judge in Kozelsk. According to the family legend, Tarkovsky's ancestors on his father's side were princes from the Shamkhalate of Tarki, Dagestan, although his sister Marina Tarkovskaya who did a detailed research on their genealogy called it «a myth, even a prank of sorts», stressing that none of the documents confirms this version. Tarkovsky spent his childhood in Yuryevets. He was described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. His father left the family in | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9507 | 1937, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. Tarkovsky stayed with his mother, moving with her and his sister Marina to Moscow, where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press. In 1939 Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No. 554. During the war, the three evacuated to Yuryevets, living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943 the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school, where the poet Andrey Voznesensky was one of his classmates. He studied piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school. The family lived on Shchipok Street | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9508 | in the Zamoskvorechye District in Moscow. From November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in the hospital with tuberculosis. Many themes of his childhood—the evacuation, his mother and her two children, the withdrawn father, the time in the hospital—feature prominently in his film "Mirror". In his school years, Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student. He still managed to graduate, and from 1951 to 1952 studied Arabic at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters, he | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9509 | did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold. He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureikye near Turukhansk in the Krasnoyarsk Province. During this time in the taiga, Tarkovsky decided to study film. Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) and was admitted to the film-directing program. He was in the same class as Irma Raush whom he married in April 1957. The early Khrushchev era offered good opportunities for young | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9510 | film directors. Before 1953, annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors. After 1953, more films were produced, many of them by young directors. The Khrushchev Thaw relaxed Soviet social restrictions a bit and permitted a limited influx of European and North American literature, films and music. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of the Italian neorealists, French New Wave, and of directors such as Kurosawa, Buñuel, Bergman, Bresson, Andrzej Wajda (whose film "Ashes and Diamonds" influenced Tarkovsky) and Mizoguchi. Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was Mikhail Romm, who taught many film students who would later | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9511 | become influential film directors. In 1956 Tarkovsky directed his first student short film, "The Killers", from a short story of Ernest Hemingway. The short film "There Will Be No Leave Today" and the screenplay "Concentrate" followed in 1958 and 1959. An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director Grigori Chukhrai, who was teaching at the VGIK. Impressed by the talent of his student, Chukhrai offered Tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film "Clear Skies". Tarkovsky initially showed interest but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects. During his third year at the VGIK, | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9512 | Tarkovsky met Andrei Konchalovsky. They found much in common as they liked the same film directors and shared ideas on cinema and films. In 1959 they wrote the script "Antarctica – Distant Country", which was later published in the "Moskovskij Komsomolets". Tarkovsky submitted the script to Lenfilm, but it was rejected. They were more successful with the script "The Steamroller and the Violin", which they sold to Mosfilm. This became Tarkovsky's graduation project, earning him his diploma in 1960 and winning First Prize at the New York Student Film Festival in 1961. Tarkovsky's first feature film was "Ivan's Childhood" in | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9513 | 1962. He had inherited the film from director Eduard Abalov, who had to abort the project. The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival in the year 1962. In the same year, on 30 September, his first son Arseny (called Senka in Tarkovsky's diaries) Tarkovsky was born. In 1965, he directed the film "Andrei Rublev" about the life of Andrei Rublev, the fifteenth-century Russian icon painter. "Andrei Rublev" was not, except for a single screening in Moscow in 1966, immediately released after completion due to problems with Soviet authorities. Tarkovsky had | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9514 | to cut the film several times, resulting in several different versions of varying lengths. The film was widely released in the Soviet Union in a cut version in 1971. He divorced his wife, Irma Raush, in June 1970. In the same year, he married Larissa Kizilova (née Egorkina), who had been a production assistant for the film "Andrei Rublev" (they had been living together since 1965). Their son, Andrei Andreyevich Tarkovsky, was born in the same year on 7 August. A version of the film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival in 1969 and won the FIPRESCI prize. In | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9515 | 1972, he completed "Solaris", an adaptation of the novel "Solaris" by Stanisław Lem. He had worked on this together with screenwriter Fridrikh Gorenshtein as early as 1968. The film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival, won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury and the FIPRESCI prize, and was nominated for the Palme d'Or. From 1973 to 1974, he shot the film "Mirror", a highly autobiographical and unconventionally structured film drawing on his childhood and incorporating some of his father's poems. In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood affected by war. Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9516 | this film since 1967, under the consecutive titles "Confession", "White day" and "A white, white day". From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature. Russian authorities placed the film in the "third category," a severely limited distribution, and only allowed it to be shown in third-class cinemas and workers' clubs. Few prints were made and the film-makers received no returns. Third category films also placed the film-makers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds, which could have serious effects on their future productivity. These difficulties | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9517 | are presumed to have made Tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the Soviet film industry. During 1975, Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay "Hoffmanniana", about the German writer and poet E. T. A. Hoffmann. In December 1976, he directed "Hamlet", his only stage play, at the Lenkom Theatre in Moscow. The main role was played by Anatoly Solonitsyn, who also acted in several of Tarkovsky's films. At the end of 1978, he also wrote the screenplay "Sardor" together with the writer Aleksandr Misharin. The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9518 | "Stalker", inspired by the novel "Roadside Picnic" by the brothers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. Tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986. Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel "Dead Mountaineer's Hotel" and he developed a raw script. Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on "Roadside Picnic". Work on this film began in 1976. The production was mired in troubles; improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots. Tarkovsky's | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9519 | relationship with cinematographer Georgy Rerberg deteriorated to the point where he hired Alexander Knyazhinsky as a new first cinematographer. Furthermore, Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978, resulting in further delay. The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the Cannes Film Festival. In the same year Tarkovsky also began the production of the film "The First Day" (Russian: Первый День "Pervyj Dyen′"), based on a script by his friend and long-term collaborator Andrei Konchalovsky. The film was set in 18th-century Russia during the reign of Peter the Great and starred Natalya | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9520 | Bondarchuk and Anatoli Papanov. To get the project approved by Goskino, Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script, omitting several scenes that were critical of the official atheism in the Soviet Union. After shooting roughly half of the film the project was stopped by Goskino after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors. Tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film. During the summer of 1979, Tarkovsky traveled to Italy, where he shot the documentary "Voyage in Time" together with his long-time friend Tonino | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9521 | Guerra. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1980 for an extended trip during which he and Guerra completed the script for the film "Nostalghia". Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1982 to start shooting "Nostalghia". He did not return to his home country. As Mosfilm withdrew from the project, he had to complete the film with financial support provided by the Italian RAI. Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983. "Nostalghia" was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and won the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called "Grand Prix du cinéma de creation" | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9522 | with Robert Bresson. Soviet authorities prevented the film from winning the Palme d'Or, a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet Union again. He also said: '"'I am not a Soviet dissident, I have no conflict with the Soviet Government."" But if he returned home, he added, "<nowiki>"I would be unemployed."</nowiki>" In the same year, he also staged the opera "Boris Godunov" at the Royal Opera House in London under the musical direction of Claudio Abbado. He spent most of 1984 preparing the film "The Sacrifice". At a press conference in Milan on 10 July 1984, | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9523 | he announced that he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in Europe. At that time, his son Andrei Jr. was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country. On 28 August 1985, Tarkovsky arrived at Latina Refugee Camp in Latina, where he was registered with the serial number 13225/379. "The Sacrifice" was Tarkovsky's ultimate film, dedicated to Andrei Jr. In the subsequent documentary following the making of The Sacrifice, released posthumously, Tarkovsky expresses his sentiments on death, claiming he believed himself to be immortal. During 1985, he shot the film "The Sacrifice" | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9524 | in Sweden. At the end of the year he was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. In January 1986, he began treatment in Paris and was joined there by his son, who was finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union. "The Sacrifice" was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and received the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury, the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. As Tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness, the prizes were collected by his son, Andrei Jr. In Tarkovsky's last entry (15 December 1986), he wrote: "But now I have no strength | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9525 | left – that is the problem". The diaries are sometimes also known as "" and were published posthumously in 1989 and in English in 1991. Tarkovsky died in Paris on 29 December 1986. His funeral ceremony was held at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral. He was buried on 3 January 1987 in the Russian Cemetery in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois in France. The inscription on his gravestone, which was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife, Larisa Tarkovskaya, reads: "To the man who saw the Angel". A conspiracy theory emerged in Russia in the early 1990s when it was alleged that Tarkovsky did not die of natural | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9526 | causes but was assassinated by the KGB. Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies by former KGB agents who claim that Viktor Chebrikov gave the order to eradicate Tarkovsky to curtail what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as anti-Soviet propaganda by Tarkovsky. Other evidence includes several memoranda that surfaced after the 1991 coup and the claim by one of Tarkovsky's doctors that his cancer could not have developed from a natural cause. As with Tarkovsky, his wife Larisa Tarkovskaya and actor Anatoli Solonitsyn all died from the very same type of lung cancer. Vladimir Sharun, sound designer in "Stalker", | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9527 | is convinced that they were all poisoned by the chemical plant where they were shooting the film. Tarkovsky is mainly known as a film director. During his career he directed only seven feature films, as well as three shorts from his time at VGIK. These include: He also wrote several screenplays. Furthermore, he directed the play "Hamlet" for the stage in Moscow, directed the opera "Boris Godunov" in London, and he directed a radio production of the short story "Turnabout" by William Faulkner. He also wrote "Sculpting in Time", a book on film theory. Tarkovsky's first feature film was "Ivan's | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9528 | Childhood" in 1962. He then directed "Andrei Rublev" in 1966, "Solaris" in 1972, "Mirror" in 1975 and "Stalker" in 1979. The documentary "Voyage in Time" was produced in Italy in 1982, as was "Nostalghia" in 1983. His last film "The Sacrifice" was produced in Sweden in 1986. Tarkovsky was personally involved in writing the screenplays for all his films, sometimes with a cowriter. Tarkovsky once said that a director who realizes somebody else's screenplay without being involved in it becomes a mere illustrator, resulting in dead and monotonous films. A book of 60 photos, "Instant Light, Tarkovsky Polaroids", taken by | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9529 | Tarkovsky in Russia and Italy between 1979 and 1984 was published in 2006. The collection was selected by Italian photographer Giovanni Chiaramonte and Tarkovsky's son Andrey A. Tarkovsky. Bibliography Books written by Tarkovsky Numerous awards were bestowed on Tarkovsky throughout his lifetime. At the Venice Film Festival he was awarded the Golden Lion for "Ivan's Childhood". At the Cannes Film Festival, he won the FIPRESCI prize four times, the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury three times (more than any other director), and the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury twice. He was also nominated for the Palme d'Or two times. In | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9530 | 1987, the British Academy of Film and Television Arts awarded the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film to "The Sacrifice". Under the influence of Glasnost and Perestroika, Tarkovsky was finally recognized in the Soviet Union in the Autumn of 1986, shortly before his death, by a retrospective of his films in Moscow. After his death, an entire issue of the film magazine "Iskusstvo Kino" was devoted to Tarkovsky. In their obituaries, the film committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Union of Soviet Film Makers expressed their sorrow that Tarkovsky had to spend the last | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9531 | years of his life in exile. Posthumously, he was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1990, one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union. In 1989 the "Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize" was established, with its first recipient being the Russian animator Yuriy Norshteyn. In three consecutive events, the Moscow International Film Festival awards the annual "Andrei Tarkovsky Award" in the years of 1993, 1995 and 1997. In 1996 the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets, his childhood town. A minor planet, 3345 Tarkovskij, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1982, has also been named after him. Tarkovsky | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9532 | has been the subject of several documentaries. Most notable is the 1988 documentary "Moscow Elegy", by Russian film director Alexander Sokurov. Sokurov's own work has been heavily influenced by Tarkovsky. The film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from Tarkovsky's films. "Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky" is 1988 documentary film by Michal Leszczylowski, an editor of the film "The Sacrifice". Film director Chris Marker produced the television documentary "One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich" as an homage to Andrei Tarkovsky in 2000. Ingmar Bergman was quoted as saying: "Tarkovsky for me is the greatest [of us all], the | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9533 | one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream". Film historian Steven Dillon says that much of subsequent film was deeply influenced by the films of Tarkovsky. At the entrance to the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography in Moscow, Russia there is a monument that includes statues of Tarkovsky, Gennady Shpalikov and Vasily Shukshin. Concentrate (, "Konsentrat") is a never-filmed 1958 screenplay by Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year in the taiga as a member of a research expedition, prior to | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9534 | his enrollment in film school. It's about the leader of a geological expedition, who waits for the boat that brings back the concentrates collected by the expedition. The expedition is surrounded by mystery, and its purpose is a state secret. Although some authors claim that the screenplay was filmed, according to Marina Tarkovskaya, Tarkovsky's sister (and wife of Aleksandr Gordon, a fellow student of Tarvosky during his film school years) the screenplay was never filmed. Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) in a single sitting. He earned the highest possible grade, | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9535 | excellent () for this work. In 1994 fragments of the "Concentrate" were filmed and used in the documentary "Andrei Tarkovsky's Taiga Summer" by Marina Tarkovskaya and Aleksandr Gordon. Hoffmanniana () is a never-filmed 1974 screenplay by Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on the life and work of German author E. T. A. Hoffmann. In 1974 an acquaintance from Tallinnfilm approached Tarkovsky to write a screenplay on a German theme. Tarkovsky considered Thomas Mann and E.T.A. Hoffmann, and also thought about Ibsen's "Peer Gynt". In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract for a script based on the | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9536 | life and work of Hoffmann. Tarkovsky planned to write the script during the summer of 1974 at his dacha. Writing was not without difficulty, less than a month before the deadline he had not written a single page. He finally finished the project in late 1974 and submitted the final script to Tallinnfilm in October. Although the script was well received by the officials at Tallinnfilm, it was the consensus that no one but Tarkovsky would be able to direct it. The script was sent to Goskino in February 1976, and although approval was granted for proceeding with making the | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9537 | film the screenplay was never realized. In 1984, during the time of his exile in the West, Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made a few changes. He also considered to finally direct a film based on the screenplay but ultimately dropped this idea. Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s, a period referred to as the Khrushchev Thaw, during which Soviet society opened to foreign films, literature and music, among other things. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of European, American and Japanese directors, an experience which influenced his own film making. His teacher and mentor | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9538 | at the film school, Mikhail Romm, allowed his students considerable freedom and emphasized the independence of the film director. Tarkovsky was, according to fellow student Shavkat Abdusalmov, fascinated by Japanese films. He was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a Samurai cutting bread with his sword are elevated to something special and put into the limelight. Tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of Haiku and its ability to create "images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves." Tarkovsky perceived that the art of cinema has | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9539 | only been truly mastered by very few filmmakers, stating in a 1970 interview with Naum Abramov that "they can be counted on the fingers of one hand." In 1972, Tarkovsky told film historian Leonid Kozlov his ten favorite films. The list includes: "Diary of a Country Priest" and "Mouchette" by Robert Bresson; "Winter Light", "Wild Strawberries", and "Persona" by Ingmar Bergman; "Nazarín" by Luis Buñuel; "City Lights" by Charlie Chaplin; "Ugetsu" by Kenji Mizoguchi; "Seven Samurai" by Akira Kurosawa, and "Woman in the Dunes" by Hiroshi Teshigahara. Among his favorite directors were Buñuel, Mizoguchi, Bergman, Bresson, Kurosawa, Michelangelo Antonioni, Jean | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9540 | Vigo, and Carl Theodor Dreyer. With the exception of "City Lights", the list does not contain any films of the early silent era. The reason is that Tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon, with the early film-making forming only a prelude. The list has also no films or directors from Tarkovsky's native Russia, although he rated Soviet directors such as Boris Barnet, Sergei Parajanov and Alexander Dovzhenko highly. He said of Dovzhenko's "Earth", "I have lived a lot among very simple farmers and met extraordinary people. They spread calmness, had such tact, they conveyed | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9541 | a feeling of dignity and displayed wisdom that I have seldom come across on such a scale. Dovzhenko had obviously understood wherein the sense of life resides. [...] This trespassing of the border between nature and mankind is an ideal place for the existence of man. Dovzhenko understood this." Although strongly opposed to commercial cinema, in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film "The Terminator", saying its "vision of the future and the relation between man and its destiny is pushing the frontier of cinema as an art". He was critical of the "brutality and low acting skills", but | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9542 | was nevertheless impressed by the film. In a 1962 interview, Tarkovsky argued, "All art, of course, is intellectual, but for me, all the arts, and cinema even more so, must above all be emotional and act upon the heart." His films are characterized by metaphysical themes, extremely long takes, and images often considered by critics to be of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, levitation, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. He once said, "Juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless, | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9543 | collating him with a countless number of people passing by close to him and far away, relating a person to the whole world, that is the meaning of cinema.” Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several of his films, most notably "Solaris". To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability. Water, clouds, and reflections were used by him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value, as well as their symbolism, such as waves or the forms of brooks or running water. Bells and candles are also frequent symbols. These are symbols of | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9544 | film, sight and sound, and Tarkovsky's film frequently has themes of self-reflection. Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time. By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to, and including, his film "Mirror", Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9545 | on exploring this theory. After "Mirror", he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by Aristotle: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black and white sequences. This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome "Andrei Rublev", which features a color epilogue of Rublev's authentic religious icon paintings. All of his films afterwards contain monochrome, and in "Stalker's" case sepia sequences, while otherwise being in color. In 1966, in an interview conducted shortly after finishing "Andrei Rublev", Tarkovsky dismissed color film | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9546 | as a "commercial gimmick" and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color. He claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time, and that color should therefore be used in film mainly to emphasize certain moments, but not all the time, as this distracts the viewer. To him, films in color were like moving paintings or photographs, which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life. Bergman on Tarkovsky Ingmar Bergman, a renowned director, commented on Tarkovsky Contrarily, however, Bergman conceded the truth in the claim made by | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9547 | a critic who wrote that, "with "Autumn Sonata" Bergman does Bergman," adding, "Tarkovsky began to make Tarkovsky films, and that Fellini began to make Fellini films [...] Buñuel nearly always made Buñuel films." This pastiche of one's own work has been derogatorily termed as "self-karaoke." Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with cinematographer Vadim Yusov from 1958 to 1972, and much of the visual style of Tarkovsky's films can be attributed to this collaboration. Tarkovsky would spend two days preparing for Yusov to film a single long take, and due to the preparation, usually only a single take was needed. In | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9548 | his last film, "The Sacrifice", Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist, who had worked on many films with director Ingmar Bergman. (Nykvist was not alone: several people involved in the production had previously collaborated with Bergman, notably lead actor Erland Josephson, who had also acted for Tarkovsky in "Nostalghia".) Nykvist complained that Tarkovsky would frequently look through the camera and even direct actors through it. Notes Bibliography Andrei Tarkovsky Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky (; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Russian filmmaker, writer, film editor, film theorist, theatre and opera director. His work is characterized by long takes, | "Andrei Tarkovsky" | [
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9549 | Ambiguity Ambiguity is a type of meaning in which several interpretations are plausible. A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose intended meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. (The "ambi-" part of the term reflects an idea of "two", as in "two meanings".) The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with vagueness. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted (although some may not be immediately obvious), whereas with information that is vague, it is difficult to form any | Ambiguity | [
