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401 | University of Berlin and eventually obtained his theology degree in University of Strasbourg. He published his PhD thesis at the University of Tübingen in 1899. In 1905, Schweitzer began his study of medicine at the University of Strasbourg, culminating in the degree of M.D. in 1913. Schweitzer rapidly gained prominenc... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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402 | as painter-like tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based. They were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns. The exposition... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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403 | was two volumes ("J. S. Bach"), which were published in 1908 and translated into English by Ernest Newman in 1911. Ernst Cassirer, a contemporaneous German philosopher, called it "one of the best interpretations" of Bach. During its preparation Schweitzer became a friend of Cosima Wagner, then resident in Strasbourg, w... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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404 | corresponded with composer Clara Faisst, who became a good friend. His pamphlet "The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France" (1906, republished with an appendix on the state of the organ-building industry in 1927) effectively launched the 20th-century "Orgelbewegung", which turned away from roman... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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405 | very considered report. This provided the basis for the "International Regulations for Organ Building". He envisaged instruments in which the French late-romantic full-organ sound should work integrally with the English and German romantic reed pipes, and with the classical Alsace Silbermann organ resources and baroque... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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406 | musicians who founded the Paris Bach Society, a choir dedicated to performing J.S. Bach's music, for whose concerts Schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913. He was also appointed organist for the Bach Concerts of the Orféo Català at Barcelona, Spain, and often travelled there for that purpose. He and Widor ... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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407 | Sonatas and Concertos: six volumes were published in 1912–14. Three more, to contain the Chorale Preludes with Schweitzer's analyses, were to be worked on in Africa, but these were never completed, perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought. On departure for Lambaréné in 1913 he... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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408 | his art, and fell out of practice: but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of Bach, Mendelssohn, Widor, César Franck, and Max Reger systematically. It became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on Sunday afternoons. Schweitzer's pedal piano was still in use at Lambaréné in 1946. A... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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409 | Tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of Bach's "The Art of Fugue" to Schweitzer. Schweitzer's recordings of organ-music, and his innovative recording technique, are described below. One of his notable pupils was conductor and composer Hans Münch. In 1899 Schweitzer became a deacon at the church of Saint Nicholas ... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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410 | was made permanent. In 1906 he published "Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung" ("History of Life-of-Jesus research"). This book, which established his reputation, was first published in English in 1910 as "The Quest of the Historical Jesus". Under this title the book became famous in the English-speaking world. A secon... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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411 | the "historical Jesus" back to the late 18th century. He showed that the image of Jesus had changed with the times and outlooks of the various authors, and gave his own synopsis and interpretation of the previous century's findings. He maintained that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own con... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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412 | he would also ascend to heaven and one day return to judge and rule over the world, saying that no one, including himself, knew the exact time of his return, but it would be before the end of his generation. Schweitzer verified the many New Testament references clearly explaining that 1st-century Christians believed in... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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413 | it will happen: "This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled" (St Matthew, 24:34) (or, "have taken place" (Luke 21:32)) In "The Quest of the Historical Jesus", Schweitzer observes the Bible contradicting the possibility of important events that never took place and never can take place as they ar... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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414 | those who hear the words of the prophecy, and heed the things which are written in it; for the time is near" (Revelation 1:3). Saint Paul spoke of the "last times": "Brethren, the time is short: it remaineth, that both they that have wives be as though they had none" (1 Corinthians 7:29); "God hath in these last days s... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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415 | has come with power" (Mark 9:1); or, "till they see the kingdom of God" (Luke 9:27).) Schweitzer continues writing in "The Quest of the Historical Jesus" that it is totally unreasonable to think that "coming quickly", "near", and "soon" could mean hundreds, much less thousands, of years in the future. "Blessed is he wh... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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416 | the prophets, sent His angel to show to His bond-servants the things which must soon take place." "And behold, I am coming quickly. Blessed is he who heeds the words of the prophecy of this book." And he said to me, "Do not seal up the words of the prophecy of this book, for the time is near" (Revelation 22:6, 7, 10, 1... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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417 | Historical Jesus", Schweitzer notes the passage "Blessed is he who reads and those who hear the words of the prophecy, and heed the things which are written in it; for the time is near." (Revelation 1:3) Similarly in St Peter: "Christ .. Who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world, but was manifest i... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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418 | stark contrast to modern organized Christianity. In "The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle", Schweitzer first distinguishes between two categories of mysticism: primitive and developed. Primitive mysticism "has not yet risen to a conception of the universal, and is still confined to naive views of earthly and super-earthly... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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419 | the cults of Attis, Osiris, and Mithras. A developed form of mysticism is attained when the "conception of the universal is reached and a man reflects upon his relation to the totality of being and to Being in itself." Schweitzer claims that this form of mysticism is more intellectual and can be found "among the Brahma... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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420 | above primitive mysticism, due to his intellectual writings, but never speaks of being one with God or being in God. Instead, he conceives of sonship to God as "mediated and effected by means of the mystical union with Christ." He summarizes Pauline mysticism as "being in Christ" rather than "being in God." Paul’s immi... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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421 | Schweitzer argues that Paul is the only theologian who does not claim that Christians can have an experience of "being-in-God." Rather, Paul uses the phrase "being-in-Christ" to illustrate how Jesus is a mediator between the Christian community and God. Additionally, Schweitzer explains how the experience of "being-in-... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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422 | that Paul's mysticism, marked by his phrase "being in Christ", gives the clue to the whole of Pauline theology. Rather than reading justification by faith as the main topic of Pauline thought, which has been the most popular argument set forward by Martin Luther, Schweitzer argues that Paul's emphasis was on the mystic... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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423 | controlled by it. Schweitzer explains that Paul focused on the idea of fellowship with the divine being through the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ rather than the "symbolic" Hellenistic act of becoming like Christ through deification. After baptism, the Christian is continually renewed throughout their lifeti... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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424 | the exclusive nature of the former and the inclusive nature of the latter. Schweitzer unabashedly emphasizes the fact that "Paul’s thought follows predestinarian lines." He explains, "only the man who is elected thereto can enter into relation with God." Although every human being is invited to become a Christian, only... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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425 | the committee of this missionary society was not ready to accept his offer, considering his Lutheran theology to be "incorrect". He could easily have obtained a place in a German evangelical mission, but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties. Amid a hail of protests from his friends, fam... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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426 | of healing, rather than through the verbal process of preaching, and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of Christian teaching. Even in his study of medicine, and through his clinical course, Schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopher-scientist. By extreme application and hard work, h... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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427 | Bresslau. In 1912, now armed with a medical degree, Schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a medical doctor to work at his own expense in the Paris Missionary Society's mission at Lambaréné on the Ogooué river, in what is now Gabon, in Africa (then a French colony). He refused to attend a committee to inquire int... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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428 | near an existing mission post. The site was nearly 200 miles (14 days by raft) upstream from the mouth of the Ogooué at Port Gentil (Cape Lopez) (and so accessible to external communications), but downstream of most tributaries, so that internal communications within Gabon converged towards Lambaréné. In the first nine... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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429 | fevers, strangulated hernias, necrosis, abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning, while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings, fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the Mbahouin. Schweitzer's wife, Helene Schweitzer, was an anaesthetist for surgical operations. After briefly occu... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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430 | a 30-yard path leading from the hospital to the landing-place. The Schweitzers had their own bungalow and employed as their assistant Joseph, a French-speaking Galoa (Mpongwe) who first came as a patient. After World War I broke out in July 1914, Schweitzer and his wife, German citizens in a French colony when the coun... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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431 | Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. In July 1918, after being transferred to his home in Alsace, he was a free man again. At this time Schweitzer, born a German citizen, had his parents' former (pre-1871) French citizenship reinstated and became a French citizen. Then, working as medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strasbour... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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432 | and from these in the following year appeared Volumes I and II of his great work, "The Decay and Restoration of Civilization" and "Civilization and Ethics". The two remaining volumes, on "The World-View of Reverence for Life " and a fourth on the Civilized State, were never completed. In 1924 he returned without his wi... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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433 | and Dr. Mark Lauterberg in 1925; the growing hospital was manned by native orderlies. Later Dr. Trensz replaced Nessmann, and Martha Lauterberg and Hans Muggenstorm joined them. Joseph also returned. In 1925-6, new hospital buildings were constructed, and also a ward for white patients, so that the site became like a v... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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434 | by a paracholera vibrion (facultative anaerobic bacteria). With the new hospital built and the medical team established, Schweitzer returned to Europe in 1927, this time leaving a functioning hospital at work. He was there again from 1929 to 1932. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Eur... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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435 | also as a small recompense for the historic guilt of European colonizers: Schweitzer was one of colonialism's harshest critics. In a sermon that he preached on 6 January 1905, before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a doctor in Africa, he said: Schweitzer was nonetheless still... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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436 | education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer as having said in 1960, "No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow." Schweitzer believed dignity and respect must be extended to blacks, whi... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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437 | of the word "brother" at all was, for a European of the early 20th century, an unusual expression of human solidarity between Europeans and Africans. Schweitzer eventually emended and complicated this notion with his later statement that "The time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed". Later in life he... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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438 | By comparison, his contemporary Sir Albert Cook in Uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of Luganda. After three decades in Africa, Schweitzer still depended on Europe for nurses. The journalist James Cameron visited Lambaréné in 1953 ... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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439 | according to a BBC dramatisation, he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story, and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé. The poor conditions of the hospital in Lambaréné were also famously criticized by Nigerian professor and novelist Chinua Achebe in his essay on Joseph... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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440 | the days before the germ theory of disease came into being." The keynote of Schweitzer's personal philosophy (which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind) was the idea of "Reverence for Life" (""Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben""). He thought that Western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned aff... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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441 | and the rational, life-affirming optimism of the Age of Enlightenment began to evaporate. A rift opened between this world-view, as material knowledge, and the life-view, understood as Will, expressed in the pessimist philosophies from Schopenhauer onward. Scientific materialism (advanced by Herbert Spencer and Charles... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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442 | In nature one form of life must always prey upon another. However, human consciousness holds an awareness of, and sympathy for, the will of other beings to live. An ethical human strives to escape from this contradiction so far as possible. Though we cannot perfect the endeavour we should strive for it: the will-to-liv... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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443 | as one does towards oneself. Even so, Schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied, not least in the European Middle Ages, and in the Indian Brahminic philosophy. For Schweitzer, mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral. It could then aff... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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444 | doctrines, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. In contemplation of the will-to-life, respect for the life of others becomes the highest principle and the defining purpose of humanity. Such was the theory which Schweitzer sought to put into practice in his own life. ... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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445 | the birth of their daughter (Rhena Schweitzer Miller), Albert's wife, Helene Schweitzer was no longer able to live in Lambaréné due to her health. In 1923 the family moved to Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, where he was building a house for the family. This house is now maintained as a Schweitzer museum. ... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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446 | as he was able. During his return visits to his home village of Gunsbach, Schweitzer continued to make use of the family house, which after his death became an archive and museum to his life and work. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie "Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer", starring Pierre Fresnay as Albert Schweit... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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447 | with the speech, "The Problem of Peace". From 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Bertrand Russell. In 1957 and 1958 he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in "Peace or Atomic War". In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the found... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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448 | bombs would be like the early sunrays of hope which suffering humanity is longing for." Weeks prior to his death, an American film crew was allowed to visit Schweitzer and Drs. Muntz and Friedman, both Holocaust survivors, to record his work and daily life at the hospital. The film "The Legacy of Albert Schweitzer", na... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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449 | of the Order of Merit (OM) by Queen Elizabeth II. He was also a chevalier of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem. Schweitzer died on 4 September 1965 at his beloved hospital in Lambaréné, now in independent Gabon. His grave, on the banks of the Ogooué River, is marked by a cross he made him... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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450 | Schweitzer consumed fried liver at a Sunday dinner in Lambaréné. The Albert Schweitzer Fellowship was founded in 1940 by Schweitzer to unite US supporters in filling the gap in support for his Hospital when his European supply lines were cut off by war, and continues to support the Lambaréné Hospital today. Schweitzer,... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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451 | professional fields find or create "their own Lambaréné" in the US or internationally. ASF selects and supports nearly 250 new US and Africa Schweitzer Fellows each year from over 100 of the leading US schools of medicine, nursing, public health, and every other field with some relation to health (including music, law,... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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452 | school. The prize was first awarded on 29 May 2011 to Eugen Drewermann and the physician couple Rolf and Raphaela Maibach in Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, where Schweitzer's former residence now houses the Albert Schweitzer Museum. Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. During 1934 and 193... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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453 | being too harsh. In mid-December 1935 he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, London. Then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of Ste Aurélie in Strasbourg, on a mid-18th-century organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann (brother of Gottfried), an or... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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454 | is a slight improvement on what is commonly known as mid-side. The mid-side sees a figure-8 microphone pointed off-axis, perpendicular to the sound source. Then a single cardioid microphone is placed on axis, bisecting the figure-8 pattern. The signal from the figure-8 is mult-ed, panned hard left and right, one of the... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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455 | on-axis microphone is often a large diaphragm condenser. The technique has since been used to record many modern instruments. Altogether his early Columbia discs included 25 records of Bach and eight of César Franck. The Bach titles were mainly distributed as follows: Later recordings were made at Parish church, Günsba... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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456 | of Schweitzer's life include: Albert Schweitzer Albert Schweitzer, OM (14 January 18754 September 1965) was an Alsatian theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method current at this t... | "Albert Schweitzer" | [
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457 | Austrian School The Austrian School is a heterodox school of economic thought that is based on methodological individualism—the concept that social phenomena result from the motivations and actions of individuals. The Austrian School originated in late-19th and early-20th century Vienna with the work of Carl Menger, Eu... | "Austrian School" | [
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458 | of the Austrian School are the subjective theory of value, marginalism in price theory and the formulation of the economic calculation problem, each of which has become an accepted part of mainstream economics. Since the mid-20th century, mainstream economists have been critical of the modern day Austrian School and co... | "Austrian School" | [
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459 | 2008 global financial crisis. The Austrian School owes its name to members of the German historical school of economics, who argued against the Austrians during the late-19th century "Methodenstreit" ("methodology struggle"), in which the Austrians defended the role of theory in economics as distinct from the study or ... | "Austrian School" | [
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460 | characterize the school as outcast and provincial. The label endured and was adopted by the adherents themselves. The school originated in Vienna in the Austrian Empire. Carl Menger's 1871 book "Principles of Economics" is generally considered the founding of the Austrian School. The book was one of the first modern tr... | "Austrian School" | [
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461 | began to coalesce around Menger's work, which came to be known as the "Psychological School", "Vienna School", or "Austrian School". Menger's contributions to economic theory were closely followed by those of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser. These three economists became what is known as the "first wave"... | "Austrian School" | [
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462 | of Austrian thought. He obtained his PhD in 1894 from the University of Halle and then was made Professor of Political Economy and Finance at Cornell in 1901. Several important Austrian economists trained at the University of Vienna in the 1920s and later participated in private seminars held by Ludwig von Mises. These... | "Austrian School" | [
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463 | success of a school is that it stops existing because its fundamental teachings have become parts of the general body of commonly accepted thought". Sometime during the middle of the 20th century, Austrian economics became disregarded or derided by mainstream economists because it rejected model building and mathematic... | "Austrian School" | [
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464 | because it was a prestigious university and Fritz Machlup taught there. After the 1940s, Austrian economics can be divided into two schools of economic thought and the school "split" to some degree in the late 20th century. One camp of Austrians, exemplified by Mises, regards neoclassical methodology to be irredeemably... | "Austrian School" | [
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465 | to the 1980s. Hazlitt's thinking was influenced by Mises. His book "Economics in One Lesson" (1946) sold over a million copies and he is also known for "The Failure of the "New Economics"" (1959), a line-by-line critique of John Maynard Keynes's "General Theory". The reputation of the Austrian School rose in the late 2... | "Austrian School" | [
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466 | "laissez-faire" thought in the 20th century. Economist Leland Yeager discussed the late 20th century rift and referred to a discussion written by Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Joseph Salerno and others in which they attack and disparage Hayek. Yeager stated: "To try to drive a wedge between Mises and Hayek on [t... | "Austrian School" | [
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467 | a 1999 book published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute (Mises Institute), Hoppe asserted that Rothbard was the leader of the "mainstream within Austrian Economics" and contrasted Rothbard with Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek, whom he identified as a British empiricist and an opponent of the thought of Mises and Rothbar... | "Austrian School" | [