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9550 | interpretation at the desired level of specificity. Context may play a role in resolving ambiguity. For example, the same piece of information may be ambiguous in one context and unambiguous in another. The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" here refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word "bank" has several distinct lexical definitions, including "financial institution" and "edge of a river". Or consider "apothecary". One could say "I bought herbs from the apothecary". This could | Ambiguity | [
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9551 | mean one actually spoke to the apothecary (pharmacist) or went to the apothecary (pharmacy). The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says "I buried $100 in the bank", most people would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the appropriate meaning with a word in context, a task referred to as word sense disambiguation. The | Ambiguity | [
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9552 | use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose "weasel words" and obfuscation are necessary to gain support from multiple constituents with mutually exclusive conflicting desires from their candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of political science. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related | Ambiguity | [
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9553 | concepts. "Good", for example, can mean "useful" or "functional" ("That's a good hammer"), "exemplary" ("She's a good student"), "pleasing" ("This is good soup"), "moral" ("a good person" versus "the lesson to be learned from a story"), "righteous", etc. " I have a good daughter" is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply prefixes and suffixes can also create ambiguity ("unlockable" can mean "capable of being unlocked" or "impossible to lock"). Syntactic ambiguity arises when a sentence can have two (or more) different meanings because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due | Ambiguity | [
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9554 | to a modifying expression, such as a prepositional phrase, the application of which is unclear. "He ate the cookies on the couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. "To get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers' license." This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and your license. Or it could mean that | Ambiguity | [
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9555 | you need your license AND you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher. Only rewriting the sentence, or placing appropriate punctuation can resolve a syntactic ambiguity. For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in artificial, formal languages (such as computer programming languages), see Ambiguous grammar. Spoken language can contain many more types of ambiguities which are called phonological ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words. For example, "ice cream" and "I scream". Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly | Ambiguity | [
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9556 | resolved ambiguity, is called a mondegreen. Semantic ambiguity happens when a sentence contains an ambiguous word or phrase—a word or phrase that has more than one meaning. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard Nordquist), the word "duck" can refer either Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to vagueness. Linguistic ambiguity can be a problem | Ambiguity | [
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9557 | in law, because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance. Philosophers (and other users of logic) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing (or intentionally adding) ambiguity in arguments because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say, "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth", an example of a glittering generality. Some will think he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth. Others may think he opposes only those taxes that he believes will hinder | Ambiguity | [
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9558 | economic growth. In writing, the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation, either by adding a comma after "taxes" (to convey the first sense) or by changing "which" to "that" (to convey the second sense) or by rewriting it in other ways. The devious politician hopes that each constituent will interpret the statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true – an opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one if the speaker uses ambiguity (intentionally or not). The logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation | Ambiguity | [
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9559 | rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases. In continental philosophy (particularly phenomenology and existentialism), there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity, as it is generally seen as an integral part of the human condition. Martin Heidegger argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous, as is the relation of mind and body, and part and whole.[3] In Heidegger's phenomenology, Dasein is always in a meaningful world, but there is always an underlying background for every instance of signification. Thus, although some things may be certain, they have little to do with Dasein's sense of | Ambiguity | [
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9560 | care and existential anxiety, e.g., in the face of death. In calling his work Being and Nothingness an "essay in phenomenological ontology" Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger in defining the human essence as ambiguous, or relating fundamentally to such ambiguity. Simone de Beauvoir tries to base an ethics on Heidegger's and Sartre's writings (The Ethics of Ambiguity), where she highlights the need to grapple with ambiguity: "as long as philosophers and they [men] have thought, most of them have tried to mask it...And the ethics which they have proposed to their disciples have always pursued the same goal. It has been | Ambiguity | [
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9561 | a matter of eliminating the ambiguity by making oneself pure inwardness or pure externality, by escaping from the sensible world or being engulfed by it, by yielding to eternity or enclosing oneself in the pure moment." Ethics cannot be based on the authoritative certainty given by mathematics and logic, or prescribed directly from the empirical findings of science. She states: "Since we do not succeed in fleeing it, let us, therefore, try to look the truth in the face. Let us try to assume our fundamental ambiguity. It is in the knowledge of the genuine conditions of our life that | Ambiguity | [