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468 | economic thought through two categories—economic theory and political theory. According to Block, while Hayek can be considered an Austrian economist, his views on political theory clash with the libertarian political theory which Block sees as an integral part of the Austrian School. However, both criticisms from Hopp... | "Austrian School" | [
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469 | similar vein as Hayek's. He emphasized the idea that there are several institutions which were not deliberately created, have a kind of "superior wisdom" and serve important functions to society. He also talked about Burke and the English tradition to sustain these positions. When saying that the libertarian political ... | "Austrian School" | [
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470 | Institute, George Mason University (GMU) and New York University, among other institutions. They include Peter Boettke, Roger Garrison, Steven Horwitz, Peter Leeson and George Reisman. Economists of the Mises–Rothbard view include Walter Block, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Jesús Huerta de Soto and Robert P. Murphy, each of whom... | "Austrian School" | [
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471 | Menger's theories on marginal utility, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on opportunity cost and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk's theories on time preference, as well as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics. Former American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said that the founders of the Austrian School "... | "Austrian School" | [
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472 | Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surely some of the others would not". Chinese economist Zhang Weiying supports some Austrian theories such as the Austrian theory of the business cycle. Currently, universities with a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University, New York University, Loyola Universi... | "Austrian School" | [
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473 | time, expectation and other subjective factors cause all economic phenomena. Austrians seek to understand the economy by examining the social ramifications of individual choice, an approach called methodological individualism. It differs from other schools of economic thought, which have focused on aggregate variables,... | "Austrian School" | [
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474 | 1949. In it, Mises stated that praxeology could be used to deduce "a priori" theoretical economic truths and that deductive economic thought experiments could yield conclusions which follow irrefutably from the underlying assumptions. He wrote that conclusions could not be inferred from empirical observation or statist... | "Austrian School" | [
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475 | Mises' formulation of Praxeology in favor of the "verstehende Methode" ("interpretive method") articulated by Max Weber. In the 20th century, various Austrians incorporated models and mathematics into their analysis. Austrian economist Steven Horwitz argued in 2000 that Austrian methodology is consistent with macroecon... | "Austrian School" | [
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476 | In 1981, Fritz Machlup listed the typical views of Austrian economic thinking as such: He included two additional tenets held by the Mises branch of Austrian economics: The opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in the late 19th century. Opportunity cost... | "Austrian School" | [
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477 | in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice". The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that resources are used efficiently. The Austrian theory of capital and interest was first developed by Eugen Böhm von Bawerk. He stated that... | "Austrian School" | [
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478 | costs. Some Austrian economists therefore entirely reject the notion that interest rates are affected by liquidity preference. In Mises's definition, inflation is an increase in the supply of money: In theoretical investigation there is only one meaning that can rationally be attached to the expression Inflation: an in... | "Austrian School" | [
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479 | occur. Hayek pointed out that inflationary stimulation exploits the lag between an increase in money supply and the consequent increase in the prices of goods and services: And since any inflation, however modest at first, can help employment only so long as it accelerates, adopted as a means of reducing unemployment, ... | "Austrian School" | [
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480 | adaptations, is the conclusive argument against the "mild" inflation represented as beneficial even in standard economics textbooks. The economic calculation problem refers to a criticism of socialism which was first stated by Max Weber in 1920. Mises subsequently discussed Weber's idea with his student Friedrich Hayek... | "Austrian School" | [
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481 | the allocation of resources in an economy. Because socialist systems lack the individual incentives and price discovery processes by which individuals act on their personal information, Hayek argued that socialist economic planners lack all of the knowledge required to make optimal decisions. Those who agree with this ... | "Austrian School" | [
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482 | Mises argued in a 1920 essay "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if the government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a so... | "Austrian School" | [
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483 | commonwealth". The Austrian theory of the business cycle (ABCT) focuses on banks' issuance of credit as the cause of economic fluctuations. Although later elaborated by Hayek and others, the theory was first set forth by Mises, who believed that banks extend credit at artificially low interest rates, causing businesses... | "Austrian School" | [
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484 | subsequent contraction. Friedrich Hayek disagreed. Prior to the 1970s, Hayek did not favor "laissez-faire" in banking and said that a freely competitive banking industry tends to be endogenously destabilizing and pro-cyclical, mimicking the effects which Rothbard attributed to central bank policy. Hayek stated that the... | "Austrian School" | [
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485 | economic methodological work of Austrian economist Israel M. Kirzner. While praising Kirzner for highlighting shortcomings in traditional methodology, Klein argued that Kirzner did not provide a viable alternative for economic methodology. Economist Tyler Cowen has written that Kirzner's theory of entrepreneurship can ... | "Austrian School" | [
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486 | economic performance compared to countries with low rates of taxation and low social outlays. He concludes that Friedrich Hayek was wrong to argue that high levels of government spending harms an economy and "a generous social-welfare state is not a road to serfdom but rather to fairness, economic equality and internat... | "Austrian School" | [
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487 | non-market institutions to deal with the inefficiency. Critics generally argue that Austrian economics lacks scientific rigor and rejects scientific methods and the use of empirical data in modelling economic behavior. Some economists describe Austrian methodology as being "a priori" or non-empirical. Economist Mark Bl... | "Austrian School" | [
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488 | using models of market behavior to analyze and test economic theory argue that economists have developed numerous experiments that elicit useful information about individual preferences. Although economist Leland Yeager is sympathetic to Austrian economics, he rejects many favorite views of the Misesian group of Austri... | "Austrian School" | [
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489 | deduction are limited and weak. According to Samuelson and Caplan, Mises' deductive methodology also embraced by Murray Rothbard and to a lesser extent by Mises' student Israel Kirzner was not sufficient in and of itself. Mainstream economic research regarding Austrian business cycle theory finds that it is inconsisten... | "Austrian School" | [
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490 | of irrationality because the Austrian theory posits that investors will be fooled repeatedly (by temporarily low interest rates) into making unprofitable investment decisions. Milton Friedman objected to the policy implications of the theory, stating the following in a 1998 interview: Milton Friedman after examining th... | "Austrian School" | [
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491 | Garrison argued that Friedman's empirical findings are "broadly consistent with both Monetarist and Austrian views" and goes on to argue that although Friedman's model "describes the economy's performance at the highest level of aggregation, Austrian theory offers an insightful account of the market process that might ... | "Austrian School" | [
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492 | Abscess An abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body. Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling. The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed. The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling. Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that o... | Abscess | [
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493 | aureus". Rarely, parasites can cause abscesses; this is more common in the developing world. Diagnosis of a skin abscess is usually made based on what it looks like and is confirmed by cutting it open. Ultrasound imaging may be useful in cases in which the diagnosis is not clear. In abscesses around the anus, computer ... | Abscess | [
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494 | that remains with gauze after drainage. Closing this cavity right after draining it rather than leaving it open may speed healing without increasing the risk of the abscess returning. Sucking out the pus with a needle is often not sufficient. Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk f... | Abscess | [
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495 | in any kind of tissue but most frequently on skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules (boils) or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, brain, teeth, kidneys, and tonsils. Major complications are spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues, and extensive regional tissue death (gangrene). Th... | Abscess | [
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496 | abscesses rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated if such an abscess is suspected. If superficial, abscesses may be fluctuant when palpated. This is a wave-like motion that is caused by movement of the pus inside the abscess. An abscess can potentially be fatal depending on where it is located.... | Abscess | [
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0.08762812614440918,
-0.19132231175899506,
0.3177740871906280... |
497 | many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection. In the United States and many other areas of the world the most common bacteria present is "methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus". Among spinal subdural abscesses, methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus is the most common organism involved... | Abscess | [
0.24869611859321594,
0.43520426750183105,
0.07371141016483307,
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0.04090801253914833,
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0.35958513617515564,
-0.4624868333339691,
0.165461540222167... |
498 | a consequence of this surgery for abscess drainage. Perianal abscesses can be seen in patients with for example inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease) or diabetes. Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration, hard stool or penetrative objects with insufficient lubrication. This ... | Abscess | [
0.19469907879829407,
0.1713034212589264,
0.16507843136787415,
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0.339616239070... |
499 | treatment, such as an incision and debridement or lancing. An "incisional abscess" is one that develops as a complication secondary to a surgical incision. It presents as redness and warmth at the margins of the incision with purulent drainage from it. If the diagnosis is uncertain, the wound should be aspirated with a... | Abscess | [
0.1586565226316452,
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0.366699457168579... |
500 | resulting in the release of cytokines. The cytokines trigger an inflammatory response, which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow. The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall, or capsule, that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep t... | Abscess | [
0.2891083061695099,
0.453072190284729,
0.05767092481255531,
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0.2833985686302185,
0.022730939090251923,
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-0.825221836566925,
-0.12726357579231262,
-0.5303184390068054,
0.2634502053260803,
... |
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