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9562 | we must draw our strength to live and our reason for acting". Other continental philosophers suggest that concepts such as life, nature, and sex are ambiguous. Corey Anton has argued that we cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not, in fact, separate. Following Ernest Becker, he argues that the desire to 'authoritatively disambiguate' the world and existence has led to numerous ideologies and historical events such as genocide. On this basis, he argues that ethics must focus on 'dialectically integrating opposites' and balancing tension, rather than seeking a | Ambiguity | [
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9563 | priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists, he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity. In literature and rhetoric, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: "Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I'll never know". Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to sadness). In the narrative, ambiguity can | Ambiguity | [
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9564 | be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel "The Great Gatsby". Christianity and Judaism employ the concept of paradox synonymously with 'ambiguity'. Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery which fascinates humans.[dubious – discuss] The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts which he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases. (The title of one of his | Ambiguity | [
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9565 | most famous books, Orthodoxy, itself employing such a paradox.) Metonymy involves the use of the name of a subcomponent part as an abbreviation, or jargon, for the name of the whole object (for example "wheels" to refer to a car, or "flowers" to refer to beautiful offspring, an entire plant, or a collection of blooming plants). In modern vocabulary, critical semiotics,[9] metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual contiguity (located close together), or a function or process that an object performs, such as "sweet ride" to refer to a nice car. Metonym miscommunication is considered | Ambiguity | [
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9566 | a primary mechanism of linguistic humor. In music, pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some polytonality, polymeter, other ambiguous meters or rhythms, and ambiguous phrasing, or (Stein 2005, p. 79) any aspect of music. The music of Africa is often purposely ambiguous. To quote Sir Donald Francis Tovey (1935, p. 195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value." In visual art, certain images are visually ambiguous, such as the Necker cube, which can | Ambiguity | [
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9567 | be interpreted in two ways. Perceptions of such objects remain stable for a time, then may flip, a phenomenon called multistable perception. The opposite of such ambiguous images are impossible objects. Pictures or photographs may also be ambiguous at the semantic level: the visual image is unambiguous, but the meaning and narrative may be ambiguous: is a certain facial expression one of excitement or fear, for instance? Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially lexical ambiguity. Lojban and Loglan are two related languages which have been created for this, focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as | Ambiguity | [
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9568 | well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to syntax and semantic rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn. In computer science, the SI prefixes kilo-, mega- and giga- were historically used in certain contexts to mean either the first three powers of 1024 (1024, 1024 and 1024) contrary to the metric system in which these units unambiguously mean one thousand, | Ambiguity | [
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9569 | one million, and one billion. This usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices (e.g. DRAM) addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense. Subsequently, the Ki, Mi, and Gi prefixes were introduced so that binary prefixes could be written explicitly, also rendering k, M, and G "unambiguous" in texts conforming to the new standard — this led to a "new" ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of the binary prefixes (necessarily indicating the new style) as to whether the usage of k, M, and G remains ambiguous (old style) or not | Ambiguity | [
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9570 | (new style). Note also that 1 M (where M is ambiguously 1,000,000 or 1,048,576) is "less" uncertain than the engineering value 1.0e6 (defined to designate the interval 950,000 to 1,050,000), and that as non-volatile storage devices began to commonly exceed 1 GB in capacity (where the ambiguity begins to routinely impact the second significant digit), GB and TB almost always mean 10 and 10 bytes. Mathematical notation, widely used in physics and other sciences, avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several lexical, syntactic and semantic ambiguities remain. The ambiguity in the style of | Ambiguity | [
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9571 | writing a function should not be confused with a multivalued function, which can (and should) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several special functions still do not have established notations. Usually, the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument or the resulting value; sometimes, the same name of the function is used, causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functions: Ambiguous expressions often appear in physical and mathematical texts. It is common practice to omit multiplication signs in mathematical expressions. Also, it is common to give the same name to a variable and a function, for example, | Ambiguity | [
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9572 | formula_1. Then, if one sees formula_2, there is no way to distinguish whether it means formula_1 multiplied by formula_4, or function formula_5 evaluated at argument equal to formula_4. In each case of use of such notations, the reader is supposed to be able to perform the deduction and reveal the true meaning. Creators of algorithmic languages try to avoid ambiguities. Many algorithmic languages (C++ and Fortran) require the character * as symbol of multiplication. The Wolfram Language used in Mathematica allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol, but requires square brackets to indicate the argument of a function; square | Ambiguity | [
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9573 | brackets are not allowed for grouping of expressions. Fortran, in addition, does not allow use of the same name (identifier) for different objects, for example, function and variable; in particular, the expression f=f(x) is qualified as an error. The order of operations may depend on the context. In most programming languages, the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. Until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, formula_7 is interpreted as formula_8; in this case, the insertion of parentheses is required when translating the formulas to | Ambiguity | [
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9574 | an algorithmic language. In addition, it is common to write an argument of a function without parenthesis, which also may lead to ambiguity. Sometimes, one uses "italics" letters to denote elementary functions. In the scientific journal style, the expression formula_9 means product of variables formula_10, formula_11, formula_12 and formula_13, although in a slideshow, it may mean formula_14. A comma in subscripts and superscripts sometimes is omitted; it is also ambiguous notation. If it is written formula_15, the reader should guess from the context, does it mean a single-index object, evaluated while the subscript is equal to product of variables formula_16, | Ambiguity | [
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9575 | formula_12 and formula_18, or it is indication to a trivalent tensor. The writing of formula_15 instead of formula_20 may mean that the writer either is stretched in space (for example, to reduce the publication fees) or aims to increase number of publications without considering readers. The same may apply to any other use of ambiguous notations. Subscripts are also used to denote the argument to a function, as in formula_21. formula_22, which could be understood to mean either formula_23 or formula_24. In addition, formula_25 may mean formula_26, as formula_27 means formula_28 (see tetration). formula_29, which by convention means formula_30, though | Ambiguity | [
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9576 | it might be thought to mean formula_31, since formula_32 means formula_33. formula_34, which arguably should mean formula_35 but would commonly be understood to mean formula_36 . It is common to define the coherent states in quantum optics with formula_37 and states with fixed number of photons with formula_38. Then, there is an "unwritten rule": the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than Latin characters in the argument, and formula_39photon state if the Latin characters dominate. The ambiguity becomes even worse, if formula_40 is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate, and formula_41 means the | Ambiguity | [
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9577 | state with certain value of the momentum, which may be used in books on quantum mechanics. Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions, especially if some normalized adimensional, dimensionless variables are used. Expression formula_42 may mean a state with single photon, or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1, or state with momentum equal to unity, and so on. The reader is supposed to guess from the context. Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations; their value (and sometimes even dimension, as in the case of the Einstein coefficients), depends on the system of notations. Many terms | Ambiguity | [
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9578 | are ambiguous. Each use of an ambiguous term should be preceded by the definition, suitable for a specific case. Just like Ludwig Wittgenstein states in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: "... Only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning." A highly confusing term is "gain". For example, the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing. It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled. It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit | Ambiguity | [
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9579 | to the input power should be doubled. It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term "intensity" is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of irradiance, luminous intensity, radiant intensity, or radiance, depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of atomic percent as measure of concentration of a dopant, or resolution of an imaging system, as measure | Ambiguity | [
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9580 | of the size of the smallest detail which still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also Accuracy and precision and its talk. The Berry paradox arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as "definable" or "nameable". Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal. In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of underdetermination—for example, formula_43 leaves open what the value of | Ambiguity | [
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9581 | "X" is—while its opposite is a self-contradiction, also called inconsistency, paradoxicalness, or oxymoron, or in mathematics an inconsistent system—such as formula_44, which has no solution. Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and impossible objects, such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of M. C. Escher. Ambiguity Ambiguity is a type of meaning in which several interpretations are plausible. A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose intended meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite | Ambiguity | [
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9582 | Aardvark The aardvark ( ; "Orycteropus afer") is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native to Africa. It is the only living species of the order Tubulidentata, although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike other insectivores, it has a long pig-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows | Aardvark | [
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9583 | in which to live and rear its young. It receives a "least concern" rating from the IUCN, although its numbers seem to be decreasing. The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called "African ant bear", "anteater" (not to be confused with the South American anteater), or the "Cape anteater" after the Cape of Good Hope. The name "aardvark" () comes from earlier Afrikaans (erdvark) and means "earth pig" or "ground pig" ("aarde": earth/ground, "vark": pig), because of its burrowing habits. The name "Orycteropus" means burrowing foot, and the name "afer" refers to Africa. The name of the aardvarks's order, "Tubulidentata," comes from | Aardvark | [
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9584 | the tubule-style teeth. The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus "Orycteropus", the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are based on convergent evolution. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews, tenrecs and golden moles. Along with the sirenians, hyraxes, elephants, and their extinct relatives, these | Aardvark | [
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9585 | animals form the superorder Afrotheria. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with Condylarthra, and given the clade's status as a wastebasket taxon it may mean some species traditionally classified as "condylarths" are actually stem-aardvarks. Based on fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in Africa around the end of the Paleocene. The ptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to Tubulidentata or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates. The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably "Myorycteropus africanus" from Kenyan Miocene deposits. The | Aardvark | [
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9586 | earliest example from the genus "Orycteropus" was "Orycteropus mauritanicus", found in Algeria in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout Europe and the Near East. The mysterious Pleistocene "Plesiorycteropus" from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that "Plesiorycteropus" is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that | Aardvark | [
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9587 | achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution. The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed: The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica also mentions "O. a. capensis" or Cape ant-bear from South Africa. The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which | Aardvark | [
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9588 | is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered digitigrade, it appears at time to be plantigrade. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles. A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone (CCCB). The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favorable environment for plants and a variety of animals. An aardvark's weight is typically between . An aardvark's length is usually | Aardvark | [
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9589 | between , and can reach lengths of when its tail (which can be up to ) is taken into account. It is tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about . It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of | Aardvark | [
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9590 | 3-4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete zygomatic arch. The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their teeth. Instead of having a pulp cavity, each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel | Aardvark | [
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9591 | tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of dentine), with individual pulp canals, held together by cementum. The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the jaw, and have a dental formula of: These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition. The | Aardvark | [
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9592 | teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten nasal conchae, more than any other placental mammal. The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair. The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified mimetic muscles. The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions, but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature. Its nose is made up of more turbinate bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs | Aardvark | [
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9593 | with 4 to 5. With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium, which is the location of the olfactory bulb. The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs, more than any other mammal. Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its olfactory lobe is very developed. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on ants and termites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding | Aardvark | [
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9594 | tongue (as much as long) and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell. The ears, which are very effective, are disproportionately long, about long. The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of rods. The aardvark's stomach has a muscular pyloric area that acts as a gizzard to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary. Its cecum is large. Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland. Its salivary glands are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck; their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness. The female has | Aardvark | [
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9595 | two pairs of teats in the inguinal region. Genetically speaking, the aardvark is a living fossil, as its chromosomes are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early eutherian arrangement before the divergence of the major modern taxa. Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa, where suitable habitat (savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland) and food (i.e., ants and termites) is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark underground burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They | Aardvark | [
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9596 | also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging. They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions. These exceptions include the coastal areas of Namibia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana. They are not found in Madagascar. Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in captivity. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: lions, leopards, cheetahs, hunting dogs, hyenas, and pythons. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, | Aardvark | [
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9597 | they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet. They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker. They will also dig to escape as they can, when pressed, dig extremely quickly. The aardvark is nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on ants and termites (myrmecophagy); the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber. In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds | Aardvark | [
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9598 | near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark. They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants. Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing . While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the | Aardvark | [
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9599 | ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again. During a foraging period, they will stop and dig a "V" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping | Aardvark | [
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9600 | its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful, the aardvark's long (up to ) tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up | Aardvark | [
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0.46481266617774963,
-0.19639447331428528,
-0.08441279... |
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